21816 Rview Policies, Sfrctegies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector ... ...**....*.*.. Workshop It Proceedings (Wo*ng Level Tnsaton from french) Oucigadougou, urkna Easo Febwcry 21 -25, 19?4 I The World Bank Afdco Technical Department Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector RPTES Workshop II: Proceedings (Working Level Translation from French) Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso February 21-25, 1994 The World Bank Africa Technical Department AFTPS For firther informaton or additional copies of these Proceedings (English & French), contact: Private Sector and Economics Development Division - AFTPS Africa Technical Department The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 Tel: (202) 473-4488 Fax: (202) 477-2978 AFTPS,ES PREFACE The search for sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa is producing a growing awareness of the multi-sectorial nature of the problems encountered. The complexity of the issues has become evident, among others, in the Bank's research on the so-called NEXUS of population, agriculture and environment, linking population pressure on natural resources with food security, poverty and environmnental degradation. The supply of energy from biomass resources constitutes an important subset of the NEXUS issues. Rural populations using traditional production methods make growing demands on the limited land and forest resource base to provide food and cooking fuels. In parallel, rapid urbanization creates large concentrated markets for commercialized woodfuels, thus having a significant influence on the exploitation of biomass resources and on the development of the rural economy. The Review of Policies in the Traditional Energy Sector (RPTES) is an initiative of the Africa Technical Department's Private Sector Division (AFTPS) that attempts to come to grips with the critical elements that should orient the policies of governments and donors in the traditional energy sector. At present the RPTES concentrates on five Sahelian countries, all members of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (better known as Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Secheresse dans le Sahel - CILSS). Given the policy nature of the review, country ownership of the conclusions is indispensable to a credible follow-up effort that should translate broad outlines into concrete action on the ground. It is with this perspective in mind that Bank staff have opted for maximizing the African contribution to the RPTES through an intensive inter-active process of African and expatriate experts working together. These efforts are crystallized in a series of workshops where participants listen and evaluate one anothers' contributions in the form of jointly produced reports at the regional and national level. The proceedings in this volume reflect primarily the African contributions at the halfway point of the current stage of the RPTES. Five multi-disciplinary national teams have drafted sector diagnoses for their respective countries and CILSS participants have provided an overview of regional activities. Thus the stage has been set for a regional synthesis that is now in progress. The results obtained so far warrant the -expectation that this novel approach to development cooperation. will make a durable contribution to African capacity building. Michel Wormser Division Chief AFTPS Technical Department Africa Region Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 i AFTPSRpfEs Workshop Il: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burlina Faso - Feblwy 21 - 25, 1994 U AFTPSRffm RPTES WORKSHOP II: PROCEEDINGS Table of Contents Preface ..........................................................i Table of Contents .......................................................... iii 1. Introduction ........................................................... 1 2. Opening and Closing Addresses ...........................................................9 M. Zoungrana G. Etienne, General Secretary, Ministry in Charge of Industry, Commerce and Mines, Burkina Faso .......................................................... 11 M. Max Wilton, Principal Energy Economist, World Bank .......................................................... 13 M. Dennis Anderson, Chairman RPTES Steering Committee, World Bank ................. ................... 16 M. Albert Osei, Resident Representative, World Bank .................................................... ...... 18 M. J. Koster, Representative, Royal Netherlands Embassy, Burkina Faso ................... ................... 19 M. S&ou Ba, General Director, Ministry in Charge of Industry, Conmnerce and Mines, Burkina Faso .......................................................... 20 3. Suirmmaries of the National Country Studies .................... ...................................... 23 3.1 Burkina Faso .......................................................... 25 3.2 Mali ........................................................... 43 3.3 Niger .......................................................... 59 3.4 The Gambia .......................................................... 73 3.5 Senegal. .......... ................................................ 87 4. Summaries of Special Presentations .......................................................... 107 4.1 The Experience of CILSS inthe Traditional Energy Sector Bocar Sada Sy et Moustapha Yacouba, CILSS .......................................................... 109 4.2 Burkina Faso: Overview of the Project Management of Natural Forest to Ensure Environmental Protection and Wood Production Kimse Ouedraogo, National Project Director ................................ ....................... 123 4.3 Mali: Experience in the Kita District with Participatory Forest Management and Exploitation Kouloutan Coulibaly, National Project Director ....................................................... 133 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 iu AFTPSmES Workshop II. Proceedings RPTES Workshop II: Proceedings Table of Contents (Continuation) 4.4 Niger: Decentalized Forest Management Case of the Tientiergou Plateau Forest Stand El Hadji Lawali Mahamane, National Project Director ................................. ................. 143 4.5 NigerlPrivate Sector: Fuelwood in Niger from the Wood Traders' Perspective EI-Hadji Mamane Abdou, President, ANEB ............................................................... 147 S. Summaries of the Workshop Working Groups .................................................................. 151 Structure of theWorking Groups .................................................................. 153 Group A: Natural Resource Management ................................. ................................. 159 Group B: Transport and Distribution of Woodfuels .................................................................. 161 Group C: Demand Management and Substitution .................................................................. 163 Group D: Sector Institutions and Organization ................................................... ............... 165 Group E: Donor Policies and Aid Effectiveness ............................................................ ...... 167 ANNEXES: Annex A: List of Workshop Participats ......................... .......................................... 171 Annex B: List of Documents Distributed During the Workshop ....................................... ................. 179 Anne C: Photograph of Participants .................................................................... 181 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 iv AFTPSRpTES Workshop II: Proceedings 1. Introduction Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 AFTPSRES Workshop IS: Proceedings Ouapdougou, Burkina FaMo - February 21 - 25, 1994 2 Introd&ction I. INTRODUCTION REVIEW OF POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS IN THE TRADITIONAL ENERGY SECTOR In many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in the Sahel, energy sector planning has long been recognized as something of a paradox in view of the role of modem as opposed to traditional fuels in the economy. Although essential to the functioning of society, modem fuels generally account for only 15 to 30 percent of total energy consumption; however, since they are inseparable from modem methods of energy transformation and use, these modem fuels absorb virtually all investments in the energy sector. Traditional fuels, on the other hand, although they occupy a dominant place in the overall energy balance and in the consumption of households, require little in the way of investment. Because of this imbalance between levels of consumption and investment, development efforts have naturally favored the modem sector, where the shortage of external financing is most readily apparent. However, the idea that economic growth and development would produce a smooth transition from traditional to modem fuels - if it was ever believed - is no longer part of conventional wisdom. The sluggishness of growth and the slump in revenues have combined to plunge both urban and rural areas into a widespread depression and are leading to continued heavy resort to traditional fuels, which are still the most readily accessible source of energy (but not necessarily the most economical) for a rapidly growing population. The pressures being exerted on biomass resources and cultivable land in a deteriorating environment are jeopardizing the long-term prospects of the economy as a whole, with most of the risk being borne by the poorest population groups. It is against this backdrop that the Technical Department of the World Bank's Africa Region decided, with the help of a trust fund provided by the Netherlands Government, to undertake the study "Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs of the Traditional Energy Sector - (RPTES)" with a view to improving future assistance to the traditional energy sector in the Sub-Saharan region. During the first phase of the study (Phase Ha) a group of five Sahelian countries comprising Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, The Gambia and Senegal are being evaluated. This country selection was based on the perceived severity of actual sector problems, the extent of work already done, the existence of complementary data bases in adjacent countries, and the experience with alternative policy approaches in similar environments. The execution of the RPTES was initiated in May 1993 and will be completed by May 1995. The principal objectives of the study are: (i) to undertake a retrospective evaluation of the objectives, scope and approach of the work carried out to date in the traditional energy sector, as well as of the resulting policies, strategies and programs, on the basis of the official policies, their implementation by agents in the public and private sectors, and the activities of the external aid agencies; Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - FebruaTy 21 - 25, 1994 3 FIGURE 1 Review of Policies in the Traditional Energy Sector - RPTES Implementation Calendar Ph.asesI Components0 JFMI I .X JAs I OND JFM. .... A.J P...... ." i',- Overvie I ___I I I _ h:.,i... = o ,>.oo toSto~~~~~~~~~~~~....... Phasei Hae Ma/f~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ac 1994 _ TE& Maroeccn M uc TE VemandMan&gen.e...n..... TEinfoimatlon Systems000 E Fores Invetory ystem NaftwJ/?esQw~~~~~~~~~~~e Policy ...... T& ..r..... . TEIn#OJWJFramneWOrk' ___ ___>* ___0 __ Reie o Fndi Poriect SOUoFw-up ~O *I Marwch 1994 Introduction (ii) to identify the main intersectorial linkages that affect the functioning of the traditional energy sector in certain countries and to define a theoretical framework and a strategy for the sector in this broader operational context; (iii) to draft a set of recommendations on the new approaches to be followed to develop the traditional energy sector and to define the implementation priorities to be observed by national institutions and economic agents, together with appropriate external aid instruments; (iv) to identify projects and/or programs so as to achieve concrete results as quickly as possible; and (v) to disseminate these results to the lending community as a whole. The success of the study, both in ternms of execution and follow-up,Adepends to a large extent on the cooperation and on the inputs of African entities and individuals in the five countries under evaluation. With this in mind, the review includes three regional workshops to bring together and exchange information among representatives of the national energy ministries concerned, of regional organizations such as ENDA and CILSS, of other relevant African agencies - public and private - that have an interest in the traditional energy sector (including women's organizations), individual international consultants and Bank staff in charge of the project management. Figure 1 presents an overview of the different components of the study and of its progress to March 1994. To date, the following main activities have been successfully completed: (i) Launching Workshop. Bamako. Mali (May 10-12. 1993): A Workshop which brought together close to forty professionals from among the five RPTES sample-countries, representatives of international and regional cooperation organizations, and Bank staff (see "RPTES Workshop I Proceedings", AFTPS, Africa Technical Department, The World Bank, June 1993). CiH) Literature Review (September 1993): A comprehensive desk review of the principal research and development activities undertaken in the traditional energy sector in Africa during the last 10 years. An interim report identified the main outstanding issues in the sector as a guide to the selection of cross-cutting themes to be analyzed in more detail later. (iii) Draft Countrv Reports (February 1994): This activity comprised an in-depth retrospective analysis of policies, programs and projects in the sector by each national country team, with limited consultant assistance. Drafts of the five national reports were completed by February 1994 and presented by each country delegation at the second Workshop. The Draft reports will be finalized after discussion of the Draft Regional Report, to be presented by the RPTES World Bank team at the third Workshop. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 5 FIGURE 2: WORKSHOP TIME-TABLE THE WORLD BANK - AFRICA TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT "Review of Policies in the Traditional Energy Sector - RPTES" Ouagadougou, Burkinia Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 S :9 ', .............................................. ... E .''''!'.. . . :_. 8:00 (9.00am) Opening Session Country Study Presentations: Experience with Woodfuels Presentation of Reg. Study Themes (9:00am) S.E.Ministre. i.c.1&M Supply Management (Cont.): Country Delegations - SENEGAL Discussion of Reg. Study Themes Presentation of Working Groups ...WB/RPTES Tientergou (Niger) Results (Concl. & Recomm.) Steering Committee - NIGER * WORKING GROUPSformation * .:4~ Interview: Assoc. Tansporteurs (Niger) m ,,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.,, ..... ,- ... .. ......,,,. . ,v - ASG Presentation * GENERAL DISCUSSION * * GENERAL DISCUSSION * . CISS: Regional Programs ENDA: Regional Programs * GENERAL DISCUSSION * * WORKING GROUPS SESSION * * ASG J RPTES / SComm. Meeting * * Other Business * . GENERAL DISCUSSION * (Identification of Reg. Study Themes) ji::1-1':-a5::.i: . ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ~~~~~~~~~~~~.. . . ...,, .. X .: . , 1.:00 ]!#jMOverview of RPTES 7ime-table Country Study Presentations: Country Study Presentation: ....... ..i.* RPTES & Country Teams Meetings * - BURKINA FASO - MALI Burkina Faso * WORKING GROUPS SESSION * WORKSHOP SYNTHESIS Gambia * THE GABIA Mali i. . . ... * GENERAL DISCUSSION * Niger -;i.:45 i l Senegal P.us. . P. .a... .a ..- . - < ...... .. a6:00 Experience with Woodoels Supply Management: * GENERAL DISCUSSION * Kita (Mali) .. .. p a . * WORKING GROUPS SESSION * CLOSURE SESSION Nazinon Project (B.Faso) :00 * C tGENERAL DISCUSSION ** **Cocktails *** fiilDne *DpkU ..... Introduction These proceedings present a summary of the work undertaken during the study's second Workshop, held in Ougagadougou, Burkina Paso (February 21-25, 1994), with the participation of close to fifty professionals from the five RPTES sample-countries, representatives of different international and regional cooperation organizations, and Bank staff. Figure 2 presents the program of the Workshop. The first chapter of these proceedings introduces the study. The second chapter presents the Workshop's principal opening and closing addresses. Chapter three presents summaries of the Draft reports presented by five country delegations. The fourth Chapter contains summaries of the case studies presented during the Workshop, and a summary of a special presentation and discussion with the president of the National Wood Traders Association of Niger (ANEB). Chapter five presents the summary of the discussion of cross-country themes by five working groups. Finally, the Annexes provide a list of participants and their contact addresses, the list of documents distributed, and a photograph of the participants. Except for the Gambia Country Summary these proceedings are a:working level translation from French originals. The full French text has been published already and is available upon request. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febiuaxy 21 - 25, 1994 7 AFTPSR-S Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 8 AFTPSTES Workshop II: Proceedings 2. Opening & Closing Addresses Ouagadougou, Burldna Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 9 AFTPSRPTE Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 10 Opening & Cossing Addresses Opening Address Mr. Zoungrana G. Etienne, Secetary General Minister of Industry, Commerce and Mines Monsieur Resident Representative of The World Bank Messieurs Representatives of the sub regional organizations, Messieurs Directors and Heads of Departments, Honored guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, As the Minister of Industry, Commerce and Mines is not able to be here today, I have the honor to give the opening speech at this World Bank Workshop on "Review of policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector". The workshop that begins today is the second in a series on an extremely important subject matter to the Sahelian countries, namely traditional energy. In 1980, traditional energy sources represented some 90% of the energy balance in our countries. In 1992, they still represent 90% of the energy balance but now the effects of their use on our natural resources base are much more severe. Many actions requiring major financing have been carried out. They have simultaneously involved the supply of and demand for energy, reflected in projects such as large-scale and village reforestation, the management of natural forests, agroforestry, improved stoves and efforts to substitute gas for woodfuels. Although several isolated efforts have been made to evaluate some of these projects, no comprehensive and consistent evaluation of all of these operations as part of a general policy framework has been undertaken in order to guide or determine our policies regarding traditional energy and to assess their impact on the other economic sectors. We now are certain that the traditional energy subsector has a direct interaction with the environment and the conservation of natural resources, agriculture and forestry, demographics, in short an interaction with development in general. A multidisciplinary approach should therefore be taken to the evaluation of this subsector. As such, the "Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector" workshop offers the first opportunity for such an assessment. The project is all the more worthwhile as it makes it possible to make the assessment at the regional level of five Sahelian countries profoundly impacted by the direct effects of the use traditional sources of energy and where actions of the same type have been carried out with varying levels of success. Participation of regional institutions such as the Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (Comite Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Secheresse dans le Sahel - CILSS) and Third World Development Environment (Environnement Developpement du Tiers-Monde - ENDA-TM) boosts the chances of this workshop being successful. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 11 AFTPSRI?Es Workshop II: Proceedings The approach of this workshop, which is to have the study carried out by local experts closely involved in the formulation of energy policies of the countries, instead of having them play a purely passive role of providing comments on the work of consultants, who are often expatriates, will unquestionably result in our ownership of the analyses and results. That will ensure our commitment in the implementation of the resulting guidelines and recommendations. It is clear that the traditional energy sources will continue for some time yet to play a very important role in our energy balance, and that should push us to devote greater attention to the subsector by integrating it further into our general policy framework. Before concluding, I would like to thank the Government of the Netherlands, which financed this project, and the World Bank for its efforts in carrying out this important study. I would also acknowledge the Steering Committee of the project and the representatives of The Gambia, Mali, Niger and Senegal, who have made the effort to come to Ouagadougou to participate in this joint analysis. I wish you much success in the days ahead until we meet again to wrap up your work. On behalf of the Minister of Industry, Commerce and Mining, I now declare the second worlkhop on Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector open. Thank you. February 21, 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 12 Opening & Clossing Addresses Opening Address Max Wilton Principal Energy Economist World Bank Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, Eight months have elapsed since we launched together in Bamako a Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector, now known as the RPTES. You may recall that this Project has four major objectives: 1. Retrospective review of past activities; 2. Examination of intersectoral linkages; 3. Search for new orientations of Government- and Donor policies; and 4. Identification of projects and programs. We agreed in Bamako that the implementation would begin with the production of detailed diagnoses for each of the five countries represented - in fact, an elaboration of their initial contributions to the First Workshop. The next phase would comprise the examination of common policy themes identified from the study of development literature dealing with policy issues, and their relevance for Africa as demonstrated in the country diagnoses. The final report would integrate these two strands of country-specific analyses and cross-country thematic studies in a coherent set of recommendations. Following the Bamako Workshop, the Project staff in Washington developed an analytic framework for analysis of the country situations and, as part of the so-called Phase I, reviewed selected literature having a bearing on the policy themes that are likely to emerge. These contributions were consolidated in two brief reports 1/. presented last September in Dakar for review in the first plenary meeting of the Steering Committee and the first meeting of the African Support Group (ASG) constituted in Bamako. Subsequently, we disseminated both documents among the national teams via your coordinators. Immediately after the Dakar meetings, the work on the country studies commenced or continued, with the assistance of Bank staff and consultants who remained in the field, with the objective of having five country reports ready for this workshop. Our program' in the next few days has essentially two components: First, a review of the available country documents; and second, based on cross-country comparisons and on the Bank's Phase I report, an identification of the policy themes to be examined in the next stage of the RPTES. The end product of that stage will be a draft final report that we shall again jointly examine during a third and last workshop in July 1994. In reviewing the country contributions before you, it is well to keep in mind that throughout this Project the participatory mode has been emphasized. No one is served by an elegant report composed by external consultants containing the data that you have supplied and making 11 - RPTES Country Studies Module: Traditional Energy Sector Evaluation; and - Phase I: Overview of past Activities and main Issues. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February21-25, 1994 13 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings recommendations that were developed without you. We in the Bank, and in the spirit of the address of our Vice President for Africa Mr. Jaycox of May 1993, wanted you to be fully involved in the tasks on hand, and with regard to the timetable we had to take our chances. After all, it is much easier to prepare terms of reference, send in consultants and oblige them by contract to deliver a specific product on schedule. Instead we relied on you and I am pleased to report that it is your enthusiasm and cooperation that has carried the day. Of course, we should not close our eyes to the problems that we have encountered en route and that we shall continue to meet. This Project has added a workload to your regular functions and many entities are already short of staff and logistical means. Moreover, the country situations show similarities as well as wide differences, and each team had to work with an inherited information base without the means to fill data gaps or to conduct supplementary investigations. To some extent, we have tried to compensate for these factors by including in the workshop program presentations of some ongoing projects. Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that the results are still somewhat heterogeneous and less complete than we would wish to see for the purpose of cross-country comparisons. However, despite these obvious shortcomings, we have begun to change our approach to development by moving beyond a fairly precise but limited project content to a process intended to foster more fruitful cooperation in the energy sector. Therefore, the country reports that you are going to examine and compare should be viewed not only as intermediate inputs but, more importantly, as dynamic instruments that you will continue to develop and sharpen for communications with your own Governments and with the donor community. Our own reflections in the past few months have evolved in this direction. If the Bank team delivers the product that the Netherlands Trust Fund and our own management in Washington would like to see, the task is only half accomplished. We would suggest that, in parallel, you should do further work on your country studies during the rest of this year, incorporating the findings of the thematic studies that seem most pertinent to the situation in your respective countries. Having arrived at that point, you will find it only a short step to proceed from formulating national policy elements to specifying your priorities of implementation. With such perspectives in mind, we would look forward to an expanded agenda of the Donors' meeting at the end of this RPTES Project. When we started the Project, it was not intended to be a meeting on financing, as is customary for donors' meetings, but rather as a meeting on policies of African Governments and donors and, implicitly, the effectiveness of external financial assistance. This is still expected to be the core of the meeting agenda. However, any policy recommendations will become far more convincing if you yourselves present your viewpoints on policy, and demonstrate how you would propose to go about implementation, with some well thought-out proposals and cost estimates. Hence we envisage and we will support the active participation in the donors' meeting of those of you who are prepared to take your case yourselves to the donor community. If as a result of this approach you manage to prepare the ground for concrete talks about financing of projects or programs, so much the better. The expanded agenda for discussions with the donors highlights the need to do some hard thinking on the crucial obstacles to development of the traditional energy sector. The country studies diagnose terrain that is familiar to you, using technical tools of analysis. However, it is worth recalling Ouagadougou,BuridnaFaso - February2l-25, 1994 14 Opening & ClossingAddresses one of the central conclusions in the Phase I Report 2l: Technological approaches in the Sahel are well developed, but to effect a systems change, a management approach is necessary. The challenge of this workshop is the definition of the inputs to such a management approach. It requires reflection on the linkages of traditional energy with agriculture, foresuy and transportation infrastructure, on land tenure and natural resource management, on the responsibilities of local communities, on macroeconomics and fiscal implications of policy measures. Going through this process you will discover, if you did not know it already, that the world is full of questions to which, sometimes, decision makers would rather not know the answer, because the reality is too uncomfortable. We are inviting you to face problems of a socio-political nature that will not go away and, unless you grapple with them yourselves, you cannot convince outsiders that you are serious about the actions you are proposing and the programs you wish to see financed. We stand ready to help you but you are in the driver's seat. As part of our efforts to prepare the ground for thematic studies, we have continued our cooperation with regional organizations such as CILSS, especially with regard to the monitoring of the butane substitution program and participation of members of the RPTES teams in the forthcoming conference in Praia on Decentralization and Land Tenure. We also maintained our liaison with the Club du Sahel and with the CINERGIE 31 unit of the African Development Bank, and we are verifying how the RPTES agenda may benefit from the ongoing continent-wide African Energy Programmne. The RPTES team in Washington also has just retained two short-term consultants to start work on demographic and macro-economic issues. Finally, the recent monetary adjustments in the CFAF zone are a forceful reminder of the relevance of our common effort. For many African countries affected by these changes, biomass is the only indigenous source of energy, and many years will pass before incomes will have risen high enough to pay for imported substitutes. With steep rises in import prices, improving the management of production and consumption of woodfuels is more urgent than ever, and this lesson should not be lost on countries outside the CFAF zone either. Speedy implementation of policy measures will lend continuity and credibility to the work that has commenced under the RPTES Project. With you all, I am looking forward to a successful workshop, and I take this opportunity to thank the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Netherlands for its steady support, and the Government of Burkina Faso for hosting this event. Thank you. February 21, 1994 21 See Paras. 28-31. 3/ Cellule informelle d'etude et de recherche pour la gestion de l'information sur les echanges. Ouagadougou, Buruina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 15 AFTPSMR7ES Workshop II. Proceedings Closing Address Mr.Dennis Anderson Chairman of the RPIES Steering Committee World Bank Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to begin with two introductory remarks: First, that the process of producing the sector studies is very important. What we are looking for is not simply a nice study-piece that none will take any notice of, but to involve people heavily in the process, people who know their countries and institutions best. We believe that through their involvement there will be more ownership of the findings and a better chance that they will be implemented. Secondly, if it happens that any external financial support from donors is needed for the program, we hope that, because of studies like the present one, it will be directed by the countries themselves, and not by the donors. We would like to see fewer "donor-driven" projects. Turning to the studies we have heard so far: There have been five country studies plus the presentations on the supply management of wood fuels. We have enjoyed the presentations. I for one have learned a lot. Without attempting to recapitulate the main points, I would say that there have been some excellent diagnoses of the energy supply and demand situation, traditional fuel, "modern fuels" (electricity, gas, kerosene), renewable energy and also of the forestry sector. We have also heard the beginnngs of a policy statements. For example, on participatory approaches to forestry and wood supplies (including social forestry, afforestation and natral resource management), wood stoves, renewable energy, substitution possibilities (kerosene seems very promising as well as LPG) and the electricity supply. The next steps, as far as I can see, will be to refine the policy analysis and defme concrete action plans for governments and donors. We have a few specific suggestions to make on this subject. On social forestry, (which also includes costs of woodstoves and education programs), afforestation and forest manaaement, we should continue to evaluate options and estimate costs. We will also need to see sound financing plans that include overhead, operations and maintenance costs. Providing this information will make proposals concrete. On renewable energy, a promising alternative for the future, a similar approach should be taken. Programs should be translated into concrete investment plans and put on the table. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 16 Opening & Clossing Addresses Fuel prices - especially of LPG (gas) and kerosene, wood and charcoal need to be carefully analyzed. As several people have said, there are contradictions here - but it is the task of everyone involved in the studies to resolve them. Blaming the IMF or the World Bank is not the answer. The focus should be to come up with solutions. Higher kerosene and gas prices will slow substitution. However, subsidizing programs also slows substitution because the amount of gas and kerosene that can be supplied will be limited by governments' abilities to afford the subsidies. Subsidies can make matters worse, not better. There is a tendency, as Eric Ferguson said, to "regulate" and "control" prices, and sometimes quantities. It may be better to deregulate. I would mention the following changes for consideration: (i) selling gas and kerosene at cost (ii) a tax on other petroleum products; (iii) let charcoal and wood prices be market determined (iv) finance forestry/wood supply programs out of energy taxes. However, these are points to think about. As someone said well yesterday: We need not only an environmentally sustainable program, but also a financially sustainable one. The purpose of the country studies is to estimate financial requirements and how they can be met. Thank you. 23 February 1994 Ouagadougou, Burina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 17 AFTPSRPThS Workshop II: Proceedings Closing Address M. Albert Osei Resident Representative The World Bank, Burkina Faso Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, It may be helpful for me to use this occasion to inform the seminar participants of certain events that are now occurring outside this workshop. Two features of this workshop have struck me the most. First of all, the fact that the traditional energy sector was selected, which until recently has been neglected in favor of the modem energy sector. The proof is that if we take, for example, all the time spent by World Bank staff worKing in the energy sector, I am sure that the proportion of time devoted to the traditional sector would not even exceed 15%. Now, we know very well that in our countries the traditional energy sources account for far and away the largest part of energy consumption. The second point that struck me was that, for once, it is experts from our countries who have conducted the bulk of the work and analysis on this sector. I said at the start that I would announce some news that may be of interest to you. It is gratifying that the two characteristics of your seminar are beginning to be felt in other disciplines. Increasingly, World Bank operations are recognizing first of all the importance of shaking off the illusion that only those sectors and factors that lend themselves readily to precise calculation, such as the modem sectors, are worthy of interest. For example, in the employment sector, more and more time and effort is being spent on labor markets outside of the modem sector. It is nevertheless astonishing that the 5% of the active population in Senegal that makes up the modem sector has been the subject of nearly all World Bank efforts to study the labor market, which is fundamental for understanding the mechanisms of economic development. Here, too, we are beginning to make progress. Another example is that, recently, the World Bank financed a study that cost about $200,000 and whose primary objective was to determine the mechanisms that contribute to the success of the participatory methods applied in Burkina Faso. The objective was to enable World Bank staff to better understand the mechanisms linked with success in an area as important as that of grassroots involvement in development problems. I will therefore close by telling you that you are indeed pioneers, but you are not alone. I would also like to congratulate you personally on behalf on the organization I represent. I trust the rest of your work goes well. February 23, 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 18 Opening & Clossing Adiresses Closing Address Mr. J. Koster Representative of the Royal Netherlands Embassy, Burkina Faso Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, Speaking on behalf of the Netherlands Embassy I would also like to express my congratulations concerning this seminar on traditional energy. As witnessed by the Netherlands cooperation policy, we believe that the energy sector, and particularly the traditional energy sector, is a relatively new and relatively understudied subject, but one that warrants considerable support from our Cooperation and of all the development partners involved in the Sahel. This is why the presence of the World Bank here is logical, and it was through the World Bank that we wanted to support this effort. The importance of this subject will, I believe, be evident from the conclusions of this second seminar. I regret that I was unable to participate in your sessions due to time constraint; in addition, and more importantly, our Ambassador was also unable to attend on account of other official commitments that could not be rescheduled. I am here to assure you that our support is not only financial, but that we also want to help with the implementation of these conclusions. We are most interested to see not just the formulation of policy, but logically also what follows thereafter. In this sense we believe that your commitnent to arrive at policy definitions from within, will provide us with a sound basis and ensure that following this seminar, and acting jointly with the other partners and with the political authorities of the different countries we will be able to seek ways and means to implement the decisions adopted on this vitally important subject. After the devaluation we are, I believe, all the more aware of how important this subject is. To conclude, then, I would like to thank you for your invitation. We are ready to dialogue with you on the conclusions of this gathering, and I believe that you are already planning ahead for a third seminar, for we still have a lot to do. I wish you much success and a safe journey home. February 25, 1994 Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnry2l-25, 1994 19 AFTPSRPTS Workshop Il: Proceedngs Closing Address Mr. Sekou Ba Director General Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Mines, Burkina Faso Monsieur Resident Representative of The World Bank Monsieur Representative of the Embassy of The Netherlands, Honored guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, As the Minister of Industry, Commerce and Mines is not able to be here today, I have the honor to give the closing address at the conclusion of this World Bank Workshop on "Review of Policies, Strategies and Programs in the Traditional Energy Sector". During the five days of work and fraternal exchange, the studies on which each national team worked indefatigably dunng the past five months on assessing the traditional energy sector have been presented and discussed in considerable detail. The issues of natural resource management, limits to the demand-based management approach and the institutional frameworks governing this subsector have been highlighted. Ongoing experiments in certain countries (Mali, Burkina and Niger) were presented, bringing to light the achievements and constraints, with a view to drawing lessons and exchanging opinions on possible improvements and replications of these experiences. The often animated discussions demonstrated the interest and importance accorded by the participants to this most relevant subject matter before us today. Your main findings have mnade it possible to identify themes that will be the basis for studies whose results will be presented at the third workshop, scheduled for the fourth quarter of 1994. These major themes are: - natural resource management - wood transportation and distribution - management of demand and substitution - macroeconomics and fiscal policy - subsector institutions and organization - donor policy and effectiveness of aid. We feel that these topics are highly relevant. This subsector must now be placed in a broader perspective and the intersectoral linkages identified so that they can be discussed, in the interest of a full and complete assessment. Ouaadouou, Burki Faso - February 21-25,1994 20 Opening & Clossing Addresses We are counting on your perseverance in getting to the roundtable with the donors, which will mark the culmination of your studies and where we will present our respective priorities within a coherent strategy. Burkina Faso has been happy to welcome you here, and I trust you have had a pleasant stay. I hope to see you again, and I wish you all a safe journey back to your respective countries, and I now declare the second World Bank Workshop on Review of Policies and Programs in the Traditional Energy sector closed. Thank you. February 25, 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 21 AFTPSPJTS Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnry 21 - 25, 1994 22 AFTPSRPTES Workshop IIT Proceedings 3. Summaries of the National Country Studies Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnway 21 -25, 1994 23 AFTPSRJfEs Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21-25, 1994 24 Country Study: BUINA FASO Country Study 3.1 BURKINA FASO SUMMARY OF THE DRAFT REPORT PREPARED BY NATIONAL RPTES TEAM Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, February 21-25, 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnry 21 -25, 1994 AFTPSRPrEs Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burlina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 26 Country Study: BURKINA FASO I. AGROECOLOGIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC SETTING Burkina Faso is a landlocked Sahelian country, located in the heart of western Africa, with a total area of 274,000 km2. While its relief is generally uniform and flat, three agro-ecological zones can be distinguished: (i) the Sudanian zone, bounded on the north by isohyet 1000 mm, considered to be the country's most humid region; (ii) the Sudan-Sahel zone, located between isohyets 1000 and 500 mm, and (iii) the Sahel zone, the country's driest region, with rainfall below 500 mm and sometimes below 150 nmn. The characteristic vegetation is of several types: (i) dry forest, wooded savanna and gallery forest along the watercourses; (ii) shrub and tree savanna, and (iii) spiny shrub steppe with a tufted grass carpet. The first general population census (GPS), conducted in 1975, estimated the country's total population at some 5.6 million. According to the second GPS (1985), the population had risen to 8 million, which indicated a growth rate of the order of 3.2 percent. The 1991 demographic survey put the population at 9.2 million, of whom about 1.3 million (about 14 percent) live in urban areas. It also revealed a general annual growth rate of the order of 2.64 percent (urban 6.11 percent, rural 2.14 percent). This growth is lower than the previous estimates because of the underestimates of the 1975 population and the change in the definition of the concept "urban area." Based on these new growth rates, the population would be about 19.8 million in the year 2020 and the urban proportion would be of the order of 37 percent. Economically, Burkina Faso is a very poor country. In 1990 GDP per capita was about US $320. Burkina's economy is based essentially on primary and tertiary sector products and is thus highly vulnerable to climatic hazards, fluctuations in world cash-crop prices and the international economic situation. The 1980s were on the whole more favorable despite the constraints imposed by lack of sea access, persistent drought, declining soil fertility and the adverse repercussions of the international economic crisis. Annual GDP growth over the period 1979-88 was of the order of 4.9 percent in real terms. In contrast, during the period 1985-90 GDP growth declined (to 3.9 percent a year) while continuing to be dominated by agriculture and, to a smaller degree, mining. Note however that the GDP magnitude and trend estimates are subject to the usual shortcomings of the statistical system and the difficulty of monitoring informal sector activity. Growth of domestic demand (investment plus final consumption) averaged some 4.5 percent, i.e. well above the demographic growth rate (2.6 percent) recorded during the period; this indicates a respectable economic performance. The paucity of Burkina's domestic resources has compeled it to turn to external resources to finance its development activities and public investment. As a result it has built up heavy debt, estimated at 24 percent of GDP in 1990. Since 1991 Burkina Faso has been implementing a structural adjustment program. Because of the combination of numerous adverse factors, Burkina's economic situation remains precarious despite the many efforts undertaken over the past ten years. Burkina is located in a transition zone characterized by wide variations in rainfall. Its land, wood and water resources are limited and fragile. They are suffering accelerating degradation under the combined impact of over- exploitation due to the prevailing cropping and grazing practices, of consumption of wood fuels and of occupation of new lands in response to strong population pressure. Human activities are very closely bound up with the envirornment. When well thought-out and organized, these activities will not have a negative environmental impact. The present status of agriculture (subsistence farming) is not Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25,1994 27 AFTPSRPIES Workshop II: Proceedings conducive to the use of inputs, which generally call for large financial resources. This is demonstrated by the official figures for the marketed portion of total agricultural production, which is no more than 15 percent. Itinerant agriculture, the practice of land stripping and the meager use of inputs means that more land is needed to produce a given quantity of agricultural products. Low-density grazing also demands a large amount of space. The combination of population pressure and these behavior patterns can only boost the already heavy pressure on the lands and on the wood resources required to meet household energy needs. This was confirmed during the great drought years, when the people were forced to migrate to less arid lands, transplanting their ancestral cropping and herding systems and seriously jeopardizing the increasingly precarious environmental equilibrium. I. THE ENERGY SECTOR 2.1. Energy Balance In 1992 Burkina Faso's energy consumption totaled 1.7 million TOE. This consumption consists essentially of traditional energy sources (91 percent). Hydrocarbons (entirely imported) account for 8 percent and electricity for 1 percent. Solar and wind energy are still in the embryonic stage. Households account for the bulk of consumption (around 90 percent), represented essentialy by traditional energy sources. The main needs derive essentially from domestic uses (cooking food, heating water). Driven by the economic recovery and the effect of replacement of wood energy sources by petroleum products, the share of modem energy sources will grow larger and larger. In view of the current preponderance of traditional energy sources, however, they can be expected to continue to play a major role in the energy balance in the years ahead. The fact that the share of traditional sources in the energy balance has remained practically unchanged over the past ten years testifies to slow pace of the substitution process. 