FILE COPY SWP670 Patterns of Food Consumption and Nutrition in Indonesia An Analysis of the National Socioeconomic Survey, 1978 Dov Chernichovsky Oey Astra Meesook WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS Number 670 ~3gff, ~§ WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS - (}57 Number 670 ,-0, ;d'16 Patterns of Food Consumption and Nutrition in Indonesia An Analysis of the National Socioeconomic Survey, 1978 Dov Chemichovsky Oey Astra Meesook INTERNATlONAL MONETARY FUND JOINT LIBRARY lOIV 2 9 1984 rlITRfNATIONAL BANK FOR RiECOON5ThUCTION AiND IEVWLOPMENT wmumr,NGON D.C. 54 The World Bank Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Copyright (© 1984 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 1984 This is a working document published informally by the World Bank. To present the results of research with the least possible delay, the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The publication is supplied at a token charge to defray part of the cost of manufacture and distribution. The views and interpretations in this document are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual acting on their behalf. Any maps used have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers; the denominations used and the boundaries shown do not imply, on the part of the World Bank and its affiliates, any judgment on the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The full range of World Bank publications, both free and for sale, is described in the Catalog of Publications; the continuing research program is outlined in Abstracts of Current Studies. Both booklets are updated annually; the most recent edition of each is available without charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department T, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from the European Office of the Bank, 66 avenue d'1ena, 75116 Paris, France. Dov Chernichovsky is with Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel. Oey Astra Meesook is in the Country Policy Department of the World Bank. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Chernichovsky, Dov. Patterns of food consumption and nutrition in Indonesia. (World Bank staff working papers ; no. 670) Bibliography: p. 1. Nutrition surveys--Indonesia. 2. Food prices-- Indonesia. I. Oey Astra Meesook. II. Title. III. Series. TX360.15C48 1984 363.8'2'09598 84-19555 ISBN 0-8213-0420-8 ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to estimate the level of consumption of food and of nutrients for the Indonesian population; to identify population groups with nutrient deficiencies; to identify the major sources of different nutrients; and to estimate income and price elasticities of demand for both foods and nutrients. The data source used is the National Socioeconomic Survey for 1978 (SUSENAS 1978) which included information on the quantities of, and expenditures on, about 120 food items consumed. Estimates of food and nutrient consumption of different population groups are given, with breakdowns by household expenditure class, region and area of residence. The proportion of the population with deficiencies in different nutrients is estimated by comparing each sample household's food consumption and the implied nutrient consumption against the household's own requirements, given the age composition of its members. The conclusion is that there are serious deficiencies in all nutrients in Indonesia and that the problem is more one of maldistribution than of an overall shortfall in the availability of foods. The problem is generally more serious in Java than in the Outer Islands, and affects the poorer households more severely than better-off households. In examining the sources of the various nutrients, the importance of rice as a contributor of most nutrients is striking. The estimation of income and price elasticities of demand for food and nutrients is based on a household utility-maximization model from which the household's demand for food and hence nutrients is derived. For estimation purposes the double-logarithmic function is used, with quantities of food, calories and nutrients as dependent variables. - 2 - Variations in household incomes and in family size and composition are associated with marked variations in the quantities and patterns of food consumption; however, corresponding changes in the consumption of nutrients are much less dramatic. Thus the substitutions among food groups resulting from changes in income and family size and composition are fairly efficient in maintaining the nutritional intake of households. The results concerning the effects of prices on food consumption patterns are rather tentative, since these prices reflect in part qualitative differences in food consumption which require further study. Nonetheless, it is already apparent that a great deal of substitution takes place as prices change. The paper concludes that there is wide scope for nutrition policies based on changes in incomes and relative prices, as food and nutrition consumption respond rather dramatically to such changes. It is not clear at this stage how households respond to income and price changes in terms of the quality of foodstuffs they purchase, and what effect this has on nutrition. As incomes rise, the dependency on rice increases as well. However, any pricing policies designed to reduce this dependency must take into account the evidence suggesting that no single food can substitute for rice as a major source of most nutrients. The data also strongly suggest that inadequate diets are prevalent among the better-off and the better-educated as well. Hence, alleviating malnutrition in Indonesia is not just a matter of raising levels of income but also of nutrition education. ABREGE Cette etude a pour objet d'6valuer le niveau de consommation d'aliments et d'lements nutritifs de la population indonesienne; d'identifier les groupes de population souffrant de carences nutritionnelles; d'identifier les principales sources des divers e1lments nutritifs; et d'estimer les elasticites - revenu et prix de la demande des aliments et des e1lments nutritifs. Les donn6es proviennent de l'Enquete socioeconomique nationale de 1978 (SUSENAS 1978) qui comportait des renseignements sur la quantit6 et le prix de quelque 120 produits alimentaires consommes. La pr6sente etude donne des estimations des aliments et e1lments nutritifs consommes oar les divers groupes de population, ventilees par classe de depense des menages, region et lieu de residence. On a calcul6 le pourcentage de la population souffrant de carences nutritionnelles de diverses sortes en comparant la consommation d'aliments, et donc indirectement celle d'elements nutritifs, de chaque m6nage echantillon et les besoins de ce menage, compte tenu de sa composition par age. Cette comparaison permet de conclure qu'en Indonesie il existe des carences tres importantes de tous les elements nutritifs, mais qu'elles sont dues plut6t a une mauvaise distribution qu'a une penurie generalisee de produits alimentaires. D'une maniere generale, le probleme est plus grave a Java que dans les autres iles et les menages pauvres sont plts touch6s que les m6nages aises. Lorsque l'on etudie la source des divers elements nutritifs, l'importance du riz est frappante. Pour evaluer les elasticit6s - revenu et prix de la demande d'aliments et d'elements nutritifs, on a utilis6 un modele de maximisation d'utilite des menages qui a permis de determiner la demande d'aliments et donc d'elments nutritifs des menages. Aux fins du calcul, on a utilise une fonction a double logarithme oii les quantites d'aliments, de calories et d'elements nutritifs apparaissent comme variables dependantes. Les variations des revenus des menages ainsi que de la taille et de la composition de la famille vont de pair avec des variations notables des quantites d'aliments et des habitudes de consommation; mais les modifications correspondantes de la consommation d'6lements nutritifs sont beaucoup moins marqu6es. Les substitutions entre les groupes d'aliments permettent donc aux m6nages de maintenir de maniere relativement efficace leur ration nutritive, quelque soit le revenu et la taille et la composition de la famille. Les conclusions portant sur les effets des prix sur les habitudes de consommation sont relativement ambigues puisque ces prix sont en partie le reflet de differences qualitatives, qui doivent etre 6tudiees plus avant. 11 apparait neanmoins que les fluctuations des prix se traduisent par des substitutions importantes. La conclusion de cette etude est que l'on peut envisager un eventail assez large de politiques nutritionnelles fondees sur des modifications des revenus et des prix relatifs, puisque la consommation d'aliments et d'6lements nutritifs repond de maniere spectaculaire a des modifications de ce genre. On ne sait pas encore exactement les effets que les modifications des revenus et des prix ont sur la qualite des aliments achetes par les menages, et pour consequent, sur la nutrition. A mesure que les revenus augmentent, les menages mangent de plus en plus de riz. Cependant toute politique des prix ayant pour objet de reduire cette dependance doit tenir compte du fait qu'aucun produit ne peut remplacer a lui seul le riz comme source d'elments nutritifs. Les donnees recueillies semblent aussi sugg6rer que mime les r6gimes alimentaires des menages aises et instruits sont mal equilibres. Pour reduire la malnutrition en Indonesie, il ne faudra pas seulement relever le niveau des revenus mais aussi celui de l'education alimentaire. EXTRACTO La finalidad de este documento es estimar el nivel de consumo de alimentos y nutrientes de la poblaci6n de Indonesia; identificar los grupos de poblaci6n afectados por deficiencias de nutrientes; senialar las fuentes principales de los diferentes nutrientes, y estimar 'La elasticidad de la demanda de alimentos y de nutrientes tanto en funci6n *lel ingreso como de los precios. La fuente de datos utilizada es la Encuesta Socioecon6mica Nacional de 1978 (SUSENAS 1978), que contiene informaci6n sobre las cantidades consumidas de unos 120 articulos alimentarios y sobre los gastos correspondientes. Se presentan estimaciones del consumno de alimentos y nutrientes de diferentes grupos de poblaci6n, deE;glosadas por categoria de gastos familiares, por regi6n y por zona de residencia. La proporci6n de la poblaci6n afectada por deficiencias de diferentes nutrientes se ha estimado comparando el consumo de alimentos y el consumo implicito de nutrientes de cada familia de la muestra con las. necesidades reales de la familia, teniendo en cuenta la composici6n de la. misma por edades. La conclusi6n a que se liega es que en Indonesia hay graves deficiencias de todos los nutrientes y que este problema radica mas en la mala distribuci6n que en la insuficiente disponibilidad de alimentos en general. El problema suele ser mas serio en Java que en las islas exteriores y afecta en mayor grado a las familias mas pobres que a las mas pudientes. Al examinar los origenes de los diversos nutrientes es muy notable el predominio del arroz como elemento participante de muchos de ellos. La estimaci6n de la demanda de alimentos y nutrientes en funci6n del ingreso y de los precios se basa en un modelo de maximizaci6n de la utilidad familiar del que se deriva la demanda de alimentos y, por tanto, de nutrientes de la familia. Para elaborar la estimaci6n se ha usado la funci6n logaritmica doble, tomando como variables dependientes las cantidades de alimentos, calorias y nutrientes. Las variaciones en los ingresos familiares y en el tamaiio y composici6n de la familia dan lugar a marcadas variaciones de la cantidad y modalidad de consumo de alimentos, pero las modificaciones correspondientes del consumo de nutrientes son mucho menos marcadas. Asi, las sustituciones entre grupos de alimentos resultantes de las variaciones del ingreso y del tamanio y composici6n de la familia contribuyen en forma bastante eficiente a mantener el nivel de ingesti6n de nutrientes de las familias. Los resultados concernientes a los efectos de los precios en la modalidad de consumo de alimentos son bastante tentativos, dado que estos precios reflejan en parte diferencias cualitativas del consumo que exigen un estudio mias a fondo. No obstante, ya es evidente que a medida que los precios varian tiene lugar una considerable sustituci6n de alimentos. En el documento se llega a la conclusi6n de que hay amplio margen para adoptar politicas nutricionales basadas en las variaciones de los ingresos y de los precios relativos, dado que el consumo de alimentos y la nutrici6n reaccionan en grado bastante espectacular a esas variaciones. En la actualidad no se sabe exactamente c6mo reaccionan las familias ante las variaciones de los ingresos y los precios en cuanto a la calidad de los productos que compran, ni que efecto tiene esto en la nutrici6n. Cuando los ingresos aumentan, tambi6n aumenta la, dependencia del arroz. Sin embargo, cualquier politica de precios tendiente a reducir esa dependencia debe tener en cuenta los datos que indican que ningun alimento, por si solo, puede sustituir al arroz como una de las principales fuentes de la mayoria de los nutrientes. Ademas, los datos senialan claramente que las dietas inadecuadas tambien prevalecen entre los grupos de mayores recursos y nivel de instrucci6n. Por lo tanto, para aliviar el problema de la malnutrici6n en Indonesia no s6lo se requiere elevar el nivel de ingresos sino tambien mejorar la educaci6on en la esfera de la nutricion. Table of Contents Page I. Introduction 1 II. The Data and the Setting 4 2.1 The Data 4 2.2 The Setting 7 2.2 1 Food Consumption Patterns 9 2.2.2 Food Prices 17 2.2.3 Consumption of Calories and Other Nutrients 19 2.2.4 Deficiencies in Calories and Other Nutrients 19 2.2.5 Profiles of Populations Deficient in Calories, Protein and Vitamin A 24 III. Conceptual and Analytical Considerations 30 IV. Sources of Variations in the Demand for Foods and Nutrients 37 4.1 Sources of Calories and Other Nutrients 37 4.2 Total Expenditure Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients 41 4.3 Price Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients 46 4.4 Size Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients 50 4.5 Efficiency in Food and Nutrition Consumption 53 V. Summary and Conclusion 59 Appendix Tables 63 Annex 1: Grouping of Foods 69 Annex 2: Problems Associated with Deficiencies of Nutrients 71 References 72 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper was prepared under the World Bank's Research Project 672-19, "Poverty, Fertility and Human Resources in Indonesia". The authors would like to express their appreciation to the Central Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia for making available the SUSENAS 1978 data tapes to the project. Patterns of Food Consumption and Nutrition in Indonesia Dov Chernichovsky Oey Astra Meesook I. INTRODUCTION Indonesia is generally thought to have a nutrition problem among its population which, until recently, has been associated with shortages of rice, Indonesia's basic staple. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has estimated that the nutritional status of a significant portion of the population, especially of children, is below standard. - Along with basic calorie and protein deficiencies, micronutrient deficiencies of vitamin A, iodine and iron are also believed to be prevalent. Because of lack of suitable data, no direct link has yet been esta- blished between mortality, morbidity, and nutritional status, on the one hand, and food consumption, nutrition, and income, on the other. 2/ The problem of malnutrition in Indonesia can be traced to poverty and lack of education on 2/ Only scanty information is available on this matter. See S. Tabor, "SUSENAS V - Preliminary Evaluation of Consumption Trends and Nutritional Status", mimeo, USDA, Washington D.C., 1979; T.J. Ho, "Economic Status and Nutrition in East Java", World Bank, Washington D.C., mimeo. 3/ See T.J. Ho, op. cit. nutrition. It is compounded by a high degree of dependence on rice, of which Indonesia is a major consumer and thus can influence the worLd price. The above state of affairs has led to the formulation of three major policy objectives: - (i) An overall increase in both the production and consumption of food. (ii) Diversification of the diet to avoid excessive reliance on any one staple, particularly rice. (iii) Stabilization of food consumption of vulnerable groups: the poor, pregnant and lactating women, and children. As far as the first policy objective goes, Indonesin has made sub- stantial gains in food production. The production of rice has increased at about 4.0% per annum over the last decade, while population qrew at about 2.4% per annum, implying an increase in the average per capita consumption of domestically-produced rice. At the same time, however, the reliance on rice as the major staple increased; it represented 72% of total staple consumption in 1980, compared with 68% during the 1970-75 period. This wras probably related to changes in incomes and the pricing policies of the: 1970's in which the price of rice was kept low relative to the prices of other major staples such as cassava, wheat and corn. It has been pointed out that total food availability in Indonesia is now more than sufficient to meet average nutrition requirements of the popu- - 3 - lation. 