2.2. Oreanization of the Sector Until 1982 Burkina Faso possessed orly a national electric power company responsible for generating and selling electricity, a few private petroleum product distributing companies and the ministry in charge of forestry activities, operating in the energy sector. Following the series of major crises that hit Burkina (notably the great droughts of the 1970s and the oil shocks), a First National Energy Symposium was held in March 1982 to discuss the country's energy problem. The symposium examined all energy types, the linkages between them and their interactions with all sectors of the economy, then dwelt at length on the lack of coordination prevailing in this sector. It recommended that two agencies be set up: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnrary 21 - 25, 1994 28 Countby Study: BURJ(NA FASO A political agency in the form of a High Commission on Energy, responsible directly to the President of the Republic, whose task would be to: - study and propose all necessary measures to foster optimum use of local and imported energy resources; - examine the energy sector's research and development programs. A technical anency in the form of a National Energy Center, whose task would be, inter alia, to: - gather, analyze and keep current the necessary data for energy planning; - prepare an inventory, as complete as possible, of the nation's energy potential; - conduct research into and development of equipment in the energy field. Tlhe symposium also laid the basis for the gas and improved stoves policies that were to be put in place later. The action taken to set up the recommended institutions was limited, at the end of 1982, to establishment of the Burkina Energy Institute (Institut Burkinabe de l'Energie), which was to perform the technical agency role. It was also assigned the additional task of formulating the country's energy policy. The High Commission on Energy was never created. Later, other agencies were involved to deal with energy problems, in accordance with the perceptions and responsibilities of the ministries to which they belonged. Ten years after the First Energy Symposium the post of Deputy Minister in charge of energy was finally created, with responsibility for defmiing the main directions of the energy sector's work, coordinating and integrating the activities conducted in its various subsectors and formulating a national energy policy. This post was abolished in 1993 as part of a govermment reorganization. In the meantime it had set up an Energy Directorate. However, this action was not accompanied by any review of functions, with the result that several institutions have similar mandates. The Energy Directorate works in close collaboration (same personnel) with the Technical Unit of the Noumbiel Water Works project. It is responsible for the preparation of the Second National Energy Symposium. The current (1994) structure of the energy sector is as follows: The hydrocarbons subsector is under the technical jurisdiction of the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Mining. The Burkina National Hydrocarbons Company (Sociate Nationale BurkinabW des hydrocarbures-SONABHY), an agency of the Ministry, has a monopoly over the importation and storage of petroleum products; its activities are predominantly commercial. The electric power subsector is under the technical jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Works, Housing and Urban Development. The Burkina National Electric Power Company (Societe Nationale d'Electricite du Burkina-SONABEL), an agency of the Ministry, has a monopoly over electricity generation, transmission and distribution; here again, the commercial activities predominate. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25,1994 29 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II. Proceedings However, accomodations were made to allow private electricity generation. In addition to SONABEL, a few industrial enterprises generate electricity, mainly for their own needs. The wood fuels subsector is under the technical jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, whose activities are dominated by a forestry rather than an energy aspect. Private operators also engage in the production/extraction, transport and sale of wood products. Note that a large proportion of wood fuels and agricultural residues remain outside any organized marketing circuit; these are fuels gathered by rural households for their own consumption. The new and renewable energv sources subsector is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific Research. Private enterprises, like the Burkina Energy Institute (Institwt BurkinabN de l'Energie-IBE), manufacture and/or assemble equipment and engage in its marketing and/or installation. The activities of the IBF are mainly dominated by research. There is obviously no lack of centers responsible for dealing with Burkina Faso's energy problems. This proliferation can only lead to dispersion of the budget and financial and human resources needed for effective action in the energy sector, lack of coordination of the activities of the various agencies, and overlapping of activities. 2.3. Availability and Ouality of Ener!v Data The fragmentation of the institutions involved in the energy sector and their divergent interests, aggravated by a lack of effective coordination, have seriously impaired the availability and quality of energy data. The electric power statistics are sparse and are not kept in accordance with uniform accounting methods. SONABEL data are available but those of the self-producers are more difficult to obtain, especially as a complete list of the latter is not available. It is also difficult to identify consumption by sector activity and by end-use. All petroleum products are imported. The figures are available because of the import monopoly. However, any monopoly over an activity of this kind tends to create abuses (such as smuggling). The latter cannot be quantified, any more than can the consumption of the populations that straddle the frontier. Since the products are generally user-specific, their distribution by sector of activity can be determined fairly easily. Production of new and renewable forms of energy currently plays a very minor role in Burkina Faso's energy balance. The uncertainty surrounding this subsector therefore has little impact on the energy balance. Biomas: demand No recent figures are available on biomass consumption. In view of the informal nature of the supply and distribution of wood fuels, no institution is able to furnish reliable data on a regular basis. It can also be assumed that the revenue collected by the Government through the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (forest royalties, taxes, etc.) does not reflect the true scale of activity in this subsector, especially since practically all rurl consumption escapes quantification. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Februay2l-25, 1994 30 Count7y Study: BURKINA FASO The sole sources of information are the specifically targeted surveys, whose reliability depends on the size of the sample and its geographic distribution and seasonal coverage. This reliability is generally impaired by the uncertainty of the demographic statistics, needed for extrapolation purposes. Only two large-scale surveys have been conducted since 1980: the FAO survey, which reached 1,112 urban and rural households countrywide, and the ESMAP survey (1987), which covered more than 1,156 urban households concentrated mainly in the country's four biggest cities. The ESMAP study included an estimate of rural consumption. It is not explicit, however, with respect to the origin of this estimate. The two surveys also estimated biomass consumption in the informal sector. In view of the differences in methodologies, sample size and geographic coverage it is difficult to identify a unitary consumption trend. Only the 1980 urban unitary consumption of the FAO survey could perhaps be compared with that of the 1987 ESMAP survey. Reconstitution of 1992 wood, charcoal and crop residue consumption was performed in light of the population growth rate (estimated from the 1985 second population census and the June 1991 demographic survey) and the unitary consumption estimated by the ESMAP survey, taking into consideration market penetration by gas. Biomass: suN ly With regard to traditional energy supply, attention is drawn to the effort accomplished by FAO in 1980 to prepare an inventory of wood resources. The inventory was based on a fairly large, countrywide sample. Note however that it is a typical forest inventory and not an inventory of biomass resources in the sense that it took into account only trees over 7.5 cm in diameter. It is thus an inventory of marketable wood resources. An estimate was made of the productivity of the various stands based on the increase in volume of the individual trees in the stands. It is not, therefore, based on observations made over a long period on permanent test plots. Moreover, it seems that account was not taken of natural regeneration (especially with respect to fallow land). An accessibility factor was introduced to reflect supply difficulties. It was estimated by reference to population density, ecologic conditions (relief) and the presence or absence of infrastructures and endemic diseases. It was based on work done by FAO in 1980 in 13 countries.' This accessibility rate combined with the local utilization rate (species) ranges from 10 to 76 percent, depending on the province, with a national average of the order of 33 percent. This same rate is still used. Note, however, that surveys showed that in the rural areas fuelwood is generally accessible to all the population groups that meet their own needs from within their lands. The wood gathered for local needs generally consists of dead wood in a broad size range (including branches of less than 7.5 cm diameter) left after land clearance for agricultural purposes and dead wood deriving from degradation of the forest stands. Rural households also use crop residues as fuel during part of the year. 1. Fuelwood Availability in the Sahel region of Western Africa: Situation and Outlook, M. N. KEITA, FAO, 1982. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l -25, 1994 31 AFTPSRP)?, Workshop II: Proceedings These findings indicate clearly that in the rural areas accessibility must be regarded as total and that rural consumption does not necessarily imply depletion of wood capital as defined by the inventories. Although accessibility undoubtedly needs to be factored into urban supply, this concept, which goes back ten years or so, needs to be revised and updated. Biomass: balance Comparison of wood consumption as estimated by the 1980 FAO demand survey with available resources as defined by the national forest inventory of that year revealed a shortfall of the order of 2.5 million m3. This estimate showed a serious general deficit in 22 out of 30 provinces. The same exercise (for the year 1980) was performed taking into account that rural consumption comprised wood under 7.5 cm diameter, dead wood and other biomass sources (bushes, etc.) This hypothesis is generally supported by field surveys in Burkina Faso and elsewhere. The balance between supply and demand showed a national extractable surplus of 3.1 million m3. It is more probable that only nine provinces could truly be said to have a wood deficit. No other overall natural resource assessments have been performed since 1980, and the estimates given in many current studies are based on extrapolations performed on 1980 supply/demand, factoring in the inpact of land clearance. Another attempt to assess the resources was made as part of the preparation of a master plan for development of the Ouagadougou region in 1990 (natural forest management for wood production and environmental conservation). This master plan covered an area of about 5.4 million hectares extending over 15 central plateau provinces, of which nine2 were covered in full. This provided the sole opportunity (by comparing the results of this inventory and those of the national inventory) to assess the evolution of vegetative cover in these nine provinces between 1980 and 1990. In these nine provinces, forest land occupied 53.3 percent of total land in 1980 but only 33.2 percent in 1990. Owing to the different methods used to assess wood resources, only land-use changes were possible to assess. Imact of the energy wood subsector The number of jobs created by this subsector was estimated by means of a simulation exercise. The various activities involved in the subsector apparently generated a total of nearly 62,000 jobs in 1992. Comparing this figure with urban consumption of about 380,000 tons, we can estimate the volume of wood marketed per job created at about 6.4 tons. Assuming that the whole of urban consumption is marketed, we can estimate that this subsector generated CFAF 6-7 billion in 1992. m. ENERGY POLICY. FINANCING. AND HUMAN RESOURCES 3.1. Ener2v Policv The energy policy formulated and approved during the last two five-year development plan periods (1986-90 and 1991-95) addressed the following strategic energy objectives: 2. Bazega, BoulkierndC, Ganzourgou, Kadiogo, Kouritenga, Nabouri, Oubrhenga, Sissili and Zoundw6ogo. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febraiy 21 - 25, 1994 32 Country Study: BURKINA FASO - to reduce the national oil bill by replacing thermally generated electric power and hydrocarbons by cheaper and renewable energy sources; - to eradicate the desertification process through action, under the banner of "the three struggles", to reduce abusive wood cutting, brush fires, and straying by animals; - to improve the energy situation of the rural areas while conserving their physical environment. Particularly in the second of these three struggles, the emphasis was to be placed on better demand management through increased distribution of improved stoves, more widespread use of gas, and the dissemination of solar dryers. On the supply side, the focus was to be mainly on collective and individual reforestation operations, management of natural stands, and organization and control of the wood trade. One of the support measures was to establish an energy planning agency that would bring together all the institutions involved in the development of the energy sector. The Second Five-Year Plan focuses more on the following goals: - conserving and ensuring efficient use of wood resources; - supplying the inhabitants of the five major cities with fuelwood; - rationalizing the extraction of wood resources by organizing and setting up of new wood- cutter groups, involving them in forest management, improving charcoal-making methods and training the charcoal-makers. The "Household Energy Strategy" study conducted in collaboration with ESMAP in 1987 (but not published until 1991) recommended a change in the price structure of wood fuels in favor of the producers in order to stimulate supply. 3.2. Investment and Financing While the traditional energy subsector accounts for nearly 90 percent of energy, the investment share allocated to it by the Second Five-Year Popular Development Plan (1991-95) is no more than 20 percent. While this investment program reflects general policy, its execution could fall short of the programmed level. Note that implementation of the First Five-Year Plan stood at 57.1 per cent of programming at the end of year 4. Although it is difficult to project total energy-sector investment precisely (especially in the case of traditional energy sources), it is known that its financing will come practically entirely from abroad. The predominance of external donor finacing means that Burkina is not sheltered from the dictates of the donors, whose operational policy guidelines may be at variance with the priorities as perceived by Burkina. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 33 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings 3.3. Human Resources The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, which is responsible inter alia for managing the country's energy wood resources, has about 700 employees working in the Environment section (including 395 management and technical staff). The Burkina Energy Institute has a staff of 39, including 34 technicians. The Energy Directorate, officially responsible for formulating energy policy, has a staff of 2. IV. REVIEW OF POLICIES. PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 4.1. Current Policy Components For a long timne before urbanization acquired any significant scale, dead wood was gathered almost exclusively for household energy needs. Government action in the energy wood sector formed part of general forest protection policy, which at that time represented the main focus of forestry policy. It took the form of repressive regulations geared to protecting certain fragile ecosystems and valuable forest species and to the gathering of dead wood first and foremost. This approach persisted until the end of the 1970s, when the droughts brought home the seriousness of the degree of degradation of plant cover and the necessity of preventing human and animal activities from completing what nature had started (with the desertification process). This awakened awareness was given concrete expression in the adoption in 1986 of a National Anti-Desertification Plan (Plan National de Luate Contre la Disertificaion-PNLcD) which from then on constituted the framework for environmental policy and natural resource management. A few years later the PNLcD evolved into and was absorbed by the National Environmental Action Plan (Plan d'Action National pour I 'Environnement-PANE). Subsequently, the conditions of fuelwood supply of the urban centers deteriorated (need to travel longer distances to find wood, degradation of the vegetation stands that supplied the towns, evolution of the sector toward large-scale commercial activity, and increasing use of mechanized methods). This highlighted the impact of the consumption of wood products on plant cover and sparked heated debate concerning the "firewood crisis." In the case of Burkina Faso, it was not until 1980-82 that a diagnostic study of the situation was conducted, with the help of FAO and UNDP. This led to the forestry inventory, wood product consumption surveys, and projections of future wood resource trends. As stated earlier, the woodfuel resources situation (supply/demand balance) was exaggerated to the point that it triggered a great many activities (notably to control demand and stimulate supply) without any master plan. The implementation of these activities by the staff in place (which was not increased to meet the new situation) boosted the demands made on them and deprived them of the time needed to perform design and study tasks. It also prevented them from standing back to evaluate these activities and where necessary reorient them. The relatively good availability of financial resources and the lack of coordination of the donors' actions fostered the proliferation of projects. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 34 Country Study: BURKINA FASO 4.2. Natural Resource Manaaement 4.2.1 Reforestation/tree planting The first years following identification of the supposed crisis were thus marked by large-scale reforestation operations (industrial reforestation) near the major consumption centers. Supply of the cities thus constituted the cornerstone of energy wood policy. The investments soon proved, however, to be very costly (CFAF 200-300,000/ha and sometimes more). Moreover, the impact of these planting operations turned out to be very small compared with the magnitude of the ever-growing needs. The tree planting effort (industrial, village, community and family plantations) amounted to no more than 30,000 ha ten years after it began, whereas the total area earmarked for agricultural uses rose from 2.6 million ha in 1985 to 3.5 million in 1991. This increase probably occurred at the cost of forest land. The reforestation effort thus represents only the recovery of one thirtieth of the land converted to agriculture. The exorbitant reforestation cost was not covered by the selling prices of the wood products the new stands produced. This makes the operation unprofitable in business terms (as in the case of Gonse). In addition, there are no indications concerning the quality and health of these new plantations. A policy of management and conservation of high wood-yield stands would have made it possible to reduce the cost and come closer to achieving the objectives. Moreover, the projects geared to the production of forest plants and the establishment of nurseries did not become self-sufficient, owing to: - the goal adopted from the beginning, which was to help the people; - the difficulty of creating a large market linked to private initiatives in establishing tree plantations; - the financial deficits stemming from the activity and the red tape involved in the managed development of forest plantations (plant prices below actual production costs because of wage and overhead costs); - the very significant involvement of government upstream of the energy wood subsector; - the lack of discussion in order to capitalize on experience with -the production and/or dissemination of forest plants. 4.2.2. Participatory managemet of natural resources In light of this situation, a new procedure was initiated: that of participatory management, which consists in involving the rural inhabitants in management and utilization of the forests. The first participatory village forestry projects encountered obstacles. In most of them, grassroots involvement was limited to participation by the inhabitants in the execution of activities initiated by a group of intellectuals and technicians. The participatory approach bogged down and its development continued to depend on the identification of grassroots motivating factors (arguments and Ouagadougou,BBurkinFaso - February2l1-25 ,1994 35 AFTPS... Workshop II: Proceedings material incentives to win over the target populations, the role of government, or the land tenure system). Following study of these issues, the participatory approach was redesigned to step up the involvement of the people living close to the forest stands to be managed, take greater account of the sociocultural aspects and organize the villagers into groups based on discussion and agreement. This experiment is apparently having a greater impact on management of the resources and is stimulating rural development through the injection of substantial financial resources (in the form of income). This approach is also making it possible to reduce the cost significantly (CFAF 12,000/ha) and thereby ensure the financial viability of the operation. It is still too early to assess the long-term viability of this new approach, especially if the project were to reach closure (withdrawal of supervisory services). A study is under way of the issues involved in decentralized natural resource management by the villagers and the land tenure system (a factor essential to the success of the approach). In view, however, of the remoteness of the areas being managed, the state of the roads, the higher prices approved there than in the non-managed areas and inefficient forest control, these zones face strong competition which could also have a negative impact on arousing grassroots interest. 4.2.3. Optimum utlization of land clearance wood The purposes of this project were to recover the wood resulting from the large hydroelectric projects and make it available to the people of Burkina and Niger (as in the case of Koumpienga). These operations saved the equivalent of the production of the natural stands around the beneficiary cities. According to estimates by MET agencies, the annual contribution of land clearance products to meeting Ouagadougou's woodfuel needs is estimated at 48 percent for charcoal and 7 percent for wood products as a whole (between 1988 and 1993). The effect of this recovery is to create consumption of a new form of energy, i.e. charcoal. But the main thrust of the public authorities' activities is to discourage charcoal production and consumption for household needs. 4.3. Demand Mnafement In parallel with the activities relating to wood supply, activities were also undertaken on the demand side. They were aimed at introducing more efficient and less energy-hungry equipment and mounting a substitution drive. 4.3.1. Improved stoves In October 1978, following a study of energy management as part of Sahel development strategy, the Sahel Club (Club du Sahel) and the countries of the subregion recommended that the energy yield of open-air stoves be improved through research into efficient ways of introducing improved stoves and organizing their large-scale and rapid dissemination. The first phase, covering the period 1984-86, comprised pilot activities conducted in four provinces. The second phase (1986 88) was aimed at stepping up the activities undertaken in five provinces. Phase 3, scheduled for 1989- 1992, would be devoted to consolidating the gains made. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaiy 21 -25, 1994 36 Count7y Study: BURKINA FASO Accordingly, in the early 1980s MET launched an inproved stoves dissemination program based on the field experiences of certain NGOs and the research results on lb. Several improved stove models were developed in order to ensure their wide dissemination and effective use by wood consumers (housewives, artisans, etc.). The results of the Ib laboratory tests indicate that these improved stoves yield wood savings of 30-40 percent. The use of improved stoves could thus constitute a first step toward energy saving. While there has been large-scale dissemination of improved stoves in the cities since 1980, it is difficult to estimate how many stoves are actually in use today. It is therefore difficult at this time to assess the true impact of the improved stoves campaign. The situation is further complicated by the fact that no survey was conducted to ascertain the situation prior to the campaign or to assess the cost of the improved stoves compared with the savings achieved. While the production of improved stoves was a promising activity, there can no doubt that some business operators rushed into it. The improved stoves campaign is now running out of steam. This situation testifies to the lack of preparation of the project and of the post-project period, with many cases confirming the fact that the projects do not survive after the donor withdraws. This highlights the need for better project preparation. The fact that resources are available locally (dead wood, bush) and gathering them often requires no financial expenditure does nothing to encourage economic and rational use of the resources and is therefore a sizable obstacle to massive introduction of improved stoves in rural areas. 4.3.2. Substitution policies The moderate results of the improved stoves campaigns have led the authorities to take additional measures, such as the introduction of gas. National gas Rolicv Since 1985 a large-scale program of promotion of butane gas has been implemented with the support of certain cooperation partners. Its objective is to bring about the use of gas as fuel in urban areas. This gas policy faces serious difficulties, however, stemming from: - Burkina's lack of hydrocarbon resources and refining facilities of its owin; - the high cost of transportation of petroleum products due to Burkina's landlocked situation; - the still relatively high cost of gas equipment; - a certain preference for wood owing to cooking habits. The choice of butane gas has been reflected in a variety of measures and actions on the part of the Govermnent and its subdivisions over nearly a decade. These include: - a 75-percent reduction in customs duties on gas and gas equipment (gas rings) since 1985; Ouagadougou,rBmkinaFaso - February 21 -25, 1994 37 AFTPSF.,ES Workshop II: Proceedngs - subsidization of gas out of the proceeds of the other petroleum products (by the General Equalization Fund, the Caisse GMn&rale de Perequation); - introduction of "popular size" bottles (2.75 and 6.0 kg) in 1985; - sale of the bottles instead of charging a deposit on them, from 1985. These various initiatives led to the design in 1987 of a butane gas extension program which was included in the list of priority projects of the First Five-Year People's Development Plan. Responsibility for this program, with a total estimated cost of CFAF 1,737 million, was to be assumed in large part by SONABHY as the Government's chief representative in the energy sector. It was against this background that the gas project was set up. Reeional gas Rroject In 1985, in response to the desertification taking place in the member countries, the Permanent Inter-Governmental Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (Comite Permanent Inter-Etat de Late Contre la Secheresse dans le Sahel-CILSS), acting on a decision by the CILSS Heads of State, initiated the Regional Gas Program, which received financing from the European Development Fund (EDF) of CFAF 3 billion, including CFAF 270 million for Burkina. This program was designed to back up the national effort to substitute propane gas for fuelwood and charcoal. The gas project began in July 1991, a year and a half late. It was to extend over three years and its target was to equip 32,000 households. To that end, financial support of CFAF 94.6 million was granted to five gas distribution professionals to import the containers. The targets have not been met by far, the funds having been used for activities other than their original purpose. Taking stock, we find that thanks to the combined efforts of the Government-notably gas subsidization out of Equalization Funds proceeds (CFAF 50/kg, to maintain the price per kg at CFAF 250))-and its subdivisions, butane gas consumption rose from 715 tons in 1986 to 2,951 tons in 1992. No statistics exist, however, on the number of urban households equipped with gas stoves. Following the January 1994 devaluation, the new gas price structure includes a subsidy ranging from CFAF 167.07 to 179.41, depending on the source of supply, to hold the price per kg at CFAF 312.50. Despite all these efforts and the resources deployed, LPG consumption represents barely the equivalent of 20,000 tons of wood and consequently continues to have a very insignificant impact on urban wood consumption. This type of fuel continues however to be accessible only to certain well-off strata of the population. 4.4. Price Policy and Taxation The Government has used taxation to underpin its policy: subsidizing of gas prices and equipment; orientation of donor financing to the dissemination of improved stoves. Ouagadougou Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 38 Country Study: BURKEINA FASO Price policy has fostered a rise in wood prices since 1985. The fall in the price of gas in 1990 is in fact a supportive measure designed to encourage gas consumption. The impact of any wood price policy is limited, however, by universal access to plant cover in order to extract wood, especially as the setting of the cutting tax (CFAF 300) does not seem to be based on any sound justification. Moreover, this taxation does not favor the remote procurement areas. This fact is not reflected in any element of the price structure. Because wood prices are uniform in the different areas, the wood-gathering circuits do not reach into the surplus areas. In conclusion, it can be stated that the because of the informal nature of the production/distribution methods used it has proved impossible to devise an institutional framework capable of efficiently maintaining control over the energy wood subsector. In addition, the lack of an overall energy framework (that gives due place to the effort to gain and maintain control of the commercial, new and renewable energy sources subsector) is partly responsible for the failure to set up a master plan for meeting the people's fuelwood needs. For lack of higher-level coordination of energy-sector activities, the projects undertaken by the various agencies involved in energy-sector management have posted poor results. This state of affairs is not helped by the fact that the headquarters agencies, responsible for formulating energy policy, have each approached the issue from their own particular angles, determined by their main types of activity. As a result, their actions have been highly sector-oriented and lacking in interlinkage. V. WAYS OF IMPROVING OPERATIONS IN THE TRADITIONAL ENERGY SUBSECTOR The growth of the population, particularly the urban population, by the year 2020 will put increased pressure on Burkina's natural resources. The country's growing food needs will also trigger demand for land at the cost of its other-especially its forest-resources. Burkina's energy needs will also rise. This makes it necessary to formulate here and now a very clear policy concerning how Burkina should look in the year 2020 and to take appropriate measures in the form of coherent, global programs that take due account of the country's financial and human resources and its needs. The factual picture is based on the fact that, owing to the low rate of penetration by substitute energy sources, wood fuel is and will continue for a long time to be the main source of household energy in Burkina. It is therefore inportant that the authorities review wood-fuel procurement policy in light of the shortcomings and constraints observed. The following ideas can serve as the basis for study of ways of improving operations in the traditional energy sources sector: 5.1. Adaptation of Sector Institutions - The institutions should withdraw from direct project implementation and concentrate more on policy formulation and supervision. - The headquarters agencies should act as project authority and entrust project execution to private consultants or NGOs, keeping supervision in their own hands. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l1-25 ,1994 39 AFTPSRPTEs Workshop II. Proceedings - This will allow the headquarters agencies more time to perform their policy functions and reduce conflicts of interest. 5.2. Adaption of the Legal Framework - Land-tenure legislation needs to be reviewed. - The problem of fragmentation of the sector needs to be resolved. 5.3. Self-financing - An enormous-but indispensable-effort needs to be mounted in order to retain independence of decision and control of development priorities. This will probably require reaching a 20- 30 percent self-financing share in each project (not counting the personnel used). This will give the authorities some say with respect to overall cost (allowing them to avoid purchases of unnecessary equipment, which is often scrapped following project completion for lack of maintenance resources). 5.4. eram AnDroach - The projects should be integrated into a more global, long-term development framework. For example, improved stove and cooker (gas and oil) projects should preferably form an integral part of an industrial development framework (artisan training, industrial infrastructure development, access to banking services, and so on). This will lay the basis for sustainable energy saving/substitution. Rural development based on laying down a basic infrastructure will foster more efficient cropping practices, encourage sedentarization of the rural population and ensure improved natural resource management. 5.5. Re deuaovment of Human Resources - The burden of the government agencies should be lightened by relieving them of execution tasks. This will allow staff to transfer to the private sector (as forestry consultants hired by village groups or as advisers) and to perform more effectively. 5.6. Coordination of Donor Activities Action should be taken to: - limit overlapping of activities; - set programs with easily quantifiable objectives that allow for better results and performance; - engage in consultation and discussion between donors and country concerning the receiving countries' priorities (this also facilitates better management of the donor country taxpayers' money; - focus the aid on development and divorce it from political interests (which often compel the receiving country to accept whatever is suggested). Ouagadougou,rukicnaFaso - Febnwy21-25, 1994 40 Counthy Study: BURKINA FASO 5.7. Regional Cooperation - There is a need to take a serious attitude to regional cooperation seriously (exchange of experiences on the use of fuels-such as petroleum, for example; exchange of traditional energy sources; improvement of the road transport network). Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Februaiy2l -25,1994 41 AFTPSRp S Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 42 Country Study: A114LI Country Study 3.2 MALI SUMMARY OF THE DRAFT REPORT PREPARED BY NATIONAL RPTES TEAM FEBRUARY 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - 21 - 25 f6vrier, 1994 43 AFTPSMpl,Es Workshop I: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 44 Country Study: AL4LI 1. AGRO-ECOLOGICAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLMCAL CONTEXT 1.1. Environmental Dresentation of Mali Mali is located between Latitude 10 and 25 North and between Longitude 4 East and Longitude 12 West. The country has a surface area of 1,241,231 km2. This location means that it has a variety of climates ranging from Guinean in the south to Saharan in the north. Mali's ecological diversity is seen in the very contrasting types of forest found, from the scrub savanna in the north carrying less than 10 m3/ha to the brush covering 25 % of the south with standing volumes that often reach 20-40 m3/ha, and the forests of the Sudano-Guinean zone with between 50 and 80 m3/ha and sometimes over 100 m3/ha in the gallery forests and other forests in the west of the country. 1.2. Population Mali's population was estimated at 8,464,000 in 1992, 2,110,000 of whom were urban and 6,354,000 rural. 1.3. Political system Since the events of March 1991 which brought about the fall of the one-party regime following a grassroots movement unprecedented in Mali, the country has moved into an era of true multiparty democracy. Following the adoption of the Constitution by referendum, the institutions of the Republic were set in place, namely: - the President of the Republic (elected by universal suffrage) - the Government - the National Assembly - the Supreme Court - the Constitutional Court - the High Court of Justice - the High Council of Local Authorities - the Economic, Social and Cultural Council 1.4. Situation of the economv The national economy remains very much dependent on climatic variations, which exercise an influence on primary sector production in general and more particularly on agricultural, livestock, fishery, forestry and fruit collection. Rainfall was good in 1992; GDP posted an increase of 9.6% in volume terms and a 3.9% fall in prices in 1992. The 9.6% increase in volume of GDP in 1992 compared with 1991 was sustained by final consumption, gross fixed capital formation, and exports and imports of goods and services, which posted volume increases of 7.0%, 4.5%, 4.2% and 1.2%, respectively. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 45 AFTPSRPT Workshop II: Proceedngs II. THE ENERGY SECTOR 2.1. Mali's energy resources and consumption 2.1.1. Energy resources Mali is rich in energy resources, particularly hydroenergy, forest and agriculture biomass and solar energy. The country possesses a hydroelectric potential that is considerable in relation to its needs (1,050 installable MW with a guaranteed power of 800 MW), thanks to the Manantali, Kenie, Gouina and Grand F6lou sites. Mali also has significant wood resources which, at least in theory, should ensure self-sufficiency for 75% of its population (Koulikoro, Segou, Kayes and Sikasso regions) for several decades. Finally, it has renewable energy resources: solar energy, agricultural biomass (some of which is already being used in a marginal manner, such as rice husks, in the Office du Niger's rice mills, and peanut shells and cotton stems). However, Mali does not presently have any fossil energy sources and is entirely dependent on imports for all oil products. Moreover, national hydroelectricity generation, accounted for primarily by the Selingue and Sotuba darns, only covers a part of the country's requirements (75% in 1989) and the cost of putting in new dams is high. 2.1.2. Energy consumption Although rich in energy resources, Mali is country with a low energy consumption. As its energy balance for 1987 shows, this consumption was then no more than 200 kg of oil equivalent per capita per year, for all sectors and energy sources together. The predominance of fuelwood as an energy source, even in urban households and in no small part of the productive sector, is considerable: 91% of national energy consumption. This predominance points to the lack of access to modem energy sources (oil fuels and electricity): a little over 20 kg of oil equivalent per capita per year. 2.2. Organization of the eMergv sector in Mali 2.2.1. National administrative authorities - The Ministry of Mines, Industry and Water Resources (1994) - National Directorate of Water Resources and Energy (DNHE) - National Directorate of Geology and Mines (DNGM) - The Ministry with Responsibility for Trade - The Ministry of Rural Development and the Environment - National Directorate of Water Resources and Forests (DNEF) (1972) - National Directorate of Agriculture (DNA) - National Hydrocarbons Commission (CNH) (1984) 2.2.2. Committees - National Improved Stoves Consultative Committee (CNCFA) (1983) - National Butane Gas Promotion Committee (1990) 2.2.3. Research centers - National Solar Energy and Renewable Energy Sources Center (CNESOLER) Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21-25,1994 46 Country Study: M;4LI - Regional Solar Energy Center (CRES) (1982) 2.2.4. Energy enterprises - Energie du Mali (EDM) - Office d'Exploitation des Ressources Hydrauliques du Haut Niger (OERHN) - Societe Nationale de Recherche et d'Exploitation Miniere (SONAREM) - Office National des Produits Petroliers (ONAP) (1992) - Groupement des Professionnels du P6trole du Mali (Mobil, Total-Texaco, Elf and Shell) - Groupement des Irnportateurs Maliens de Produits Petroliers (GIMPP) 2.3. Enerry and environmental policy The main thrusts of Mali's energy policy as defined by energy subsector below are based on the energy consumption forecasts for the next ten years as determined by reference to the rate of economic growth and that of demographic growth. 2.3.1. Woodfuels As regards to forestry, the basic objective is to make it ultimately possible to establish a balance between a well-managed resource and a fuelwood demand of which the key parameters will have been shaped by specific policy actions (equipment of households with improved stoves, level of taxation of wood, replacement of woodfuels - wood and charcoal - by other fuels). 2.3.2. Electrical energy Since the existing power stations are already runing at full capacity, satisfying Mali's foreseeable short and medium-term electrical energy needs will require the commissioning of new hydroelectric generating facilities capable of meeting the increase in demand over the long term. The studies all point to the Manantali hydroelectric plant constructed in the context of the OMVS (Organization for the Development of the Senegal River Valley) and the 225-kV transmission line linking it with Bamako as playing a central economic and technical role. Bringing the plant and line into service is a priority. 2.3.3. Hydrocarbons sector All the studies made in this sector recognize the need in the insfitutional sphere for better coordination among the different parties, together with the need for formulation of a coherent policy at sector level, and greater consistency between receipts and supplies. 2.3.4. Renewable energy The potential in the solar energy field is particularly immense. However, the inadequacy of the available database for assessing the resources must be noted. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25 ,1994 47 AFTPSRpTEs Workshop II. Proceedings 2.3.5. Price policy Application of the energy policy includes other related actions regarding objectives assigned to the various energy subsectors. However different they may be one from the other, the energy subsectors all have anomalies in their pnce systems. A key aim of the national energy policy is therefore to eliminate these anomalies by introducing corrective prices. 2.4. Investments and finances Investment in the energy sector in the past ten years has been as follows: - Conventional energy: CFAF 155 billion - Traditional energy: CFAF 15.8 billion Hence a total of CFAF 170.8 billion (before devaluation). 2.5. Mali's enerMv balance and assessment of the qualitv of the data The balance prepared is that for 1992. Many difficulties were encountered in preparing it, chiefly the dispersion of the data coupled with the fact that reliable data were often not available. Energy consumption in Mali is 1.8 million toe, broken down as follows: Traditional energy sources 1,627,400 toe Petroleum products 174,470 toe Electricity 24,659 toe ]][. THE TRADITIONAL ENERGY SUBSECTOR 3.1. Situation of the traditional energy sources 3.1.1 Demand 3.1.1.1 Demand trends Wood is and will remain for the medium term the predominant energy source, even in the towns, for cooking purposes and secondary energy requirements. In the rural areas, fuelwood consumption ranges between 0.7 and 2.4 kg per person and per day for an average-size family; this variation is linked essentially to wood availability and hence the time needed to gather it. Ouagadougou, Burlina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 48 Country Study: MALI 3.1.1.2 Structure of consumption Consumers - Rural households Wood is virtually the sole fuel used in rural areas for cooking and related household requirements (boiling water or home heating in the cold season). In certain areas wood is also used for production purposes, such as drying fish, sheabutter and soap making, pottery-making and brewing millet beer. - Urban households The predominance of wood as primary fuel in Mali's towns and cities is undeniable. Those who do not use it as main fuel use charcoal. Gas is only used by expatriates and certain well-off segments of the population. Gas is most commonly resorted to as a supplementary fuel. Only a very small proportion of households use kerosene for cooking; it is mainly used for lighting and, especially in winter, for starting wood fires. - The informal sector Analysis of urban consumption shows that besides household consumers there are also a number of other users: industries, crafts and small businesses, services (restaurants, dyeing, etc.). 3.1.2. Supply 3.1.2.1 Forests and land use The inventory carried out between 1987 and 1991 helped delineate between areas with nonagricultural land cover and those devoted to crop production with their associated fallow lands. It also made il possible to estimate the reserves of potentially arable land in the administrative regions covered. Forest stands make up 32,797,155 ha (26.4% of the country's territory), as compared with 5,854,310 ha (4.7%) for agricultural land and associated fallow lands and 9,467,668 ha (7.63%) for land potentially cultivable using present farming systems. 3.1.2.2 Wood resources Mali can be subdivided into 6 agroecological zones with the following characteristics: - Saharan (Sahelo-Saharan) - Sahelian - Sahelo-Sudanian - Sudano-Sahelian - Sudanian - Sudano-Guinean. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnwaxy2l-25,1994 49 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings 3.2. The firewood and charcoal subsector Traditional energy sources, specifically woodfuel (firewood and charcoal) account for over 90% of the national energy balance. Wood consumption for energy purposes in Mali is estimated at over 5 million tons per year, which represents annual deforestation of nearly 400,000 ha. 3.2.1. Wood gathering for household use Firewood for household use in rural areas is generally gathered by women and children. The wood gathered at this level amounts to some 3,511,000 tons and over 2 million persons are involved in this work. The chain at this level comprises only two stages, gathering (cutting and picking up) and carrying to place of use (on the head, by barrow and often by bicycle). 3.2.2. The commercial woodfuel subsector The commercial fuelwood subsector involves fuelwood collection and transported to the urban centers for sale. It comprises production, transportation, sale in various ways (wholesale, semi- wholesale, retail) and consumption. 3.2.3. Price structues There are no official prices for wholesale and retail sale of firewood and charcoal. The forest fees payable for dealing in wood and charcoal constitute the only official charges. These fees (or taxes) are CFAF 200/stere of firewood sold (about CFAF 0.7/kg) and CFAF 250/quintal of charcoal (CFAF 2.5/kg). Nevertheless, the selling price for charcoal is uniform throughout the city of Bamako at CFAF 75/kg for charcoal with all impurities removed. 3.3. Kerosene subsector Kerosene is a staple good and is the hydrocarbon most widely used in Mali. It is used mainly for lighting and less commonly for cooking. Variations in demand for kerosene are minor. Like all other petroleum products, the price of kerosene is uncontrolled. 3.4. Butane gas subsector Butane gas consumption in Mali is one of the lowest in the CILSS countries; this consumnption was 667 tons in 1988 as compared with 25,000 tons in Senegal and 1,476 tons in Burkina Faso. Until 1986 this consumption was accounted for by expatriates and a minority of Malians who used four-burner cookers. Consumption increased rapidly after 1986, the year in which the promoters of gas-Demeba 2.75 kg for Shell and Guateli 6 kg for Total-introduced small-size stoves. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 50 Country Study: M4LI IV. REVIEW OF POLICIES. PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 4.1. Substitution Rolicies One of the eight priority measures adopted by the Malian Govermnent in 1987 in the context of the National Program for Desertification Control (PNCLD) is promotion of other energy sources to substitute wood and charcoal (substitution by petroleum products: butane gas and kerosene). Thus, as of 1990 the Government, in line with all the CILSS countries, launched its National Butane Gas Promotion Program with the support of the European Community. This program was concluded in December 1993. Although the target levels were not reached the program produced some encouraging results. Despite its high cost, butane gas is unquestionably the fuel most highly rated by households and the one most likely to be effective in furthering the campaign against deforestation. These findings are moreover confirmed by surveys conducted in certain parts of the country. The Government has accordingly decided to set up a National Gas Fund with a view to continuation of the program during 1994. In addition, the Government is preparing to implement the National Household Energy Strategy over the period from 1994-97. This strategy proposes specific measures designed to make the substitute fuels (butane gas, kerosene) for wood and charcoal more competitive, in particular: - extensive availability of substitute fuels - reorganization of the marketing of wood in the large urban centers by strengthening control and better collection of taxes with a view to adjustment of wood and charcoal prices. 4.2. Investment, financial resources and donor contribution Study of the full list of projects executed in the energy sector in the past ten years reveals the following: - An imbalance between the financial resources allocated to the conventional energy subsector and those for the traditional energy subsector, despite the fact that the latter covers more than 91% of the population's energy needs. Thus, of a total investment figure for the period of CFAF 132 billion, CFAF 115 billion (i.e. 88%) went to the electricity subsector, which only serves 5% of the population and accounts for 1.35% of total energy production (1992 energy balance). - Almost all investment funds are from extemal sources; the Government's share is limited essentially to human resources. - Concentration of investment in the urban areas; this is readily understandable, since electricity is only used by the urban populations. 4.3. Reswonsibilities of institudons; human resources and training As is apparent from paragraph 2.2, Mali's energy sector is characterized by a dispersion of national responsibilities and jurisdictions, technical services and institutions, which aggravates the Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25,1994 51 AFTPSR,zTS Workshop II: Proceedings weaknesses of the public sector, such as a lack of adequate coordination, planning and supervision, exacerbated by a lack of equipment, advice and training, and reliable data. DNHE, which is responsible for formulation of the national energy policy, and the general organization and supervision of the energy sector, lacks the human and technical resources to fully perform its function. The dispersion of responsibilities has often led to either duplication of actions or simply to their not being carried out at all. 4.4. Programs and projects The Malian Government has made preservation of ecological equilibrium a national priority. A National Program for Desertification Control (PNLCD) was drawn up in 1987 which has proposed eight priority action subprograms which have received donor support. Among these projects, we can cite the Improved Stoves Project (urban and rural) and the Substitution National Butane Gas Program. 4.5. Prospects As in the other CILSS countries, the program in Mali was concluded on December 31, 1993. In light of the encouraging results posted and in application of the resolutions of the CILSS Council of Ministers, the Malian Government, being convinced that use of butane gas is an essential component of the efforts to control deforestation, has decided to establish a Gas Fund to continue the Butane Gas Program during 1994 and adjust the price structure of butane gas. In addition, the Government is preparing to implement the National Household Energy Strategy over the period 1994-97. This strategy proposes specific measures to make the substitute fiuels (butane gas, kerosene) for wood and charcoal more competitive, in particular: - extensive availability of substitute fuels - reorganization of the marketing of wood in the large urban centers by strengthening control and better collection of taxes with a view to adjustment of wood and charcoal prices V. TOWARDS IMROVEMENT IN OPERATIONS IN THE TRADMONAL ENERGY SECTOR 5.1. Studies of prospects 5.1.1. Population and urbanization According to projections prepared by the National Directorate of Statistics and Data Processing (DNSI), by the year 2022 Mali's population will number 17,500,380 (i.e. double the 1992 figure), of which 8.1 million will live in urban areas. This represents an urbanization rate of 46% compared to 25% in 1992 and 30% projected for the year 2000 (this rate was 17.6% in 1980). This rapid urbanization will place greater pressure on forest resources since those moving into the cities will adopt the cooking practices of urban dwellers (charcoal and kerosene). Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 52 Countny Study: M4LI 5.1.2. Food demand Mali is essentially an agropastoral country. 5.1.3. Transportation needs Mali is a landlocked country and the national road system is very underdeveloped. It comprises of 13,004 kmn of classified roads and 1,494 km of nonclassified roads. 5.1.4. Macroeconomic implications The traditional energy sector, mainly wood and charcoal, remains the most important in terms of both sales and economic impact. Assuming a cost price of CFAF 15/kg for wood and CFAF 60/kg for charcoal, the traditional energy sector has a turnover of about CFAF 20.1 billion and employs around 25,000 persons. In 1992 the electricity sector had a turnover of CFAF 14.1 billion, with 1,337 employees and 47,883 customers. Investment over the period 1980-92 totaled CFAF 15.8 billion for the wood and charcoal sector (supply and demand together) and CFAF 115 billion for the electricity sector. Given the level of turnover, employment generated and the low level of investment (compared with the electricity sector), it is clear that something will have to be done to make the fuelwood sector a factor in development. If well distributed and well managed, the resources generated by the sector can play a major role in the protection and development of the country's wood resources. 5.1.5. Regional cooperation After the drought years of the 1970s the countries of the subregion set up the Permanent Inter- State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) to provide a framework for concerted collaboration to combat desertification. In this context two major programs have been carried out, the Regional Improved Stoves Program and the Regional Butane Gas Promotion Program. Other sub-regional organism, such as CEAO, have put in place certain cooperation instruments in the field of new and renewable energy, the main one being the Regional Solar Energy Center (CRES), which is intended in principle to play a role in the research and development of solar energy equipment and its dissemination. Some documentation centers have also been established at the subregional level. The states of the subregion have sufficient forest resources, provided the coastal states are included. It would accordingly be beneficial to devise mechanisms for the inter-state transfer of wood- based energy resources in the same way as is done for hydrocarbons. This would make it possible for deficite areas to be supplied from those with surpluses. However, this will require a detailed study of the real potentials and of the economic repercussions, with as prerequisite the political will to accomplish it on the part of the different authorities and the effective involvement of the populations and private operators concerned. Oagadougou,BurkiwFaso - February2l-25,1994 53 AFTPSRJ1E Workshop II: Proceedngs 5.2. Policy elements 5.2.1. Land use and land tenure legislation The National Conference on land tenure in rural areas of Mali, held in Bamako from January 26-29, 1993, analyzed the different angles of the question and looked into the preparation of a land charter and a draft temporary law (revision of the Code governing State Lands and Real Estate in Mali). Because of their significant economic, social and environmental repercussions, the question of land tenure and natural resource management are currently major concerns of the chief parties in the development arena in Mali: the advanced stage of deterioration of natural resources and land potential, the disorganization and unplanned management of the main rural production systems, the low level of investment in these systems by producers, and the multiplication and aggravation of social tensions engendered by land conflicts, are so many examples of these repercussions. 5.2.2. Decentralized management of natural resources Analysis of the factors and causes behind the failure or success of a large number of development programs and projects has pointed to the need to take into account all parameters that could help to improve the approaches adopted in implementing the programs and projects. This point, which has been observed many times in the evaluation of projects and programs carried out in rural communities, remains an unquestionable reality. Since the events of March 1991, Mali's new policy of democratization has meant, for the rural population, the opening of public debates which have made it possible to update the decisive stakes for the environment and rural development. These debates, which peaked during the National Conference on land tenure and decentralization, crystallized around three main topics: - turning responsibility for managing natural resources over to the rural populations; - the representativeness and fields of competence of the local authorities in the context of the decentralization policy in process of implementation; - the-redefinition of the role of the State and of its relations with the local authorities, socio- professional organizations and private operators. 5.2.3. Instruments for policy plementation; motivation and constraints The instruments for policy implementation in the traditional energy sector to ensure success of the programs remain among others, the availibility of human resources (supervisory and training), financial and materials, information and awareness rousing, as well as a clear definition of development thrusts. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February21-25,1994 54 Country Study: AMLI The associated measures that entail policy and organizational decisions should concern: - the legislative sphere - the institutional sphere - the financial sphere - the technical sphere. 5.2.4. From the extensible project concept to the long-term program concept An evaluation of the different projects executed to date in the traditional energy sector underscores the following main points: Duration: all the projects executed, with a few exceptions, are of very short duration (3-5 years). This is not long enough to really get going and to achieve the objectives set (which are in general very clearly defined). This leaves the general irmpression that the projects have not been well executed. The short duration of the projects also makes it difficult to pinpoint any shortcomings in design and execution so that the necessary corrections can be made. It also makes it impossible to correctly evaluate the socio-economic impacts of the actions undertaken. Philosophy: the projects executed in the traditional energy sector are mostly small and commonly focus on one or two problems; however, only multisectoral approaches can resolve these problems since the matters in question are closely interwoven. It is not unusual to see multitudes of small projects juxtaposed one alongside the other and all with similar objectives but each proceeding as if the others did not exist. This situation is in complete contradiction to the overall macroeconomic intent and the desired impact at the national level, the goal envisioned for each project being for it to be expanded little by little or for the format adopted to be transposed to other parts of the country. Dispersion: A situation of this type inevitably leads to a waste of energy, squandering of financial resources, fragmentation of information and, not infrequently, to conflict situations requiring trade-offs that most often mean that the results obtained are not all they could be. In order to eliminate the above-mentioned problems, preference must be given to long-term programs that will serve as frameworks for concerted actions in the traditional energy sector and will ensure the investments necessary to permit better access to energy sources and better management of national resources, in conjunction with associated measures in the regulatory, tariff and tax spheres. These programs cannot be restricted to the problems of the traditional energy sources but rather these problems must be placed in their socio-economic context and in that of natural resource management. These programs will make it possible to take into account the interdependence of forestry, agropastoral and energy activities in order to define the specific activities and the appropriate management tools by deriving maximum benefit from the existing dynamics (private sector, informal sector, decentralized structures). Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnmary21-25,1994 55 AFTPSRTES Workshop HI: Proceedings 5.2.5. Investment and Self-financing Analysis of the sources of financing of the different projects executed in the traditional energy field shows that foreign lenders and donors (credits, subsidies or grants) have been the main source. While the assistance of external donors is essential for certain investments, this in no way rules out prospecting for and utilization of self-financing capacities of certain projects, although the limited means of our countries and the extreme poverty of their populations must be borne in mind. Self- fimancing of local development projects (energy-related or other types) is possible in the context of a real decentralization policy, a policy that will enable the people to define their priorities and the human and physical means required. In the specific case of traditional energy sources, self-financing is indispensable and can be made possible by adopting a realistic policy that allows local communities to manage their natural resources. 5.2.6. Adaptation of institutions and changing of management methods In the context of rational, decentralized and participatory natural resource management, several measures were suggested which constitute a component of the implementation of the National Program for Desertification Control. Execution of this important component, rightly considered crucial to the success of the program, has posted significant progress in the past two years as regards to adaptation of state institutions and the changing of natural resource management methods, together with the implementation of certain major reforms. The institutional and regulatory reforms introduced in the course of 1992 and 1993 include in particular: - reform of the regulations governing state lands and real estate; - reform of the forestry legislation - decentralization. 5.2.7. Deployment of human resourc The insufficiency and poor distribution of human resources has already been noted. In general, the personnel assigned to the energy sector possess adequate theory training; however, since the sector is not very developed, few individuals have gained sufficient practical experience. It is accordingly proposed that the resources available for training be applied to this type of practical training. It is recommnended that the possibilities offered for on-the-job training by projects in the sector be systematically utilized. For the execution of the new planning and coordination functions of DNHE, the personnel should be strengthened (not by hiring but by re deployment) and organized in the Energy Division to cover two areas: conventional energy sources and traditional energy sources. 5.2.8. Communication and coordination of donors' activities As has already been stated, almost all investment in the sector is covered by external financing. To achieve greater efficiency and avoid duplication and dispersion of efforts, coordination of the actions of our development partners is essential. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febmary 21 - 25, 1994 56 Country Study: A4LI The structure that will be made responsible for this coordination should direct the donors' actions toward the priorities expressed by the beneficiary populations and avoid projects of the type that are often imposed by donors but do not take into account the people's aspirations. The Household Energy Strategy currently being formulated will provide the true framework for coordination of actions in the traditional energy subsector. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFawo - February 21 -25,1994 57 AFTPSTES Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febmuary 21-25,1994 58 Country Study: NIGER Country Study 3.3 NIGER SU;MMARY OF THE DRAFT REPORT PREPARED BY NATIONAL RPTES TEAM February 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - 21 -25 fevrier, 1994 59 AFTPSRPM Workshop II Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 60 Country Study: NIGER I. AGROECOLOGICAL. ECONOMIC AND SOCIOPOLITICAL FRAMEWORK With a land area of 1,267,000 km2, Niger is a land-locked country considered one of the hottest regions in the world. Four-fifths of the land is desert, resulting in climnatic constraints that seriously impact the enviromnent, human life and socioeconomic development. Four quite distinct agroecological zones can be identified: (i) the Saharan and Sahelo-Saharan zone (77 % of the country), with rainfall ranging between 100 and 300 mm; (ii) the Sahelian zone (300-350 mm rainfall), where it is possible to grow rainfed crops, largely dependent on climatic conditions, which accounts for 12% of the land; (iii) the Sudano-Sahelian zone (350-600 mm rainfall), accounting for 10% of the land, where it is possible to grow crops, which are still susceptible to climatic conditions; and (iv) the Sudanian zone with rainfall ranging between 600 and 800 rmn, which accounts for 1 % of the land. This uneven climatic distribution limits the areas suitable for cultivation to about 150,000 km.2 located along the southern band of the country (isohyets 800 and 350 mm). At independence, Niger's population was estimated at approximately 4 million. By 1977, the year when the first general population census, it had reached 5.1 million, with 87% living in the rural areas. The annual growth rate was 2.7%. According to the second general population census in 1988, Niger's population had, by then, grown to 7.2 million, i.e. a 3.2% annual growth rate (among the highest in the world). The urban centers, which had shown a 5.9% increase in population, were home to about 15% of the total population (8.5 million) in 1993. If the current rate continues, Niger's population will double every 22 years. This galloping population growth naturally increases basic needs and hence places additional pressure on the country's resources. This pressure is accentuated by the highly uneven spatial distribution of the population. Over 95% of Niger's population actually lives in one third of the country with densities ranging from 0.3 to 80 inhabitants/km2 in certain areas of the extreme south. The concentration of the population is the result of migrations from the hostile regions of the north to the more "merciful" regions of the south which offer land suitable for cultivation. Since independence (1960), the country has been through several turbulent political periods which led to the establishment of the Third Republic. The advent of the multi-party system fostered the emergence of an active civic society with close to one hundred associations, several trade unions and a multitude of national NGOs. The conditions for community integration have, generally speaking, now been met. The airing of opposing views encouraged by the political climate will naturally serve as a better channel for identifying the country's socio-economic problems thanks to a new awareness and the direct involvement of the people themselves. Economically speaking, Niger is a poor country, whose per capita GNP was only US$290 in 1990. Its economic situation is characterized by heavy debts in the order of CFAF 350 billion (1991), annual GNP growth of -2.4% between 1965 and 1990, which worsened during the last ten years (-5% between 1980 and 1990) and very low food self-sufficiency (7.4%). The country has experienced three distinct phases of economic development since independence: (i) the period from 1960 to 1975 was characterized by an essentially rural economy, (ii) the period from 1975 to 1982 benefited from the uranium boom, and (iii) an economy under structural adjustment since 1982. This situation has resulted in the country's very great dependence on foreign assistance. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febmary21l-25,1994 61 AFTPSR TES Workshop II. Proceedings Niger therefore finds itself in rather a disadvantageous position, which can be summarized by the following indicators: a galloping population growth rate, which will result in the tripling of the population by the year 2025; available agricultural areas already largely occupied and nearing soil depletion; the object of competing claims and continuously declining natural resources and the object of competing claims, its unenviable proximity to the Sahara desert and hence its harsh climatic conditions; and its declining economy. The traditional energy, forestry, agriculture and livestock sectors are closely linked under the umbrella of mixed farming, which has, for a long time now, made it possible to maintain a balance among the natural systems. There has been a marked increase in natural resource degradation as a result of population growth, accelerated urban development, the climatic and soil changes that have taken place in recent decades and the socioeconomic change that has accompanied all these phenomena. II. THE ENERGY SECTOR 2.1. EnerM picture Energy consumption in 1992 was, subject to verification, estimated at over 1.1 million TOEs. Woodfuel accounted for almost 80% of this total, petroleum products for 10% and electricity for 3%. Some insignificant amounts of agroindustrial and animal residues were also used. As a non-petroleum-producing country, Niger is totally dependent on other countries to meet almost all its modem energy requirements. All its hydrocarbons and more than 50 % of the electricity it consumes are imported, mostly from Nigeria. Its primary national energy production is limited to uranium, all of which is exported, and to coal (used to produce electricity). Traditional energy resources (mainly from wood) are an important national resource and help to meet almost 90 % of the current energy needs of the domestic sector. Based on this predominance, it is easy to predict that traditional energy resources will continue to dominate Niger's energy picture for decades to come. 2.2. Orgamiation of the sector The Ministry of Mines and Energy is, through the Directorate of Energy, theoretically responsible for formulating, implementing and supervising national energy policy, assisted by a number of other institutions which come under the supervision of several different ministries. In order to rationalize national resource management (which is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Environment), policy, legislative and institutional frameworks have been established. There are thus more than 20 institutions operating in the energy sector, not counting the four supervisory ministries. Unfortunately, these institutions operate, in practice, in a rather disparate manner and without proper coordination. The various ministries "cling" firmly to their duties, and useless disputes over their respective responsibilities are regular occurrences. 2.3. Availability and qualitv of enerev statistics The proliferation of players in the energy sector, the multiplicity of supervisory institutions (whose interests do not necessary converge) and the absence of efficient coordination have affected the Ouagadougou, Buslina Faso - Febray 21 -25, 1994 62 Country Study: NIGER quality of statistics and, in many cases, even their availability in the required form. Hence the uncertainty that taints the energy picture portrayed. The situation as far as traditional energy resources are concerned is complicated by the fact that the only information source is based exclusively on demand surveys and ad hoc inventories of resources, generally localized in space and carried out at different times. Assessments of traditional energy resource consumption, which are essentially based on estimates, are therefore fraught with uncertainties which are directly linked to unit consumption and trends, on the one hand, and to the user population and its growth, on the other. Concern for accuracy should also take cost considerations into account. Nationwide and repeated surveys call for vast amounts of physical, financial and human resources, which are beyond the country's reach. The existence of data resulting from partial and localized surveys has led to the accumulation of a veritable storehouse of experiences, which might reasonably be utilized in drawing up a coherent overall strategy. The situation regarding supply is even more drastic, in the sense that not only has the inventory taken covered only a rather small proportion of the country, but it has also only focused on a fraction of the country's biomass resources. For want of reliable data, the assessment of the productivity of wood resources is therefore still purely hypothetical. In view of the uncertainties surrounding both the demand and supply of biomass resources, it would be an extremely risky and futile exercise to try to establish a balance sheet on the subject. However, the fundamental aspects of the situation in Niger where traditional energy resources are concerned, are governed by certain basic realities: - there is a (growing) demand for wood that must be met; - urban demand for wood exercises an increasing and destructive pressure on forest stands on the outskirts of the large cities; - because of its geographical position and agroecological characteristics, Niger has an environment that is very fragile. Any degradation, however small, can have serious consequences (multiplier effect); - substitution is a very slow phenomenon and is costly to both the country and consumers; - improved stoves will have only a limited impact on demand even if there is total penetration. Reliable data do exist on the organization of the subsector, i.e. on the main harvesting and marketing channels for this product, from the place of its collection and/or place of purchase through to retail outlets and points of consumption. The two types of wood energy supply are: self-supply and the commercial subsector. The study revealed that fuelwood extraction to supply urban consumers can be devastating because it is concentrated around the urban centers, whereas extraction by rural populations, while on a larger scale (12 times as large), is scattered throughout the country (these consumers also use many substitute products, which reduces their impact on wood resources even more). Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February 21 -25,1994 63 AFTPSRPM Workshop II. Proceedings There is also the socio-economic impact of the commercial subsector. Given an urban consumption of 200,000 tons (the city of Niamey), the wood subsector generates a turnover in the region of between CFAF 3.5 and 4 billion. This turnover is equivalent to about one third of the electricity company's receipts from sales to households. The activity generates a substantial income for the players involved in the various links in the chain and the number of urban jobs created by this sector is somewhere between 6,000 and 7,000. An even larger number is generated in the rural areas. Im. ENERGY POLICY, FINANCING AND HUMAN RESOURCES 3.1. Energy poliv Niger's Economic and Social Development Plan (1987-91) shaped the general framework of national energy policy around two major concerns: enviromnental conservation and reduction of energy dependence. Following on from the achievements of the Second Energy Program, the new five-year Plan (1994-98), while keeping the same general strategy framework, has set the following specific objectives for the traditional energy sector: - incentives for the rational use of energy wood, its substitution by other energy sources and the more efficient management of the natural forest cover (organization of the energy wood sector); - tax reform and a price adjustment of energy for domestic use in order to encourage efficient energy use; - improvement in the firewood supply channels, on a pilot basis, through monitoring of the transport and management of resources as the result of creating rural markets; - help with the implementation of the institutional and organizational changes needed. 3.2 Investments and fmancing A multitude of projects were prepared and a host of investments made in order to implement the country's energy policy. It is however very difficult at this juncture to give a reliable estimate of the total amount spent on the energy sector over the last decade. This is due to the fact that the centers of decision-malkng and responsibility are so scattered, the approach is purely. subsectoral (based on energy type) and there is a lack of efficient coordination. The fact that Niger's share in the financing of the projects has not exceeded 2% and that most of the projects have been carried out directly by the donors and the NGOs has also been a factor. Available statistics suggest that since independence some CFAF 78.4 billion1 (which is probably an underestimation) has been invested in the energy sector, with 30% going to the electricity subsector, 21 % to hydrocarbons and 1% to alternative and renewable energy resources. The remainder (48%) is made up of projects with residential energy components, the most important of which is the Second Energy Project (CFAF 36 billion), which earmarked about 10% of its total budget for residential energy (including traditional energy resources). These data must be handled with lFigure subject to verification. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnray 21 - 25, 1994 64 Country Study: NIGER caution, however, because, by way of comparison, some CFAF 271 billion has been invested in rural development alone. 3.3. Human resources The institutions involved seem to have sufficient or even an over-abundance of human resources to carry out the various energy programs and projects. The Directorate of Energy, for example, has a staff of 33 and the Directorate of the Environment has 438, assisted by a host of technical advisers who are often expatriates. But given the expanse of Niger's territory, the complexity of the subject matter and the diversity of the actions, existing human resources are certainly insufficient and all activities in the traditional energy sector that are planned must make provision for training. IV. REVEW OF POLICIES. PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS 4.1. Elements of existinm Rolicies As the extraction of wood for domestic use has been found to be non-sustainable, the Niger authorities, in conjunction with certain external partners, have decided to establish a policy aimed at reversing the growing trend to consume wood energy by two-pronged actions targeting both supply and demnand. Actions were taken back in the early 1980s, under the impetus of efforts carried out as part of the program for desertification control, particularly in the area of forestry resource management. In 1985, the country witnessed the advent of the first experiments in the area of demand management through large-scale public education about improved stoves. Later on and from 1989 onwards, actions were launched in the area of substitution. All these elements constituted the key foundations of Niger's traditional energy policy. 4.2 Natural resource managemeet Niger's experience in the field of natural forest management dates back to the 1980s and the results of the preliminary studies indicate that this approach, which is less costly than the reforestation efforts, might offer a viable solution. It should be pointed out, however, that the actions carried out so far have been experimental in nature and that it is now, about ten years after their launching, necessary to evaluate the situation to see to what extent this approach might be adopted on a wider scale. The conscientious, willing and, above all, motivated participation of the people of Niger at all phases of forestry management remains the decisive factor for the long-tenn rehabilitation of the ecosystems: the review found that the future prospects of their actions are closely linked to the solutions that are found to the problems relating to land, rights of common, management methods and opportunity costs for the villagers. The projects undertaken in this area have virtually all followed the same implementation plan, consisting of making an inventory of wood resources in the project area, including estimated productivity, preparing a management and extraction plan, conducting an information campaign among the villagers to increase their awareness and setting up forest management cooperatives. The review also found that a certain number of constraints have interfered with the applicability of the approach and, at the same time, have raised doubts as to its viability. Unless these Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25 , 1994 65 AFTPSRP' Workshop I: Proceedings constraints are elimninated, there is a risk that they will compromise this type of experimaent, which seems to be the only means available, through rational and sustainable management, to ensure the protection of natural resources. This is all the more important since the conventional methods based on centralized management, as practiced by the Goverrment through a repressive forestry department, have failed. The constraints were identified at several different levels: Constraints of a technical nature: besides the doubt surrounding the reliability of the inventories conducted in the forests concerned, there is a disconcerting and potentially dangerous lack of knowledge about the quantities of usable wood that can be extracted annually without damaging the forestry resource base. Cases have been reported where post-extraction regeneration has been much less than expected. Constraints of a socio-cultural nature: the experts were also accused of failing to take account of traditional constraints and the villagers' viewpoints during the phase of preparing the land parceling plans, which has resulted in a lack of interest on the part of the villagers and a lack of sense of ownership. Economic and financial feasiblh : aU the cooperatives set up and financially supported by the projects ceased to operate once the donors withdrew. The financial support provided by the projects created a sort of patronage that tended to divert attention from the economic and financial efficiency of the actions. Inannrooriate management structure: there has been confusion over the real reason for creating a decentralized structure for forest management. In light of the failure of the methods used until that point and the apparent inability of governments to protect natural resources, it seemed wise to involve the villagers and to make them responsible for managing the resources in their community. To do this, it was necessary to group villagers into associations by using the organizational framework that was already in place as the result of the cooperative movement. This merely reactivated the moribund cooperative structures established nationwide by the policy. The cooperatives thus created suffered from an unwieldy administrative and organizational structure modeled after a rather inefficient bureaucracy. Also, very little awareness-raising and public education work was done among the rural population and it is widely admitted that leader selection was not always done in the most democratic manner. The attitude adopted by the various parties indicates that a sense of ownership was far from achieved. The activity seems to have been seen as a sweat equity deal in the case of the woodcutters and a staff perk in the case of the members of the office staff. In order to compensate for the shortcomings of the cooperative systems, the Second Energy Program introduced the concept of rural markets. The Program helps villages identify/define their community through negotiations/mediation among the various users, keeping the socio-occupational and ethnic aspects in mind and based on public education and awareness-raising campaigns. The parceling of the wood extraction area is also done in close collaboration with the villagers. Fuelwood production and marketing are both governed by a quota system to ensure that forest capacity is not exceeded. Each village receives help in electing a village committee which serves as a ural market management committee, a forum for discussion and the spokesman for the community and its interests. A legislative framework was put into place to support this initiative. This involved instituting a progressive tax and control system designed to encourage the purchase of wood from zones that are subject to controlled harvesting and zones that are further away from the urban centers. In order to give greater importance to the rural markets and improve the control system, forest taxes are collected Ouagadougou, Burina Faso - Februry 21 - 25, 1994 66 Country Study: NIGER directly by the markets. It is believed that, with the Program and the proliferation of rural markets, the uncontrolled extraction that threatens resource conservation will decline and eventually disappear. This experiment is accused of certain shortcomings, however, that might present constraints for the future and that will therefore have to be taken into account: - of all forest products, this approach concentrates on fuelwood only, reflecting once again the sectoral focus of energy projects. Encouraging the harvesting of a single product can create ecological disequilibrium and tension among the many users; - control of grazing activities does not seem to be efficient in certain areas and this constitutes a real risk for the regeneration of the parcels used; - the funds generated by the villager associations do not seem to be sufficient to cover the costs of resource management and regeneration operations. It is claimed, on the other hand, that the funds would be sufficient if associations were to devote the necessary interest to the protection and regeneration work. The villagers seem to have other priorities and do not realize the medium and long-term effects of forestry resource abuse on their own incomes; - the wood from controlled areas costs more than wood from areas that are not controlled. This, combined with the inefficiency of the system to control the wood transported to the cities, has often resulted in poor sales at cooperatives and rural markets. Although Niger's experiment in the area of decentralized management seems to have had difficulty in reaching its initial objectives, i.e. the protection of natural resources through rational and participatory management, it has, on the other hand, helped to launch a rural development process in the project areas. This has translated into an increase in villager incomes and an improvement in the agropastoral production systems. It also seems that there has been a marked reduction in the exodus of agricultural workers. 4.3. Demand manafement Demand management has placed the emphasis on reducing unit wood consumption by introducing more efficient equipment and by encouraging the use of alternative modern energy resources, such as butane and kerosene. A target of distributing about 80,000 portable kerosene stoves, 40,000 portable 6-kg butane stoves and about 110,000 metal wood-burning stoves by June 1994 was therefore set. Emphasis has also been placed on the need to involve the private sector, which is probably capable of carrying out the rapid and large-scale distribution of the alternative products (fuel and equipment). 4.3.1. Improved stoves The first steps taken by Niger to control the demand for energy wood were aimed at popularizing the more efficient and less energy-intensive cooking equipment commonly referred to as improved stoves. The first stoves were introduced in Niger in 1979/80,,mainly by NGOs with donor support. Several distinct phases can be identified in the distribution of stoves: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21-25,1994 67 AFTPSRPJ,S Workshop II: Proceedings - the pilot project phase dominated by research and development on stoves tailored to Niger: The discussions that took place were primarily academic and focused on methodological approaches. The administrative and policy-making institutions, preoccupied with other priorities, had very little involvement in this. This was the period during which the people were being made aware of the problem of desertification; - the project implementation phase coincided with an awareness among the authorities that took the form of policy commitment and the establishment of the necessary institutional coordination framework. The improved stove effort continued to be associated with the policy to control desertification; - the national program phase began in 1987/88 and had specific objectives at both the national and regional levels. Here the emphasis was essentially placed on the monitoring and evaluation of activities to popularize and distribute the stoves, together with coordination of actions to promote substitution. Despite these numerous actions conducted by a whole multitude of projects over the past decade, the results are still mixed. In actual fact, even though several thousands of stoves have been distributed, assessment of their impact in terms of forestry resource conservation is, according to the evaluations of the various projects, far from unanimous. Apparently, several obstacles/weaknesses persist. Often mentioned is the lack of political, commitment, problems attributable to the supervisory structures, rather unsatisfactory public education efforts and socio-economic and cultural constraints. In response to these, the following points need to be made: - the political commitment has been there since the early 1980s and has been demonstrated by the creation of an appropriate institutional framework. The Government might possibly be accused of not assuming responsibility by abolishing certain stractures created by the projects. This shortcoming stems, above all, from the country's shortage of resources resulting from the serious economic situation. The structural constraints mentioned do not stem, as one might think, from the shortage of institutional structures responsible for introducing the use of the stoves on a widespread scale. The large number of interministerial committees created should have been sufficient to overcome the problem; - the awareness-raising objective seems to have been achieved. There is hardly an urban household that has not heard about the improved stoves or that did not own one; - it appears that insufficient consideration was given to the psycho-socio-cultural constraints. The term is rather vague and amounts to a catchall expression that serves as an excuse to explain the poor performance and to further justify the need for research. Very little work has been done on the relevance of the approach itself and the validity of the technical results. Some deficiencies entered the picture right from the start but the projects were so locked into the dissemination and distribution mindset that they failed to stand back and take account of these deficiencies, as they should have done. The emphasis was essentially placed on the extension side of things and the approach was to flood the market to guarantee that wood would be saved. This stemmed from the need to get results so as to have some expectation of success from the' projects and to guarantee that the work would go on indefinitely, which would enable institutions to continue to receive financial support. It is not even certain that the figures are accurate. Hence the consumer, Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febrary21-25, 1994 68 Country Study: NIGER along with the whole point of the exercise, got lost in the crowd, so convinced was everyone about the quality of the product. It was also thought sufficient to train the blacksmiths and give them financial support so that the activity would be developed rapidly and that they would then be able to take it over. Unfortunately, the administrative approach to the projects was perceived by the players within the sector as a temporary act of charity rather than as an opportunity to develop their own activities. The awareness-raising effort was marred by confusion, given the stakes involved. Emphasis was essentially placed on the quality of the product and its financial advantages for users, while keeping in mind the ultimate goal, which was to help eliminate the danger of desertification. Since the product fell short of its promised performance, it was quickly abandoned in favor of the traditional stove, which thus compromised the original goal. The technical performance of the stoves was, in fact, overestimated. Under laboratory conditions, the stoves had achieved wood savings of between 30 and 40%. But various surveys found that under real-life conditions the savings barely exceeded 12%. Even if the difference seems to come from poor stove use, this shortcoming can be blamed on the architects of the projects, who failed to take these data sufficiently into account. Since desertification control is an abstract concept for most of the local people, the limited economic and financial advantages gained from the use of improved stoves combined with virtually stable wood prices all resulted in the present situation, which is characterized by disillusionment on the part of user countries and disinterest on the part of donors. The purchase of an improved stove is, after all, the first step toward a household changing its cooking habits and a move toward the adoption of modem cooking methods, including the use of alternative energy sources (kerosene and butane). Approaching the problem from a broader angle might be the next logical step in the efforts undertaken so far. By preparing and organizing the country's industrial fabric to meet the needs brought about by economic and social development, it should be possible not only to ensure the sustainability of the actions along the lines of the improved stove program but also to be ready to innovate and evolve toward semi-industrial production at costs that are economically viable. 