1/ How this increase in total food availability translates into improvements in food and nutrient intake depends on its distribution among the population. The effect of changes in incomes and relative prices as a result of improvement in food production on the consumption levels and patterns of dif- ferent population groups is a critical issue in the design of food policies and programs. The issue relates to the households' decision-making process insofar as it affects nutritional intake. The response of households to changing opportunities may well be inconsistent with the basic policy objec- tives and with the improvement in the level of welfare of the population as perceived by the policy makers. The objective of this paper is to study the relationship between food and nutrient consumption and household characteristics in Indonesia. It is proposed to estimate the level of consumption of food and nutrients for the population; to identify population groups with nutrient deficiencies; to iden- tify the major sources of different nutrients; and to estimate income and price elasticities of demand for both foods and nutrients. The data source for the study is the National Socio-Economic Survey for 1978 (SUSENAS 1978). The next section gives details of the data set and presents estimates of food and nutrient consumption of different population groups, with breakdowns by household expenditure class, region, area of resi- dence, and whether the household is deficient in calories, protein and vitamin A. The estimates are available for different seasons of the year and these are shown as well. In addition, this descriptive material is used to identify 1/ World Bank, Report No. 3795-IND, Indonesia: Financial Resources and Human Development in the Eighties, May 1982. (This is an internal document with restricted circulation.) the groups with consumption of nutrients below the recommended levels and hence are most vulnerable to nutrition-related problems. Section III gives some conceptual and analytical considerations which are followed in Section IV by estimates of income and price elasticities of demand for foods and nutrients, information which would be critical for the design of income and price policies to improve food consumption patterns and the level and pattern of nutrition in Indonesia. II. THE DATA AND THE SETTING 2.1 The Data The data used in this study are from the data tapes of the National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS) conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics in 1978. The survey was carried out in four rounds each covering a three- month period; these were centered around February, May, August, and November. The sample size was over 6,300 households in each round, with a total for all four rounds of over 25,000 households. Each observation of each of the subsamples is treated separately in this study. .1 This approach combines the panel characteristics of the data that are important for variations in prices, with cross-sectional properties. The basic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. The regional and urban/rural distributions of the sample, shown in columns 1 and 2, are almost identical to those of the 1971 Population Census and the 1976 Intercensal Population Survey. Nearly two-thirds of the 2/ Because of problems with the data tape for the August round, only the remaining three rounds were used in the analysis. According]y, figures showing average values are averages for the three rounds only. -5- Table 1: BASIC SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS, SUSENAS 1978 DATA, INDONESIA, 1978 Region Population Rural Average % Age 10 Household Population Household & above monthly Size expenditure (%) (%) (persons) (%) (Rp) Java 65.76 83.67 4.6 71.8 23,574 DKI Jakarta 3.55 0.00 5.7 71.9 82,197 West Java 20.38 89.27 4.4 70.5 24,795 Central Java 17.98 90.00 4.8 70.8 17,183 DI Yogyakarta 2.09 84.72 4.7 76.6 21,840 East Java 21.76 86.84 4.5 73.3 18,585 Outer Islands 34.24 82.48 5.2 67.6 31,437 Sumatra 17.22 81.79 5.3 67.3 33,309 Bali & Nusatenggara 5.38 92.65 5.0 68.0 22,719 Kalimantan 4.63 75.30 5.0 68.0 34,120 Sulawesi 6.72 81.63 5.3 67.9 31,582 Maluku & Irian Jaya 0.29 58.12 5.7 68.4 40,799 Indonesia 100.00 83.39 4.8 70.8 26,233 ** Exchange rates applicable for the period are $ 1 = Rp 415 before November 15, 1978; $ 1 = Rp 625 after November 15, 1978. Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. 1/ Based on the second round of the survey conducted in May 1978. -6- population are concentrated on Java. outside of the capital city of Jakarta, most of the remainder of Java is classified as rural. Rural areas contain a slightly smaller proportion of the total population in the Outer Islands. The SUSENAS sample thus provides a representative geographical distribution of the population of Indonesia. Average household size, shown in column 3, is 4.6 persons overall. Javanese families tend to be smaller than families in the Outer Islands. This phenomenon, associated with Java's relatively low fertility rate, is consis- tent with the figures in column 4, which show a higher proportion of persons age 10 and above in Java than in the Outer Islands. 2/ Household monthly consumption expenditure will be the basic welfare indicator used in this study. Column 5 presents this indicator which varies substantially from around Rp 17,000 in Central Java to over Rp 30,000 in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Jakarta shows a very high average expen- diture. Likewise Maluku and Irian Jaya where the urban population is overre- presented in the sample. Average monthly expenditures are lower in Java than in the Outer Islands, and they also show more variation. This is further shown in Table 2 in which expenditure ranges are given which divide households into the lower 40%, middle 30% and upper 30%. The classification is done .1/ See World Bank, Employment and Income Distribution in Indonesia, World Bank Country Study, Washington, D.C., July 1981, Table 1.1, p.4, and Appendix Table 1. I/ For specific regional demographic and economic characteristics, see Dov Chernichovsky and Oey Astra Meesook, Regional Aspects of Family Planning and Fertility Behavior in Indonesia, World Bank Staff Working Patper No. 462, May 1981. -7- Table 2: CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY TOTAL MONTHLY CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURES, INDONESIA, 1978 Range of Household Expenditure Class Monthly Expenditures (Rp) Java Outer Islands Lower 40% up to 12,999 up to 22,999 Middle 30% 13,000-23,999 23,000-35,999 Upper 30% 24,000 or more 36,000 or more Notes: The bottom category actually contains 39.2% of the population in Java and 40.2% in the Outer Islands; the middle category contains 30.8% and 29.5% respectively. Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. separately for Java and the Outer Islands; it can be seen that the bottom 40% in the Outer Islands is more "affluent" than that in Java. 2.2 The Setting The data, of which we use the months of February, Miy and November, provide information on the quantities of, and expenditures on, approximately 120 food items. lb simplify the discussion, we have grouped similar food items into thirteen major groups as follows: rice, corn, wheat, cassava, potatoes, fish, meat and poultry, eggs, dairy products, vegetables, legumes, fruits, and other. An attempt was made to keep the items in each group as homogeneous as possible except that the last category is basically a residual one, containing those items not found in any other group. 1/ However, the nutritional values of foods were calculated on the basis of individual food items. ./ An adjustment was made for food and nutrient consumption from "food. and beverages outside the home" based on the household's exptnditures on these in relation to the expenditures on food consumed at home. Price information was not explicitly available in the data. Average implicit prices were obtained by dividing the expenditure on any particular item by its quantity (whenever positive values and quantitie3 were reported.) This issue will be discussed further in the next section. 2. For a detailed list of items in each food group, see Annex 1. 2/ The conversion was based on two highly consistent sourcen: United States Department of Agriculture, Nutritive Value of Foods, Home Garden Bulletin No. 72, Washington D.C., 1971 and FAQ and USHEW, Food Composition Tables for Use in South East Asia, Washington D.C., 1972. -9- 2.2.1 Food Consumption Patterns The shares of expenditures on major consumption categories in total household expenditures are shown in Table 3. On average 68% of the house- hold's total expenditures are spent on food. Across regions, Jakarta has the lowest food share and Kalimantan the highest. The rural population spends relatively more on food than the urban population, an indication of the relative affluence of the urban dwellers. Seasonality does not have much effect on the food share. As expected, the food share falls with. rising incomes. While the poorest 40% of households allocate 73% of their total expenditures to food, the richest 30% allocate 59%. It is possible that the latter figure is an overestimate if the upper income groups underreport nonfood expenditures. Table 3 shows the variations in the allocation of the household budget to different expenditure categories with rising incomes. The budget shares of all nonfood categories generally, and in particular "goods and services", "durable goods', schooling and health-related expenditures which are "luxury items", increase with rising total expenditures. Table 4 gives the proportions of the household food budget allocated to each food group. For the total population, rice accounts for one-third of total food expenditures, other staples for another 7%; fish, meat and poultry for 9%; eggs and dairy products for 2%; vegetables, legumes, and fruits for 13%; and other items which include oil, butter, sugar, bread and drinks for the remaining 35%. Table 3: PROPORTIONS OF TOTAL HDUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES ALLOCATED TO) MAJOR CONSUMPTION CATEGORIES BY REGION, LOCATION, SEASON, AND EXPENDITURE CLASS, INDONESIA, 1978 Food Alcohol & Housing 6 Clothing 6 Goods & Durable Taxes 6 Parties 4 Tobacco Fuel Footwear Services Schooling Health Goods Insurance Ceremonies Indonesia 68.00 4.92 12.32 5.10 4.27 1.10 1.09 1.86 1.20 2.59 Region DKI Jakarta 51.19 5.30 22.11 4.64 12.71 2.88 1.84 1.64 1.47 1.11 West Java 71.04 4.05 12.89 4.68 3.71 0.90 1.01 1.73 0.84 1.31 Central Java 65.92 4.48 13.30 4.92 4.51 1.18 1.24 1.75 1.88 3.63 DI Yogyakarta 59.23 4.25 12.73 6.75 8.62 2.89 2.13 2.78 1.35 4.51 East Java 64.50 4.96 13.64 4.89 4.36 1.14 1.32 2.12 1.10 4.99 Sumatra 70.14 6.26 9.60 5.75 4.01 1.13 0.89 2.13 1.04 1.32 Bali 6 Nusatenggara 73.41 4.33 9.78 4.75 2.83 0.81 0.77 1.31 1.26 2.59 Kalimantan 72.84 6.36 10.01 4.83 2.90 0.64 0.64 1.59 0.52 1.20 Sulawesi 72.56 4.42 9.30 5.95 2.74 0.64 0.65 1.85 1.97 1.46 Maluku & Irian Jaya 67.38 4.65 12.14 6.69 6.13 1.86 0.54 1.65 0.75 0.85 Location Urban 59.72 5.36 17.43 4.97 8.52 2.41 1.58 1.81 1.14 1.29 Rural 69.63 4.83 11.31 5.13 3.43 0.84 0.99 1.87 1.21 2.85 Season February 68.41 4.97 13.11 4.32 4.55 1.40 1.13 1.72 0.99 2.18 May 68.49 5.23 12.27 4.81 4.46 1.04 1.16 2.00 1.24 1.75 November 67.04 4.55 11.59 6.17 3.81 0.87 0.98 1.87 1.37 3.84 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 72.70 4.46 13.24 3.89 2.21 0.47 0.65 0.53 1.04 1.91 Middle 30% 69.91 5.19 11.08 5.11 3.79 0.95 0.99 1.16 1.15 2.62 Upper 30% 59.07 5.15 '2.3: e.e?. 2.09 '.?5 4.e .ec 3.42 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statiatik, Jakarta. Table 4: PROPORTIONS OF THE FOOD BUDGET ALLOCATED TO DIFFERENT FOOD GROUPS, INDONESIA, 1978 (%) Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Meat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Poultry Products Indonesia 33.90 3.65 0.61 1.88 0.74 6.56 2.48 1.07 0.72 7.30 3.16 2.53 35.40 Region DKI Jakarta 21.52 0.09 0.13 0.28 0.46 5.30 4.06 2.59 2.73 6.90 4.15 3.74 48.05 West Java 44.24 0.72 0.19 1.09 0.57 6.80 2.15 0.91 0.66 5.55 2.76 3.09 31.27 Central Java 33.73 7.40 0.48 2.44 0.51 2.38 1.19 0.64 0.47 7.98 3.80 1.63 37.36 DI Yogyakarta 25.93 2.11 0.29 2.90 0.20 0.47 0.83 0.97 0.69 9.31 3.81 1.50 50.99 East Java 27.79 7.34 1.28 3.32 0.43 4.68 2.16 1.01 0.41 7.95 4.96 1.67 37.01 Sumatra 35.00 0.15 0.32 1.10 0.99 9.94 3.36 1.35 0.96 8.50 1.79 2.81 33.72 Bali & Nusatenggara 34.39 5.46 0.96 1.56 1.82 5.42 5.40 0.99 0.28 7.03 1.93 2.82 31.93 Kalimantan 30.11 0.23 0.51 1.12 0.52 12.99 3.06 1.39 1.03 6.90 1.83 3.49 36.82 Sulawesi 31.87 2.95 0.94 1.34 1.67 13.18 2.70 1.19 0.93 5.67 1.54 4.02 32.00 F- Maluku & Irian Jaya 17.29 0.13 0.71 4.98 4.01 15.40 1.65 1.08 2.50 9.11 2.20 3.74 37.19 F Location Urban 27.89 0.40 0.25 0.50 0.53 6.90 3.91 2.03 2.03 7.20 3.85 3.39 41.12 Rural 35.11 4.31 0.68 2.16 0.78 6.50 2.19 0.87 0.45 7.32 3.02 2.36 34.25 Season February 32.97 5.45 0.99 2.04 0.72 6.34 2.13 0.97 0.73 7.11 3.08 2.80 34.65 May 33.77 3.02 0.43 1.70 0.66 6.73 2.13 1.12 0.66 7.67 3.23 2.48 36.40 November 35.02 2.43 0.40 1.91 0.84 6.62 3.23 1.10 0.76 7.10 3.17 2.29 35.13 Expenditure Class Lower 402 36.29 6.41 0.82 2.80 0.77 5.88 0.86 0.59 0.14 8.04 2.75 1.67 32.99 Middle 30% 36.86 2.68 0.48 1.65 0.69 6.75 2.04 0.96 0.49 7.05 3.14 2.42 34.78 Upper 30% 28.01 1.15 0.47 0.96 0.74 7.24 4.94 1.77 1.66 6.62 3.68 3.71 39.04 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 34.73 5.50 0.68 1.73 0.60 5.64 1.71 0.37 0.53 7.40 3.31 3.28 35.39 Not Deficient 32.91 1.45 0.52 2.07 0.90 7.66 3.40 1.29 0.93 7.19 2.97 1.90 35.42 Protein: Deficient 35.43 6.52 0.67 2.78 0.65 4.41 1.06 0.66 0.28 7.58 2.75 3.14 35.62 Not Deficient 32.89 1.76 0.57 1.29 0.80 7.98 3.42 1.33 1.00 7.12 3.44 1.60 35.26 Vitamin A: Deficient 38.75 3.54 0.55 1.80 0.35 6.32 1.86 0.79 0.45 6.02 3.01 3.16 34.78 Not Deficient 29.78 3.75 0.66 1.95 1.07 6.77 3.01 1.30 0.94 8.39 3.28 1.78 35.94 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 12 - The urban population spends proportionately less on rice, corn, and cassava (the main staples) than does the rural population, and more on meat and poultry, eggs, milk, legumes, fruits, and "other' foods. Similarly, the lower 40% allocates more of its budget to the staple foods than do the other expenditure groups, while the upper 30% spends relatively more on fish, meat and poultry, eggs, milk, and "other" foods. Within staples, the rural population spends a smaller proportion on rice and larger proportions on corn and cassava. The share of staples in the food budget declines while the share of rice within the staple group increases with rising incomes. This has clear implications for the aggregate demand of these major crops with rising incomes over time, and is consistent with the observed rising dependence on rice in Indonesia. Some minor variations in the pattern of food consumption can be seen by season. For example, less is spent on rice and more on corn and wheat in February compared with November. The major differences in the pattern of food expenditures are across regions. For example, the share of rice in the total food budget ranges from 17% in M4aluku and Irian Jaya to 44% in West Java, while the share of cassava ranges from close to zero in Jakarta to 5% in Maluku and Irian Jaya. In all major food groups there are substantial variations across regions. A comparison between the population groups defined according to whether or not they are deficient in different nutrients shows that those groups which are deficient in calories and protein spend higher proportions of their food budgets on staples, such as rice and corn, and lower proportions on fish, meat and poultry, eggs and dairy products. - 13 - Table 5 shows the proportion of the population reporting some expen- diture on each food group. Rice, vegetables, and "other" food items are consumed by the vast majority of the population. A substantial proportion of the population also reports consumption of fish, legumes, and fruits. Wheat and dairy products are reportedly consumed by only 8% and 14% of the population respectively. For most food groups, consumption is reported by a larger proportion of the urban population than of the rural population. Thus the urban popula- tion has on average a more varied diet, one which includes food items from a larger number of food groups, compared with the rural population. The excep- tions to this are corn and cassava. Corn is consumed by 26% of the rural population compared with 9% of the urban population; and 47% of the rural population consume cassava compared with 33% of those in urban areas. As expected, additional income is associated with a greater likeli- hood of consuming most foods. Corn, however, appears to be an inferior good; the higher the expenditure group, the lower the proportion of the population that consumes it. A larger proportion of the population who are deficient in calories, protein and vitamin A consume corn than those who do not have these deficiencies. One should also note the exceptionally low proportion of households in Central Java and Yogyakarta reporting consumption of fish, meat and poultry, and dairy products. For households reporting consumption, Table 6 shows per capita daily consumption in grams (except for eggs which are given in units) of the various food groups by region. Consumption of foods seems to be more similar among the population of the Outer Islands than among the Javanese. For example, per Table 5: PROPORTIONS OF HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT FOOD GROUPS, INDONESIA, 1978 (%) Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Heat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Poultry Products Indonesia 94.37 23.61 8.30 44.82 23.91 81.80 21.77 31.10 14.01 97.44 65.65 54.40 99.62 Region DKI Jakarta 99.52 6.68 14.17 29.09 37.27 90.61 52.56 66.73 52.31 97.i0 94.37 76.12 99.21 West Java 99.83 16.48 3.47 52.03 25.48 93.34 17.64 24.27 12.30 95.45 68.02 61.45 99.33 Central Java 85.47 30.87 2.91 43.40 15.04 63.80 12.11 17.87 8.11 98.88 70.58 39.90 99.55 DI Yogyakarta 96.03 16.15 1.46 52.10 12.62 22.45 11.95 28.28 13.31 97.75 87.69 45.33 99.94 East Java 88.74 39.62 9.13 48.30 16.87 74.17 20.21 30.66 6.16 99.31 83.01 38.85 99.84 Sumatra 99.80 4.49 10.46 39.84 35.92 95.95 26.54 40.93 21.96 98.72 50.79 63.05 99.74 1 Bali & Nusatenggara 95.18 37.06 7.81 33.55 27.76 70.97 37.00 30.98 5.53 90.92 44.83 59.44 99.93 ' Kalisantan 99.96 7.22 16.98 53.05 24.31 96.27 28.66 41.99 22.05 98.38 44.55 70.17 99.88 Sulawesi 98.09 35.57 22.06 36.59 27.05 95.23 23.06 38.33 19.98 94.87 37.11 76.19 99.37 Haluku & Irian Jaya 97.18 4.68 21.69 68.67 46.11 97.99 17.70 26.18 45.47 98.96 47.48 60.93 99.57 Location Urban 99.59 9.63 12.44 33.18 32.50 83.52 42.74 54.99 38.25 97.21 81.48 68.41 99.24 Rural 93.32 26.43 7.47 47.17 22.18 81.45 17.55 26.29 9.13 97.49 62.46 51.58 99.70 Season February 91.22 38.50 10.23 40.81 21.95 80.87 19.13 28.27 13.99 97.48 63.01 52.73 99.65 May 95.03 17.07 6.72 41.49 22.24 82.11 19.65 31.89 13.49 97.38 65.99 55.33 99.49 November 96.99 14.89 7.95 52.61 27.75 82.45 26.83 33.25 14.59 97.47 68.08 55.17 99.72 