4.3.2 Substitution policies 4.3.2.1 Policy on butane From independence until 1989-90, butane was used exclusively by expatriates and the very occasional wealthy Niger household. In order to relieve the pressure of urban demand for wood fuels on forest resources, the Regional Butane Program was initiated by the CILSS (Comit6 Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Secheresse au Sahel) with financial assistance from the Commission of the European Communities. Using existing structures to introduce the product and market the equipment, the program's action plan consisted in selling 24,000 portable stoves and increasing butane consumption from 400 to 2,100 tons per year within three years. The donor decided to stop the Regional Butane Program at the end of 1993. By the end of 1992, butane sales were 667 tons and by September 1993 total sales of butane stoves were less than 11,425 units, which cast doubt on the scope of the program in terms of actually reaching its original objectives and the relevance of those objectives within the framework in question (desertification control). Ouagadougou, Brina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 69 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings Although the stoves were subsidized by almost 50% and the subsidy on the fuel was in the region of 17%, butane is still an expensive cooking fuel that is unaffordable for most people in Niger. The various subsidies have essentially benefitted wealthy households, the expatriate community and certain businesses. The effort has also suffered from an unstable supply attributable to Nigeria's unreliable and inadequate production. The donor's withdrawal caused the Goverronent some difficulties and brought it face to face with a thorny problem that was made only worse by the persistent economic crisis and the very recent devaluation: whether it should continue to subsidize butane at a cost that would total CFAF 200 million (after devaluation) or whether it should eliminate the subsidy at the risk of losing the benefits of the progress already mnade. The Govermnent finally opted to keep the fuel subsidy but decided to cancel the subsidy on the equipment and to stop the awareness-raising effort. A cross-subsidy on petroleum products would be used. The issue here relates to the appropriateness of granting a subsidy to the wealthy, particularly at a time of economic crisis. It assumes special significance in light of the fact that the impact on forest resources as a result of the additional consumption of 267 tons of butane recorded after two and a half years has been negligible. The country's total consumption (667 tons of butane) is probably the equivalent of the substitution of between 4,000 and 5,000 tons of wood, which is less than 4 % of the amount consumed by the city of Niamey. However, this conmmonly used type of estimate is often not borne out in surveys. The findings of a survey conducted in 1993 by the Second Energy Program showed that among the 6.7% of households using LPG, 90% continued to use wood. Their average wood consumption is paradoxically higher than that of households that use wood exclusively with improved stoves. In light of this finding, the survey estimates that butane has probably replaced 1,000 tons of wood at the most. With a budget of CFAF 324 million, and on the assumption that the Butane Program has contributed to an increase in demand in the order of 600 tons over the past three years, it can be estimated that the effort has cost CFAF 540/kg or about CFAF 80/kg of wood substituted (on the theoretical basis of total substitution). Based on the findings of the survey, according to which only 1,000 tons of wood has actually been replaced, compared to a potential 5,000 tons of wood, the cost per klogram of wood substituted would increase to CFAF 385. The Program, however, does not seem to have taken certain key aspects into consideration at the planning stage. Even without the fact that some analysts thought that kerosene would be a less costly solution that would be relatively easier to introduce and thus more viable, it is certainly ambitious to want to more than quintuple consumption in three years. Another important aspect also overlooked by the Program planners is the time generally required for the substitution process and its implementation, which depends on the combination of fuels already being used in the country2 . Even if valid reasons were found to justify the use of butane it would first be necessary to conduct a program extending over a period of ten years at the least and, secondly, to make allowances for the country's level of progress in the area of substitution so as to ensure a viable transition. 4.3.2.2 Policy on kerosene The policy for introducing the widespread use of kerosene is part of the general strategy to reduce pressure on wood resources by encouraging people to use kerosene instead of wood. 2 The elements which were not included in the orginal design are explained by other reasons, which wll be elaborated farther down. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 70 Country Study: NIGER Implementation of this policy was prompted by concerns about the efficiency and relevance of the action and therefore targeted a larger proportion of the urban population, i.e. including the low and middle-income segments. A five-year action plan (1989-94) was drawn up and resulted in the preparation and implementation of a well-thought out and cleverly executed marketing strategy. Special support was given to a local businesses in order to achieve maximum integration of the entire subsector, while taking the realities of Niger's situation into account. The channels for the sale and after-sale service of kerosene stoves are now operational and the large amount of information that has been gathered provides a better understanding of people's reactions and is helpful in overcoming the innumerable obstacles, including certain taboos concerning the quality of meals cooked with kerosene and assimilation of the technology. Stove sales rose to about 9,000 by the end of 1993, which was well below the original target set (the distribution of 80,000 stoves by June 1994). This underscores yet again the need to adopt more realistic and less amnbitious targets that reflect the basic nature of substitution, i.e. that it is a very slow process. The last panel survey conducted in the city of Niamey (1993) and the market studies done in other cities indicate that penetration for kerosene stoves is between 5 and 6% and that 17% of these households use kerosene as their primary cooking fuel. Surveys have also shown that the use of kerosene stoves leads, on average, to wood savings in the order of 21 % (because of the multiple uses of this energy). Savings from the use of butane are only 10%, while the use of improved stoves yields savings of about 12%. In an effort to further bolster these actions and with an eye to making kerosene more comnpetitive with wood, work began in 1992 on a draft decree, the thrust of which was to lower the official price of kerosene from CFAF 105 to CFAF 70 per liter on the basis of a cross subsidy. The decree was not signed until January 1994. It has had little effect because the informal subsector has in the meantime taken over almost the entire market (75%) and formal sector operators have, because of the delay in the issuing of the decree, decided to withdraw from this market niche and have even done away with their storage drums. The situation was further complicated by the devaluation. The price of kerosene went to CFAF 150 - 1603 , whereas the price of wood has remained stable. Other problems have been encountered in connection with the manufacture of the stoves: - the support given to the independent, private operator involved was perceived as assistance that. could continue forever and this resulted in a lack of strictness in managing the businesses and a lack of dynamism in market exploration. An enterprise with solid management foundations would have had a better chance of success; - the deterioration in the economic situation significadtly handicapped equipment sales: 80% of the sales are currently made on interest-free credit, with payment being made in two or three monthly installments; - the frequency with which businesses run out of stock because of the supplier being at a distance has resulted in major capital outlays. 3 The officid price of kerosene is CFAF 135. Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - February21-25,1994 71 AFTPSRPJ?, Workshop II: Proceedings 4.3.2.3 Policy on coal Ever since coal mining operations began, national policy on this fuel has been geared to its use for the production of electric energy for the Arlit uranium mining works. Prompted by the difficulties being experienced by the uranium subsector, studies have been carried out with a view to restructuring the entire subsector and consequently the coal subsector as well. The use of coal for other purposes began toward the end of the 1980s, with the launching of the coal project to explore new deposits in areas with a concentration of socio-economic activities. The goal was to make coal use more widespread in industrial units that showed potential in terms of substituting imported fuel and fuel oil in particular. It was at this same time that the promotion of fuel oil for domestic use first began, with the start of the carbonization project. Despite a lack of support and reticence on the part of the international community following the Rio summit on enviromnental protection, this continues to be a real option in Niger. Niger policy makers see this fuel as an energy source that is available domestically and in plentiful quantities. The recent devaluation of the CFAF has strengthened this conviction. This would seem a good time to focus on this alternative once and for all by conducting detailed socio-economic studies (which are still lacking) and to inform people about the advantages in economic and environmental protection terms of using coal instead of firewood compared to the potential risks associated with the use of coal in Niger's present situation. In conclusion, it now seems, several years after all these projects were launched in all the areas of activity mentioned above, that people have lost sight of the ultimate goal to be achieved through this type of action, which is to manage the energy transition (which is inescapable) in a reasonable manner, without further degrading the country's natural resources, which have been placed in a vulnerable position by various factors within a hostile socio-economic and ecological environment. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Februay2l-25,1994 72 Country Study: The Gambia Country Study 3.4 THE GAMEBIA SUMMARY OF TE DRAFT REPORT PREPARED BY NATIONAL RPTES TEAM February 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaiy 21 - 25, 1994 73 AFTPS Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, BEmina Faso - Februay 21 -25, 1994 74 Country Study: Te Gambia I. GLOBAL CONTEXT 1.1. Physical and Human Geographv 1.1.1. Geography The Gambia is one of the smallest countries in Africa. It occupies a narrow strip of land not exceeding 50 km wide along the banks of the Gambia River. With a total land area of 11,570 km2, the country is bound on three sides by the Republic of Senegal and on the fourth side by the Atlantic Ocean. The Gambia River, which flows from the Futa Jallon mountains of Guinea, is 4.8 km wide at its mouth near Banjul, and is navigable by large vessels as far as Kuntaur, 240 km upstream, and by shallow draught boats as far as Koina. Behind the thick mangrove swamps lining the lower beaches of the river lie the "flats" areas which are completely submerged during the rainy season. 1.1.2. Climate The climate is subtropical, with a hot, wet season from June to October and a cooler, dry season from November to April. Average annual rainfall is about 106.1 cm. Although the precipitation is concentrated during the rainy season, it has become irregular since the Sahelian drought that hit the region in the late 1970s and affected agricultural production in the entire region. The common floods are not destructive. The receding waters leave ferdle alluvium in the swamps where rice is grown. During the dry season, the harmattan blows across the country from the Sahara desert. Temperature varies between 180 C and 320 C along the coast and between 100 C and 400 C inland. 1.1.3. Vegetation The Gambia is located in the wooded savanna vegetation zone, which could further be divided into the more densely wooded Guinea savanna zone in the west and the more open Sudan savanna on the east. Gambian forests comprise the Sudanian woodlands, wooded savanna and bush fallow, mangroves and isolated relics of closed forests in the moister west. Besides the effects of the droughts, most of the forests have been altered by fire, grazing, exploitation for timber and/or fuel, or land clearing for cultivation. About 120 species of trees and shrubs grow in The Gambia. The greatest number of species as well as the densest forest cover are found in the few remaining gallery forests. In order to protect the Gambian forests the Govermnent has moved to protect the remaining forests and the vegetation cover in general by setting aside forest parks. Today there are 66 forest parks wVith a total area of 34,027 hectares, accounting for about 3% of the overall area of the country. However, most areas in these parks are mainly covered with secondary bush savanna. 1.1.4. Demographics According to the 1993 census, The Gambia has 1,025,867 inhabitants. The national population growth rate is estimated at 4.1 % per year. This high growth rate is probably due to the immigration influx from neighboring countries that took place between the two censuses. Given its small size, The Gambia constitutes one of the most densely populated countries in Africa, with 96 people per km2. Due to the rural-urban migration and immigration from neighboring countries, the population in the Greater Banjul Area (GBA) is growing at a very high rate of 7% (over one-third of Gambians live in Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - Februzy 21 - 25, 1994 75 AFTPSPTES Workshop II: Proceedings the GBA). In the rural areas, where land is still allocated .by the village heads under the traditional tenure system, the open communal farming areas that once separated the villages are disappearing. 1.2. Economic Context The Gambia's estimated per capita income of US$380 (1992) makes it one of the poorest countries in the world. Its mineral resources and productive base are limited, and the economy mainly depends on groundnut production as a major source of foreign exchange. About two-thirds of the population is engaged in agriculture (mainly groundnut, millet, sorghum and rice) and livestock, together contributing about 30% to GDP. The principal manufacturing activity is the processing of groundnut and a few other modest, resource-based processing enterprises mostly located in Banjul. Fishing resources remain under exploited and processing is limited to fish smoking and drying. The country depends heavily on imports for about one-third of its food and for all of its modem fuels, capital goods and other manufactured products. Groundnut used to be the leading export product, accounting for 85 % to 90 % of total export earning. Other export products are fish, cotton, palm kemels, fruits and vegetables. Next to agriculture, the most important economic activity is the rapidly growing tourist industry, along with a well-developed commercial sector which facilitates cross border trading with other neighboring countries in the region. The Gambia's small size, undiversified productive base and open trade practices make its economy vulnerable and highly susceptible to agricultural production shortfalls and terms-of-trade shifts. During the 1960s and early 1970s, the economy grew at close to 5% per annum, and the currency remained strong. Since 1975, internal and external factors have combined to slow down the GDP and per capita income growth rates to 1.8% and 1.6% respectively per annum. An important factor contributing to The Gambia's economic decline has been the excessive reliance on a single export commodity (groundnut). When prices for this commodity decreased in recent years The Gambia's trade balance seriously deteriorated. Prospects are good for developing tourism and resource-based manufactures, but attaining significant economic diversification will take many years. To reverse the severely affected economy, in mid-1985 the Gambian Government adopted a comprehensive Economic Recovery Program (ERP) to eliminate exchange-rate and pricing distortions, create incentives for increasing private sector export production and reduce the size and scope of the public sector- to improve its efficiency. The ERP was followed by a Program for Sustained Development (PSD). H. THE ENERGY SECTOR 2.1. Overview The Gambia relies alnost entirely on biomass fuels and imported petroleum products to meet its energy requirements. The energy options are very limited. Because the cost of importing petroleum products constitutes an increasing burden on the country's foreign-exchange reserve, the Govermnent is finding it increasingly difficult to service the Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February21-25,1994 76 Count7y Study: The Gambia growing oil import bill. The problem has worsened in recent years as the declining groundnut production and low international prices have pushed foreign exchange earnings to critically low levels. The net effect is that oil imports, which absorbed only 9% of commodity export earnings in 1974/75, reached 22% of total earnings in 1983, with a peak of 70% in 1980/81. According to the Energy division, in 1991/92 fuel imports amounted to 173.7 million Dalasi and domestic exports only amounted to 104.1 million Dalasi. The country must depend on foreign aid to cover its needs of petroleum products, and as a result, development efforts have been curtailed, especially in the rural areas. Because of the possibility that economically exploitable deposits of petroleum exist in The Gambia, exploration is being actively pursued by the Government. Given the topography of the country, with an elevation of up to 40 meters above sea level, the potential for hydropower generation is minimal. However, according to an OMVG report (1981), sub- regional cooperation could open opportunities for hydroelectricity generated at higher altitudes of the Gambia River basin. There is potential for the utilization of non-conventional energy sources (solar and wind power). However, the limited technical expertise and lack of funds together with the doubtful economic viability has hamnpered the development of these energy sources in the country. Biomass is expected to continue to be the leading energy source in the foreseeable future. 2.2. Ener2v balance The Energy Division of the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Employment (MTIE) is in the process of preparing an energy balance for the country. A draft of that balance was used in the preparation of this report, integrating the findings of the national team regarding the use of kerosene at the household level, use of LPG by the industrial and commercial sectors as well as fuelwood by productive small-scale enterprises. However, the energy balance does not show any use of charcoal, crop residues or groundnut shell which are currently used in the country. According to this balance, Gambian energy consumption for 1991/92 is estimated at 262,710 tons of oil equivalent (TOE). Of that total, 160,060 TOE (61 %) corresponded to fuelwood, used for domestic cooking and heating, 86,900 TOE (33%) to imported petroleum products, and 13,500 TOE (5%) to electricity. About 71% of the petroleum products were used for transport, 15% for thennal power generation by the Gambia Utilities Corporation (GUC)1 , and the remaining 5% for agriculture, industry and commerce. 2.3. Institutional Framework The MTIE is responsible for conventional and renewable energy resources development. The Energy Division of MTIE was created in 1991 to act as the secretariat of the National Energy Council, which is expected to be established, with a mandate to advise the cabinet on energy matters. The Energy Division is primarily in charge of promoting petroleum exploration and monitoring the importation, utilization, distribution and pricing of petroleum products. It is also responsible for formulating energy policy and legislation and ensuring that sectoral objectives are met. Electricity generation is now the responsibility of a private contractor, bhile the Utilities Holding Corporation is charged with the development of the electricity system. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaty 21 - 25, 1994 77 AFTPSRpTES Workshop II. Proceedings Forestry energy programs are administered by the Department of Forestry of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Traditional energy activities, such as the dissemination of improved stoves, are managed by the Department of Community Development of the Ministry of Local Goverments. The Women's Bureau is also involved in group mobilization and the dissemination of improved stoves. While no significant NGO activity was observed in the traditional energy sector during the execution of the country study, it is known that NGO participate in some energy-related activities, such as tree planting by individuals and communities. Petroleum fuels are under the supervision of the Energy Division of the MTIE. However, in practice commercial operations are dominated by three companies: Shell, British Petroleum and - Texaco. The liberalized policies pursued by the Govermnent have encouraged the participation of other private companies, such as Amdalaye Trading and the Utilities Holding Corporation of the Gambia (the successor to the Gambia Utilities Corporation). Shell, however, remains the main importer of petroleum products. Until 1992, The Gambia Utilities Corporation (GUC) was responsible for managing the electricity, water and sewage services in the country. Because of GUC's poor performance and general inability to meet its financial comnmitments, the Government made the decision to lease out the management and operation of the utility services to a private corporation under a lease management contract. The Gambia Renewable Energy Center (GREC) was created as the technical arm of the MTIE responsible for research, development and utilization of alternative energy sources. Without adequate funding, the center is unable to carry out meaningful research work in its areas of activity. 2.4. Availability and reliabilita of energv information Since most of the petroleum products are imported, information on the overall level of consumption is reliable and its breakdown by main users/end-use is fairly easy to undertake. The informal cross-border traffic of LPG and kerosene is considered insignificant. Some local retailers are involved in the importation of LPG and kerosene from Senegal. During field visits, it was observed that LPG prices in villages near the border with Senegal were about 50% of the regular prices paid in the GBA. It was reported that some users travel to villages in Senegal to purchase LPG for their own consumption. Information on traditional energy seems to be more problematic because of the informal nature of the activity. 2.4.1. Demand Woodfuel: Reliable and up-to-date information on woodfuel consumption is scarce. The few surveys undertaken so far provide rather conflicting information. According to various sources the per capita consumption varies from 0.6 to 1.8 kg per day. Estmates, therefore, of the present demand should be used with caution. Projecting biomass consumption is also a challenging task. Not only could the present consumption be off by a factor of three (according to different estimates), but the observed and used population growth rate (4.1 % per year) seems to include an immigrationl factor from neighboring countries. This immigration could be temporary and may even be reversed, which would affect future growth rates and estimation of woodfuel consumption. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 78 Countpy Study: The Gambia Information on woodfuel flows based on Forestry Department records (license, royalties and other statistics) could not be used to estimate commercial woodfuel as it is suspiciously low. Charcoal: Although the production, marketing and consumption of charcoal have been banned in the country since 1980, charcoal remains the leading fuel for ironing a large proportion of the households, as well as for roasting corn and groundnut and food vending operations in streets. Charcoal is essentially used for ironing by households. The average consumption is estimated to be about 22 kg per person per year. However, because the actual number of households using charcoal is not known, it is impossible to give a reliable estimate on the total sector consumption. Similarly, an estimate for food vending activities could not be obtained without a more comprehensive study. It is believed that most of the charcoal traded in The Gambia is imported from the Senegalese Casamance area. Crop Residues: The use of agricultural residues as a source of home energy for cooking is considered negligible. Because of the high density of livestock population and the scarcity of adequate grazing areas, agricultural residues are mainly used as fodder in raising cattle and small ruminants. 2.4.2 Supply * Data on wood supply mainly relies on the findings of the "Evaluation of the National Forest Inventory of the Gambia," prepared by the Gambian-Gernan Forestry Project. The evaluation was conducted based on 1980 aerial photography. Although the above-mentioned study provides all the necessary elements for estimation of biomass production from the different classes of land use in The Gambia, the data it contains is outdated and estimations based on this data would be inaccurate. Furthermore, it is not clear what type of biomass the inventory covered. It was reported that households are also using roots and dead mangroves and other biomass resources picked by hand from the forest floor. It is doubtful that these resources have been included in the forest inventories. * The "Land Use Inventory for the Gambia" prepared by Ralph Ridder in June 1991 in collaboration with the Gambian-German Forestry Project attempted to update the estimation of the area under different classes of land use by using aerial photography and maps from various periods of time. This, however, lacks information on changes in total volume of biomasis and annual productivity for the various land use types. * At present, the Gambian-German Forestry Project is planning the preparation of a new national forest inventory for The Gambia to update existing information. It is important to ensure that the new inventory takes into account biomass resources that could be used as fuel by both urban and rural households. 2.4.3. Balance * A regionalized balance of woodfuel demand/supply for The Gambia depends very much on the quality of the available data. It is clear from the above that the uncertainties mentioned on the Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 79 AFTPSRPUsE Workshop II: Proceedngs demand side and the supply of biomass resources would very much affect the outcome of the balance. A deficit situation could become a surplus one depending on the choice of survey examined. The situation was found to be more complicated as there is evidence that the country receives part of its woodfuel from neighboring Senegal. It was not possible to ascertain the magnitude of this traffic. *Fuelwood is a heavily traded commodity in urban areas. Provincial urban areas usually consume wood from their neighboring forests. However, most of the commercial extraction of fuelwood from the Western and Lower River Divisions is destined for the GBA market. To a lesser extent, fuelwood is also extracted commercially in the Upper River and Mc Carthy Island Divisions. Besides the normal licensing system, in these Divisions there is a scheme put in place by the Forestry Department for licensing local communities for the extraction and marketing of fuelwood on a pilot basis. Under these licenses, local communities are encouraged to participate in forestry management and are authorized to extract fuelwood on a collective basis under the supervision of the Forestry Department. However, no data was available regarding quantities of fuelwood and the number of people involved in extraction under these licenses. . Awaiting for the results of the SDA demand survey and the Gambian-German new forest inventory, the country team chose to use an overall average woodfuel consumption of 1.23 kg/head/day. The total consumption of 462,019 tons per year was then overlaid on sustainable yield as derived from an extrapolation of the 1980 National Forest Inventory. * This resulted in a rather alarming situation showing a large deficit exponentially increasing with time when projected in the future. If confirmed (once the results of the above surveys become available), this would suggest a rapid depletion of the Gambian natural forests. It also is important to note that a deficit was already identified when the 1981 results of the ORGATEC demand survey were compared to the findings of the first National Forest Inventory. mII. TRADITIONAL ENERGY AND ITER-SECTORAL LINKAGES 3.1. nimuortance of the activity * If we consider that most of the wood consumed in urban centers is purchased, this activity could generate as much as D. 100 millions of sales per year. It is believed that part of this money is being transferred abroad to pay for across the border trade of woodfuel.. This is also true for charcoal which is being imported from neighboring countries. * Although sometimes illegal (when done without a license), the fuelwood extraction, transport and marketing is a major employment generating activity especially in rural areas. It is, however, interesting to observe that commercial woodfuel extraction is dominated by Fullas from Guinea. 3.2. Inter-sectora] linkges * Changes in land use are mainly driven by population growth and its increasing needs for food, energy, urban and grazing space, forest products (fencing, roofing and building materials) etc. Uncontrolled bush fires, unsuitable methods of cultivation and climate factors also contribute Ouagadougou,BurlkinaFaso - Febnry21-25,1994 80 Country Study: The Gambia significantly to change in land cover and environmental degradation. Other factors such as tree tenure laws and forest regulations could have a negative impact on natural resources conservation. 3.2.1. Population According to the population census of April 1993, the Gambian population showed a steep and startling increase during the 1983-93 inter-census period. The population annual growth rate went from 3.4% in 1983 census to 4.1 % in 1993. The population of the GBA almost doubled during the same period. For the country as a whole population density went from 64 to 96 persons per square kilometer. * As population grows, settled areas expand into nearby cultivated lands, resulting in the need for clearing of more forest to expand agricultural land, supply the growing fuelwood demand and provide grazing area for livestock. 3.2.2. Agriculture * The area under cultivation has increased from 274,100 hectares in 1980 to 336,000 hectares in 1988, representing an average increase of 7,740 hectares per year. Taking into account the fact that the extension of cultivated lands is usually made into the savanna area, this activity would have generated about 765,000 tons of commercial wood. Closed forests are less often directly converted into agricultural lands. However, as savanmas give way to farms, the use of closed forests for grazing and fuelwood supply (functions previously fulfilled by the savanna) is dramatically increased. As a result, closed forests are eventually converted into savannas. * The low productivity of the current agricultural practices in the country calls for an increase in cultivated land and shortening of the fallow period in order to increase production. As a result, natural soil fertility and harvests are gradually reduced and consequently the income of farmers diminishes. Natural regeneration of biomass in fallow land is also affected. * 3.2.3.Livestock and Grazing * As the population grows, the density of livestock population also increases, resulting in overgrazing. Due to the lack of appropriate pasture, animrals are allowed to graze in -the savannas and forests. As a result they decimate seedlings and saplings, thus curtailing regeneration of tree species. According to CILSS/Club du Sahel (1981), the preferred tree species (Acacia albida and Pterocapus erinaceus) are threatened with extinction (Ridder,1991). During the dry season, shepherds and cattle herders try to make up for the lack of ground forage by felling trees with edible fodder leaves. 3.2.4. Bush Fires * Bush fires are a major contributing factor to the decline of vegetation density in the Gambia. This affects not only forestry development, but other factors such as agriculture, health, livestock, etc. (Danso A, 1992). Since fuelwood production permits allow for the harvesting of dead trees only, it is believed that many of the fires are set deliberately in order to legally harvest firewood. from the dead trees after the fires are extinguished. Another factor is the slash and burn agriculture that entails burning the fields before cultivation. Very often these fires are not properly controlled. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 81 AFTPSRP, Workshop II: Proceedings 3.2.5. Climatic Factors The downward trend in yearly precipitation is verifiable for the entire sahel zone. Furthermore, there has been a decrease in the duration of the rainy season from 5 months just a few years ago to 3-5 month now (Mann,1990). Although the vegetation in the Gambia is well adapted to fluctuation in moisture conditions, there is a limit to the tolerance of drought by most indigenous tree species. Increasing drought mainly affects seedlings and saplings. The dry condition also causes reduced yields from trees. 3.2.6. Forest Management * The Forestry Department has embarked in several programs to provide the necessary management for a sustainable use of forest resources. However, current efforts are affected by a lack of manpower and resources to implement programs and enforce policy regulations. Other problems faced by the department include a lack of support and community participation. This problem could be a consequence of the combination of such factors as the lack of tree ownership by the community and predominance of non-Gambians in the commercial firewood sub-sector. Activities in this sub-sector are dominated by outsiders who may not have a special interest in the preservation of the Gambian resources. * As a direct result of the existing tree tenure policy, people in some communities use destructive methods such as cutting a ring of the bark to stop the flow of zap to the tree or pouring kerosene on the roots. These methods eventually kill the trees within their property. The dead tree can thereafter be used for firewood without legal consequences. 32.7. Socioeconomic Impacts P. Alirol (1983) recorded some socioeconomic factors that are amplifying the pressure being put on the Gambian forest. Among other factors, the decrease in agricultural productivity and its impact on farmers income is resulting in excessive migration from rural to urban centers, increasing commercial woodfuel demand for the urban areas. IV. ENERGY POLICY 4.1. Policy Enviromnent * The Government of The Gambia has made several decisions to provide a policy environment that is conducive to sustainable development. The Banjul Declaration, issued in the 1977, pledged to protect the fauna and flora from further destruction. Some measures were introduced in this period, such as the forestry act and regulations of 1977 and 1978 and the fuelwood exploitation licensing system. The production and marketing of charcoal was banned in 1980. In mid-1985, the Government initiated an Economic Recovery Program (ERP) which set the stage for the reorganization of the energy sector institutions and the partial privatization of the electricity sub- sector. In 1990, the Program for Sustained Development (PSD) was launched to reinforce the ERP policies. The recently launched Gambia Environmental Action Plan (GEAP) was adopted as an integral component of the PSD and is primarily intended to provide a framework for national environmental policy planning and natural resources management. Ouagadougou, Brkia Faso - Feraty 21 -25, 1994 82 County Study: he Gambia * Within this policy framework, inter-fuel substitution programs (mainly the use of LPG) and demand management actions (improved wood-stoves) were developed and are being implemented. 4.2. Investment patterns * It is not an easy task to assess the level of investments supporting the Govermment policy in the field of traditional energy sector over the past decade. The Development Cooperation Report for 1992, published by the UNDP, provides infornation regarding the allocation of donor funding for several development activities, including energy projects funded from 1988 to date. * The analysis of such information confirmed the imbalance of investment distribution among modem and traditional energy sub-sectors. The US$ 33.2 million of direct investments in the power sector during that period was five times higher than investments in programs for fuelwood efficiency/conservation and substitution combined. * The newly prepared GEAP includes indication investments proposals of about US$ 7.5 million for projects that would directly or indirectly benefit the traditional energy sector. However, the GEAP is still under discussion and financing plans are not yet finm. V. REVIEW OF INSTITUTONAL FRAMEWORK POLICIES AND PROGRAMS 5.1. Institutional review * The institutional framnework for the energy sector in The Gambia has been characterized by the participation of several ministries with overlapping functions and difficulties in achieving effective coordination. However, after the 1990 reorganization, all energy matters fell under the responsibility of the MTIE. The Ministry is responsible not only for policy on fuelwood supply and demand management in collaboration with the Department of Forestry of the Ministry of Natural Resources but also for the import policy of petroleum products, which include LPG and kerosene, and for policies dealing with promotion of renewable energy technologies in the country through the GREC. Under the current set-up, MTEE will become the secretariat of the National Energy Commission. A Division of Energy has been created within the Ministry to help coordinate the energy sector organization. * Other departments, offices and institutions are also involved in the traditional energy sector through the implementation of specific projects. Among these are the Department of Community Development (DCD) of the Ministry for Local Government and Lands, which is engaged in disseminating improved wood-stoves; the Departnent of Fisheries which, in collaboration with the DCD and the Women's Bureau and Forestry Department is implementing improved fish-smoking ovens; and The Gambia-German Forestry Project, which is assisting with forestry management, the preparation of national inventories of forest resources, and woodfuel supply management. * Inter-institutional coordination among the active organizations in the sector needs to be reinforced to ensure an adequate flow of information and support. This would optimize the use of the scarce resources available to most of them. It was observed that the level of NGO activities was negligible within the sector, except for very sporadic activities with wood-stoves and tree planting. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 83 AFTPSRPT Workshop II: Proceedngs 5.2. Suplv-oriented actions * The current policies for the traditional energy sector are included in the framework of The Gambia Environmental Action Plan, an integral component of the PSD. 5.2.1. Forest Resource Management * Current legislation on forest resource management is under review at present. According to the Forest Act of 1977/78, the Goverment of The Gambia owns all forest products, including the trees. Any party other than the government can only have the tenure of trees if they are the product of the claimants' labor. Collectors are only allowed to harvest dead trees. As a result of this policy, the population has devised several methods to kill trees without actually felling them. Such activities pose many management problems to the Department of Forestry in the development and management of the natural resource base. As a result, GOTG is now attempting to involve local communities in the management of their own immediate natural resources. * The possibility of allowing special rights over forests and trees to groups and communities is provided for in the Forest Act 1977, whereby the Minister can authorize the creation of forest parks for approved use by a defined class of people or a community. However, further improvements have to be made to specify the rights and obligations of the communities with regards to tree tenure. * The newly prepared GEAP addresses the issue of availability of adequate supplies of energy. The plan considers that the increased use of fuelwood on a non-rational basis causes deforestation, and the use of fossil fuels contribute to atmospheric pollution. Therefore, the GEAP will promote actions to stimulate research and to improve natural resource management. In particular, it intends to promote the introduction of new and renewable sources of energy, energy conservation measures, and woodfuel plantations. * The GEAP does not consider the introduction of policies to address the fuelwood issues from the demand side and rather concentrates on supply issues. Even though the production and promotion of improved cooking stoves program, as carried out by the Department of Community Development, was reported to be successful, its replication has not been considered within the framework of the GEAP because of lack of interest from donors. However, the GOTG is actively promoting a program to encourage inter-fuel substitution among urban dwellers as a way to reduce pressure on natural forests. * Current implementation efforts include the USAID funded Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Project, which covers activities with both governmental institutions and NGOs. The forestry component, including training and changes in forestry resource management and utilization policies, will signify the expansion of community-based forestry management, a step that is already being taken by the Gambian-Gennan Forestry Project pilot schemes. 5.2.2 Charcoal policy * Charcoal was one of the most important sources of energy for domestic use in the Gambia before 1980 and its production and marketing generated important economic activity and employment in rural areas. As a result of the Banjul Declaration of 1977 for the conservation and protection of the Ouagadougou, Burina Faso - Febary 21 - 25, 1994 84 Countby Study: The Gambia natural resources and the environment, the production and the marketing of charcoal was banned in the Gambia in 1980. Although no quantification is available, it is believed that the implementation of the policy to suppress the production and consumption of charcoal had an immediate impact in reducing the volume of the local production. However, the introduction of the policy was not accompanied by appropriate measures to provide alternatives in terms of a suitable fuel and the necessary end use appliances. This generated a gap between supply and demand for charcoal that encouraged illegal local production and informal importation from the neighboring region of Casamance in Senegal. At present, the charcoal business is considered to generate a substantial amount of money of which a significant proportion is transferred abroad to pay for the product. Charcoal will continue to be produced locally (although at a small rate) and/or smuggled into the country from Casamance as long as there is a demand for it at the domestic and micro-enterprise level. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnxaiy 21 - 25, 1994 85 AFTPSRPrES Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnaiy 21 - 25, 1994 86 AFTPSRPrEs Country Study: Senegal Country Study 3.5 SENEGAL SUMMARY OF THE DRAFT REPORT PREPARED BY NATIONAL RPTES TEAM Februay 1994 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 87 AFThSR,E Workshop II. Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 88 Country Study: Senegal 1. GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION 1.1. Geopranhv and climate Senegal covers a total of 196,722 km2. The topography is generally flat, and altitude is less than 50 meters above sea level over 75% of the territory. The country's four main rivers are the Senegal, Saloum, Gambia and Casamance. Senegal has a semi-arid tropical Sudano-Sahelian climate, with a relatively narrow temperature span. Average temperatures range between 200C (November - April) and 350C (May - October). The rainy season is limited to a single sunmner monsoon and rainfall has declined significantly in the last 40 years. It fluctuates widely from one region to another, ranging from 1,000 mi/year in the south to less than 300 mm/year in the north. 1.2. Vegetation and soil Vegetation runs from the bushy steppes in the north to the forest stands in the south and southeast, while the central regions consist of Sudano-Sahelian and Sudano savannah. The rapid expansion of the agricultural frontier, increasing forestry extraction for timber and fuelwood, and the impact of droughts and bush fires have altered the forest landscape in the last 20 years. Senegal's soils are dry and sandy in the north, ferrous in the central regions and lateritic in the south. In general, fertility is very poor and the soil is extremely vulnerable to wind and erosion from rain. 1.3. DemograDh Cs In 1960, Senegal's population was 3 million; in 1976, it had jumped to nearly 5 million, and in 1988, the date of the most recent population census, 6.9 million. Of the total, 39% were living in urban areas and 61 % in the countryside, making Senegal the most highly urbanized country in the Sahel region. In 1993, projections showed a population of nearly 8 million, of which some 3.2 million were urban dwellers. Population density ranged in 1988 from 6 inhabitants/km2 in the Tambacounda region to 2,707 inhabitants/km2 in the Dakar region. National demographic growth is estimated at 2.9% per year (3.8% in the urban areas and 2.1% in the countryside). If current demographic trends remain unchanged, Senegal's population will be some 12.6 million in the year 2010, of which 6.1 million will be urban (48%) and 6.7 million rural (52%). According to this scenario, 3.4 million people would be clustered in the Dakar region alone, which would have a population density of more than 6,000 inhabitants/km2. These figures point to the need for Senegal to review its plans for using its main natural resources. Expansion of the urban areas will in point of fact increase up the concentrated demand for foodstuffs, fuel, timber and other natural goods and services. If the productivity of natural resources does not increase on a sustainable basis, it will be necessary to increase imports of foodstuffs and energy products. 1.6. Institutional and administraive svstem Senegal is a republic presided over a President elected by universal suffrage. The Government is headed by a Prime Minister who is appointed by the President of the Republic. The Government is now focusing on a policy of liberalization and withdrawal of the public sector, heightened responsibility of producers through the development of participatory structures and a regional approach to development based on decentralization and the formulation of integrated regional Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaxy 21-25,1994 89 AFTPSRPS Workshop I: Proceedings development plans (PRDIs). All this notwithstanding, the actual implementation of these policies is slow and the Government is still highly centralized. 