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 88.18 27.99 4.30 41.83 14.64 73.45 6.35 14.41 1.92 95.80 53.23 36.67 99.33 Middle 30% 97.48 22.49 6.69 46.72 22.06 84.85 16.90 29.11 8.04 97.98 66.75 54.25 99.88 Upper 30% 99.09 19.22 14.89 46.71 37.32 89.26 45.85 53.96 35.01 98.97 80.14 76.77 99.74 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 90.89 27.70 5.50 39.02 17.28 75.93 15.31 24.15 9.05 96.68 65.37 43.80 99.38 Not Deficient 98.51 18.75 11.64 51.71 31.79 88.78 29.45 39.36 19.91 98.34 65.99 67.01 99.91 Protein: Deficient 88.21 28.87 3.38 43.42 15.03 68.71 10.01 18.39 4.84 96.11 59.84 37.44 99.31 Not Deficient 98.43 20.15 11.55 45.74 29.76 90.43 29.53 39.49 20.06 98.32 69.49 65.59 99.82 Vitamin A: Deficient 94.78 19.97 5.62 41.17 10.12 78.77 15.62 22.95 8.06 95.11 62.06 44.04 99.27 Not Deficient 94.02 26.70 10.58 47.92 35.61 84.37 26.90 38.02 19.07 99.41 68.71 63.16 99.92 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 6: PER CAPITA DAILY ONDSUIPTION OF FOODS FOR HOUSEHOLS REPORTING CONSUMPTION. INDONESIA, 1978 (in grams, except for eggs which are in units) Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Heat S Eggs 2 Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Poultry Products Indonesia 340.9 215.5 67.6 176.8 107.3 43.4 32.3 0.18 20.1 147.8 49.7 100.4 225.8 Region DKI Jakarta 319.4 43.7 20.4 50.0 34.1 30.8 27.4 0.25 23.0 101.7 66.0 90.9 257.2 west Java 408.3 87.4 23.5 129.9 69.6 29.2 31.1 0.19 20.6 138.1 47.9 94.2 238.0 Central Java 275.3 272.6 150.6 212.1 132.0 15.3 20.4 0.17 19.5 154.6 47.5 75.3 206.3 DI Yogyakarta 217.1 231.3 14.2 210.6 76.6 08.1 14.5 0.17 15.3 149.1 39.7 54.7 231.0 East Java 245.5 236.3 101.3 207.4 98.6 22.7 21.5 0.15 21.6 158.1 50.9 86.7 179.3 Sumatra 412.6 109.0 52.4 180.6 93.0 68.9 36.2 0.18 18.2 152.5 52.6 114.0 251.2 Bali a Husatenggara 356.1 279.9 83.2 215.1 286.1 43.8 58.5 0.17 24.2 172.5 41.3 123.0 205.7 Kalimantan 419.7 104.3 44.8 155.0 77.6 94.4 38.4 0.17 19.1 143.5 55.2 120.2 291.4 Sulavesi 364.6 199.7 57.8 150.9 171.7 91.9 41.3 0.17 20.6 120.2 41.1 129.9 278.3 Kaluku a Irian Jaya 233.7 60.5 55.2 258.7 136.1 122.3 29.6 0.21 22.6 147.4 44.4 138.5 234.0 Location Urban 324.2 91.7 35.2 78.4 46.0 49.5 27.3 0.21 23.0 136.4 63.6 97.2 237.3 Rural 344.5 224.6 78.4 190.2 125.4 42.2 34.8 0.16 17.7 150.1 46.1 101.2 223.4 1 Season VI February 329.8 204.6 84.3 180.1 116.4 44.6 34.2 0.18 20.5 160.9 58.5 119.8 246.2 1 Nay 354.2 257.6 52.4 176.6 102.3 44.2 33.4 0.18 19.6 145.8 48.7 97.1 219.4 November 337.8 193.4 53.2 174.3 104.0 41.5 30.1 0.17 20.3 136.2 42.1 84.5 210.9 EXpenditure Class Lower 40% 310.7 261.6 110.1 215.2 157.7 34.2 32.2 0.16 24.6 143.4 41.2 88.1 181.0 Middle 30% 346.3 194.6 73.1 170.2 117.4 41.4 30.2 0.15 18.2 142.0 43.3 92.8 211.5 Upper 30% 369.3 155.2 49.8 139.5 76.6 54.8 33.1 0.20 20.2 158.8 62.1 113.0 295.5 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 260.8 225.8 61.5 122.8 78.0 25.9 19.0 0.13 16.3 115.6 36.1 58.7 147.8 Not Deficient 428.7 197.3 71.0 225.3 126.2 61.2 40.6 0.21 22.2 185.5 65.7 132.8 317.9 Protein: Deficient 246.8 235.3 74.3 172.8 101.3 17.0 13.9 0.11 15.3 107.8 63.9 53.9 137.3 Not Deficient 396.5 196.7 66.3 179.8 109.3 56.6 46.4 0.19 20.9 173.7 24.7 117.9 283.8 Vitamin A: Deficient 327.1 195.6 60.9 162.2 60.3 33.6 23.6 0.14 16.4 97.0 38.3 61.7 172.8 Not Deficient 352.7 228.1 70.6 187.4 118.6 51.2 36.6 0.19 21.5 189.1 58.5 123.3 270.5 2 Eggs are given in units. Sources SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 16 - capita daily consumption of cassava, a main staple, ranges from 47 grams in Jakarta to 209 grams in Central Java, while in the outer Islands the range is much smaller, from 150 grams in Sulawesi to 258 grams in Maluku and Irian Jaya. Overall, consumption is higher in the Outer Islands, particularly in Bali, and Maluku and Irian Jaya. Of course Table 6 has to be interpreted in conjunction with Table 4 which shows the proportions of households reporting consumption of different food groups. There is no significant difference between the urban and rural con- sumption of rice, the major staple, or of fish and "other' food items. However, of the households reporting consumption, the rural population con- sumes more of most other food groups, with the exception of milk, legumes, and eggs. Consumption of meat, while higher in rural areas of the Outer Islands, is consumed in similar quantities in urban and rural areas on Java. Finally, fruits are consumed in larger quantities in the urban areas of Java and in the rural areas of the Outer Islands. For most foods, no pronounced seasonal variations in consumption are apparent. A very general pattern emerges for corn, wheat, fish and "other" foods: consumption is highest in February and lowest in November. Consumption of vegetables also appears to be at its lowest in November. Clearly, households which are deficient in calories and protein consume less rice, by margins of about 40%, than those which are not. The former rely more on corn, but the difference in per capita consumption levels is small. Households poor in calories also report lower consumption of cassava and potatoes. Vitamin A deficiency appears to be associated with relatively low consumption levels of potatoes, fish, dairy products, vege- tables, legumes and fruits. - 17 - 2.2.2 Food Prices The SUSENAS data were collected in both urban and rural areas in all the provinces of Indonesia. Moreover, the survey was conducted in four rounds during different seasons of the year. Variations in food prices across regions and seasons will be used in this paper to derive price elasticities of demand for foods and nutrients. The implied price for each food group was calculated by dividing total consumption expenditure on each group by the total quantity of the group. The results are shown in Table 7. Residents of Jakarta and Maluku and Irian Jaya face the highest prices for most food groups, while prices are lowest in Central Java and Bali. The exception to this is the "other" foods category which shows the highest average price in Central Java and moderate prices in Maluku and Irian Jaya. Prices are generally higher in urban than in rural areas. There are no significant seasonal price variations for most food groups, although a few exhibit very general patterns. The price of cassava is highest in February, while the prices of corn, fish, meat and legumes are highest in November. As would be expected, rich households pay higher prices for all foods. This is also reflected in the price differences between population groups with and without nutrient deficiencies. However, the calorie-deficient population pays a somewhat higher price for rice compared with that without the deficiency. Table 7: PRICES OF FOODS FOR HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING CODNSUMPTION, INDONESIA, 1978 (In Rupiah per kilogram except for eggs which are in Rupiah per unit) Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Meat a E99gg I Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits other Poultry Products Indonesia 141 68 122 28 70 361 941 38 736 106 178 109 445 Region DKI Jakarta 156 105 146 45 129 620 1123 51 862 258 204 206 767 West Java 140 73 148 24 70 401 978 43 702 92 141 120 369 Central Java 136 53 89 21 43 293 966 33 730 66 157 88 778 DI Yogyakarta 139 43 114 22 58 363 948 31 762 80 143 107 560 East Java 137 65 91 25 50 341 939 32 826 65 158 99 317 Sumatra 152 72 139 30 100 371 1015 43 648 161 202 113 361 Bali & Nusatenggara 132 69 145 36 60 337 559 18 839 107 217 103 339 Kalimantan 147 90 162 32 111 384 978 52 737 107 276 125 427 Sulavesi 144 63 130 51 76 328 750 41 642 125 238 101 300 Maluku & Irian Jaya 157 67 163 54 145 343 1159 62 679 154 310 149 464 Location Urban 153 82 142 36 111 462 1071 45 759 151 198 157 552 Rural 139 65 118 27 62 341 914 36 731 96 174 100 424 Season February 148 67 124 31 70 341 913 38 714 104 168 107 541 May 128 62 116 27 70 355 908 37 750 106 177 112 405 November 149 76 126 26 69 388 1007 38 744 106 189 109 387 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 139 63 115 27 59 324 902 34 738 91 166 96 335 Middle 30% 141 68 121 27 67 349 936 38 733 105 176 107 375 Upper 30% 149 74 131 31 86 419 994 42 737 125 194 129 651 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 144 66 114 27 63 349 944 36 749 96 169 108 535 Not Deficient 139 70 131 30 77 376 936 40 721 117 188 111 338 Protein: Deficient 138 64 110 26 58 348 939 35 754 91 166 102 565 Not Deficient 143 70 129 30 77 370 941 40 724 115 185 114 366 Vitamin At Deficient 138 67 119 29 68 353 938 37 741 109 172 109 423 Not Deficient 144 69 124 28 71 368 943 39 732 102 183 109 464 The price of eggs is given in Rupiah per egg. Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 19 - 2.2.3 Consumption of Calories and other Nutrients Per capita daily consumption of different nutrients is shown in Table 8 which essentially summarizes all the differences shown in previous tables. -! Consumption of nutrients is generally higher in the Outer Islands than in Java. The residents of Sumatra and Kalimantan show especially high intakes of nutrients, while the residents of Central Java and Yogyakarta have relatively lower intakes. The population of Sulawesi apparently consumes less calcium and vitamin C than elsewhere. Overall, the consumption of nutrients does not vary significantly between urban and rural areas. Consumption of fat is slightly higher in urban areas, while the consumption of calories, carbohydrates and vitamin C is higher in rural areas. Protein and vitamin A consumptions are higher in the urban areas than in rural areas of Java; the reverse holds in the Outer Islands. There are no significant seasonal variations in the intakes of different nutrients. 2.2.4 Deficiencies in Calories and Other Nutrients The estimated per capita daily consumption of nutrients given in Tables 8 can be compared with estimated minimal requirements reported in .1/ The reader should note that these consumption levels are derived from information on purchased foods. The impact of the level of income/expendi- tures is evident across the board. The higher the levels of household expen- ditures, the higher the level of consumption of nutrients. The figures suggest that households deficient in calories and protein are also likely to be deficient in other nutrients. The differences between purchases and actual intakes may be substantial for a variety of reasons. Table 8: PER CAPITA DAILY CONSUMPTION OF NUTREINTS, INDONESIA, 1978 Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C (calories) (grams) (grams) (grams) (sg.) (mg.) (int. unit) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) Indonesia 1987 50.94 30.59 38t 290 9.73 5687 0.89 0.70 14.7 152 Region DKI Jakarta 1946 56.03 45.31 333 335 9.21 4967 0.93 0.70 13.5 136 West Java 2097 53.97 26.13 409 257 8.65 3770 0.86 0.67 16.2 138 Central Java 1605 38.53 21.60 321 262 8.57 5346 0.77 0.62 10.7 135 DI Yogyakarta 1584 35.09 25.56 312 293 9.26 3691 0.78 0.57 9.4 125 East Java 1664 41.81 26.01 326 299 9.61 4783 0.84 0.67 11.5 122 Sumatra 2408 62.20 42.75 445 333 11.55 8244 1.01 0.82 18.3 242 Bali a Nusatenggara 2229 55.44 33.22 430 287 11.1 11241 1.08 0.77 16.7 153 Kalimantan 2431 67.30 36.88 456 348 11.16 5831 1.98 0.76 19.6 151 sulawesi 2253 62.21 37.93 419 252 9.98 5041 0.91 0.69 18.5 117 Maluku a Irian Jaya 2010 57.14 43.23 352 347 10.51 8184 0.86 0.78 15.2 221 Location Urban 1912 53.91 37.07 344 308 9.44 5361 0.90 0.70 14.0 141 Rural 2002 50.34 29.27 388 286 9.79 5754 0.89 0.70 14.9 154 Season may 1990 52.10 30.85 380 291 9.94 5720 0.91 0.72 15.0 155 November 1983 49.71 30.29 381 288 9.50 5652 0.86 0.67 14.5 149 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 1747 41.97 23.20 346 254 8.56 5367 0.76 0.62 12.6 146 Riddle 30% 1988 49.95 28.63 385 274 9.58 5337 0.88 0.67 14.6 146 Upper 30% 2279 62.90 41.54 418 349 11.30 6423 1.05 0.81 17.4 165 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 1406 35.67 19.49 275 203 6.86 3734 0.64 0.52 10.4 102 Not Deficient 2697 69.62 44.14 509 395 13.23 8074 1.19 0.92 20.0 212 Protein: Deficient 1356 29.54 16.47 275 187 6.34 3643 0.56 0.46 9.2 98 Not Deficient 2408 65.24 40.01 451 358 11.99 7052 1.11 0.35 18.1 188 Vitamin A: Deficient 1721 41.92 38.27 338 198 7.11 1648 0.70 0.50 12.3 69 Not Deficient 2238 59.49 22.47 421 376 12.20 9508 1.07 0.87 17.0 230 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 21 - Table 9. These requirements have been set for three broad age categories, namely individuals under 5, between 5 and 10, and 10 and over, according to tables calculated for the Indonesian population. 1/ The average requirements were set for each age group. An additional 15% of the average was added to the minimum to allow for pregnant and lactating women. For calories, the minimal requirements are as follows: Age Grou Minimal Daily Caloric Requirement Under 5 1166 5-9 1654 10 and over 2126 The minimal per capita daily requirement of calories for a region, for example, would be the average requirement which takes into account the distribution of the population among the three age categories listed above. Thus a region with a relatively high proportion of children would have a relatively low minimal average requirement. Table 9 gives the estimated minimal per capita daily requirements of nutrients by region. We can see that the provinces of Java, which have higher proportions of the population in the age group 10 and over compared with the Outer Islands, also have higher average requirements of calories, as would be expected. 2.1 From Djumpaolias et. al., National Workshop on Food and Nutrition, Bogor, 10-14 July, 1978. Table 9: ESTIMATED MINIMAL PER CAPITA DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF NUTRIENTS, INDONESIA Calories Protein Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C (calories) (grams) (mg.) (mg.) (int. units) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) Indonesia 1933 40.43 0.56 13.76 3291 0.78 1.10 12.84 28.55 Region DKI Jakarta 1926 40.35 0.56 13.77 3286 0.78 1.10 12.80 28.60 West Java 1935 40.51 0.56 13.79 3300 0.79 1.10 12.86 28.62 Central Java 1937 40.56 0.56 13.79 3305 0.79 1.10 12.87 28.64 DI Yogyakarta 1978 41.60 0.57 14.06 3413 0.80 1.13 13.15 29.24 East Java 1958 41.04 0.56 13.90 3354 0.79 1.12 13.01 28.88 Sumatra 1909 39.82 0.56 13.59 3227 0.78 1.09 12.69 28.19 Bali 6 Nusatenggara 1917 40.01 0.56 13.64 3147 0.78 1.09 12.74 28.30 Kalimantan 1914 39.94 0.56 13.63 3240 0.78 1.09 12.72 28.26 Sulawesi 1907 39.76 0.56 13.58 3220 0.78 1.09 12.67 28.15 Maluku & Irian Jaya 1913 39.97 0.56 13.66 3246 0.78 1.09 12.71 28.34 Location Urban 1929 40.41 0.56 13.78 3291 0.78 1.10 12.82 28.60 Rural 1939 40.43 0.56 13.75 3291 0.79 1.10 12.84 28.54 Season February 1930 40.39 0.56 13.75 3287 0.78 1.10 12.83 28.55 May 1935 40.48 0.56 13.76 3296 0.79 1.11 12.86 28.57 November 1932 40.41 0.56 13.75 3289 0.79 1.10 12.84 28.54 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 1961 41.19 0.57 13.97 3372 0.80 1.12 13.04 29.03 Middle 30% 1913 39.91 0.56 13.62 3226 0.78 1.09 12.71 28.23 Upper 30% 1916 39.97 0.56 13.63 3242 0.78 1.09 12.73 28.26 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 1932 40.40 0.56 13.74 3287 0.79 1.10 12.84 28.51 Not Deficient 1933 40.46 0.56 13.77 3296 0.79 1.10 12.85 28.60 Protein: Deficient 1938 40.54 0.56 13.77 3301 0.79 1.11 12.88 28.60 Not Deficient 1929 40.36 0.56 13.74 3284 0.78 1.10 12.82 28.52 Vitamin A: Deficient 1936 40.51 0.56 13.77 3299 0.79 1.11 12.87 28.59 Not Deficient 1929 40.36 0.56 13.74 3284 0.78 1.10 12.82 28.53 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 23 - To continue to discuss caloric requirements, deficiencies in the consumption of calories can come about because the average consumption falls short of the average requirement and, in addition, because whatever calories are available are not distributed according to requirements. The first says that there are not enough total calories to satisfy everyone's minimal requirements. The second says that, even if there are enough calories in the aggregate, because some people are consuming more than their minimal require- ments, there are others who do not consume enough to satisfy their require- ments. Comparing Tables 8 and 9, the estimated total availability of calories in Indonesia comes to 104% of what would be required to meet everyone's needs.1/ However, when the comparison is made on a regional basis, we see that there is a problem of aggregate availability of calories in all the provinces of Java, as well as a slight shortfall in Maluku and Irian Jaya, whereas there are more calories than the estimated requirements in all the other regions in the Outer Islands. This suggests that there may be quite a serious problem of caloric deficiency in Java. In Central Java and Yogyakarta, the available calories come to only 82% and 77% of what would be required. If those in Yogyakarta who do not have a deficiency consume exactly their minimal requirement of calories and no more, while those with a deficiency consume on average 1,300 calories (87% of the average), then 70% of the population would have a defi- ciency in calories. The optimistic aggregate picture in the Outer Islands does not imply that there would be no deficiencies in calories there. As pointed out earlier, distributional problems would mean deficiencies for some. The data 1/ This compares with an estimate of daily per capita calorie supply of 2,272 calories in 1977, or 102% of requirement, given in the World Development Report 1982. - 24 - for the Outer Islands are aggregated into major islands; there could be a great deal of variation.among the provinces within each one. Estimates of the proportion of the population with deficiencies in different nutrients are given in Table 10. These estimates are obtained on a case-by-case basis for all the sample households so that the household's food consumption and the implied nutrient consumption are measured against the household's own requirements, given its age distribution. Note that an implicit assumption is made that there are no distributional problems within the household; that is, if the household total requirement for a nutrient is met, then all the household members are considered to have satisfied their requirements. 2.2.5 Profiles of Populations Deficient in Calories, Protein and Vitamin A The data presented thus far show considerable variations in food and nutrition consumption patterns across regions, locations (urban/rural) and by income class. The next step requires an explicit association between consump- tion patterns, market conditions and household characteristics. In this sec- tion we address the basic characteristics distinguishing households which meet minimal requirements in calories, protein and vitamin A, and those which do not. Such a distinction, combined with the regional differences discussed before, may help in the formulation of policies aimed at target groups defined according to some broad population characteristics. Tables 11, 12, and 13 give a comparison of the characteristics of households meeting calorie, protein and vitamin A requirements, and households which do not. In both Java and the Outer Islands, the most significant dis- criminating factor between the two groups is household monthly expenditures. Moreover, households with deficiencies are larger than those without them. Table 10: PROPORTIONS OF THE POPULATION WITH NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, INDONESIA, 1978 Calories Protein Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Indonesia 54.32 39.75 0.06 81.82 45.92 48.97 86.49 47.86 11.80 Region DKI Jakarta 55.76 28.16 0.03 86.72 41.46 44.60 86.57 52.89 16.25 West Java 47.59 30.55 0.00 87.49 56.61 49.28 88.16 33.57 15.84 Central Java 74.29 63.46 0.00 85.67 47.86 60.68 89.93 73.01 10.92 DI Yogyakarta 81.46 74.20 0.00 87.87 54.20 62.69 95.71 89.46 10.57 East Java 72.21 56.81 0.17 84.19 53.31 54.59 89.97 70.58 11.12 Sumatra 29.80 17.06 0.06 71.94 24.58 34.13 78.91 22.22 04.50 Bali & Nusatenggara 44.55 36.58 0.00 74.85 34.50 41.10 81.47 38.95 16.05 Kalimantan 39.93 14.14 0.00 72.52 40.51 39.60 82.39 18.10 09.08 Sulavesi 41.55 22.87 0.00 79.59 52.27 47.06 84.63 28.14 19.66 Maluku & Irian Jaya 53.91 32.96 0.43 79.19 31.07 53.10 80.58 43.60 03.37 Location Urban 57.90 33.05 0.11 83.23 39.47 47.25 85.26 49.61 12.17 Rural 53.59 41.09 0.05 81.54 47.21 49.31 86.74 47.50 11.72 1 t'3 Season February 52.98 39.18 0.05 77.66 40.64 46.05 83.35 47.78 11.80 1 May 55.63 38.93 0.11 82.71 47.69 50.13 86.61 46.77 13.46 November 54.31 41.22 0.01 85.26 49.59 50.80 89.69 49.10 10.02 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 68.83 58.09 0.11 87.77 52.49 63.87 90.88 62.91 15.79 Middle 30% 53.04 36.71 0.01 84.16 48.75 49.11 88.33 45.22 11.48 Upper 30% 37.37 19.27 0.04 72.08 34.90 30.15 i9.21 31.57 07.11 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 11: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HOUSEHOLDS DEFICIENT AND NOT DEFICIENT IN CALORIES, INDONESIA, 1978 JAVA OUTER ISLANDS Household Deficient Not t-statistic Deficient Not t-statistic Characteristic Deficient for difference Deficient for difference Household Monthly Expenditure (Rp) 26931 57214 -12.9 27771 40039 -14.1 Number of Members of Age 0-4 0.804 0.713 2.3 1.201 0.888 9.6 5-9 0.583 0.495 2.8 0.781 0.628 5.5 10 + 3.610 3.389 2.8 3.912 3.266 11.0 % of Households with Education of Head of Household Elementary School 0.507 0.478 1.3 0.563 0.582 -1.2 Junior High School 0.070 0.091 -1.8 0.095 0.103 -0.9 Senior High School 0.046 0.134 -7.7 0.083 0.088 -0.6 Higher Education 0.008 0.038 -5.3 0.020 0.016 0.8 Z of Households with Some Income from Agriculture 0.516 0.485 1.4 0.482 0.608 -8.0 Industry 0.169 0.134 2.3 0.094 0.073 2.4 Services 0.529 0.507 1.0 0.460 0.363 6.2 Government 0.094 0.174 -5.8 0.166 0.151 1.3 Transfers 0.931 0.948 -1.6 0.860 0.882 -2.1 Z of Households Urban 0.575 0.527 2.3 0.410 0.622 -13.5 Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, May round, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 12: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HOUSEHOLDS DEFICIENT AND NOT DEFICIENT IN PROTEIN, INDONESIA, 1978 JAVA OUTER ISLANDS Household Deficient Not t-statistic Deficient Not t-statistic Characteristic Deficient for difference Deficient for difference Household Monthly Expenditure (Rp) 21846 50416 -12.8 25022 37318 -11.3 Number of Members of Age 0-4 0.748 0.794 -1.2 1.075 1.006 1.7 .5-9 0.582 0.529 1.7 0.871 0.648 6.5 10 + 3.615 3.466 2.0 4.342 3.338 13.9 % of Households with Education of Head of Household Elementary School 0.500 0.495 0.2 0.574 0.574 0.01 Junior High School 0.051 0.100 -4.4 0.071 0.107 -3.0 Senior High School 0.028 0.117 -8.3 0.043 0.097 -4.8 Higher Education 0.002 0.032 -5.5 0.009 0.020 -2.1 % of Households with Some Income from Agriculture 0.576 0.446 6.4 0.574 0.550 1.2 Industry 0.183 0.136 3.2 0.110 0.074 3.3 Services 0.498 0.543 -2.2 0.468 0.388 4.1 Government 0.067 0.167 -7.6 0.085 0.175 -6.3 Transfers 0.934 0.939 -0.5 0.849 0.879 -2.2 % of Households Urban 0.632 0.497 6.7 0.528 0.533 -0.2 Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, May round, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 28 - Table 13: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HOUSEHOLDS DEFICIENT AND NOT DEFICIENT IN VITAMIN A, INDONESIA, 1978 JAVA OUTER ISLANDS Household Deficient Not t-statistic Deficient Not t-statitic Characteristic Deficient for difference Deficient for difference Household Monthly Expenditure (Rp) 27243 47987 -9.2 27502 39651 -13.8 Number of Members of Age 0-4 0.766 0.781 -0.4 1.115 0.958 4.7 5-9 0.588 0.516 2.3 0.703 0.686 0.6 10 + 3.651 3.411 3.2 3.642 3.471 2.8 Z of Households with Education of Head of Household Elementary School 0.520 0.473 2.3 0.569 0.577 -0.5 Junior High School 0.068 0.088 -1.8 0.079 0.113 -3.5 Senior High School 0.038 0.117 -7.3 0.072 0.095 -2.4 Higher Education 0.003 0.034 -5.6 0.016 0.019 -0.6 S of Households with Some Income from Agriculture 0.541 0.468 3.6 0.574 0.542 2.0 Industry 0.178 0.135 2.9 0.083 0.081. 0.2 Services 0.516 0.528 -0.6 0.397 0.409 -0.8 Government 0.085 0.160 -5.7 0.155 0.159 -0.4 Transfers 0.934 0.940 -0.6 0.875 0.972 0.3 X of Household Urban 0.595 0.520 3.7 0.490 0.560 -4.33 Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, May round, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 29 - Th expenditure and household size differences between Java and the Outer Islands suggest that in the Outer Islands the presence of deficicies, in calorie consumption in particular, may be more related to poverty than in Java. Education is a discriminating factor between the calorie-deficient and nondeficient populations in Java, but not in the Outer Islands. In the latter region, education is more significant in explaining the consumption of protein and vitamin A. The finding of the relative insignificance of educa- tion in the consumption of calories in the Outer Islands supports the notion that in these islands poverty may be the key issue, while in Java other fac- tors may be important as well. Households are also classified by their sources of income. In general, the likelihood of households with incomes from industry and agricul- ture failing to meet minimal nutritional requirements is smaller than those with incomes from other sources. Surprisingly, we find that a household reporting income from government employment is more likely to be deficient in each of the nutrients compared with a household not reporting any income from this source. A major difference between Java and the Outer Islands is that in the Outer Islands a household reporting income from agriculture is more likely to be deficient in calories than otherwise; the opposite holds for Java. This last point is probably reflected in the rural/urban differen- tials. Rural households are more likely to be better-off in terms of nutri- tion in Java, and worse off in terms of vitamin A in the Outer Islands. Next, we turn to the determination of the specific causes of varia- tions in food consumption and nutrition. This may help in understanding how households have become deficient in nutrients and in selecting policy instru- ments to alleviate the situation. - 30 - III. CONCEPTUAL AND ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS In this section, we outline some basic theoretical and practical considerations which will guide us in dealing further with the data described in the previous section. Our basic objective here is to estimate marginal propensities to consume and demand elasticities for various foods and nu- trients. These elasticities are the best available indicators of how house- holds may respond to policies which change relative prices and the level and distribution of income. In addition, we wish to examine the effects of other variables, primarily household size and composition, education of the spouse of the household head (presumed to be the homemaker), as well as sources of income. These variables are believed to be critical in the determination of food and nutrition consumption but are not readily amenable to policy interventions. 1/ We assume that households operate in a competitive food market and that "foods" constitute a (weakly) separable branch of the household's utility function which is identical for all households. This particular branch can be expressed either as a function of a vector of n food items, F., denoting both type and quantity, u = u (F1, F2, ...... 