1.7. Characteristics and structure of the economv With a per capita GDP of US $720 (according to 1992 estimates), Senegal is at the head of the low-income countries. Nevertheless, since independence in 1960, Senegalese economic development has been stunted by the country's demographic growth, which has increased socioeconomic imbalances. Largely dependent on foreign assistance, Senegal's economy is made up of two interdependent economic spheres, the traditional and modern sectors. The traditional sector is based on the growing of millet and stockraising for domestic consumption and on the production of groundnuts for export. The modem sector, located mainly around Dakar and along the coast, includes fishing, phosphates, chemical industries and tourism. HI. THE ENERGY SECTOR 2.1. The enserg balance The energy sector is divided into two subsectors that coexist with minimum structural or functional linkages: the traditional energy subsector and the "modern" energy subsector. The traditional energy subsector is largely dominated by wood and charcoal, whereas the modem energy subsector includes petroleum fuels and electricity of thermal origin. In terms of final energy, woodfuels account for 57% of total consumption (wood 41% and charcoal 16%), used exclusively by households and for certain artisanal activities, followed by petroleum products (38 % of the balance), used for transport and industry, and then by electricity (less than 5%), used by industry and the residential sector. LPG accounts for only 3 % of total consumption. The share of woodfuels is tending to expand, owing to: (i) changes in the customary practices of households, which are increasingly replacing wood with charcoal, boosting prinary energy consumption owing to transformation losses; (ii) the as-yet small share of LPG in household consumption at the national level and the primacy of cooking fuels; (iii) the slow pace of electrification (below population increase). 2.2. EnerLr resources and potential Senegal has diversified energy resources, but their use is associated with either major environmental risks (wood) or substantial investment outlays for research (hydrocarbons, lignite) and mobilization (hydroelectricity, solar and wind power). Current forestry resources would provide energy to the rural population and a good munber of urban households for meeting basic needs such as cooking. Wood, and especially charcoal, are nevertheless being used at a time of deforestation, which poses major environmental risks. Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso - Februay21-25,1994 90 Country Study: Senegal There is also the relatively significant potential of agricultural residues. This is nevertheless difficult to calculate and it would appear more beneficial to use such residues as fertilizers or cattle feed supplements. Several experiments in the production of biogas and manufacture of briquettes have been carried out, but the work is still at the experimental stage. The presence of fossil fuels, in particular petroleum and natural gas, was discovered in the 1950s and 1960s, in the form of heavy petroleum from the D6me Flore in Casamance (100 million tons) and natural gas and light petroleum reserves discovered at Diam Nadio Kabor near Dakar. These reserves were confirmed by subsequent exploration and production operations: 61,000 barrels of crude and 31 million m3 of natural gas were produced between 1987 and 1992, while in 1991 a new deposit of 400 million m3 of gas was discovered at Diam Nadio. Significant reserves of peat were discovered in the early 1980s along the Dakar coast at St. Louis, in the Niayes zone. The geological reserves are estimated at 39 million m3. The studies conducted on the use of peat for residential purposes showed that 20,000 to 40,000 tons of carbonized peat briquettes could be produced annually over a 20-year period. The hydroelectric potential of the two largest rivers, the Senegal and the Gambia, is 1,000 MW/year, which is considerable given the energy needs of the adjacent countries (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia). The development of the Senegal River under the OMVS should make it possible in the near future to have a source of hydroelectric supply generated by the facilities at the Manantali site. It could provide Senegal with 280 GWhlyear (out of total domestic consumption of some 900 GWh) and would save SENELEC (National Electricity Company) some 150,000 tons of fuel per year of the current consumption of 280,000 tons. Solar energy potential is considerable in Senegal, which has average daily radiation of some 5.4 kWhbm2. Solar energy can thus be used for certain needs, on a competitive basis with the more traditional energy sources, particularly in rural areas, for the production of electricity, discharge of water, production of cooling, heating of water or even the drying of the. products of fishing and agriculture. Wind reserves seem fairly favorable, especially along the coast where wind speeds are between 2 and 5 n/sec. Multiple-pump wind-driven solutions might be possible, but that approach is nevertheless insufficient for the production of electricity by wind-driven generators under satisfactory economic conditions. 2.3. Ener!v infrastructure Energy infrastructure is inadequate at this time. Built many years ago, facilities are often undersized in relation to needs (petroleum infrastructure), obsolete or unproductive (electricity), which seriously jeopardizes the quality of service. 2.4. Institutional framework The choices, directions and coordination of the energy policy are overseen by the National Energy Commission, an inter ministerial entity chaired by the Prime Minister. The National Energy Committee headed by the Minister of Energy implements the directives formulated by the Commission. Several ministries share responsibility for and management of the energy sector, each having its own jurisdiction and responsibilities. Administrative and technical oversight falls to the Ministry of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 91 AFTPSRJ,Es Workshop II Proceedings Energy, Mining, and Industry (MENI), with the exception of the supply of woodfuels, which comes under the Ministry of the Enviromnent and Protection of Nature (NEPN). Despite reorganizations of MENI and NEPN to improve internal coordination, measures have not yet been taken to upgrade the skills of their personnel; current staffing, in particular at the Department of Energy, is still largely insufficient, both regarding the level of personnel and multidisciplinary skills. MENI has oversight for certain parapublic companies or mixed-capital enterprises: SENELEC, in charge of the production, transmission and distribution of energy; SAR (African Refining Company), responsible for the importing and production of petroleum products; GPP (Petroleum Trade Group), responsible for the distribution of petroleum products; PETROSEN (Senegal Petroleum Company), responsible for petroleum exploration; and CTS (Senegal Peat Company), responsible for the development of peat reserves. Other ministries play important roles: the Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Planning; Ministry of Infrastructure and Ground Transportation, responsible for oversight of hydrocarbon transportation; the Ministry of Modernization and Technology and the Ministry of Water Resources, both of which are involved in programs to utilize solar energy; the Ministry of National Education, which has oversight of the CERER (Center for Study and Research on Renewable Energy) and ENSUT (National School for Advanced Studies in Technology). Lastly, the National Committee for Improved Stoves, established in 1987, reports to the Ministry of the Environment. The State remains at the center of Senegal's energy policy. At various times, it is decision maker, mannger, owner of the instruments of production, and consumer. Given the difficulties caused by this position in decision making, the complexity of the State's relations with its partners and the difficulty of efficient coordination of the multitudinous players in the sector, its role should be redefined and its relationship with its partners clarified. It must also strengthen its capacity for formulating strategies and regulating the energy sector, fostering the development of certain subsectors that have overriding social or environmental considerations (domestic fuel, rural electrification) and lastly needs to become involved in education and awareness-raising on topics of national interest (energy savings, substitution, improved stoves). 2.5. Sector financIng The National Energy Fund (FNE) was established in 1980 to finance priority studies and activities in relation to the energy policy as well as to serve as a stabilization or equalization fund for certain products. Set up as a special Treasury account in 1982 (this measure was eliminated in 1991), it is essentially funded through the positive cross subsidy of certain petroleum products. Since its creation, it has helped finance the rebate to the phosphate sector; the negative cross subsidy of certain petroleum products (butane gas) and the deficit in the transport differential column; rural and urban electrification programs and, lastly, other energy projects or studies. However, the National Energy Fund is no longer operating satisfactorily, largely owing to the economic difficulties faced by the Treasury and its mobilization has become difficult. The National Forestry Fund (FFN) seeks to increase financial resources for the implementation of the forest policy. It is funded by forestry revenue (more than half of which comes from the extraction of woodfuels) in accordance with a rebate that was set by decree at 75 % in 1983. There have nevertheless been major difficulties in mobilizing the Fund, which in any event in the past several Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 92 Country Study Senegal years -has been allocated an amount smaller than the expected rebate. It is consequently used primarily for the current operations of the forestry administration. International assistance, in the form of loans or grants, has been the main source of financing for certain subsectors such as electricity, domestic fuels (forestry projects or actions on demand) or renewable energy. There is no particularly appropriate financing system that would promote private investments in rural electrification, industrial-scale peat production or the distribution of improved cooking devices. m. ANALYSIS OF THE DOMESTIC FUEL SECTOR 3.1. Supply and demand 3.1.1 Forestry resources The supply of wood energy is not well known; the data are very old (satellite images from 1980) and occasionally contradictory, owing to problems in estimating the real availability of wood. Forest land was estimated at 12 million ha (60% of the country's area), with variable types of stands: closed and open forest represent 20% of the woodlands and savannah and steppe 80%. Depending on the source and assumptions used, annual total productivity was estimated in 1980 at between 13.4 million m3 (1991 PASF/terroir management studies) and 8.6 million m3 (1981 PDDF), with wide regional variations (concentration in the south and southeast). Availability was estimated in 1980 at 7.3 million m3/year (PDDF) and accessible reserves at 3.1 million m3/year (PAFS, ESMAP). An estimated 80,000 ha of forest stands disappear each year owing to bush fires, the clearing of new land, scarce rainfall, overgrazing and the production of charcoal. The share relative to each of these phenomena is difficult to evaluate, especially since each has a different impact. In the last ten years, an average of 190,000 ha/year was burned throughout the national territory. Although all regions in the country are affected, bush fires are more violent in the south and southeast regions (the most heavily wooded, and where damage is greatest) and in the sylvo-pastoral zone. Losses are difficult to assess, but might be in the neighborhood of the equivalent of 1/10 of the area affected, because most of the areas through which the fires pass are grasslands. Areas felled for the production of charcoal are also not easy to estimate. Under the assumption that 0.1 ha of forest must be cut to produce 1 ton of charcoal (in regions where it is now produced), current deforestation due to the consumption of charcoal would be more than 30,000 ha per year. 3.1.2. The demand for domestic fuel The consumption of domestic fuel in Senegal was estimated in 1992 at 1.5 million tons of wood, 330,000 tons of charcoal (i.e. a total of more than 3.3 million tons of wood or 4.2 million m3), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 93 AFTPSRPrES Workshop II: Proceedings 40,000 tons of butane and some 10,000 tons of kerosene.' An analysis of studies in the sector found that: - the type of demand varies widely depending on the degree of urbanization; wood dominates in the rural areas, gas tends to replace charcoal in Dakar and Thies, while charcoal is the main fuel in the other cities; - the consumption of charcoal is concentrated in the Cap Vert peninsula and in the Thies region, which is home to most of the urban dwellers; - charcoal accounts for 55% of the outake of forest resources. Most of the wood collected by rural dwellers is already dead, whereas charcoal is produced most of the time from the felling of live trees; - gas is used heavily in the cities, although charcoal has not disappeared entirely, because urban consumers tend to use several fuels, often concomitantly; - the consumption of wood energy in the artsanal and industrial sector is very low in relation to the domestic sector; - nO industry consumes wood energy. The African Match Manufacturing Company (CAFAL) uses its own trees plarted in the late 1950s in southern Senegal. 3.1.3. Present and future supply and demand Calculating an equilibrium point in supply and demand is complicated by the imprecision of the base data, in particular with regard to forest resources. This is a serious gap that most likely accounts, at least in part, for the insufficient attention paid to the problem of deforestation in Senegal. According to PDDF data, the current demand for woodfuels is 30% greater than the production available from the forest stands, which means that the forestry resource base has been substantially reduced and is no longer replacing itself at the rate at which it is being utilized. All regions in Senegal, outside of Senegal-Oriental and Casamance, are in a deficit situation. This is confirmed by a look at the location of charcoal production; some 30 years ago, charcoal was produced in the Thies region (80 km from Dakar) and then moved to the Fleuve region owing to the drought and the large amount of dead wood there. Today, charcoal production has shifted to Tambacounda (400 km from Dakar), and Kolda, owing to the scarcity of forestry resources elsewhere. Some studies show that extraction of forestry resources to meet energy needs is outpacing population growth. This is due to changes in the behavior of consumers, who prefer charcoal over wood, which are not fully offset by the nevertheless significant increase in the consumption of butane (about 10%). The latter is used essentially for lighting (sometimes for starting fires) and hence does not compete with others. It will not be taken into account in the rest of the report. Ouagadougou, Burina Faso - Febnhary 21 - 25, 1994 94 Country Study: Senegal 3.2. Subsectors The domestic fuel sector can be divided into two clearly distinguished subsectors: charcoal and wood - itself split into rural self-supply and a commnercial subsector that supplies the cities - and the modem butane subsector, which is now highly developed. 3.2.1. Rural self-supply The gathering of fuelwood is the main means by which the rural dwellers obtain their supplies. The task is most often done by women and children but, in areas where wood is scarce, men help out and carts are also used. Most often, collection is selective; dead wood is preferred and certain species are considered more desirable than others, whereas some are protected or banned outright. In certain areas where forestry resources are scarce, rural families have to purchase at least some of the wood they need. It appears that this phenomenon is on the rise. 3.2.2. The urban commercial wood and charcoal subsector Urban areas are supplied almost exclusively on a commercial basis and charcoal accounts for 90% of the corresponding utilizntion of forest resources. Most charcoal is produced in the Tambacounda region, i.e. at distances of some 400 km from the city of Dakar, which is the main center of consumption. The logging companies, which are the entrepreneurs in the subsector, use "sourghas" for felling and carbonization. The kilns are built the traditional way by piling up the wood and covering it with earth, the yield of which in weight is estimated at between 15 and 20%. The "sourgha" is paid per bag of charcoal produced, but often receives advances in cash and in kind. For the most part foreigners (Peuls from Guinea), participating in an activity that is considered menial, are totally dependent on their bosses. The charcoal is transported to the cities in 15-ton trucks belonging either to the charcoal manufacturers or private transporters who use the charcoal as return freight. At the gateway to the cities, "coxeurs" regulate the inflows of charcoal by directing shipments to retailers. Very frequently, they purchase the load from the manufacturer and then sell it on credit to the retailer. The points of sale, many of which belong to the "coxeurs," are run by retailers who are often Guinean in origin and who are called "diallo kerin." The price of wood is not regulated. In contrast, the price of charc6al'is set at the various stages of its production and sale, but there is little compliance with the regulations. The official price of charcoal is thus CFAF 40 in Dakar, whereas in practice the sellers, adjust the weights and actually sell it at some CFAF 60/kg. This situation is tolerated by the Commerce authorities since the official price has not changed since February 1986, unlike that for most other products. Turnover in the charcoal subsector is estimated at CFAF 20 billion (i.e. one-fourth that of SENELEC), but most of the earnings are reaped by the producers and the "coxeurs", whereas the two ends of the subsector, where most people are involved, receive very little revenue from the activity. The charcoal subsector is thus entirely private, provides a livelihood for a good number of people, but excludes the rural dwellers, who are not involved in production and' who receive no earnings from it. It is a de facto monopoly, held by a small numnber of people, whose strategic, economic and political power is significant and can be brought to bear on government decisions. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaxy 21 - 25, 1994 95 AFTPSRES Workshop II. Proceedngs Lastly, it is efficient, if not rational, to the extent that it satisfies demand at a cost compatible with the budgets of consumers. 3.2.3. The butane subsector The SAR has a monopoly on the supply of petroleum products. Senegal depends exclusively on imports for its supplies of gas, which represent a cost in foreign exchange that nevertheless is negligible in relation to the cost of other petroleum products. Only SAR shareholders have access to its products. Butane is carried by pipeline to the depots of the Shell and Total Gas cornpanies, which package it into bottles of 2.7 kg, 6 kg, 12.5 kg, 32 kg and 38 kg. The containers are then trucked to wholesalers, who may or may not have signed contracts with the companies. The wholesalers then sell to the retailers, which are most often non specialized outfits that have their own means of transportation or use private carriers. The price of butane is determined quarterly by inter ministerial order, for each type of packaging (2.7, 6 and 12.5 kg). It includes a "stabilization' component, which makes it possible to maintain a constant selling price despite fluctuations in the international market. The price structure published by official order is valid for the region of Dakar; in the other regions, Commerce officials add a flat transport fee which increases the selling price by that amount. Since July 1987, butane has been heavily subsidized and its selling price, unchanged since that date, has fallen from CFAF 195/kg to CFAF 120/kg for 'economical" packaging (2.7 kg and 6 kg), i.e. a drop of 40%. Other than in very special circumstances (unusual scarcity of gas, for example), the official selling price to the consumer is fully respected in all cities of the country. The deposit on the gas bottles is CFAP 3,000, which is well below the cost price (about CPAF 6,500). In general, distribution is efficient, even though the economic interests of distributors mean that the product is not regularly distributed in areas remote from the capital city (small market). Private investment is considerable (storage and filling capacity, containers) and is estimated at more than CFAF 10 billion, but distributors seem to have difficulty in keeping up with the rapid growth of the market with regard to the number of containers, which is nevertheless significant (nearly 1 million bottes). Annmal turnover is about CFAF 5 bilion, which is one-fourth of that in the charcoal subsector. 3.3. Institutions and pIlannig In general, the policy and institutional situation in the traditional energy sector is characterized by: - a lag between the formulation of policy and strategies and their actual implementation; - the "dilution" of responsibility in the sector among several administrative entities, each of which manages (and occasionally improperly) but one aspect of the problem and which sometimes have contradictory approaches; - largely inadequate planning, despite the seriousness of the problem of deforestation; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21-25, 1994 96 Country Study: Senegal - measures influenced by powerful lobby groups, interested in short-term returns, and social, political and religious constraints. 3.3.1. Policies and regulation The national energy policy is set forth in the RENES program formulated in 1980 and revised in 1991, and in the document issued by the Inter ministerial Energy Council (1993). Forestry policy, as has been seen, was molded by the Master Forestry Development Plan (1981), which was recently reviewed during the formulation of the Forestry Action Plan (1993). With regard to domestic fuels, the main strategy focuses in those documents are as follows: - the development of natural forests and rationalization of forestry operations through the implementation of a national development and management program and the making of local cormmunities accountable in the management of forestry resources; - the diversification of fuels available to consumers, by developing the use of butane, introducing peat-based charcoal to the market and studying the possibilities for using kerosene for cooking; - savings in consumption (improved stoves) and in the processing of wood into charcoal (better carbonization methods); - a move towards real cost pricing so that the prices reflect the real economic cost. Current forestry legislation is based on the Forestry Code, which was written in 1965 and revised in 1974. According to the Code, the rights to exploit state-owned forest land belong to the State. The commercial extraction of wood products is regulated by a ministerial order that determines the logging season (generally December to August) and the production quotas for each region. The regional quotas are distributed among the forestry operators (logging companies, GIEs (groupments des interets econorniques) and cooperatives that have extraction licenses. Before the 1993 season, the official order also set reserve quotas allocated at the end of the season on the basis of the needs of the urban areas. Based on the quotas, forestry inspection officials delineate the authorized logging areas and assign the felling sites to the companies, which must obtain employee declarations for the "sourghas", logging permits contingent upon the payment of a forestry tax that are required for all operations, and lastly, transport permits that are checked at the control posts on the main highways. Independent of the quotas set by ministerial order, additional quantities of wood or charcoal can be sold. These come from operations at private plantations or seizures made by forestry officials. In practice, the policies have not achieved their objectives owing to a lack or insufficiency of implementation. Work on revising the Forestry Code started several years ago and a new code was adopted only in February 1993. It introduced major changes, including recognition of the rights of the local communities to exploit state-owned forest land and to receive a rebate from the forestry fund. The implementing decrees of that law, which will determine in practice what the new modes of forestry exploitation are, have however not been signed yet. Current forestry regulations, which seem to be Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 97 AFTP*SPTES Workshop II. Proceedings particularly complex, have not achieved their objectives to rationalize operations and control production rigorously. Several main causes are at the root of this phenomenon: - forestry resources are not well known and production quotas are therefore not set and enforced optimally; - the existence of reserve quotas has resulted in the issuance of arbitrary and partial logging permits; - the royalty system, based on quantities produced and not the area exploited, does not encourage operators to produce wood or charcoal optimally; in addition the current level of royalties favors the production of charcoal to the detriment of wood; - the logging operations are carried out by people who hail from elsewhere and whose immediate financial interests take precedence over any environmental considerations; - there are several ways of skirting the regulations and "laundering" output produced under illegal circumstances; - the political and economic power of the operators has an impact on the implementation of regulations in the field. Collection of the baseline data necessary for planning and monitoring has greatly improved in recent years, but is still incomplete and deficient, while data on forestry resources are highly insufficient. The only accurate national data are more than fifteen years old. The vital inventories have been made only in the south of the country and the delays in processing the results mean that they must be updated. Each year the DEFCCS produces an annual report that aggregates the data on forestry controls (production quotas, seizures, transport) at the national level, from monthly and annual regional reports. The work is time-consuming and tedious because there is no set format for presenting the data and the regional analyses are inadequate. Moreover, the large volumes of products that pass through illegal channels render the data non representative. In addition, the DEFCCS monitoring/evaluation office is in the process of setting up a system to monitor the implementation of forestry projects. The price of charcoal, a product that is considered sensitive and strategic, is far from its economic cost. The selling price, set at CFAF 40 since 1986, has not been officially revised since that date, even though the real price has changed. The royalty is also well below the production cost; in point of fact, the cost price for charcoal, based on the cost of a forestry plantation (eucalyptus), is CFAF 75, i.e. seven times the current market value (CFAF 10). The promotion of butane is in all likelihood one of the measures that was implemented with the greatest amount of consistency and success; on the contrary, operations regarding improved stoves received little attention from the authorities. The program to develop peat has been on the back burner for several years, owing to a lack of financing; no research has been undertaken on kerosene. These programs will be analyzed below. Ouagadougou, Buina Faso - Febrmay 21 - 25, 1994 98 Country Study: Senegal 3.3.2. The players In terms of the government, the "official" players in the traditional energy sector are the Department of Water, Forests, Hunting and Soil Conservation (DEFCCS), which is responsible for implementing forestry policy, and the Department of Energy (DE) of the Ministry of Energy, Mining and Industry, which is responsible for implementing energy policy. In actuality, several other entities or authorities carry a great deal of weight. The DEFCCS has the dual - and contradictory - task of protecting and managing national forestry resources and assuring the regular and sufficient supply of woodfuels. It further ensures compliance with forestry regulations and implements forestry development programs. The wood product subsector involves still other public and private players: the National Union of Logging Cooperatives, which has considerable strategic power; the Ministry of Transport and the police, which regulate and control transport; the Ministry of Commerce, which controls prices; and lastly, the Ministry of the Economy and Finance, which has the ultimate decision making power on taxes and prices. Moreover, the management of demand is split among several entities and the Ministry of Energy, which is officially responsible, ultimately has very little authority. As seen above, woodfuels are the sole responsibility of the DEFCCS. There is little coordination of the improved stoves operations and many parties are involved: the DEFCCS, though its forestry projects, Artisanal Departnent, Department of Energy , Ministry of Women, Children and the Family, NGO, etc. The National Improved Stoves Committee (CONAFAS), an inter ministerial body established in 1987 to plan action in that regard, has never truly operated, owing to a lack of involvement of the members and insufficient funding for operations. Energy and forestry policies have become more consistent in recent years and the coordination of activities by the forestry and energy officials has improved. The two departments in question have begun to make a particular effort, which is now bearing fruit, in the establishmnent of a joint monitoring system for a number of indicators regarding domestic fuels, joint action on measures to be proposed and the publication of a periodic bulletin ("Observatoire des Combustibles Domestiques" - The Domestic Fuel Watchdog), which is circulated to all the public and private players. In order to formalize this cooperation and improve the planning and coordination of activities, an inter ministerial order will soon establish a joint domestic fuel unit under the DE and DEFCCS. The operations of that unit will nevertheless initially require external financial and technical support. 3.3.3. Planning and monitoring The DMG (Mining and Geology Department) and the DE receive= data on a monthly basis from distributors on their sales of gas. The keeping of these data up to date is nevertheless deficient; they reflect only national sales and there is no effective monitoring of regional sales, the amount of equipment, economic data, etc. The monitoring of improved stove operations is virtually nonexistent. As part of the "Observatoire" activities, the DE and DEFCCS compile available information and collect their own information, through consumer and subsector surveys, monitoring of prices, and special studies. The information is disseminated in the form of a biannual bulletin. 3.4. Programs Financing of programs in the traditional energy sector has gone mainly to butane (some CFAF 30 billion) and forestry development projects (some CFAF 25 billion in the last ten years, for all Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 99 AFTPSR?T,E Workshop II: Proceedngs projects taken together). Whereas investments in butane have involved the private sector (the Government gets involved by subsidizing the selling price of the fuel), the international donors have been the main source of financing for forestry projects. Improved stoves have received CFAF 600 million. As a whole, less financing has been made available to the traditional fuel sector than to electrification (some CFAF 63 billion). 3.4.1. Dissemination of improved stoves Operations first to develop and then disseminate improved stoves in Senegal began in 1980 under the responsibility of the CERER. Initially a research agency, the CERER developed two main stove models that are good performers and are well accepted by the users. Until 1987, the CERER received substantial funding to promote the two stove models. With the use of mobile teams responsible for organizing demonstraion and training sessions, it is estimated that the CERER disseminated 30,000 Ban ak Suuf stoves in rural areas. In the urban areas, less than 10,000 Sakkanal stoves were sold. Since 1988, very little funding has .been made available for programs to promote improved stoves. Very few dissemination projects are now under way in the rural areas. The forestry programs generally include an improved stove component, which is however typically very limited. In the urban areas, operations are also limited and uncoordinated. The FAC (Fond d'Aide et de Cooperation - France)/ABF (Association bois de feu) Department of Energy program to support the domestic fuel sector (1990-92) has injected new life into the promotion of improved stoves in Dakar since 1990. Lacking significant means of communication, the activities focus on preparing a number of groups of artisans and awareness-raising for groups of women. The program has overseen the production of some 3,500 metal stoves per year. With financing from USAID, an NGO, Appropriate Technology International (ATI), is now carrying out a program to disseminate the Diambar stove in Dakar and Thies. That stove, which consists of a ceramic interior covered in sheet metal, has proven its utility in Central Africa, but has never been tested in Senegal. The stove has nevertheless been disseminated to some extent in Dakar, but still seems highly dependent on external support. The project, launched without consultations with the pertinent entities, faces problems with consistency and coordination of activities, as will be seen below. Some cities also have a number of small-scale improved stove projects on which little information is available, such as ENDA in Ziguinchor. As a whole, for the last several years, very little funding has been made available to programs that disseminate improved stoves. This is due in part to the relative failure or at least the limited impact of previous programs and in part to a lack of coordination and leadership in the sector. It is estimated that, depending on the city, between 5 and 12% of households have improved stoves. Their impact on the consumption of charcoal is therefore extremely low. The main reasons for the very limited penetration of improved stoves are as follows: - the lack of a significant and professional promotional campaign; publicity for the Sakkanal stove must be carried out, as for other consumer products, with sufficient means and modem supports; Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25,1994 100 Country Study Senegal - the relatively low price of charcoal, which limits consumer interest in investing in more expensive equipment than the traditional stove; Dissemination in rural areas, which is based on the self-construction of stoves, runs into several technical, economic and sociocultural constraints: - for the vast majority of women, saving wood is not a priority. The task of wood collection is part of their multiple household duties that also include the pumping of water, preparation of meals, child care, farming and economic activities; - the advantages of the stove, which saves time and labor owing to its manufacture and maintenance requirements, are not sufficient to persuade women to change over to it; - the training and monitoring of women require a project to have very sizable human and logistical resources: trainers, means of travel, equipment, etc. that must be appropriate for the real impact of the operations (savings for a given community, impact on deforestation, improvement in living conditions), which is difficult to assess at this time. The fragmentation of current projects and the lack of coordination in their implementation pose serious risks; each project is being carried out as a self-contained undertaking, without taking into account previous experience; different stove models are offered, sometimes without much rigor in their design or without the necessary prior studies; messages are disseminated hither and thither without any real consistency. Ultimately, the confused consumers are no longer responsive to the multiple solicitations targeted towards them. Lastly, no realistic evaluation can be made at this time. The number of stoves built or sold is in fact an insufficient indicator for judging the impact of a program. Other elements must be taken into account, such as autonomy of the production system, efficiency of the distribution channels, actual use of the stoves and their impact on the consumption of charcoal. 3.4.2. The promotion of butane In 1974, the Government adopted a butanization policy to reduce the consumption of charcoal in the cities, by allowing the introduction of "economical" single-burner gas-fired stoves and granting, depending on the period, subsidies to equipment and prices. Gas sales rose substantially when the authorities decided to lower the price of the fuel by 40% in July 1987. The CILSS (Intestate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel), EDF (European Development Fund) Regional Gas Program (PRG), which was carried out in Senegal from 1990-1993, sought to bolster that policy by providing financial assistance to the distributors and for the purchase of=storage facilities and for promotional and educational activities. The promotion of butane, encouraged by the official price policy since that time and effectively taken over by the private companies, has had visible effects, as the following figures testify: - the increase in national gas sales is some 12% per year for the last five years, i.e. well ahead of population growth; - the rate of acquisition of gas-fired stoves by households is high; i.e. more than 70% of all urban households (85 % in Dakar, 74% in Thies, and 60% in the other cities) and 25 % of rural families, or 45% nationwide; Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - February 21-25,1994 101 AFTPSPT'Es Workshop II: Proceedngs - as the primary cooking fuel for 58% of households in Dakar and 43% of households in Thies, gas has replaced the use of charcoal in those two cities; - butane has a very positive image and the great majority of families would like to use it as their main fuel. The real impact of the use of butane on the consumption of woodfuels is difficult to evaluate. It is estimated that it has at least made it possible to stabilize the consumption of charcoal in the city of Dakar at some 140,000 tons/year, despite an increase in population, and to save for the country as a whole 90,000 tons of charcoal amnually, out of current consumption of some 330,000 tons. These largely positive effects should not however veil certain aspects that limit the impact of butanization: - in most of the country's cities, and even in certain rural areas, consumers are switching from wood to charcoal, which is sharply increasing the consumption of the forestry resource and is not compensated in totality by the wider use of gas; - despite the increasingly frequent use of gas to prepare mneals, there is still - and will always continue to be - relatively significant "residual" consumption of charcoal. This means that efforts to rationalize forestry production will always be necessary; - the system for setting gas prices in the cities to reflect the distance from the capital city. The specific results of the CILSS/EDF program are difficult to evaluate to the extent that butanization was largely begun in Senegal prior to the launching of the PRG. However, while its impact should not be underestimated, the direct effects appear as a whole to have been limited: - the loan to distributors (which was the most important part of the program) ultimately evolved into the making available to them of financial facilities on more favorable conditions than those offered by the banking system. It can be assumed that the outlays in storage facilities would have been mnade in any event since they are critical to the operations of the distributors; - the promotional and publicity activities reached only a limited audience (only several radio and TV publicity spots, several demonstrations in the regions) and the impact of the program was in all likelihood limited by- the promotion resources at the disposal of the distributors. 3.4.3. Development of peat Numerous studies have shown that it is possible to produce carbonized peat briquettes that have similar properties to charcoal briquettes. Moreover, by improving soil fertility, the quality of water and increasing the amount of arable land and the exploitation and rehabilitation of the Niayes peat deposits could foster agricultural, economic and social development in the region. The possible selling price of the peat briquettes was estimated at 60 or 70 francs/kg, depending on the financing conditions that could be accorded, in other words equal to or slightly more than the Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - Februyy21 - 25, 1994 102 Country Study: Senegal current price of charcoal. If the price of charcoal reflected the renewal of the forestry resource, the price gap between the two fuels would disappear and peat would become largely competitive. Project financing was considerably delayed because the Government always opted for the subsidy approach rather than that of a conventional repayable loan. The financing of a pilot production unit seems now to be well on its way. 3.4.4. Improvement of carbonization techniques A program to train charcoal makers in the use of improved kilns (the "Casamance" kiln) was begun in 1980 and has trained more than 7,500 charcoal workers. For a relatively small investment (about CFAF 20,000), the kiln boosts the carbonization yield by 20%. Nevertheless, evaluations have shown that, with few exceptions, the charcoal makers continue to use the traditional techniques. The reasons for this lie firstly in the circumstances in which the "sourgha" works, i.e. very heavy dependence on the logging company, which is not conducive to change and investment. Another cause is a lack of financial incentive for employers, owing to the way in which the forestry royalties are calculated, i.e. based on the quantities produced and not on the areas or volumes extracted. 3.4.5. The forestry projects Many reforestation projects have been carried out in the course of the last decade to increase wood resources. At present, 30 programs are under way. The approach of the projects was long dominated by reforestation on force account. This had only a limited impact given the efforts, particularly owing to the high cost, the difficulty of protecting the forestry stands against over-exploitation and the difficulty of obtaining the vital participation of the local inhabitants. Recent years have seen a gradual shift from reforestation operations on force account to a community approach, which seeks to develop agro-sylvo-pastoral integration. Today, 75% of projects focus on rural forestry. Half of the current projects have aspects related to the training, information and education of consumers. More than 150,000 ha have been replanted since 1970, at a rate that has gradually accelerated until reaching more than 20,000 ha/year since 1985. However, the impact-of the operations over the long run is difficult to measure. Of particular note is the ripple effect of the diversification activities that include the protection of crops, restoration of soil and rehabilitation of the environment. The actions to develop natural forests have, on the contrary, been long neglected and are today few in number. Despite the importance of the progress made, the reforestation rate is still well below that of deforestation and over the short or medium run the new plantations will probably not be able to play a significant role in the supply of charcoal to the cities. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Februaiy21 -25, 1994 103 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II. Proceedings mEl. RECOMMENDATIONS The main thrusts of the action programs seeking to implement the policy in the domestic fuel sector are as follows: - the establishment of an entity and the necessary skills and means to plan, coordinate, monitor and evaluate activities and measures in the sector, through the establishment of a competent multidisciplinary team with the necessary operating means, development of the indicator monitoring system for the sector which exists today and improvement of planning through the formulation and analysis of scenarios for changes in supply and demand; - communications, firstly to promote the various substitution fuels or equipment (improved stoves, gas, peat) that are more rational, and to explain to the consumers the measures taken in the sector (measures regarding prices, the Forestry Code, for example), using the support, inter alia, of groups of women; - the carrying out of regular national forestry inventories with a view to tracking changes in forestry resources and potential; - formulation of national and regional master plans for the supply of wood energy to the major cities (Dakar, Thies, Kaolack, St. Louis and Ziguinchor). The inventories will be based on an evaluation of wood resources, analysis of demand and flows of charcoal and wood, and an analysis of rural dynamics, in conjunction with the rural communities and those involved in charcoal production and marketing; - implementation of the new Forestry Code and master plans through the support of local communities, which would provide educational and other assistance in the establishment of forestry units, training in sound extraction and carbonization techniques and the establishment of credit to facilitate the purchase of tools and the maldng of certain investments in forestry development; - the establishment of a modern and strengthened system for monitoring and controlling forestry exploitation and flows of woodfuels, in order to ensure compliance with the master plans, provide reliable data on a regular basis, increase forestry revenue and ensure the success of the policy for domestic fuel prices; - improved dissemination of butane throughout the country, through the standardization of prices, fmancial support for the construction of decentralized depots and suitable promotion operations; - the design and implementation of an urban improved stoves program supported by the private sector, that would seek to establish autonomous production and distribution networks; - promotion of the industrial production of peat briquettes from the Niayes reserves, for sale on the urban markets. Other urban artisans are tailors (ironing), tie-dyers, pot makers, blacksmiths and jewelry makers. The latter use coal fines. The ovens in bakeries are not permitted to use wood for fuel except Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnuay 21 -25, 1994 104 Country Study: Senegal for those located in rural areas. Consumption by the rural artisans is not known; the manufacture of palm oil and soap tends to be concentrated in the south of the country, whereas fish-smoking uses crop residue and wood. The other factors at play in deforestation and the degradation of forestry stands make the phenomenon one of particular concern. Reforestation efforts today are largely insufficient, as they affect only 20,000 ha per year, i.e. less than the area that disappears each year owing to the production of charcoal. ANNEX 1: NOTE ON THE CFAF DEVALUATION Devaluation of the CFA franc had the irnmediate effect of increasing gas prices by 30%, regardless of the type of packaging. Refilling the 2.7 kg bottle rose from CFAF 325 to 425, whereas the 6 kg bottle went from CFAF 725 to 945. The deposit amount has not yet changed, but will significantly increase in the near future (probably to around CFAF 8,000). The distributors were in point of fact asking for an increase before the devaluation in order to prevent an exodus of bottles to neighboring countries. The imported burners, which cost CFAF 2,150, will probably rise close to 100%, whereas the price of cooking pot supports, which are manufactured locally, should not increase significantly. Overall, the purchase of gas equipment would cost some CFAF 13,000 compared to CFAF 6,000 prior to the devaluation. The adjustment in charcoal prices was negotiated between the authorities (Department of Commerce, Department of Water and Forests, Department of Energy, Ministry of the Economy) and representatives of the logging companies. The new measures could mean a selling price in Dakar of CFAF 90, which would result in forest royalties of CFAF 15/kg (CFAF 750/quintal). It is of course too early to know how consumers will respond to higher prices for basic products and a decrease in their purchasing power. However, it is unlikely that there will be an abrupt reversal in the changes in energy behavior that have been occurring in recent years, which have taken the form of both a shift from wood to charcoal and from woodfuels to butane. In point of fact: (i) the increase in gas prices (30%) will be offset by a virtually simultaneous increase in the price of charcoal. The various scenarios project an increase at least as large as for that of gas; the latter will therefore remain perfectly competitive with regard to charcoal in terms of cost price to- the consumer (at the least in Dakar, Thies and St. Louis); (ii) the increase in the deposit for containers and accessories will certainly have an impact on the acceptance of butane by new consumers, but these are now less numerous than those who are not yet equipped; lastly, the widely recognized advantages of comfort and speed offered by butane over wood and charcoal, will not be readily sacrificed for the former practice. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febray 21 -25, 1994 105 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 106 AFTPSRPTES Special Presentations 4. Summaries of Special Presentations Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnaxy 21 -25, 1994 107 AFTPSRPT Workshop H: Proceedngs Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25, 1994 108 Case Study: CILSS 4.1 TH EXPERIENCE OF CILSS IN THE TRADITIONAL ENERGY SECTOR Bocar Sada Sy, Regional Solar Program Moustapha Yacouba, Ecology & Environment Service INTRODUCTION The creation of CILSS gave the Sahelian goverrmnents an opportunity to resume and intensify their review of several issues of crucial importance for the future of the subregion: efforts to combat the effects of drought, especially desertification; self-sufficiency in food; and how to strike a new ecological balance in the face of the subregion's very rapid population growth. The objectives of CILSS were: - to study the obstacles to achieving food security and improved management of the Sahel's natural resources, as a basis for better defining appropriate strategies and effective policies for sustainable development in the region; - to coordinate, at the subregional level, all studies and programs conducted with a view to overcoming the food, ecological and demographic constraints inhibiting economic growth; - to gather, process and disseminate relevant information so as to inform and sensitize its member states and the international community regarding the ecological and human problems affecting the region's development; - to assist in coordinating the development, research and training policies pursued in order to combat the effects of drought and desertification; - to promote the execution of subregional, inter-state activities intended, on the one hand, to strengthen cooperation among member states and, on the other, to monitor the programs aimed at facilitating regional integration. Throughout its 20 years of existence, the evolution of CILSS has been characterized by a constant search for better ways and means of achieving the objectives set in its original mandate. I. STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING DESERTIFICATION (DC) 1.1 The period 1973-76: emereency assistance Immediately after its formation, CILSS applied itself to dressing the wounds inflicted by the great drought, which brought famine to the people and wiped out more than 25% of the cattle and 13% of the sheep and goats. The support and technical assistance it provided comprised food of aid and projects intended to alleviate the overall situation. The priority thrust during these first three years of the Committee's existence was essentially: Ouagadougou,BuTidnaFaso - February21-25, 1994 109 AFTPSRpfmEs Workshop II: Proceedings - to sensitize the intemational community to the gravity of the situation caused by the years of drought and to promote the establishment and organization of the international aid network. These efforts culminated in the formation of the Sahel Club (Club du Sahel) in 1976, which marked the commitment of several members of the international community, alongside the Sahelian members, to achieving the objectives assigned to CILSS; - to draw the attention of the subregion's decision-makers to the urgency of the situation. This was reflected in the growing confidence placed in CILSS by the Sahelian governments, making the institution a key player in the area of drought control. 1.2 The penod 1976-82: First-eeneration proans or the sectoral approach to DC The first strategy for combating desertification was defined in 1977 by a working group composed of experts of several different nationalities. The strategy adopted is essentially based on a sectoral approach to DC. This approach had the merit of enabling sectoral program balance sheets to be drawn up and of encouraging the Sahelian govermments and the cooperation agencies to invest in DC. In this way, 612 projects costing some US $2.5 billion were undertaken. The reforestation programs, which did not exist before 1976, expanded considerably to reach 1% of the total public development assistance. Similarly, between 1976 and 1984, nearly US $200 million was devoted to village plantations, protection of native forest, energy savings, and other ways of protecting the ecological balance. However, the factors underlying the major disequilibria have now become still more obvious and threatening, thereby highlighting the shortcomnings of the sectoral strategy: - the true dimensions of the gap between the efficiency of the production systems and the growing needs of the populations are now becoming apparent; - population growth is creating growing demand for cultivable land, which means that farm land is becoming increasingly scarce and soils are being impoverished; - migration from countryside to city and from city to metropolis is rapidly increasing. Although the initial aim was to attack the roots of the problems, which are essentially structural in nature, the strategy implemented produced "sectorally uneven and overall unsatisfactory results." Drought was seen as a restricting factor, but desertification was not treated as an obstacle to the development of the Sahel. The following shortcomings were observed: - the commitment of the population remained marginal or nonexistent; - programs remained restricted within sectors, without really becoming an integral part of the production system; - projects were developed within the context of areas that did not coincide with the geographical units of the ecosystems involved in the production systems of the various population groups; Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - February 21-25,1994 110 Case Study: CILSS - institutional options and incentives were influenced by these shortcomings at both subregional and national levels; - similarly, research, training and monitoring focused on ad hoc responses to urgent problems rather than on providing inputs for an overall response to development problems. 1.3 Changes in desertification control and developnent strategies In 1983, more than a decade after CILSS was created, desertification in the Sahel was still a long way from being under control. Despite CILSS's vigorous efforts, the crisis was still there, forcing the realization once and for all that drought is not an episodic phenomenon and that, even assuming it is cyclical, it is not evident that its effects are not irreversible. Various evaluations showed that the second-generation projects were not successful in significantly reversing the pernicious trends. Neither the technical programs nor the regulations which were imnplemented had any positive impact. The countries accordingly decided to adopt a more global and forward-looking approach (Nouakchott, 1984). The changes in the regional desertification control/natural resources management strategy were subsequently drafted and adopted in January 1986 at the 7th Conference of Heads of State in Dakar (Senegal). This strategy is built around six basic elements: - need for greater grass-roots participation, particularly in rural areas; - implementation of an overall, integrated approach; - land development, and management of the common lands ("terroirs"); - strengthening of institutional support and of services, at both subregional and national levels; and drafting of forestry, grazing, land-clearing and fisheries codes suitable for compilation into a Rural Code; - improvements in research, training, and monitoring and evaluation; - improved coordination of foreign aid. In keeping with these new guidelines, national desertification control plans were drawn up and adopted. The programs executed have made it possible to carry out agro-forestry and natural forests development activities in partnership with village communities. Other programs have sprung up from the policies aimed at remedying the subregion's inadequacies and weaknesses in the area of food and in the field of social development. The demographic situation will prompt some countries to define population policies (as distinct from demographic policies). It must nevertheless be stressed that the steadily worsening economic and fiancial conditions are obstacles to the actual implementation of the policies and strategies defined. However much the countries may want to invest in the sustainable management of natural resources, both endogenous factors (poor management, centralization, deficient regulations and legislation, etc.) and exogenous factors (global economic crisis, deteriorating terms of trade, etc.) are inhibiting the subregion's economic and social development. Ouagadougou,BwkinaFaso - February2l-25, 1994 111 AFTPSRPTEs Workshop II: Proceedings II. LAND POLICY AND DECENTRAL1ION After three decades of disastrous state management of natural resources, the governments of the Sahel finally adopted new policies based on the organization of the rural areas so as to promote the transfer of the responsibility of environmental protection, and in particular of the management of natural resources, to the local communities However, it is now recognized that the actual achievement of the goals established by these policies will be only possible after reform of the land and forest regulations reforms and, hence, decentralization of power takes place. Most Sahelian governments have committed themselves to this, albeit using different approaches, but undoubtedly with the same determination. To support this process, CILSS has undertaken to organize a regional conference on land issues and decentralization, which are vital to assure democratic, participatory and decentralized management of natural resources. This conference should lead to the establishment of a regional program with specific national components. It is nevertheless necessary to review the historical background of the laws (statutes and regula- tions) that govern the management of natural resources in the Sahelian countries and their consequences for the protection of the enviromnent. Everyday practice in the exploitation and management of natural resources does not allow a clear distinction to be made between "land law" and "forestry law." In fact, throughout the Sahel, peasants associate trees with fields and with grazing land, and forests with protected land areas. It is also important to emphasize that the current forestry laws and policies governing natural resources management in the Sahelian countries were written from scratch. They are the product of a lengthy evolution that harks back to deep-rooted customs and usages, Moslem dogma, and laws promulgated by colonial powers. 2.1 'Mhe ie-colonial neriod Pre-colonial societies in Africa regarded the earth as sacred, inalienable and inviolable. They saw it as a "fertile mother," serving and nourishing the entire community without discrimination. It is therefore easy to understand how, through their uses and customs, African societies should have established strict (oral) rules governing relationships between all the inhabitants of a region and the earth (including the resources it contained). In most societies the "land master" was responsible for distributing or redistributing the land. In some cases, alongside or in place of the "land master," the "bush master" was responsible for ensuring the bush gods were obeyed. It-wwas he who authorized or supervised the clearing of land in accordance with precise rituals, and he who declared the hunting seasons open, forbade the gathering of wild fruit before it was ripe, to assure the reproduction of the species, and so forth. As a general rule, under the authority of the "land master," the "bush master" or the traditional chief, the right to land (to occupy and cultivate it) was granted to the first occupant and his descendants. Except in the sacred woods, this right of occupation was usually accompanied by the "right to fell" or the "right to burn." Many kdngs or emperors in pre-colonial days had to resort to often draconian measures to safeguard the natural environment. For Sultan Suleeman of Damagaram (present-day Niger) and the lord of the Kingdom of Boal (in present-day Senegal), for example, planting the gao or ccad (Acacia albida) in farming areas was an essential part of the strategy for Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 112 Case Study: CILSS preserving the fertility of the land, while assuring the regular cycle of good harvests and maintaining social stability within the kingdom. Felling the gao in the Kingdom of Boal was punishable by death. Macina (in what is now Mali) unquestionably affords one of the best examples illustrating the desire of some traditional chiefs to ensure sound management of natural resources. The Dma of Sekou Ahmadou (based on Islam), which was instituted in 1827, is a fully-fledged pastoral code governing animal husbandry throughout Macina. It is thus fair to say that, with the arrival of the Arabs from the 10th century onward, Moslem law began to supersede (or infiltrate) traditional rules and customs. In the countries that converted to Islam, Moslem religious dogma began to influence the way in which the people gained access to land (tithing, possibility of acquiring a plot of land after working it for 10 years, possibility for women to inherit land, although Moslem influence was very limited in the latter case, etc.). 2.2. The colonial period The dark era of colonization was to bring about the greatest (and unquestionably the most serious) upheaval ever seen in the land tenure laws and the natural-resource management practices of so-called French West Africa (FWA). Imposing a broad array of decrees, the colonial power declared itself the sole legitimate owner of virtually all land. The first land laws made their appearance in 1904 and they were followed by others that built upon them until as recently as 1956. In the case of forestry, it was the Decree of July 4, 1935, establishing the forestry regulations in FWA, that was to determine what laws would apply in seven colonies. It "proclained" that all vacant and not owned land belonged to the State and defined what areas were classified and protected, as well as violations and the applicable penalties. The first officials of the Waters and Forests authorities set to work establishing the State's forest preserves and strictly enforcing the laws through the forest wardens responsible for repression. In all countries, to permit the creation of the classified forests and protected reserves, the local authorities were dispossessed and stripped of responsibility. Forestry law was subsequently established as a special branch of law carrying criminal penalties. The repressive thrust of the law, undoubtedly its dominant feature, cast the so-called indigenous peoples as predators and pillagers from whom forest guards. The colonial forestry regulations, with their legal but also cultural and ideological reference points, were thus pasted over a Sahelian reality to whose fabric they would forever remain alien. The upshot of "this graft that did not take" is common knowledge. Many classified forests exist in name or on paper only. It proved impossible to preserve the socioecological balance. Nor would the Decree of July 1935 serve to prevent, or reduce the scale of, the ecological and socioeconomic catastrophe that followed the massive land clearing which took place to make room for groundnuts and cotton, or the execution of the mega-project known as the "Office du Niger." In short, the colonial laws undermined the local rules of land management, spumed the legitimacy of customary law, scorned the logic of native land management practices, and upset the traditional capacity for self-regulation and consensus-building. Ouagadougou,rBkinaFaso - Febnry y2l-25,1994 113 AFTPSRPJTES Workshop II: Proceedings 2.3. The postcolonial period At independence, the francophone countries, upon being thrust into the international arena, established institutions and enacted laws and regulations to regulate their community life, manage "the public interest," and guide development. For institutions and legislation alike, the young independent states would draw their inspiration for the most part from the colonial example. In all these countries, so-called modem law would prove to be a replica or derivative of colonial law. The land laws and customary law thus enter into co-existence. As far as forestry policy was concerned, govemment authorities were to give the sector little priority until the first great drought in the post-colonial era. During the first decade following independence, activity for the most part centered around strict protection through repression, a few plantations (basically alignments), and the issue of felling and hunting permits. After the drought of 1968-73, special emphasis was placed on reforestation through the "village planting programs," operation "Green Sahel," the institutionalization of a "Week of the Tree," and the massive programs to plant exotic species, mostly in place of natural stands. With respect to the law and the enforcement of statutes, there were no basic changes. Public lands remained immense, inalienable, imprescriptible, and immune from attachment. The State was still the sole arbiter and the last recourse. Extreme centralization and state land monopolies remained the order of the day. The early 1980s brought far-reaching shifts that were to produce significant changes on both political and legislative fronts. In terms of natural-resource management, CILSS's inventory of ecology/forestry programs reveals inadequacies that had much more to do with approaches than with methods. This prompted the States to revise the regional drought-control and development strategy m favor of a more comprehensive and forward-looking approach that restored man as the prime mover behind development. In the final analysis, the main obstacle lies in the virtually irreconcilable conflict between two systems: that of codes or the State, a centralizing force that has the effect of imposing a societal development model built around imported legal concepts and mechanisms, and that of the so-called traditional societies, which are pluralistic and diversified, and which operate on the basis of time- honored local customary laws that have evolved from ancestral practices and lore and have been adapted to suit the kinds of society which the peoples concerned wish to have. Following these recommendations, the traditional energy component was built into CILSS's activities. When it comes to forest production, the bottom line of authoritarian regulation is very often that those living in rural areas lose their cultural bearings as far as natural resources are concerned. On the negative side, the dislocation of customary authority figures has been seen to result in new management rules and behaviors that lead to over exploitation and degradation of fuelwood resources (cutting permits are awarded to new social categories that pay little heed to ecological equilibrium). Foremost among positive developments are the efforts being made to train, supervise and sensitize the population with respect to the true nature of trees and forests. Trees are no longer regarded simply as gifts from god. Like other natural resources, they are cultivated and not merely harvested. Ouagadougou, Buidna Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 114 Case Study: CILSS m. THE ENERGY COMPONENT IN CILSS's ACTION PROGRAM We turn now to the role of energy in general, and traditional forms of energy in particular, in the process of CILSS's evolution. At the preparatory meeting of the CILSS-Sahel Club Conference (Ottawa, 1976) it was recom- mended for the first time that improved stoves be introduced as an additional way to promote DC. This recommendation was adopted by the 1977 Conference, at which the topic of improved stoves (in conjunction with the issue of women in the Sahel) was recognized as a problem calling for political action at the national, regional and international level. The same meeting in Ottawa also called for a study on "Energy in the Development Strategy of the Sahel." At the time this study was launched in 1978, no Sahelian country had yet introduced an energy policy, and all of them appeared to underestimate the importance of the energy problems that they were going to confront in the near future. Accordingly, the objectives of the study were as follows: - to make officials in Sahelian countries, as well as in the agencies belonging to the Sahel Club, aware of the energy problems that were likely to seriously curtail the region's development; - to make all parties concerned aware of the need to draw up an energy policy for each Sahelian country; - to show that effective means of action exist, especially if there is political will and the right decisions are taken; - to give top priority to the problem of fuelwood, which plays and will continue to play a fundamental role in the energy balance of the Sahelian countries. Following a detailed analysis of energy problems in the countries of the Sahel, the study brought out the importance of fuelwood and the primary role it plays. Starting from the premise that obtaining supplies of fuelwood would have catastrophic implications if the Sahelian governments did not act quickly, the report presented the following recommendations and findings: - to act on the demand side: the key was to reduce demand for fuelwood very substantially through widespread use of improved stoves in the Sahel; - to act on the supply side: by expanding the supply of fuelwood through massive reforestation programs (the target was set at 150,000 ha per year); - charcoal would continue to be an important fuel, greatly valued by consumers, and everything should be done to ensure that it was manufactured more efficiently through improvements (of about 10% to 20%) in the conversion rate. However, charcoal was not an approach to be developed on a broad scale; - kerosene and butane were too expensive for the conmmunity to afford; Ouagadougou, Bukina Faso - Februayy21 - 25, 1994 115 AFTPSRPT Workshop II. Proceedngs Finally, from the institutional standpoint, the study made the recommendations listed below: - establishment of a technical resource: the proposal was to assemble teams of experts who could support government authorities in preparing energy policies; - creation of a "Sahelian agency for energy savings and energy resource development"; - at the national level, the study recommended that each country set up a body, attached to the highest level of government, that would be tasked with designing and implementing national energy policies; - at the regional level, the study recommended that CILSS's Inter-ministerial Council be the designated agency to coordinate the different national energy policies and act as a catalyst for preparing and implementing a genuine regional energy policy; - these national and regional institutions could rely for support on the Sahelian agency mentioned earlier. In the initial phase, this effort essentially involved programs aimed at influencing demand for traditional energy sources through implementation of a program to promote the broad use of improved stoves; more recently, it was broadened to expand the use of butane gas. The main objective is to ensure that the people's energy needs are met without impairing the forest stocks and at the same time assuring economic and social development within the countries. Programs to develop the supply of woodfuels were already part of the reforestation efforts. IV. REGIONAL PROJECTS IN THE FED OF TRADMONAL ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR SUBSTITUTE 4.1. Reeional imRroved stoves Rm (198146) During the initial phase from 1981 to 1986, the objectives set for the improved stoves (IS) program were: - to sensitize political decision-makers in the Sahel and donor countries; - to encourage individual governments to establish "national coordinating structures capable of assuming responsibility for executing the project; - to identify and support national institutions and NGOs capable of serving as a vehicle for the improved stoves and promoting their widespread use; - to create a framework for coordination among the national teams in the Sahelian countries; - to protect the environment by spreading and promoting technologies that could save on the amount of fuelwood used; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Feby 21 -25, 1994 116 Case Study: CILSS - to improve the living conditions of women in the Sahel. On the institutional front, CILSS was authorized to submit to UNDP, on behalf of its member governments, requests for assistance in areas within its jurisdiction, to sign all project documents on their behalf, and to assume the counterpart obligations under the terms of the agreement which each government had concluded with UNDP. Apart from CILSS, which was responsible for regional coordination, a number of other players were associated with the program, namely: - national improved stoves committees (CONAFA), which provide coordination within countries; - rural and urban families, who form the target population groups; - artisans: these are craftsmen capable of making and distributing stoves independently provided it was a profitable line of business; - national institutions: government services collectively (agriculture, forestry, livestock, etc.); - independent, integrated development projects; - rural extension services; - vocational training centers; - socio-professional organizations, as well as associations of young people and women. Substantial resources were mobilized to carry out the improved stoves program. At the regional level, the cost of the initial phase amounted to more than US $2 million, which essentially covered activities related to institutional support, the mechanics of regional coordination, training and information exchange sessions, and technical assistance. In the individual countries, the amounts spent are hard to estimate owing to the variety of lenders and other parties, and no reliable figure can therefore be given. 4.2 Resional butane was uro2ram It was at Praia in 1986 that the National Directors of the European Development Funds (EDF) for the countries of the Sahel decided that 60% of the regional allocations of the VIth EDF earmarked for Sahelian Africa should be devoted to desertification control. Following this decision, CILSS initiated the Regional Butane Gas Program (RGP), which was launched in 1989. It has been demonstrated that in rural areas wood gathering for energy purposes is not a decisive factor in deforestation. Efforts to reduce wood consumption in rural settings will therefore do relatively little to curb enviromnental degradation. In the cities, on the other hand, the consumption of wood and charcoal creates substantial pressure on forest resources and contributes significantly to the deforestation process. Curbing urban consumption was therefore seen as a viable way to alleviate the Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 117 AFTPS Workshop II: Proceedngs main causes of deforestation. Substitution of traditional energy sources was considered an effective approach and was thus recommended for urban areas. The regional program for promoting the use of butane gas is part and parcel of this approach. Regional coordination of the program is provided by CILSS's Executive Secretariat. Within each country, the program is directed by a national Coordinator. Its governing body is a Steering Committee, made up of CILSS (RGC) and the individual countries (NGCs), which meets annually to set policy directions. The program covers the nine members of CILSS: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and The Gambia. Countries like Cape Verde and Mauritania have virtually no wood resources left, while Niger, Senegal and The Gambia will no longer be able to be self-sufficient in wood on a sustainable basis. Burkina, Chad, Guinea-Bissau and Mali, on the other hand, still have substantial resources. Apart from CILSS, the regional coordinator, and the NGCs, who arrange coordination at the national level, other parties have become partners in the program's efforts. Foremost among them are: - the urban population groups, especially the housewives who constitute the target group; - oil companies: these are, in particular, the gas dealers, who are interested in promoting the emergence of a domestic market and in encouraging private operators in the sector to invest; - artisans: that is, local craftsmen who can manufacture stands for cooking pots (small metal frames). The RGP's main objective is to ensure that the use of butane gas as an alternative to fuelwood is promoted in urban centers throughout the Sahel. The aim is to create a climate that favors the introduction of butane among middle-income levels in the major cities. This entails offering a range of equipment that is suited to local cooking habits and that people can afford to buy and use, as well as informing and sensitizing the target groups. In quantitative terms, the targets of the program were to raise consumption from 27,000 tons in 1987 to 66,000 tons in 1992, or, put another way, to increase the number of households using butane from 232,000 in 1987 to 403,000 in 1992. The cost of the project was estimated at ECU 8,260 million, including 1.2 million for regional coordination, over a three-year period. For the individual countries, this financing was intended to cover national coordination arrangements and to establish a gas fund which was to be used to pre- finance, in the form of loans, the oil companies' investments in depots and equipment. Repayments on these loans were expected to replenish the gas fund. V. EVALUATION OF CILSS's ACTIVIIES 5.1. Relevance of CILSS's approach It is obvious that the goals of DC can never be fully achieved if the energy aspect of firewood is overlooked or disregarded, which is why the choice of the IS issue fits in with CILSS's objectives. It is also fair to say that, when it comes to implementing overall strategies as applied to household energy sources, substitution is regarded as a supplementary aid. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 118 Case Study: CILSS However, considering the broad range of recommendations made in the study "Energy in the Development Strategy of the Sahel," it is tempting to say that the fact that only the IS component was adopted is like "tackling a molehill rather than the mountain." It would in fact have been more relevant to opt for the establishment of a permanent, regional, "HOUSEHOLD ENERGY" body (the study did recommend a Sahelian household energy agency). Such an option would have enabled CILSS's efforts to fit into a long-term process and would have encouraged the emergence of Sahelian expertise in the traditional energy sector. In the absence of such an agency, its programs have been conducted in an essentially sectoral context characterized solely by energy-related concerns, leaving one key question unanswered: should the "fuelwood" issue be approached from the energy angle or simply as an ecological and environ- mental concern? An overall approach to the issue of household energy sources would have meant implementing a substitution component simultaneously with the IS Program from the outset, which would certainly have averted the suspension of the IS Program and prevented a butane gas program from being launched so much later in terms of "time and place." 5.2. Impact on wood-based fuels There are no reliable data for estimating the true impact of the Improved Stoves Program on woodfuels. It is generally reckoned that the rate of reduction in fuelwood gathering due to the use of IS is barely sufficient to offset the increase in consumption due to the population growth among the inhabitants of the Sahel. Moreover, the results are hard to quantify because there are many other factors (clearing, brushwood, etc.) that contribute significantly to the deforestation process and thereby limit the impact of more economical use of fuelwood. This can be remedied only by exhaustive and carefully targeted evaluations, backed up by energy balance sheets for the Sahelian countries. It must, however, be pointed out that the IS Program has succeeded in sensitizing political decision-makers to fuelwood issues. In 1979, when the improved stoves program was launched, few national or international officials regarded them as priority topics. In this respect, it can safely be said that the goal of consciousness-raising has for the most part been achieved. The RGP is less obviously relevant to countries like Chad, Guinea-Bissau and Mali, where improved management of existing forest resources might have been a more appropriate alternative. Other substitution alternatives, such as kerosene, could have been examined for such countries as Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad. For Cape Verde, Mauritania and Senegal, the accent could have been placed on what might have been done to ensure that the existing momentum toward substitution was maintained. A recent evaluation of the RGP contained the following highlights: - the RGP was successful in introducing gas in Chad, Mali and Niger; - the sharp increase (31%) in gas consumption recorded in The Gambia was not due to the RGP; - equipment sales reached only 35 % of target levels. Ouagadougou, Bkina Faso - February 21-25,1994 119 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings The life span of the RGP failed to allow for the fact that substitution is a slow and gradual process that passes through several phases. There are two phases, for example, when butane gas is introduced. An equipment phase, during which the fuel being introduced is used alongside charcoal or fuelwood (with the modem fuel being used to make up shortfalls). During this phase, consumption of traditional energy remains unaffected. This is followed by a substitution phase, which is seldom total but remains partial for an extended period. In the case of Senegal, for instance, savings in terms of woodfuels were estimated at about.20-30% over the first 10 years. Quantitatively, the impact on consumption of woodfuels remains modest. Considering that a ton of gas can save 1.5 tons of charcoal (or 9 tons of wood if charcoal is not used), estimates (by the year 1995) range from about 50,000 tons of wood and 50,000 tons of charcoal, equivalent to a reduction of 350,000 tons in wood gathering compared with current trends in the Sahel. These trends mask disparities. This impact scenario will in fact apply mainly to CILSS's coastal members, whereas the impact on the other countries will be very marginal (for example: 3,000 tons of wood substituted in Niger in 1995 represents about 2% of the consumption in Niamey alone in 1990). The RGP has done little of substance to alter the competition between gas and woodfuels, with the result that gas is still always the most expensive fuel. In spite of everything, however, the use of gas remains an important element and one that should not be dropped from the arsenal of programs to be carried out in the Sahel. In any case, it represents a more or less logical transition from charcoal. 5.3. Limiting factors The growing volume of regional projects is causing serious communications and management problems among the various partners, which is hampering sound project operation. The impact of any failure in regional coordination will be magnified at the national level. At the time the IS projects were started, for instance, scattered programs had already been initiated in the different countries by the NGOs, which made any coordination difficult. There were other problems that also affected project execution. Foremost among these were the cumbersomeness of administrative procedures and the lack of high-level expertise in the Sahel capable of drawing up or implementing household energy strategies (especially dunng the period when the first IS programs were launched in 1981). With -respect to the RGP, one can only regret the fact that women did not in fact rally more strongly around efforts to expand the program, and the lack of strong involvement on the part of private operators (importers and merchants) in the Sahel. The oil companies! involvement was less than open (breakdowns in the supply of gas and bottles in spite of the support they were given), and no independent artisanal activity really took off in the area of gas burner fabrication. It should also be noted that, in the field of traditional energy sources, a project life of 3 or 4 years is very short if any meaningful results are to be achieved. Efforts to curb deforestation need to form part of a long-term framework. Ouagadougou, Buria Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 120 Case Study: CILSS CONCLUSION In conclusion, whatever the failures, it is felt that the sum total of experience gained at the regional level should be put to good use. We think, in particular, that the RPTES SHOULD BACK THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A REGIONAL AGENCY FOR "TRADITIONAL ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR SUBSTITUTES" TO SUPPORT AND MONITOR THE PROJECTS THAT ARE CARRIED OUT IN THE INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES". A regional body of this kind should serve as a catalyst to maintain the momentum created by the RPTES framework. Regional integration will be pointless if we shy away from concrete programs and restrict ourselves only to abstract theory. Ouagadougou, BurkinaFaso - Febnry 21 - 25, 1994 121 AFTPS~ RPT Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 122 Case Study: Burkina Faso 4.2 BURKINA FASO: OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS TO ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND WOOD PRODUCTION (Summary) Kimse Ouedraogo, National Project Director INTRODUCTION In 1981, the Government of Burkina Faso, as part of its action to control desertification and ensure efficient coverage of the forest product needs of Burkina's rural and urban populations, drew up a National Classified Forests Management Program (Progranmne National d'Amenagement des Forets Classees); in 1989 this became the National Natural Forests Management Program (Programme National dAmenagement des Fore^ts Naturelles). To implement this program the Government launched a number of pilot projects. These included the Project for Management and Exploitation of Natural Forests for Fuelwood Supply of the City of Ouagadougou, 1986-90 (Projet Am6nagement et Exploitatzon des Fore^ts Naturelles pour I'Approvisionnement de la Ville de Ouagadougou en Bois de Feu), UNDP/FAO/BKF/85/01 1; in 1990 this became the Project of Managed Development of Natural Forests for Environmental Protection and Wood Production (Projet Amnznagement des Forets Naturelles pour la Sauvegarde de l'Environnement et la Production de Bois)- UNDPIFAO/BKF/89/011. This project, which is at the end of phase 2, is being implemented under the jurisdiction of the Directorate General of the Enviromnent. It is being financed by UNDP and executed by FAO. Other donors have contributed to its implementation: the EC Commission, through the Rural Development Program in Sissili (sixth EDF), and the Government of Italy, through the Regional Forests and Food Security in Sahelian Africa Project, GCPIRAF/276/ITA. The purpose of the present document is to present the experience gained under the project with respect to sustainable management of forest resources. I. PROJECT OBJECTIVES The Natural Forests Management Project has three operational objectives: 1) to- place 65,000 hectares of natural forest in the "Ouagadougou region" under management with the true and effective participation of the forest-area populations; 2) to support the stepping up of food production in the forest-area villages and the development of in-forest grazing; 3) to draw up a management master plan designed to conserve 260,000 ha of natural forest within a radius of 150 km around the city of Ouagadougou and ensure supply of the rural and urban populations with forest products. Ouagadougou,BurinaFaso - Febnaimy21 -25, 1994 123 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings II. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AREA The project implementation area is the "Ouagadougou region." It covers a total of 5.8 million ha and comprises all or part of 15 provinces. It is characterized by great diversity, which has led to its subdivision into three major subregions. The South Subregeon: This is the southernmost part of the region. It comprises the province of Sissili and Nahouri and the southern part of Boulgou. It is characterized by: - low population density (15 inhabitants/km2); it is however classified as a migrant receiving area (7.5 percent between 1975 and 1985); - average rainfall of the order of 1000 mm and substantial forest resources. The Center Subregion: This comprises the provinces of Bazega, Boulougou, Zoundweogo, Boullciemd and Ganzourgou. It is characterized by: - heavy human pressure which has led to the disappearance of the forest stands to make way for food crops; - average rainfall of 900-1000 mm; - consequently, limited forest resources. It is in this subregion that the forests now under management are located: Nazinon, Cassou, Bougnounou-Nebielianayou, Nakamb6-Sud. The North Subresion: This covers the provinces of Oubritenga and Passor6 and the southern parts of Sanmatenga and Namentenga. It is characterized by: - high population density (65/an); - rainfall of the order of 800 mm and highly degraded natural resources. m. IMPLEMENTATION METHOD The project implementation methodology integrates the PANE, PNGT and PNAFN guidelines, especially as regards the need to take account of the demands of enviromnental conservation and the whole range of rural conmmnity needs in formulating and implementing development projects. The operational approach adopted by the project comprises two phases, executed consecutively: establishment of the forest management process, and ongoing (i.e. day-to-day) forest management. 3.1. Establishment of the Forest Manasement Process This phase encompasses all activities required for the preparation of a management and development plan. These activities are divided into two interdependent components: social, and technical. Ouagadugou, Burkina Faso - Febuary 21-25,1994 124 Case Study: Burkina Faso 3.1.1. Community outreach Following summary identification of the project site, an outreach and consultation campaign is conducted. It concerns all entities or persons in positions of responsibility (administrative, technical, political, traditional, and so on). Its purpose is to arrive at a diagnosis of the local natural resources situation. This consultation provides an opportunity for all members of the community to discuss the issues of greatest concem to them. It also allows useful exchange of information between the conmmunities and the outreach teams. The object of this consultation is to allow the villagers themselves to decide on the measures to be taken to ensure the most efficient possible management of the resources. It generally leads to allocation and earmarking of part of the community lands for forest management and setting up of the necessary management mechanisms. 3.1.2. Demarcation of village lands and forests to be managed The purpose of the operation is to identify the boundaries of the village lands and record them on updated land-use maps. The village authorities, informed of the extent and condition of the forest resources within their lands, then demarcate a farming section (where fields and dwellings are located), land reserves, and a forest section (for forestry and grazing). Any fields and dwellings located within the forest section are transferred to the farming section with the help of the village authorities, which provide the displaced persons with new land, and of the project, which furnishes support for re- establishing the new fields. This demarcation imposes the following duties: - on the village authorities, to respect and ensure respect for these boundaries during at least one cycle; - on the group officials, to comply with all conservation directives contained in the management master plan; - on the administration, to perform monitoring and inspection. 3.1.3 Mapping Mapping takes place at several stages during establishment of the forest management process. Project areas are identified with the aid of satellite images. Interpretation of these images makes it possible to divide a given region into the following zones: "suitable for management and development;" - "suitable for limited management and development;" - "unsuitable for management and development." As the program advances, land-use maps are amplified to show: - the boundaries of village lands; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21- 25, 1994 125 AFTPSRP7S Workshop II: Proceedings - the boundaries of management units; - forest trails and tracks; - plot boundaries. 3.1.4. Training Training is the mechanism by means of which the project ensures that technicians' know-how and responsibilities are transferred to the rural communities involved in the program. Because of the relatively short duration of the project and the large number of people involved, they cannot all be given training. The project has decided to train one villager, who will act as extension agent (moniteur). The extension agent is thus a village technician who has to be designated by his village of origin on the basis of such criteria as age, integrity, availability, personal characteristics, etc. 3.1.5. Organization Villages wishing to participate in the program are asked to form voluntary economic and social groups possessing juridical personality and made up of persons who share common interests. For operational reasons, the various villages involved in the program can join together in management units based on historical criteria, proximity, and so on. The management unit forms the technical base for implementation of the forest management process. The various member units of a given management site join together in a top-level organ called a Federation of Forestry Management Groups (Union des Groupements de Gestion Forestiere). This is responsible for protecting the interests of the members of the various local groups vis-a-vis outside partner groups: administration, technical services, merchants, and so on. 3.1.6. The forest management master plan In addition to socioeconomic and ecologic information about the forest, the management master plan sets forth project management and developmental objectives (its descriptive component), and methods for the execution of project works (its operations component). In contrast, the ongoing or day-to-day management plan is a listing of all scheduled activities and their tempo, period, execution methods and technical standards. 3.1.6.1. Descriptive component The description sets forth the potentials and constraints pertinent to the forest, such as standing volume, flora make-up, types of stands, climatic features, etc. This description is amplified by other factors bearing directly on management and developmental activities: boundaries of the various management units that compose the forest; boundaries, numbers and dates for harvesting dates and/or regeneration of cutting plots; implementation schedule; and production forecasts. Ouagadougou, Burlina Faso - Febmary 21-25,1994 126 Case Study: Bur*ina Faso 3.1.6.2 Operations component This encompasses the following tasks: A) Forest harvesting. This is done each year under two different systems: - As in the other parts of the village lands, gathering dead wood in the forest is an activity carried on by all the members of the group throughout the year. - Felling standing green wood is done every year between January 1 and March 31, exclusively within the designated cutting plots. Felling is selective and must conform to criteria of several kinds-economic, ecologic, traditional-and must ensure that the plots culled have the maximum chance of regeneration. The project has opted for a prudent approach, and clear cutting is not practiced. B) Regeneration by enrichment. This is performed automatically in each plot where culling has taken place. The purpose of this enrichment is to support the natural regeneration and natural seeding that take place on the plot. C) Forest protection. The forest is protected against uncontrolled cutting, overgrazing and brush fires. D) Track and trail maintenance. This is a continuous operation whose purpose is to maintain access to and from the production sites. An inventory of defective main tracks is prepared each year. The Management Board then decides on the maintenance operations to be carried out in light of the available resources. It generally takes 26 to 36 months to set up such a full-scale forest management process. Its completion results in creation of a managed forest site, which can be defined as a technical and administrative entity comprising: - a block of forest land of 20,000-35,000 ha; - management master plan and ongoing management plan; - a Management Board. The cost of the process is estimated at US $40/ha. It is financed by resources external to the forest. 3.2. Ongoinf Forest Managnement The forest management phase follows that of establishing the forest management process. It begins at the moment when the elements listed in the above definition of the managed forest site are in place and functioning. The operational system used is that of shared management exercised by the Forestry Service and the local community, as shown in the following diagram: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 -25, 1994 127 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II. Proceedings Management Board Managed Forest Site Supervisory Unit Technical Unit Forest Management Unit Forest Management Unit Forest Management Unit | ~~~No. 1 llNo.2 llNo... Comf nunity Comm unity |Comm unity Forest Forest |Forest MManagement Management Groups Groups Groups The managed forest site has an annual budget divided into quarterly tranches. The Technical Manager is responsible for drawing up the budget and submitting it to the Management Board and the Regional Director for the Environment and Tourism (Directeur Regional de I'Envronnement et du Tourisme-DRET) during the first week of December each year. The final version of the budget is adopted by the Management Board. It is actually an estimated budget based on production projections and the reserves from the preceding business year, which are equivalent to 10 percent of total receipts over that period. To facilitate planning, supervision and evaluation of site activities, the budget uses a standardized headings and lines structure. The entities authorized to incur and pay for expenditures are the Management Board and the DRET, the latter acting by delegation of the Board. Following adoption of the annual budget, the Management Board authorizes the incurring of expenditures in accordance with the quarterly programmring Payment of the programmed expenditures is the responsibility of the site Technical Manager, acting under the direct jurisdiction of the Chairman of the Management Board or the DRET. Authority to make adjustments to the quarterly programming and the amount of the annual budget rests exclusively with the Management Board. IV. RESULTS AND IMACT Project results are summarized under headings corresponding to the original objectives as they appear in the project documentation. Oagadougoi, Bina Faso - Febuaiy21l-25, 1994 128 Case Study: Burkina Faso 4.1. Establishment of the Forest Management Process As the following table shows, a total of 98,000 ha of forest has been placed under management, and sustainable annual production of 116,000 steres has been achieved. Some 102 village groups have been formed, with an active membership of 5,000. Managed Area Under Annual Forest Number of Number of Mgmnt. Production Sites Villages Groups (ha) (steres) Nazinon 24 26 24,000 24,000 Cassou 25 25 31,000 41,000 Bougnounoul Nebielianayou 30 30 24,000 32,000 South Nakambe 21 21 19,000 19,000 Total 100 102 98,000 116,000 In addition to these achievements, other gains were posted, in the form of: - introduction of a viable restocking technique (by direct seeding); - control over the effects of brush fires through early warning systems; - installation of a social organization able to ensure transparency in the management of both natural and financial resources - introduction of a methodology for duplicating managed forests through replication in other forests within the master plan. 4.2. Assistance to Farming/Herding Production Following an agricultural survey conducted in 1991, a program of training and monitoring of agricultural extension agents (moniteurs) was drawn up with the help of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. Some 102 agents were trained under this program by means of short courses. In addition to the training program drawn up and implemented on behalf of farmers, the forest management plan provides for forestry/grazing activities within the forestry section. This forestry section is the grazing locality par excellence during the rainy season. A series of regulations (cahier de charges) drawn up in consultation with the herders concerned provides specifically for: - plots undergoing regeneration to be left undisturbed for at least two crop years; - ban on camping in the forest; Ougadougou,BurkinaFo - Febnury2l-25,1994 129 AFTPS.PJ. Workshop II. Proceedings - obligation to comply with elementary primary health care rules. 4.3. Ecolo cal and Socioeconomic lmpacts A comprehensive study of the impacts of the project has not yet been done. It is already clear, however, that the project has had positive ecological and socioeconomic impacts in the rural areas targeted. 4.3.1. Ecological imnact Bringing 98,000 ha of natural forest under management has made it possible to protect them and will help to conserve them at least until 2007. This is a major gain in a region with a high land- clearance rate. In addition, in the last two or three years animal and plant species have returned that had completely disappeared from the area or were seriously endangered. 4.3.2. Economic impact The annual production of 120,000 steres of wood makes large sums of money available to the 102 producer groups, which belong to the 100 participating villages. This can be summarized as follows: - CFAF 73.2 million distributed to the members of the producer groups; - CFAF 24 million for community projects benefiting participating villages; - CFAF 60 million redistributed indirectly, in the form of wages for execution of the management plan; - The Public Treasury was able to recoup CFAF 36 million through the project in the form of cutting permit fees. In a rural subsistence economy, this represents a substantial flow of funds. It can therefore be stated that the project has helped to launch a sustainable rural development process. In the project area, the transfer of fumds is reflected in, for example: - purchases of agricultural equipment; - improvements m housing and working conditions; - implementation of community projects (schools, grain banks, community plant, etc). 4.3.3. Social impact The reorganization of rural land use has had significant effects on social life, such as: - re-establishment of the place and role of local traditional authorities; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaiy 21-25,1994 130 Case Study: Burkina Faso - the possibility of positive interactions taking place between the agricultural production techniques practiced by sedentary and migrant farmers; - an almost total end to disputes between farmers and herders; - the creation of inter-village operational entities with the capacity to identify, formulate and execute projects that transcend the former village framework. V. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Difficulties of various kinds were experienced. They include: - technical difficulties due to poor knowledge of local species; - competition from areas not under management; - the legal vacuum caused by the lack of regulations implementing legislated agrarian and land-tenure reforms; - the difficulty of including the opening up access to the natural forests as part of management programs; - the race against the opening of land for agricultural production purposes. VI. OUTLOOK The project outlook falls into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. 6.1. Ouantitative Oulook: This concerns expansion of the areas developed. Phase 3 of the UNDP 1994-98 financing arrangements provided for the financing of an additional 100,000 ha in accordance with the priorities laid down in the general master plan. Under phase 2 of the Sissili PDR, the EC Commission provided for the financing of 70,000 ha in the southwestern part of the province of Sissii. (general master plan priority II). 6.2. Oualitative Outlook: This concerns strengthening the weak links in the implementation of the initial phases. More specifically, it is a matter of: - working in collaboration with specialized institutions to devise a methodology for evaluating the ecological impacts; - continuing the training activities in order to widen the knowledge base; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaiy 21 - 25, 1994 131 AFTPSRPTSM Workshop II. Proceedings - handing the managed forest sites over to permanent entities, under a shared management arrangement; - finding viable solutions to the problem of providing access to existing and future managed forest sites. CONCLUSION The managed forest model instituted by the project, and based on motivated community participation, represents a viable approach to the problem of safeguarding and conserving forests while at the same time ensuring regular wood supply to urban centers. This model is to be developed and extended both in the Ouagadougou region and in another seven areas that face similar problems. Emphasis will also need to be placed, however, on back-up (if not substitute) energy sources in view of the current degraded state of the forests and the discouraging outlook with respect to intensification of farming and herding activities. 1987-1993 Production Fisues at Manaeed Forest Sites (Steres) Site 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Nazinon 700 7,000 33,000 20,000 42,000 70,000 78,000 Bougnounou/ Nebielianayou - - - - 8,000 4,000 16,000 Cassou 28,000 43,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 Nakambe - - 4,000 6,000 1,200 - Total 700 7,000 61,000 67,000 72,000 93,200 114,000 Ouagadougou, Bukina Faso - Februany 21- 25, 1994 132 Case Study: Mali 4.3 MALI: EXPERIENCE IN THE KITA DISTRICT WITH PARTICIPATORY FOREST MANAGEMENT AND EXPLOITATION Kouloutan Coulibaly, National Project Director I. INTRODUCTION Most energy consumed in Mali is obtained from wood. At the present time, harvesting of fuelwood for use in the country's urban areas is largely unregulated and follows a pattern that has led to over-exploitation of woodlands in the closest and/or most accessible peri-urban zones. Under present circumstances, since no reliable statistical data are available on fuelwood producers, the forest areas from which they extract their product, or the volumes of product extracted, there is an obvious need to organize harvesting activities around urban centers, and to do so with the participation of rural communities living in or close to local forested areas. The main error of judgment in the formulation of basic hypotheses has been to assume that rural communities in the Sahel regard deterioration of their environment as an urgent problem. In fact, deterioration is a slow, long-term process viewed with far less concern than problems like clean water, food, medical supplies, etc. One key objective should therefore be to establish priorities and to identify and accurately assess the worth to rural communities of immediate tangible benefits. II. BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT The Kita District Forest Resources Development Program, financed jointly by Norway and UNDP and executed by ILO and Mali's Department of Water and Forest Resources, is a follow-up activity to two earlier projects: - The first, implemented over the period 1981-1986 as part of a labor-intensive public works pilot program, had a forest comnponent focused on rehabilitating classified forests and replanting village woodlands. - The second, carried out between July 1989 and June 1993, focused on the management of five classified forests in the Kayes region (three in the Kita district and two at Bafoulabe). The project strategy in this case was to secure the participation of the local communities in protecting and rehabilitating these forests through better utilization of locally available resources. The current phase, launched in July 1993, is focused on achieving sustainable long-term management of forest resources in the Kita district, creating rural jobs, and improving local income levels. The approach taken is a comprehensive one, involving participatory and contractual arrangements which link local communities and the Forestry Service in the task of rationalizing the exploitation of classified and non-classified forest resources in the district. This is expected to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febroary 21 - 25, 1994 133 AFTPSRJ7 Workshop II: Proceedings contribute to rural development while simultaneously preserving and increasing the productive potential of those forest resources. m. PROJECT OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY It became apparent during the first-phase project that it was neither possible nor advisable to think about forests in isolation from their geographic, economic and social contexts. Protection and rational utilization of forests are impossible without the consent of affected communities, their active participation and their acceptance of responsibility. However, their cooperation cannot be secured unless they obtain specific tangible advantages from the forests. With these lessons in mind, the designers of the current project focused on two essential and inextricably linked factors: improved standards of living in rural communities and achievement of sustainable management of natural resources. It is widely recognized that the poverty and immediate needs of subsistence farming communities are one of the principal causes of destruction of the environment. Hence the need to adopt a strategy that combines economic, social and ecological objectives: - In the economic sphere (short-term): to create jobs and increase revenue in the rural communities targeted. - In the social sphere (medium-term): to improve the action, organization and negotiation abilities of those communities, in the interests of their becoming increasingly responsible for the management of natural resources. - In the ecological IDhere (long-term): to improve the production potential and preservation of natural resources. With these objectives in view, the following strategic options were adopted: - Community participation based on a contractual process and introduction of a participatory model of forest resource management. - The contractual process means not only that local communities take on a degree of responsibility but that partnership relations develop betweefi them and the Forestry Service. The project employs a comprehensive approach based on the concept of the terroir ullageois [i.e. the land - consisting of cultivated/inhabited/wood- collection/grazing/etc. areas - effectively used by a rural community], which takes the links existing between forests and farming and pastoral production systems into consideration. In order to foster the creation of jobs and improve nrual income levels, the project employs a strategy based on: - Forest management programs or simple forest administration plans that identify potential to be exploited and prescribe rehabilitation works. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febuary 21-25,1994 134 Case Study: Mali - Active integrated management of the forestry and forest-products sector in the Kita district, with resulting benefits for rural communities that become parties to fuelwood supply and forest management contracts. - Labor-intensive forest management works executed by conmmunity associations under contractual conditions which provide for remuneration in the form of production equipment (e.g. carts) or inputs. - Building up by the community associations of a Forest Management Fund to provide a source of partial financing for developmental works. - Exploitation of forest products other than fuelwood in conjunction with women's associations. - Promotion of farming activities. In addition to investment activities, the project has provided training arrangements which target relevant groups (e.g. officers and members of community and women's associations, outreach and extension workers, Forestry Service technical personnel, etc.). IV. CONTRACT-BASED PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT The project has promoted the establishment and expansion of community associations. One of their activities is the harvesting and sale of the fuelwood supplies needed by the township of Kita, a type of participation expected to benefit local residents by giving them income from the production of fuelwood and making them aware that the forest can be an inexhaustible source of funds if it is soundly managed. It will also enable them to regain control over the extent of felling operations on their community lands. 4.1 ParticiDatorv management of classified forests The principle that underlies contracts for fuelwood supplies (sustainable yield) and forest management (protection) was tested in the Tinienko classified forest. Contracts entered into by the local branch of the Department of Water and Forest Resources and the villages in the area (organized into associations) authorized them to produce given volumes of fuelwood to be disposed of for their own benefit. In return, they were expected to ensure the protection and rehabilitation of the section of forest affected by their harvesting operations (protection of stumps against fire, selection of stump shoots, preventive burning-off). The contracts were countersigned by the District Administrative Officer. The harvesting system was based on the principle of systematic graded selection (furetage), subject to a limit of 5 steres per hectare (the basis for this figure being an assumed yield of 0.25 stere/ha/year where precipitation is in the 900-1,000 mm range). It must be noted, however, that the rural communities involved in the test came up against a marketing problem because: - they did not control the transport link; Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 -25, 1994 135 AFTPSRzP Workshop II. Proceedings - fuelwood from managed forests was delivered to customers in lots of 1 stere per cart, although the usual capacity of the carts used by town wood merchants was 1.5-2.0 steres; since this volume was selling for the same price, commnunity members saw their sales slump. These two stumbling blocks appeared to indicate a need to organize the fuelwood subsector into rural markets where professional transporters would buy their supplies. However, the latter were opposed to the idea, on the grounds that it would reduce both their profit margins and their control over the subsector. In the interest of the producer communities, project officials then decided to pay for certain types of silvicultural works in kind, using carts and thus strengthening the negotiating position of community members by enabling them to compete in the town market. Currently, transporters are showing less reluctance to buy their fuelwood supplies on the rural markets. 4.2. Suqppvinf rural markets from communitv-manaeed forest stands Forest stands whose management is to be the responsibility of the village communities that profit from them are demarcated by the villages themselves, with technical assistance from the Forestry Service. The management process consists in carrying out simple management activities detailed in a series of "coupons" or vouchers covering a ten-year period (one voucher per year). The community association signs a ("fuelwood supply and forest management") contract with the Forestry Service and pays in advance for its cutting permit (at a rate of CFAF 200/stere, remitted direct to the Treasury). Production consists in using the systematic graded selection method to harvest a given volume of fuelwood not in excess of the capacity of the forest - a method which means commencing with dead wood and moving on to diseased, cankered, and then malformed trees. At the present time, the extraction quota is fixed at 5 steres/ha, but if it cannot be filled from those four categories, the community association can call on the Forestry Service to select and possibly mark other trees. Fuelwood obtained from managed areas (classified forests and community-managed stands) is sold at the rural markets set up as sources of supply for the town of Kita. After a cut has taken place, management activities are carried out. This is mainly a matter of preventive burning-off, selection of shoots (2-3 per stump), etc. It is proposed to ensure that financing for these activities is available at a later date from the Management Fund. Currently, the costs involved are borne by the project. The community association is responsible for preventing grazing in the cut zones already harvested and to protect them against bush fires. V. SUPPLYING KITA TOWNSEHIP WITH FUELWOOD The town of Kita is located in a Sudan-type climate zone some 180 km northwest of Bamako. With a population of 22,000 inhabitants, Kita district, which is rich in fuelwood resources, has a population density of 6 inhabitants/km2. 5.1. Traditional fuelwood suRD&v svstem Kita has traditionally drawn its fuelwood supplies from the rural communities surrounding it within a radius of up to 30 km. Consumption totals approximately 22,000 steres per annum. The production, extraction, transport and selling of fuelwood are all handled by the same individuals. As a rule, cart drivers are employees working for wages. Ouagadougou, Bukina Faso - Febnzy 21-25,1994 136 Case Study: Mali Taxes are collected by issuing cutting pernits (CFAF 200/stere in the case of fuelwood), valid for 15 or 30 days (at a rate of 1 stere/day) and issued by the branches of the Forestry Service. Cutting sites are not assigned and there is no verification of volumes harvested. For lack of the necessary resources, the Forestry Service only rarely carries out inspections, so that there is considerable, well- organized fraud. It is rare to find members of rural communities engaged in the business of producing/transporting/selling fuelwood, and in fact the whole process is in the hands of town- dwellers, who show no concem for rehabilitating or protecting the forest zones from which they draw their supplies. 5.2. Proposed new fuelwood SUDDly system The new system is designed to ensure that the town receives a steady, sustainable supply of fuelwood under ecologically viable conditions. The present lack of structure, not to say anarchy, will be replaced by a system that organizes the three groups in the fuelwood marketing chain - producers (members of rural communities), transporter-retailers, and consumers. The rural producers enter into contracts with the Forestry Service, pay for their cutting permits, cut the wood, and stack it into 1-stere lots. They are issued (free of charge) with transport permits and are expected to keep the rural fuelwood markets supplied. The transporter-retailers (carriers) buy wood on the rural markets are also issued (free of charge), transport permits, on which the following information is included: origin of load, volume of load, date, payment of tax, and contract number. This permit is in triplicate (stub, Forestry Service copy , carrier copy). For carriers, the advantages of the new system are: they can buy wood, pay the tax due on it, and obtain a transport permit in one place and in one operation; - they no longer have to find and cut wood themselves. For the Forestry Service, the advantages of the new system are: - forest resources can be managed better and permanent supplies assured; - product outflow can be controlled better; - cutting sites and their reconstitution can be monitored effectively; - better forest resource planning becomes possible. The new structure also leaves room for wholesalers to emerge and serve as intermediaries between transporters and consumers. In March 1993, after an extensive sensitization effort among professional transporters in the town, the Forestry Service decentralized permits, thus putting an end to the traditional wood supply Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnray2l-25, 1994 137 AFTPSJRJ, Workshop II: Proceedings system. Because a group of transporters who were not prepared to see part of their earning capacity transferred to the rural communities opposed the new arrangements, the Forestry Service found it necessary to let the two systems - one regulated and the other unregulated - exist side by side. The following figures for 1993 show the business breakdown between the two systems: total volume of fuelwood lawfully extracted, 10, 992 steres (regulated system, 7,148 steres; unregulated system, 3,774 steres). An additional 11,078 steres was considered to have been fraudulently extracted, as total estimated consumption in the town was 22,000 steres. As these figures reveal, the rural communities captured 32% of the fuelwood market in one year. However, although the Forestry Service manned checkpoints on the main entry routes into the town, collecting its copy of the transport permit in each case, there was still substantial fraud. 5.3. Obstacles - The legal void in which the new system must exist. - No legislation governing the opening of rural markets. - No legal instrument establishing a Management Fund to serve eventually as a source of funding for some types of forest development activities. - Contracting arrangements so far have been experimental, without always fitting into a recognizable legal category; they are an indication of what will be possible under new forest and forestry legislation. - The refusal of transporters, who are town-based, to buy fuelwood on the rural markets, and the possibility they still have of doing their own, unregulated forest harvesting, but paying the same taxes as are payable under the regulated system. - The key question is whether the spread between the rural-market price and production cost (including permit fees) per stere differs from one zone to another. - One stere, the carrying capacity of the typical cart, is the unit of measurement applied in issuing permits. However, it is actually a false standard, since many carts have a real capacity of 1.5-2.0 steres. This means that a cart load of wood harvested in a managed zone, where 1 cart load is only 1 stere, is brought to market at a-disadvantage. - Forestry Service inspection procedures are not really effective. - The slow pace at which producers carry out their fuelwood harvesting/cutting operations; it may be a sign of mistrust, but it could hinder the flow of supplies to rural markets. - Low work productivity rates among government employees. It may prove necessary for the rural commumities themselves to recruit skilled forestry workers directly. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 138 Case Study: Mali VI. POST-PROJECT PERIOD In order to ensure that the effects of the project will be permanent, and considering how few skilled forestry workers are government employees, thought should be given to ensuring the financial viability of the operation by privatizing it. This would require the rural communities to form groups, each assuming responsibility for one forestry technician (salary + travel expenses) to advise on and oversee the utilization of the forest resources. The cost of retaining a technician's services would be an estimated CFAF 79,000/month (salary, CFAF 61,000; fuel costs, CFAF 18,000). This is equivalent to CFAF 100 per stere sold (assuming 1,900 ha under development and a production rate of 5 steres/ha). This type of privatization based on direct recruitment would also provide a way of absorbing the young forestry-school graduates the Government is in no position to hire. In any case, workers on contract have shown themselves to be more productive than government staff. Establishment of a Management Fund is necessary to provide a way of funding certain types of forest developmental activities. The Govermment is going to have to allocate a proportion of the revenue generated by the collection of taxes to the rural communities to cover these new financing needs. VII. CONCLUSIONS To ensure that Mali's forest resources are utilized rationally, the authorities should: - Entrust responsibility for the management of these resources to rural communities (a move which would also comply with the Decentralization Act). - Put all classified forests under the system of long-term contracting. - Bring the proposed household energy strategy into effect, thereby promoting task specialization and more equitable sharing of revenues generated through the exploitation of forest resources. - Build up a Forest Management Fund (by including a levy for that purpose in the price of wood), to serve eventually as a source of financing for certain forest developmental activities. - Provide an appropriate legal framework for this new method of management. It may be noted that these efforts at concerted management have proved very acceptable to the targeted population groups, which are taking on increasing importance as players in the production and marketing of fuelwood. The members of rural communities are gradually showing a concern with the whole question of forest protection, to the extent that they themselves are formulating and imposing use restrictions, and are no longer prepared to let anyone cut down whatever trees they like wherever they like. The final result of this ILO project will be that the forestry authorities of Kita district received support and advise on how to gain control over a situation of haphazard exploitation and monitoring of the production and transport of fuelwood. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 139 AFTPSJpJ,s Workshop II: Proceedings ANNEX 1 FUELWOOD SUPPLY AND FOREST MANAGEMENT CONTRACT AREA: LOCALITY: Contract No. 1. By this contract, - Association undertakes to provide fuelwood supplies and to participate in forest management, and the Department of Water and Forest Resources undertakes to support the Association in these tasks. 2. This contract specifies the rights and obligations of Association, represented by , and of the Department of Water and Forest Resources, represented by 3. The duration of the contract shall be one year from its date of signature. 4. Rights of_ Association: i. To apply for Department of Water and Forest Resources approval to cut _(OUOTA) of wood. ii. To receive Department of Water and Forest Resources felling and disposal permits. iii. To subcontract performance of this contract to third parties, on the same conditions as specified herein. 5. Obligations of Association: i. To respect the boundaries of cutting sites. ii. To comply with the following forest exploitation standards: iii. To stay within the volume limit (QUOTA) prescribed in this contract. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnrary21-25,1994 140 Case Study: Mali iv. To pay the following forestry tax to the Department of Water and Forestry Resources: _ steres x (amount prescribed in permit) = _ . v. After sale of wood harvested, to pay an amount of steres x _ _ (Forest Management Fund) _ , to cover the costs of the developmental works specified in subparagraph 5(vi) below. vi. To carry out the following management/developmental works: Type of works: Location: Volume: Execution period: vii. To participate in fighting fires in the forest area to which this contract refers. viii. To protect regenerating forest cover at cutting sites by preventing bush fires and prohibiting grazing and farming in these areas. 6. Rights of Department of Water and Forest Resources i. To prescribe the type of product and volume of wood to be harvested by Association in case of a renewal of this contract. ii. To monitor Association's performance of its obligations under this contract. 7. Obligations of Department of Water and Forest Resources i. To set the boundaries of cutting sites. ii. To prescribe the types of development -works that are to be carried out by Association. iii. To respect and enforce respect for the rights of Association. iv. To mark trees from which construction timber will be produced. 8. Any dispute between the parties hereto shall be submitted to the district administrative authorities for their decision. 9. This contract shall not be taken as recognizing that any rights of ownership are vested in Association. 10. This contract may be renewed or amended if both parties are in agreement. Ouagadougou, BurkinaFao - Febniary2l-25, 1994 141 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings GIVEN AT, REPRESENTATIVE OF ASSOCIATION Signatures: LOCAL MANAGER DEPARTMENT OF WATER AND FOREST RESOURCES DISTRICT ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnry 21-25,1994 142 Case Study: Niger 4.4 NIGER: DECENTRALIZED FORESTRY MANAGEENT CASE OF THE TIENTERGOU PLATEAU FOREST STAND (Summary) El hadji Lawali Mahamane, National Project Director INTRODUCTION Wood has always been the primary source of domestic energy in Niger, mainly because of its affordability. The price of wood in the cities is competitive, compared to that of kerosene and butane', which makes Government policy difficult, as it encourages the use of these other two products as fuelwood alternatives. This non-competitiveness of alternative fuels has now been aggravated by the recent devaluation of the CFA franc. Electricity obviously camot be used as domestic energy because of its high cost. The country's annual wood requirements were thus put at about 2 million tons in 19902. Woodcutting used to be done on a free-for-all basis, in the sense that all one had to do in order to take wood into the city was to pay for a woodcutting permit, go to the forest and cut whatever one wanted, how one wanted and whenever one wanted. The non-existence of regulations governing woodcutting, coupled with an entrepreneurial spirit, resulted in excessive pressure on the forest land surrounding the cities and the risk of an eventual and irreversible imbalance of existing ecosystems. Woodcutting was only benefiting the wood traders-transporters who control the entire subsector, from cutting right through to the distribution in the cities. Under these circumstances, the rural populations lacked the interest and the means to control extraction. The Niger Government has therefore carried out projects, including the Second Energy Project, in order to try to reverse this trend. The strategy of the project, known as the Domestic Energy Strategy (Strategie Energie Domestique - SED), has twin objectives: - limiting demand for wood energy and diversifying domestic energy sources in urban areas by substituting other fuels for wood and distributing improved cooking appliances; - more meticulous, rational and controlled management of wood resources, particularly by regulating their extraction. This rationalization of the exploitation and supply of wood energy will be achieved by obtaining the full participation of the rural populations living alongside the forests and by turning responsibility over to them for managing and controlling the exploitation of wood resources in their communities. An ordinance, with force of law, will formally enforce this transfer of responsibility for the management of forest resources belonging to the State (which has a shortage of resources, particularly human resources) to the rural populations. I This products have the risks associated to impouted commodities. 2 of which 133,000 tons are for the city of Niamey alone. Ouagadougou, BuinaFaso - February 21 -25,1994 143 AFTPSIYPTES Workshop II. Proceedings Master supply plans (schemas directeurs d'approvisionnement - SDA) for supplying wood to the cities have been prepared on the basis of a series of appropriate studies.3 These master plans literally serve as forest planming and exploitation tools within a 150-km radius of the cities. They determine priority intervention zones both in terms of exploitation and management. I. VWHY TIENTERGOU? The Tientergou forest stand is situated in the "arrondissement du Say" about 80 km south of Niamey. This stand is therefore in the Niamey catchment area. Say is part of the area known as the "Rive Droite" of the Niger River, which provides 50% of the city of Niamey's water supply. Proper wood extraction in this area is therefore of strategic importance for the project. The stand covers about 30,000 ha. The forest cover is of the tiger or leopard bush type. It is essentially made up of Combretaceae species, the most common being Combretum Nigricans, Combretum Micrantum and Guiera Senegalensis, which also happen to be the very species preferred by Niamey households. Tientergou was therefore selected because it is both potentially exploitable 4 and located in the Niamey catchment area. H. FOREST OPERATIONSIMANAGEMNT 2.1. e The first pilot natural forest management projects that were carried out in Niger almost ten years ago were accompanied by comprehensive studies and mobilized large field teams. Project management was handled by cooperatives made up of several villages bordering on the forest. The forest stands were divided geographically into large management compartment that became the basis for woodcutting rotation and grazing authorization decisions. This meant that the compartments had to be monitored and administrative organization for woodstock management was reqmured. This approach had disappointing results in many instances because the system was incapable of sustaining itself after the project ended. As a means of providing solutions to these problems, the Second Energy Project adopted the so-called "rural market approach." This .approach is based on the villagers making a voluntary choice: villages would have a rural market only if the residents wanted one. The level of intervention therefore became the village community, with each village having its own rural market. This made it possible to take traditional land boundaries into consideration, which are a key factor in Niger's rural communities. Villagers interested in having a rural market organize themselves into a Structure Locale de Gestion - SLG (Local Management Structure - LMS). An office is established for each structure to manage all its activities. The staff of this office include the following: 3 There are three types of studies, evaluation of the system, inventory (evaluation of the resource) and socio-ecoinomic smaies. 4 This is becuase of the volume of wood availlable as well as the tree species present Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - Febnry y21-25, 1994 144 Case Study: Niger - a representative of the farmers, whose role is to look after the farmers' interests, particularly in connection with their need to have new lands cleared for cropfarming; - a representative of the herders, whose role is to look after the herders' interests, particularly in connection with the opening of access routes to the pastureland and watering points situated in the forest; - a representative of the wood cutters who is responsible for enforcing compliance with the extraction regulations and methods. The villagers organized into LMSs are given various types of training before they are allowed to proceed with their activities, to enable them to be better able to assume their responsibilities in terms of wood resource management. The forest space is divided into compartments.5 Extraction or woodcutting per se always begins with the gathering of dead wood. The logging of standing timber does not occur until the stock of dead wood present in the compartment being harvested has been exhausted. The felling of standing timber is done on the basis of a woodEuting. guota6 which must not be exceeded. The rural market is then provided with the legal documentation, i.e. a statute, bylaws and a rural concession act, that transfers responsibility for management of forest resources from the State to the rural communities. At that point, the rural market becomes "the rural people's affair." Its performance depends on how much effort they put into it. 2.2. Marketing As mentioned earlier, the cooperative approach called for the guarding of the forest compartments and a cormplicated administrative organization for managing the woodstock. In the case of the rural markets, the rural inhabitants are given some latitude in setting the buying and selling price for the wood. The rural market buys the wood from the wood cutters and then sells it to the wood traders-transporters at a certain profit margin. Unlike the situation in the case of a cooperative, the woodstock manager' is not a salaried project employee but a villager who serves the village community, which is free to decide on his remuneration. Here the project teaches the people right from the start to shoulder these expenses and to ensure that the activity is financially viable, thus establishing the foundations needed to guarantee the sustainability of the activity and of the project benefits. The selling prices charged by the rural markets are low compared to those charged by forest cooperatives, which explains why the rural markets are experiencing fewer and fewer slumps in sales. It is conceivable, however, once a large proportion of the wood supply to the cities is controlled by the rural markets, that these markets will be able to organize themselves and join forces so that they are in a better position to negotiate the prices of their products with the wood traders-transporters of the Association Nationale des Exploitation du Bois - ANEB (National Wood Traders Association). S The rotation lasts for 12 years and the forest is divided into 12 parcels, each one is exploited in turn every 12 years. 6 The quota is defined based in the inventory results. 7 or parcel guards. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l -25,1994 145 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings 2.3. Mgnn Tientergou will serve as a "laboratory" for planning forestry management within the rural market framework. The mere fact of setting an extraction quota is in itself a preliminary form of forestry management. It is also recommended that the focus be placed on very simple operations, such as mulching8 , forest protection from livestock, seeding species of trees and/or grass, etc. mII. ORDINANCE 924037 This Ordinance thus permitted the transfer of responsibility for forest management from the State to the rural populations. It also made provision for a portion of the taxes from the issuance of the transportation coupons (royalties) to be returned to the rural inhabitants and another portion to the authority with jurisdiction for the extraction site (arrondissement budget). It is required that these fumds be invested, in predetermined proportions, in the forest and in actions in the public interest. Within this framework, the rural markets of Tientergou have planned to establish plantations. While the amount of funds available is certainly small, it is still enough for the plantings that the local people decide on and managed. In point of fact, we would think that 1,000 seedlings produced and planted entirely by the population of a village would have a better chance of thriving than 10,000 plants produced far away from the villages at a cental nursery. Another portion of the tax revenue, along with the profit made by the rural market, can also be invested in other development activities: grain bank, plant and animal health product supplies, well cleaning, classroom construction, hiring of a literacy teacher, etc. Forest operations can thus be the point of departure for and the ddmn! force behind rural develoxent. VI. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED The main problems encountered are land-related, particularly in cases where the populations living around the forest stand are not the owners of the land concerned. In this case, the market cannot be established-until the problem has been solved by the onulations concerned.- s Mulching consists of gathering residues and allowng them to decay through fermentation to form humus. Ouagadougcu, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 146 Case Study: Niger - A Private Sector Viewpoint 4.5 NIGER - PR1VATE SECTOR: FUELWOOD IN NIGER FROM THE WOOD TRADERS' PERSPECTIVE (Summarv) El-Hadji Mamane Abdou, President of the National Wood Traders' Association - ANEB INTRODUCTION In Niger, forest extraction to supply the urban centers is an age-old activity. The subsector is managed in an efficient manner that assures consumers of an unmnterrupted supply of fuelwood year-round. The same cannot be said of the butane or kerosene subsectors. Marketing is handled by 700 retail outlets in Niamey. A family is bound to be able to find an outlet within 500 meters of home. The activity is govemed by the competition of various players, which ensures price stability without State intervention. Interestingly, wood is the only commodity that has not suffered the effects of the devaluation of January 1994. I. HOW WOOD TRADING EVOLVED 1.1. Before the Maradi Commitment Woodcutting was an activity that was open to all. The only requirement was a permit. Wood traders (particularly those with motorized transportation) generally hired woodcutters from the city and took them into the bush for periods of up to several weeks. The traders bought the collected wood from the woodcutters (CFAF 3,000 per 5 stere) and were responsible for feeding their cutters. The wood was hauled away and was generally sold in bulk to retailers who were responsible for marketing it in the city. 1.2. After the Maradi Commitment Once the Second Energy Project was established, project officials saw the need to get the subsector and its main players, organized. A public education campaign was launched and resulted, in July 1991, in the creation of ANEB to take the place of the Association des Syndicats des Exploitants (Association of Wood Traders' Unions), which had been in existence since 1987. ANEB's members include truckers, donkey-drivers, camel-drivers, carters, woodcutters and wood retailers. The Association, whose main objective is to protect its members' interests, serves as spokesman vis-a-vis the Government and the forestry services. The latters' main role is to issue woodcutting permits, monitor the movement of wood and educate, inform and train the wood traders. The first two years of ANEB's existence were marked by fairly good relations with the Government (through the Second Energy project). 1.3. The strike The strike of 1993 marked a turning point in relations between the Association and the Government. It started when the forest royalties were increased without prior consultation with the Association. The Government had to resort to its own means of transportation, including the use of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnraiy 21- 25, 1994 147 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings army vehicles, in order to supply the city of Niamney and foil the strike. In point of fact some of the individuals involved even took advantage of the occasion and became wood traders themselves. An a posteoni analysis of the situation revealed that the wood traders should not have had to resort to a strike. It should have been possible to see that the increase in royalties was reflected in the final selling price. This error is also attributable to the fact that the wood traders did not receive the advice they needed from the consultant who was hired by the Second Energy Project and had been assigned to the Association. In fact, the wood traders had requested an economist to train them to manage their affairs better, but the project managers hired a forestry specialist instead. Since the wood traders, on the one hand, missed their chance to have the increase reflected in the selling price and, on the other, lost the battle of the strike, they have had to resort to cheating on volume of the stere (by reducing branch length by about 30 cm.). II. TRUTHS ABOUT THE WOOD TRADING BUSINESS Wood traders are generally accused of making exorbitant profits, showing little respect for the forest and being largely responsible for environmental degradation. These perceptions are unfounded and are essentially the fruit of the propaganda put out by the forestry services who try to discredit traders. 2.1. Profit marzin It is true that the margin seems large when the wholesale price (CFAF 3,500 - 4,000 per stere) is compared with the purchase price (CFAF 600 in the bush, CFAF 1,000 in the rural markets, CFAF 1,350 - 1,500 in the cooperatives). It is important to take the costs incurred into account, however. By way of an example, below are the costs resulting from the use of a 30-stere-capacity truck: CFAF Tax sticker 120,000 per annum Insurance 90,000 per annum License 90,000 - 120,000 per annum Association 4,000 per arnnm Driver 5,000 per trip Apprentices (2) 4,000 per trip Fuel (100 1) 17,000 per trip Motor oil 3,600 per trip En-route expenses 5,000 per trip In addition to these items, the trucker must also bear the cost of repairs, which are generally considerable, considering the old age of the trucks and the condition of the roads and tracks. This has a direct impact on the number of trips that the wood traders are actually able to make during a given period (frequent breakdowns, unavailability and high cost of replacement parts, etc.) It should be kept in mind, however, that wood trading is considered a most undesirable job and certainly does not enable anyone who performs it to get rich. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febniary 21 - 25, 1994 148 Case Study: Niger - A Private Sector Viewpoint 2.2. Environmental imnact Wood traders who are members of the Association are aware of the environmental problems. The Association suggested some specific actions to the forestry services for protecting Niger's natural resources, and has offered its direct assistance with implementing them. The actions suggested include the following: 1. The wood traders are prepared to carry out reforestation operations in the extraction areas. The Association is willing to assume responsibility for planting and for constructing the corresponding access road as long as it is supplied with fuel. The work should concentrate on local species and avoid imported species, which have been found to be unsuited to local conditions. 2. The Association is interested in becoming involved in the inventory work carried out in the extraction areas. By utilizing the traders' experience, it will be possible, to ensure that its members assume responsibility and that errors like those at Guesselbodi are avoided. 3. The Association recommended that attention be given to coal (which is a national resource) and that every effort be made to prevent households to get accustomed from beginning to get to charcoal (with its quite devastating characteristics in view of the processing losses involved). Some Association members have even invested in the coal subsector (by buying shares). 4. It was recommended that exploitation concentrate essentially on dead wood, which is in plentiful supply (for at least 10 years' exploitation in each department). There are unfortunately problems of accessibility and distance, which are likely to discourage wood traders. The Government needs to take the initiative in order to remove these obstacles. 5. The Association could participate efficiently in controlling the transportation of wood. This would help to put a limit on illegal wood extraction, which is generally practiced by traders who do not belong to the Association and who are the real cause of deforestation. 6. The Association had asked to be involved in the efforts to distribute butane, kerosene and improved stoves. This would help to educate its members while at the same time improving their incomes and making their jobs more secure. 2.3. Fraud. corruption and collusion Wood traders are often accused of not paying the forest tax by eluding the control carried out by the forestry services. In actual fact, the traders do pay and yet are subjected to all sorts of harassment while carrying out their work. It is the Government that fails to collect the taxes. A distinction needs to be made here between fraud, corruption and collusion. It is widely known that the transportation costs mentioned earlier (CFAF 5,000 per truck and per trip) are really an extortion of funds that is commonly practiced (and accepted) by the police. Yet, it is incorrect to speak of fraud because there is collusion between the wood traders and the forest guards that results in the payment of a fraction of the forest tax. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnuay 21 - 25, 1994 149 AFTPSRPS Workshop II. Proceedings m. DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD TRADING The occupation of wood trading plays an important economic role since it keeps a large proportion of the population supplied with energy. The political will is lacking, however, to promote further development of this activity, which is not even recognized by the chamber of commerce. It would be possible to develop the activity if the Govermment were to join forces with the Association in a spirit of partnership. The education and involvement of wood traders in the decision-maldng process could produce results that repression has never made possible. The Association will support the creation of rural markets because this offers wood traders a number of advantages. The markets are generally more easily accessible, which will mean fuel savings, less wear on tires and the possibility of making two trips per day. Certain drawbacks will need to be eliminated, however. The wood at the rural markets is generally green and consequently heavy to transport and difficult to sell because housewives say that it creates too much smoke and not much heat. It is also hard to dry and store because of infestations by insects. Retailers refuse to buy it because one stere makes fewer bundles of firewood owing to the small diameter of the wood from the rural markets. Wood transporter/traders need assistance to enable them to continue to perform this function. Their vehicles are very old and very costly to maintain. Second-hand trucks (in good condition) could be imported and sold on easy payment terms to these wood transporter/traders. Unauthorized wood traders must be stopped because they flood the markets and this keeps prices very low and makes wood extraction in areas that are further away (and that offer a larger supply of dead wood) unprofitable. WE MUST ZEALOUSLY PROTECT WHAT LITTLE FOREST WE HAVE. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febnyay21 - 25, 1994 150 Working Groups 5. Summaries of the Workshop Working Groups Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februazy 21 -25, 1994 151 AFTPSRJJJ, Workshop II: Procee&ngs Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21-25, 1994 152 Working Groups SUIMMARY OF THE WORKING GROUPS The fourth day of the Workshop was devoted to working groups. The purpose of the Working Groups was to allow workshop participants to review and discuss the focus and terms of reference of the regional thematic studies due to be undertaken by consultants between March and September, 1994. Originally six Working Groups were proposed and participants were invited to sign-up to the Groups according to their respectives areas of expertise and/or interest. After the voluntary sign-up was completed it was necessary to cancel a Group on "Traditional Energy and Macroeconomic and Fiscal Policy Issues" becuase of lack of enrollment. The lack of enrollment in that Group did not come as a surprise as there where no macroeconomists in any of the national country delegations. The following sections present the guidelines that were provided to the Workshop participants for the constitution of the Working Groups, and unedited sunmnarties of the discussions in each Group. Guidelines for the Composition of the Working Groups GROUP A: Natural Resources Management - Forest- and biomass inventories How much reliable information is available in your country? Is the available information sufficient for policy formation? How much time and money is required to obtain up-to-date essential information? Is it necessary to cover the whole country or can the work be limited to priority zones? - Land use mapping Is there enough information to assess the trade-offs of forest exploitation and other land uses (farming, grazing)? - Time series for monitoring purposes How can the work in land use mapping and inventorization be set up to monitor land use and resource stocks over time? * Land- and tree tenure - Is tenure a critical issue in your country? If so, how does -it inhibit rational biomass resource development and management? * Role of local communities Can you identify successful cases of resource management by local communities? What were the essential incentives (e.g. ownership of resources, living environment, revenue generation, etc.)? How was their management model affected by the economic characteristics of the community (farming, mixed farming-grazing, sedentary and transient population, proximity to urban centers, subsistence and/or cash economy, etc.)? Do you think these cases are replicable in your circumstances? Ouagadougou,Bur1dnaFaso - Febrmay2l-25, 1994 153 AFTPSRp,ES Workshop II: Proceedings GROUP B: Transport and Distribution of Woodfuels * Resource access Is the state of the road network in your country a critical factor in the management of woodfuel resources? Do you see any upgrading as an integral part of the resource management? . Organization and regulation of trucking industry Is organization of the woodfuel trucking operators a good or a bad thing? Do you any way to upgrade the fleet and the image of the industry? Do you favor a regulated monopoly of wholesale transport? * Competition of carriers How can one protect the interests of small operators (camionettes, donkey carts)? * Control of transport flows Do you think that the transporters themselves could play a positive role in the monitoring of quantities delivered? * Depot management Do you think that the efficiency of the woodfuel business could be improved by designating a few depots in each major city for either storage or transit? . Cross-border trade Can you identify specific routes by which woodfuels and hydrocarbon fuels are imnported in your country, either legitimately or by smuggling? Are import duties economically efficient? Are they collectible? * Retailing Should retailers be organized to deal as a group with wholesalers? Is there a role for chambers of commerce? GROUP C: Demand Manangement and Substitution * Consumer behavior Are woodfuel consumers (male and female) motivated by convenience, status, money savings, time savings, or do they think that household energy is not a priority? Do you feel that during surveys they really say what they think? Have you noticed changes in consumer behavior in the last ten years? * Improvements of consumer surveys What is your experience with the statistical significance of results obtained? What could be done to improve reproducibility, consistency and comparability? Is there a way to link demand surveys with supply data obtained in the same period? Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 154 Working Groups * Specific household incomes and the informal sector In view of the rapid growth of the informal sector, do you think that data on household incomes are useful? Can you think of any way to adjust recorded figures for the real situation? * Promotion of woodstoves What do you think has been the real impact of improved woodstoves in your country? Do you have data to estimate the development of the penetration rate over time? How much, if anything, should be done by the public sector to continue promotion? Should manufacture continue with blacksmiths or is it better to resort to industrial mass production? What do you think will be the impact of the CFAF devaluation on dissemination of metallic woodstoves? How would you evaluate promotion of clay stoves in rural areas? * Promotion of LPG- and kerosene stoves Should modem cooking appliances be imported by private business? If manufactured in West-Africa, can you see room for regional cooperation to produce for several countries? GROUP D: Sector Institutions and Orgization * Evolution of legislative framework Do you think that the legislation in your country is out of date? If it has been revised, do you think that the new framework addresses the real needs? * Discretionary powers of public agencies Does the legislation give too much or too little discretionary power to public agencies, against which there is no appeal under the law? e Regulatory framework Do you think a regulatory framework should cover both the public and the private sector, with appropriate recourse under the law? * Land tenure from tradition to post-colonial independence Does the formal legislative framework, whether old or new, make any difference in the practical situation with regard to land tenure? * Forms of participation by local communities If local communities are given the management of their natural biomass resources, should their role be organized by decentralization, devolution of specific prerogatives, or broadly based local autonomy with corresponding fiscal powers? . Human and material resources in the public sector Given the existing and foreseeable professional capacities in the relevant Government departments dealing with the woodfuels sector, which objectives should they realistically set for themselves? How should the law enforcement and rural extension functions be organized? Ouagadougou,BurlinaFaso - February21 -25,1994 155 AFTPSMPTES Workshop IIT Proceedings Need for an energy data and documentation center In most countries data and reports on the biomass sector are widely dispersed. If a single documentation center were set up, in which institution do you think it should be lodged? If you think that multiple documentation centers are inevitable, how would you organize the communications? GROUP E: Donor Policies and aid Effectiveness * Goverrnent role in the direction of aid After completion of your draft country study, do you feel that your Government has a clear set of priorities to channel donor aid? * Donor strategy or strategies What is your perception of the strategy of donors, individually or as a group? Have you noticed significant and systematic changes in emphasis during the last ten years? * Communication Has the dialogue with donors in your country systematically addressed policy issues (in contrast to discussions at the project level)? * Continuity Do you see continuity in the financing plans of major donors with the aim of supporting policy implementation? * Development impact If development impact is defined as achieving durable changes in your country, how would you rate the projects and programs of major donors compared to efforts by NGOs? * African participation Does the degree of African participation in terms of financing and of human resources make a difference in the extent to which you can control projects or programs? * Implementation Do you feel that implementation procedures of donors are another way of transferring know-how, or do they impose excessive burdens on African human resources? Are projects sufficiently flexible to make corrections after they have started? *Multi-sector programs and projects Could the institutional situation in your country be an impediment to the financing and implementation of multi-sector programs related to the fuelwood sector? How could one get around these limitations at the levels of planning, finnce and implementation? Ouagadougou, Bkina Faso - Febray 21 - 25,1994 156 Working Groups * African consulting capacity What could be done by the public and private sector, together with the donors, to stimulate the deployment of African consultants? GROUP F: Macro-economic and fiscal Policy (Canceled) It is envisaged that the following five topics will be specifically examined by outside consultants on macro-economics and demography, who will draw on the results of the West Africa Long term Perspectives Study that is being implemented by the Club du Sahel. Do you think that this approach is pertinent to the RPTES? Would you add or delete topics? * Demography - scenarios to 2020 * Spatial distribution of population relative to biomass resources * Demands for traditional energy and staple foods * Opportunity cost of agricultural and forest land * Impact of substitution measures on the balance of payments * Fiscal revenues from energy/biomass sector Have you identified in each of your countries how much fiscal revenue is produced by the woodfuel industry, distinguishing revenue from resource royalties (stumping fees) and income from transport licenses? How much do theses sums represent as a percentage of the total Government budget? Should the biomass sector generate the resources for its management by means of earmarked taxes or should the financial resources be part of the general Govermment budget? - Fiscal needs for sector management Given the limitations of human resources, and the corresponding limitations to its mandate, how much do you think the public sector in your country needs? * Objectives, instruments and feasibility of taxation What are the objectives of taxing the fuelwood sector? Which taxes or levies do you think are necessary for the efficient economic functioning of the woodfuels sector? At which part of the supply chain-should they be targeted? How would you make sure that the collection costs do not exceed the revenues, taking into account the opportunities for corruption? * Taxation powers at various levels of government If local communities are entrusted with the management of their natural resources, do you think that they should be given corresponding powers to tax these directly? * Subsidization and price control Do you think that woodfuel prices should be controlled? If your country has controls on either wholesale or retail prices, do you think that they should be accompanied by normalization of weights and measures? Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 157 AFTPSRPM Wor*shop II: Proceedings * Responsibilities for data recording and tax collection Do you think that statistics on fuelwood supply should be collected independently from tax collection, to mininize the distortion of data by fraud? * Minimum data requirements What do you think is the minimum of information on the fuelwood sector that should be collected to permit continuous monitoring? Ouagadougou, BukinaFaso - Feby 21 -25, 1994 158 Working Groups GROUP A: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GROUP COMPOSITION Members: Kimse OUEDRAOGO Malang K.A. BARROW Abdoulie A. DANSO Beli NEYA Hamadi KONANDJI El Hadji Lawali MAHAMANE Harouna OUMAROU Ibrahim GUEYE REPORT While all States possess forest and biornass resources, they may be so old as to have been exhausted, or they may be too scattered, so that only a part of the resources that exist is available in practical terms, or they may be too concentrated, perhaps in a particular province, region, or department. It is necessary: to carry out or cornplete inventories of such resources, using methods adapted for the Sahelian zone; to eliminate data gaps on the nature and extent of biomass resources; to establish what part they really play in local energy balances; and to identify ways and means of optimizing their use, plus necessary supporting measures. Time period: 10 years. Land use maps generally provide little information on either the nature, extent, or usage of this resource base. Once they have been brought up to date, steps should be taken to develop and put in place a method of tracking changes in the resource picture. Updating should be carried out every five years. Land tenure and related legal questions In each country, both traditional and modem systems of law exist side by side and recognize the individual, the community, or the State as the owner of land and tree stands, or of one without the other. Problems between individuals, communities, families, institutions arise---out of interpretations of applicable provisions and not infrequently impede formulation and imple- mentation of programs for the sustainable management of natural resources. Some countries need to update their legal systemns so that decision-raling processes can be decentralized. In doing so, they should consider maling local communities responsible for ensuring equitable access to these resources, depending on their own accumulated experience. Insitutional questions Successful experiments have been conducted in some of the countries. Various solutions have been used: transfers of accountability, monetization of trade, revenue allocations, improvements in living standards, etc. Such experiments should be carried further and the findings replicated throughout the subregion, after any necessary locality-specific Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 159 AFTPSRPTES Workshop II: Proceedings adaptations have been made. Arrangements for sharing of profits derived from managed natural resources, which are a subject of special interest, need to be examined and improved. Experinents currently under way in various countries have had a series of effects on other sectors of activity: purchases of agricultural equipment, curbing of the exodus of young people, fewer conflicts between livestock owners and farmers, etc. The roles and ranking of the various parties in the process - the Government, communities, NGOs, donors, etc. - need to be reviewed in the interests of bringing them together in a healthy and energizing partnership. Bush fires, land clearing for agricultural purposes, random forest harvesting, over-grazing, and the population explosion all take serious toll of natural resources. In the case of each of these factors, all possible information on its impact and trends should be assembled for use in forming data banks on supply and demand and in identifying and carrying out coordinated action programs. Since each of the countries represented has made its own technical advances in particular areas of natural resource management, the Group recommends that a network be established in the subregion to allow exchanges of information of this type. Ouagadougou,BukinaFaso - Febray2l-25,1994 160 Working Groups GROUP B: TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WOODFUELS GROUP COMPOSITION President Ye HENRI Rapporteur Cecilia SOME Members El Hadj Mamane ABDOU Kouloutan COULIBALY Andrea OUEDRAOGO REPORT 1. Resource access - What distances have to be traveled to supply areas? - What is the cost-effectiveness limit of each type of vehicle? - In what condition are major and secondary roads and access tracks? - Is sound resource management possible without improvements to the road network? 2. Or2anization and regation of trm - Is there a woodfuel trucking operators' association (benefits/disadvantages)? - How is it structured (benefits/disadvantages)? - Is there any need to organize woodfuel trucking operators? - What equipment is used to haul woodfuels? - What condition is it in? - What difficulties and risks do trucking operators face? - How do transport operators acquire and maintain their vehicles? - Are you in favor of a woodfuel transport monopoly? - Can transport and marketing of woodfuels be separated? 3. ComRettLion among transport operators - What forms does competition take (unfair practices, competition based on type of transport equipment)? - How-can a stop be put to these types of competition? 4. Control of supply flows - Who is responsible for controlling transport flows? - Do permanent and/or mobile checkpoints exist? - Do forestry surveillance support services exist? - Are government workers effective in monitoring woodfuel flows? - How can transport operators' associations be involved in the control process? - Can fraud be eliminated from haulage of woodfuels, and, if so, how? Ouagada%ou, BuiinaFaso - Febmary2I -25, 1994 161 AFTPSRPTEs Workshop II. Proceedngs 5. Management of woodfuel depots - Do approved and well-located woodfuel depots exist in urban areas? What benefits/disadvantages do they bring? What security measures do they require? - How can winter woodfuel shortages be avoided (emergency stocks)? 6. Cross-border trade - Are there cross-border transactions involving woodfuels (arrangements, problems)? - Are there likely to be imports or exports of woodfuelswith neighboring countries? - Should govermnents agree to eliminate customs charges on woodfuels? 7. - What problems do woodfuel retailers face? - Have retailers formed separate associations from transport operators (benefits/disadvantages)? - How can retailers be prevented from obtaining supplies on the parallel market? - What links should exist between transporters and retailers? - What role can chambers of commerce play in the marketing of woodfuels? 8. Taxation s;stem - What taxes are payable in the particular country? - For what purposes are the proceeds allocated? - How are these taxes collected? - Does a development fund exist (for reinvestment in the forestry sector)? If not, how can one be set up? - Should the price of woodfuels be fixed or unregulated? Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 162 Working Groups GROUP C: DEMAND MANAGEMENT AND SUBSTITUTION GROUP COMPOSITION Rapporteur Cheik Ahmed SANOGO Members : Abdou B. TOURAY Kiri TOUNAO Ousmane OUIMINGA Daouda ZALLE Godefroy THIOMBIANO Coumba MARENAH REPORT After studying a series of proposals, the Group came to the following. conclusions: 1. Consumer behavior The Group advocates inclusion of this point in the tenms of reference for the consultant, who should be asked to assess the situation in both rural and urban areas, and to include male/female differentials. The study should aim to detemiine whether changes in behavior spring from sensitivity to the deterioration of the environment or from awareness of the conveniences afforded by equipment. Although responses from households can be assumed to be true, the Group believes that responses depend on the survey methodology used. 2. Improvement of consumer surveys This point should be studied by the consultant, as the statistical significance of the results is not satisfactory, despite a certain profusion of data. The Group believes there will be no improvement in survey results until survey techniques themselves are improved and nationals of the particular country are involved-zin all surveys. If the results of demand surveys are to be linked to supply data during the same periods, then it is essential to define coherent frameworks within which the agencies responsible for supply and demand can collaborate. 3. Unit consumption by households (urban/rural) and by the informal sector In the Group's opinion, data on unit consumption of fuels by households and the informal sector exist but are unreliable. There is no reconciliation of data from different countries. Accordingly there is a need to update figures on unit consumption. The consultant should be asked to study this point, too. Ouagadougou, Burkdna Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 163 AFTPS)TES Workshop II. Proceedings 4. Household incomes and the informal sector The Group finds household income data to be unreliable, and believes it is difficult to estimate income generated by the informal sector without an evaluation of that sector in our countries? How large a part do women play in the sector? How many jobs has it created? What resources does it generate? Etc. Again, the Group takes the view that this is a problem the consultant should be instructed to examine. 5. Promotion of improved woodstoves There has been no study to assess the impact of improved wood cookstoves at national level in the various countries of the subregion. However, many improved stoves of this type are now in use and - whatever user households may say - do use less fuelwood. Their introduction has increased general sensitivity to this issue, has created jobs, and has improved working conditions for women. Nevertheless, there has been no specific study to evaluate these outcomes. No data are available on the acceptance rate of improved woodstoves in rural and urban areas (although there have been isolated attempts to produce this information). The Group believes the authorities should emphasize sensitization of the population and should bring in measures to facilitate private-sector access to the raw materials used in manufacturing the stoves. The authorities should provide incentives that will encourage artisans to increase their output and improve their productivity. Resort to industrial mass production should be for the medium and long term. The Group believes that the cost of these stoves has increased since the devaluation. - In the present circumstances, consideration should be given to improved stoves, although the first concern should still be better adapted traditional stoves. Given the importance of the matter, the Group recommends that the technical assistant takes this issue into account. 6. Promotion of gas and kerosene cookstoves The Group firmly believes that the private sector should be actively encouraged to set up units to produce this type of equipment in the subregion. Cooperation on the subregional plane would be a prerequisite, however. 7. Other possible fuels Use of potential substitute fuels (crop residues, coal, peat, solar energy) should be promoted, and the Group suggests that conditions be created which would be conducive to permanent involve- ment of the private sector in such a substitution policy. Ouagadougou, Buina Faso - Febnuay 21 - 25, 1994 164 Working Groups GROUP D: SECTOR INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATION GROUP COMPOSITION President Mamadou DIANKA Rapporteur Moussa MAHAMANE Members Ismail TOURE Pascal ANEYAN Madeleine CISSE Kaba DIAWARA REPORT 1. Integration of energy Dolicies and natural resource management In the majority of cases, our energy and forestry policies, despite their importance, are neither integrated nor coordinated. - Identify the requirements for policy integration. 2. Evolution of le_isvef Legislation is still not up to date, even though some countries are maldng an effort to reformulate their laws and decrees. It is not clear that the new frameworks reflect real needs. - Identify stumbling blocks. 3. Discretfoar Rowers of pulhc aaences Legislation in force confers too many discretionary powers on public agencies, against which there is rarely any appeal under the law. - Propose more flexible mechanisms. 4. Regulatora framework Successful implementation of a balanced sector policy is impossible without enabling regulations, which should govem the public sector as well as the private sector, and provide the latter with means of recourse through legal proceedings. 5. Land tenure: traditional and nost-colonial In practice, the formal legislation in force in the majority of our countries since independence takes no account of traditional land tenure laws. This explains the obstacles affecting the introduction of agricultural and land-use reforms - largely ignored by communities without at least some understanding of such measures. Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February2l-25, 1994 165 AFTPSRzJ, Workshop II: Proceedings 6. Forms of Darticination by local communities Participation by rural communities should provide a means of managing the resource base better if they are given autonomy with corresponding fiscal powers. 7. How can local communities and key plavers in the traitional enem arena be brouh into the decision-makin rocess, and how can svnerpes be created between different gr~oup ? 8. Human and material resources in the public sector Since professional capacities where human and material resources are concerned are in short supply in the majority of our govermnents, the Group suggests joint programs and advocates forming communities into associations by allocating specific practical functions (law) to them so as to foster integration and coordination of activities. Each government would reserve to itself the advisory, supervisory, sensitization, and organizational functions needed to ensure that its rural services operate satisfactorily. 9. Need for enerev data base and documentation center Such a center should be set up within the Energy Department, the entity which formulates and implements energy policies and draws up the energy balance. However, the Water and Forest Resources Department or the Environment Department should incorporate a division responsible for developing an inventory of woodfuel resources. 10. Instttional sein Our institutional frameworks are clearly not appropriate for the development and implementation of energy and natural resource management policies. Ouagadougou, Burlcina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 166 Working Groups GROUP E: DONORS POLICIES AND TUE EFFECTIVENESS OF AID GROUP COMPOSrITON President Amadou TANDIA Rapporteur Saidou OUIMINGA Co-rapporteur Philippe LAURA Members Bacar GUISSE Moussa OUEDRAOGO Omar Saihou SALLAH REPORT The Group agreed to work through the list of suggested topics one by one. 1. Government role in the direction of aid - How and according to what criteria does the Government decide its priorities in the traditional energy sector? Identify links between technical and policy considerations and between this subsector and other sectors. - How should external aid take account of the Government's policy aims? 2. Donor strategt or strateges Assess donor strategies critically, and examine their consistency and effectiveness in terms of both form and content. Identify trends observable over the last ten years. 3. Communication 4. Continuitv Take into account funding agreements entered into over the last ten years for projects in this subsector, and assess how effective they were in supporting the implementation of long-term policies (formulated by our countries). 5. Develonment impact Evaluate the impact of donor and NGO interventions in the energy and forestry management subsector. 6. African paricipation Focus on possible links between the extent of participation by our countries in project and program funding and staffing, on the one hand, and monitoring and control of them, on the other. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febniay 21 - 25, 1994 167 AFTPSM5.Tm Workshop II. Proceedings Propose solutions, as necessary, to increase our countries' degree of involvement in project and program control and monitoring. Propose ways to improve our countries' contribution to project and program funding, design, execution, and monitoring. 7. Implementation of uroams and proiects Analyze the obstacles created by some donors' procedures. Examine the possibilities of simplifying procedures so as to make implementation more effective and more flexible and enable necessary corrections to be made in the course of the implementation process. 8. Multi-sector Dro2rams and projects Propose ways to improve the institutional framework so that policy and program consistency in the household fuels sector can be assured. 9. African consulting capacitv Formulate proposals for greater participation by African consultants in the design and implementation of projects and programs (public and private) by drawing up an inventory of national consultancy resources (frm and individuals) in the subsector and recommending specific arrangements/procedures/methods by which they could be tapped. 1(a) Each country has its priorities However, there is often a failure to rank priorities, which undermines the channeling of action programs. When priorities are identified by our authorities, they incorporate various aims (socio- economic in nature, linked to other sectors) which are not often taken into account by donors. We should be able to channel aid in particular directions, but this is not often the case, as donors' intentions frequently do not correspond to our aid needs. Results would be better if there were roundtable discussions at which each side tried to understand the concerns of the other. Perhaps if priorities were ranked via a process of consultation, aid could be channeled more -effectively. 3(a) This concern was responded to in connection with suggestion no. 1. Ouapdougou, Burina Faso - Februay 21 - 25, 1994 168 Annexes ANNEXES Annex A: List of Workshop Participants (Addresses) Annex B: List of Documents distributed during the Workshop Annex C: Photograph of the Workshop Participants Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 169 AFTPSR?, Workshop II: Proceedings Ouagadlougou, Burkina Faso - February 21-25, 1994 170 Annexes Annex A: LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS (Addresses) BUJRINA FASO DELEGATION Pascal ANEYAN Chef de Service Environnement / Tourisme Service Provincial Environnement et Tourisme Sissili D.R.E.TIC.O LEO, BURKINA FASO BP 109 T61: (00 226) 41-30-33 Beli NEYA Chef Programme Technologie des Bois Institut de Recherche en Biologie et Ecologie Tropicale (IRBET/CNRST) OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 03 BP 7047 Ouagadougou 03 T61: (00 226) 3340-98; Fax: (00 226) 31-50-03 Mr Andria M. OUEDRAOGO Coordination SP/PANE PCGPN Minist6re de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (SP/PANE) OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 03 BP 7044 Ouagadougou 03 Te1: (00 226) 31-24-64 131-31-66; Fax: (00 226) 31-31-66 KiEsd OUEDRAOGO Directeur National Projet Amenagement des Forks Naturelles pour la Sauvegarde de l'Environnement et la Production de Bois PNUD/FAO/BKF/89/01 1 Direction Generale de 1'Environnement Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO BP 2540 Tdl:(00 226) 30-14-91 Moussa OUEDRAOGO Co-charge du suivi ecologique du suivi de l'impact du projet Programme National de Gestion des Terroirs (PNGT) Unit6 de Gestion Operationnelle (UGO) OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 01 BP 1487 Ouagadougou 01 T61: (00 226) 30-84-71 / 72; Fax: (00 226) 30-8649 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 171 AFTPS)pES Workshop II: Proceedings Ous=mae OUIMNGA Directeur Technique SONABHY (Societ6 Nationale Burkinabe d'hydrocarbures) Ouagadougou, BURKINA FASO 01 BP 4394 Ouagadougou 01 T61: (00 226) 30-20-02 / 30-31-92 / 34-02-72; Fax: (00 226) 30 37 10 Saidou OUIM NGA Directeur de l'Energie Ministere de l'Industrie, du Commerce et des Mines Direction de l'Energie OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 01 BP 3922 Ouagadougou 01 Tel: (00 226) 34-04-37; Fax: (00 226) 31-24-18 Madi SAWADOGO Coordonnateur National Gaz Butane CELSS/FED Com1t6 National de Vulgarisation du Gaz OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO T61: (00 226) 34-04-59; Fax: (00 226) 30-75-16 Mule C&ilia SOME Chef de Service Bois-Energie Direction de la Foresterie Villageoise et de l'Amenagement Forestier (DFVAF) Direction Generale de l'Environnement OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO Te1: (00 226) 3142-17; Fax: (00 226) 31-20-98 Dom: (00 226) 34-51-96 Godefroy TEIOMBIANO Charge de Recherche-Chef de Service Programmes Institut Burkinabe de l'Energie (IBE) OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 03 BP 7047 Ouagadougou 03 Tel: (00 226) 30-08-65 / Fax: (00 226) 36-70-29 Dom: (00 226) 36-70-09 Henri Y. YE Enseignant a 1'Universit6 Ouagadougou Institut du Developpement Rural (IDR) Rectorat Universite de Ouagadougou OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 03 BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03 Tel: (00 226) 30-71-59; Fax: (00 226) 30-42-52 Dom: (00 226) 30-03-21 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 172 Annexes Daouda ZALLE Chef de Cellule Economie d'Energie Ministere de I'Environnement et du Tourisme Direction de la Foresterie Villageoise et de l'Am6nagement Forestier OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO 01 BP 6429 Ouagadougou 01 Tel: (00 226) 31-42-17; Fax: (00 226) 31-20-98 Dom: (00 226) 36 43 57 THE GAMBIA DELEGATION MaLang K.A. BARROW Division Director National Environment Agency Office of the President 5, Fitzerland Street BANJUL, THE GAMBIA P.M.B. 48 Tel: (220) 22-80-56; Fax: (220) 22-97-01 Home: (220) 39-30-88 Abdoulie A. DANSO Assistant Director Forestry Department Ministry of Natural Resources BANJUL, THE GAMBIA Tel: (220) 22-75-37; Fax: (220) 22-97-01 Home: (220) 46-03-02 Lamin Kaba JAWARA Commissioner of Petroleum (Exp) and Head of Energy Division Ministry of trade Industry and Employment, Central Bank Building Division of Energy Ministry of Trade, Industry and Employment BANJUL, THE GAMBIA Tel: (220) 22-85-54, 22-66-00; Fax (220) 22-77-56 M's Coumba MARENAH Deputy Executive Secretary Women's Bureau Vice Presidents's Office State House BANJUL, THE GAMBIA P.O Box 640 Banjul, The Gambia (Private) T61: (220) 22-87-33; Fax: (220) 29846 Home: (220) 37-14-05 Ouagadougou, Buridna Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 173 AFTPSRPrEs Workshop II: Proceedings Saihou Omar A. SALLAH Principal Energy Officer / Director GREC Gambia Renewable Energy Centre (GREC) Ministry of Trade Industry and Employment (MTIE) BANJUL, THE GAMBIA POB: 667 Tel: (220) 92 83 8; Home: (220) 92 36 3 Abdou B. TOURAY Deputy Director Department of Community Development Ministry for Local Government and Lands 13 Marina Parade, BANJUL, THE GAMBIA T;e: (220) 22-86-64 / 22-75-98 MALI DELEGATION Kouloutan COULIBALY Directeur du Projet BIT KITA Ministere du D6veloppement Rural et de l'Environnement Direction Nationale des Eaux et Forks KITA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI Te1: (223) 57-30-25 Hamadi KONANDJI Chef Cellule Combustibles Ligneux Ministere du Developpement Rural et de I'Environnement Direction Nationale des Eaux et Forets BAMAKO, REPUBLIQUE DU MALI BP 275 Tel: (223) 22-58-50 / 22-59-73 / 22-43-42 T6lex: E. Forkts 2615 MJ. Cheick Ahmed SANOGO Chef Cellule Energie Domestique Direction National de I'Hydraulique et de l'Energie Division Energie BAMAKO, REPUBLIQUE DU MALI BP 66 Tel: (223) 23-01-54; Dom: (223) 224342 Amadou TANDIA Chef Division Energie Direction Nationale de l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie Ministere des Mines, de l'Industrie et de l'Energie BAMAKO, REPUBLIQUE DU MALI BP 66 T61: (223) 2248-77 / 23-01-54 Dom: (223) 23-01-54 / 22-43-42 Ouagadougou, Bukina Faso - February 21 - 25, 1994 174 Annexes Ismail Oumar TOURE Coordinateur Direction National de l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie Projet Energie Domestique BAMAKO, REPUBLIQUE DU MALI Tel: (223) 22-43-42 / 22-48-77 NIGER DELEGATION El-Hadji MAMANE ABDOU President Association Nationale des Exploitants de Bois au Niger (ANEB) NLAMEY, NIGER BP 10-827 Tel: (227) 73-53-51 El Hadji Lawali MAHAMANE Directeur du Projet Energie II. Volet Offre Projet Energie II. Energie Domestique Direction de l'Environnement NIAMEY, NIGER BP 12-860 Tel: (227) 72-27-92 / 72-21-95; Fax: (227) 7347-09 Dom: (227) 73 33 93 Moussa MAHIAMANE Chef de Service Energie Nouvelles Ministere des Mines et de l'Oeuvre Direction de l'Energie NIAMEY, NIGER BP 11700 Tel: (227) 73-59-24 a 26 poste 480/454 Harouna OUMAROU Coordonnateur National du Comite de Suivi Post- CNUED Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement Direction de Environnement NIAMEY, NIGER BP 578 Tel: (227) 73-33-29 / 73-21-49; Fax: 73-27-84 Dom: (227) 74-02-67 Kir TOUNAO Directeur Adj. Projet Energie II Volet D. Direction de l'Energie NIAMEY, NIGER BP 12-677 Tel: (227) 75-24-28 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februmy 21-25,1994 175 AFTPSRPES Workshop II. Proceedings SENEGAL DELEGATION M Madeleine CISSE Secr6taire Permanent du CONACILSS Ministare de I'Agriculture du S6negal Dakar, SENEGAL BP 21 543 Dakar Pontry Tel: (221) 21-52-29; Dom: (221) 21-52-29 Mamadou DIANKA Directeur de l'Energie Ministere de l'Energie, des Mines et de l'Industrie Direction de l'Energie Dakar, SENEGAL BP 4037 Tel: (221) 32-08-50 / 32-07-30; Fax: (221) 22 55 94 Dom: (221) 3543-59 Ibrahim GUEYE Adjoint Directeur des Eaux et Forets Ministare de l'Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature Direction des Eaux, Forets, Chasses et de la Conservation des Sols Dakar, SENEGAL BP 1831 Te1: (221) 32-06-28 / 32-5-65; Fax: (221) 32404-26 Dom: (221) 34-22-08 Bacar GUISS Chef Division des Hydrocarbures Ministare de I'Energie, des Mines et de l'Industrie Direction des Mines et de la Geologie Dakar, SENEGAL BP 1238 (ou 4037) Tel: (221) 32-07-25 / 32-07-26; Fax: (221) 32-08-50 / 32-08-52 Dom: (221) 35-2149 Philippe LAURA Conseiller Technique Mini.stre de l'Energie, des Mines et de l'Industrie Directeur de l'Energie Dakar, SENEGAL BP 4037 T61: (221) 32-07-30; Fax: (221) 32-08-50 Dom: (221) 24-22-61 OTHER PARTICIPANTS Boniface DEMBELE Projet Foyers Amelior6s,Volet Production DNAS BAMAKO, MALI Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Febmay 21 - 25, 1994 176 Annexes Eric T. FERGUSON Comite de Pilotage RPTES Eindhoven Pays Bas Tel: +31-40-432878; Fax: +31-40467036 & 432878 Cbrisian HEMPEL Conseiller ENR de la GTZ Aupres du Ministere des Mines et de l'Energie au Niger Direction de l'Energie Service des ENR NIAMEY, NIGER BP 10 814 Niamey Te1: (00227) 73-54-26 / 480478; Fax: (00227) 73-26-29 Jean Philippe JOREZ Ingenieur de l'Environnement Programme de Developpement Rural dans la Sissili (FED) Conseiller Forestier du Service Provincial de l'Environnement et du Tourisme LEO, BURKINA FASO 01 BP 283 Ouagadougou 01 Tel: (00 226) 41-3049 / 41-30-33 Dom: (00 226) 41-30-84 / 31-56-96 M Dagmas ORTH Consultante Suivi et Evaluation BAMAKO, MALI Cheick SAMAKE Projet Foyers Am6lores Volet Animation DNAS BAMAKO, MALI Youba SOKONA Comite de Pilotage RPTES ENDA - TM Dakar, SENEGAL BP 3370 T61: (221) 22-59-83 / 22-24-96; Fax: (221) 22-26-95 Dom: (221) 20-22-13 Bocar Sada SY Expert en Energie Renouvelable CILSS Programme Regional Solaire Secr6tariat Executif CILSS OUAGADOUGOU, BURKINA FASO BP 7049 Te1: (00 226) 33-48-70; Fax: (00 226) 30-67-58 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso - Februaiy 21 - 25, 1994 177 AFTPStc,ES Workshop II. Proceedings Mt Oumou TOURE Coordinatrice Projet Foyers Ameliores (PFA) DNAS BAMAKO, MALI MN Anke WEYMANN Conseillere Projet Foyers Ameliores (PFA) Direction Nationale des Affaires Sociales Cooperation technique allemande - GTZ BAMAKO, MALI T61: (223) 22-86-05; Fax: (223) 23-15-23 1 22-92-69 WORLD BANK DELEGATION Dennis ANDERSON Adviser T1he World Bank Industry and Energy Department (LEN) 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington D.C. 20433 USA T,1: 1 (202) 473-1045 Azedine OUTERGEI Energy Economist The World Bank Africa Technical Department (AFTPS) 1818 H Street N.W. Washington D.C. 20433 USA Te1: 1 (202) 473-7531 / Fax: 1 (202) 477-2978 Boris UTRIA RPTES Task Manager The World Bank Africa Technical Department (AFTPS) 1818 H Street N.W. Washington D.C. 20433 USA T61: 1 (202) 473-4488; Fax: 1 (202) 477-2978 Max WILTON Principal Energy Economist The World Bank Africa Technical Departnent (AFTPS) Washington D.C. 20433 USA Tel: 1 (202) 473-4931; Fax: 1 (202) 477-2978 Ouapdougou, Bmrina Faso - Febmary 21-25,1994 178 Annexes Annex B: LIST OF DOCUMENTS DISTRIBUTED DURING THIE WORKSHOP Documents BAD et OCDE. Perspectives a long terne en Afrigue de l'ouest: Population espace et develoMpement: document de synthese. Paris:OCDE Banque Mondiale. 1993. Rapport sur le developpement dans le monde 1993: Resume. Banque Mondiale: Washington. Brah, Mahamane et Jean-Marc Pradelle. 1993. L'intdaration regionale en Afrique de l'ouest. Paris: OCDE. Giri, Jacques. 1991. Les agences d'aide et l'environnement: Ala recherche d'un developpement durable pour leSahel. Paris: OCDE. Hesseling, Gerti et Boubakar Moussa. 1993. Le foncier et la gestion des ressources naturelles au Sahel: Exp6riences. containtes et perspectives. (version provisoire). Paris: OCDE. OCDE. 1993. D6centralisation au Sahel (version provisoire). Paris: OCDE. Shalkh Asif, Eric Arnould, Kjell Christophersen, Roy Hagen, Joseph Tabor et Peter Warshall. 1988. Opurtunities for Sustained Development: Successful Natural Resources Manaeement in the Sahel- SummMar USAID. RPTES Country Studies Sinigal: Etude du Secteur des Energies Traditionnelles Buridna Faso: Examen des politiques, Stat6gies et Progranmes du Sous-Secteur Energ6tique Traditionnelle Mali: Examen des Politiques, Strategies et Programmes du Secteur des Energies Traditionnelles Niger: Examen des Politiques, Stratgies et Programmes du Secteur des Energies Traditionnelles The Gambia: Review of the Traditional Energy Sector Ouagadougou, Burkin Faso - Febmary 21 - 25, 1994 179 AFTPSRPES Workshop II: Proceedings Ooagadougou,BurkinaFaso - February21-25,1994 180 Annexes Annex C: PHOTOGRAPH OF PARTICIPANTS ,_~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ . .... .... ............ Ouagadougou, Burkina aso Februar. 21 - 25, 1994 181 AFTPSRJ,rE Workviop II: Proceedings Ouagadougou,BurkinaFase -- Febmary 21 -25, 1994 182