0, Fn or as a function of m nutrients (m < n) which are a linear transformation of foods through a matrix containing n x m coefficients aij (i=1, ....,n; j=1,...., m) 1/ On the relevance and use of elasticity estimates for policy options, see Reutlinger and Selowsky (1978). - 31 - which transform foods into nutrients. That is: 1/ t1= u'(N1, N 2' Nm (2) This assumption permits us to treat food or nutrient consumption as if the household preallocates a particular budget to foods before entering the market and maximizes its utility subject to this budget preallocation. Furthermore, we assume that the household does not increase or decrease con- sumption of particular foods and nutrients with changes in the consumption of other "nonfood' goods and services, unless these changes affect its budget allocation to food. This general approach is supported by the relatively high shares of food in the household budget. Hence, we may a priori consider the family's relevant budget con- straint as its expenditures on food (Ef). We thus have a basic demand system with n equations of the type: Fi =fi(P" P21 *' Pn' Ef, R) (3) where (P1, P21 . . ., Pn) is a vector of food prices and R is a set of relevant control variables which are discussed below. The implied "demand" for nutrients is thus N = gj (P1, P2, * * . n' Ef, R). (4) .1/ We do not explicitly discuss here the different approaches possible. We might also consider that equation (1) is derived from equation (2). That is, we assume that a sophisticated consumer's demand for foods is derived from his demand for a particular diet. See Lancaster (1966) for a theoretical discus- sion and Chernichovsky (1977) for an application of this. The arguments in (1) and (2) can be put in per capita or per adult-equivalent terms. - 32 - As the demand for (and consumption of) nutrients is the prime concern of this paper, we shall focus on a few important parameters. The implicit demand for each nutrient, N., (j = 1, 2, . . ., m), is a linear tranformation of the entire foods vector: n N. = z a$.F N . ij Fi 1 =1 where ac. is a coefficient transforming a particular quantity of food Fi into a certain quantity of nutrient, Nj. This tranformation implies that the sensitivity of demand for a particular nutrient to a change in income or expenditures, its income or expenditure elasticity n, is n c nNiE $-1 j iFnE (6) Correspondingly, the relevant price elasticity of demand with respect to a particular price, say P1, is n a Fi NjP1 $- iJ (7) NiP N. FP Equations (5) and (6) indicate that the impact of changes in income and price on the consumption of nutrient Nj is a function of the share of each particular food item Fi in the total consumption of this nutrient (kij N i i ) and of the income and price elasticities of that food. I Relationships (6) and (7) are of particular interest. They signify that the effect of a change in income or in price Pi on the consumption of a - 33 - particular nutrient is a function of the impact of the change on the entire food basket. It is not at all clear, a priori, how a particular change will affect the consumption of particular nutrients, unless we know the income and price elasticities for each food as well as its share in the consumption of each nutrient, kij. It is thus clear that, with a change in incomes or relative prices, the resulting change in consumption of foods with low income or price elasticities may have a significant impact on the consumption of a particular nutrient, Nj, if these foods are significant sources of that nutrient. By the same token, the resulting change in the consumption of foods with a low con- tribution to N. may also have a significant impact on the consumption of Nil if these foods have high income or price elasticities of demand. These general considerations emphasize the significance of our empirical analysis, which must deal with both income and price elasticities, as well as the shares of particular foods in the consumption of nutrients (k.) ij - Next we turn to some basic empirical and computational considera- tions. First, we deal with the definitions of the relevant variables. As indicated in the previous section, foods have been grouped into 13 major cate- gories. In relation to this grouping, prices present a serious conceptual and empirical problem. As price information is not directly available in the data, which give only the total expenditure on, and the quantity of, each food item, prices have had to be defined as the average expenditure per item for the group (Pi = Ei/Fi). This average implicit price does not necessarily represent the marginal price that consumers face, but is the only information available. - 34 - For those households reporting no expenditure at all on a particular item, a local average price was assigned on the assumption that each household faces an average price common to its area at any given time. 1/ Hence any given price (Pi) is defined as the total expenditure on a particular group consisting of k items, divided by total quantities, measured in homogeneous units, in this group. Hence, k E = k __ __ __ (8) i k 2. k Q-1 QQ Q-E_1 RE which is a weighted average price per kilogram of a group of foods. The weights are the quantity shares of each food in the group. The price thus becomes a function not only of the average individual prices of foods, but also of the relative quantities consumed within each food category. As a result, households buying more expensive items face higher group prices. The discussion of prices leads to Theil's notion of a quality- quantity trade-off that may be particularly relevant here (Theil 1952). We assume that items within each group are close substitutes, and that people 1/ To make the computation practical for each region (defined previously), we estimated separately for Java and the outer Islands: K M p = p0 + E a.d. + ad + E ykdk+ V g g i=1 u IklYk= k where Pg is the average price of a group; di are dummy variables representing K subregions; d u is a dummy variable representing urban location; and dk are dummy variables representing the different months. - 35 - prefer one item to another because of various qualitative differences, mani- fested in prices. As wealthier households tend to buy more expensive foods, the group price becomes a function of household income and other household characteristics such as size, composition, etc. 1/ From the relationships discussed thus far, we can also derive an implicit price of a nutrient. When foods are measured in identical units, say kilograms, and each food (group) has a price P per kilogram, one can define the following: N N. i- 1i ij = 1 pN is thus the price of nutrient j coming from a kilogram of a particular basket of food. This price is seen to be a function of all previous variables: the relative contribution of various foods to any particular nutrient; the particular mix of food groups in any given diet; the particular composition of any food group; and of course food prices. This measure (PN. can be used as a general indicator of efficiency in consumption with regard to different nutrients, as it conveys the effects of compositional changes in the food basket on costs of nutrients. In this paper we focus on the quantitative aspects of consumption which lead to actual consumption of nutrients. It should be noted that prices for relatively highly aggregated groups, particularly meat and poultry, and fruits and vegetables, may vary systematically with income/expenditures. 2.1 This general problem may already exist in the case of individual food items; wealthier households may be paying higher average prices for them. - 36 - For empirical purposes, we use household monthly expenditures, instead of just expenditures on food as advocated earlier by conceptual consi- derations. The two variables are highly correlated and thus make almost no difference from a statistical viewpoint. Furthermore, household expenditures are commonly accepted as a good proxy for permanent income and come closer to any operational concept of income. Household size and composition enter the demand equation through the numbers in three age groups: children 0-4, children 5-9 and members ages 10 and above. 13 3 4 Ln(F.) = Bo+ 8 Ln(E) + E O.Ln(P.) + E y S + E 6kDk+ p (9) 1 0 e =1 1 3. s=1 k=1kk where Fi = quantity of food of type i purchased E = household monthly expenditure Pi= price of commodity i Ss = number of household members in age group s Dk = dummy variable for education/source of income An alternative reduced form of this function would replace Fi by nutrients N. (j = 1,..., m). ) Finally, we discuss the choice of functional form and the actual estimation procedure. We have chosen the double-logarithmic function in expenditures and prices. While the proposed function does not meet the general restrictions applying to demand equations, its practical appeal and - 37 - its descriptive properties are overriding. -/ Similar analyses, (Alderman and Timmer, 1980; Chernichovsky, 1977) point to the goodness of fit of this func- tion. Food and nutrition consumption, as well as incomes, are known to have skewed distributions; the logarithmic transformation brings them closer to normality. Furthermore, since we are dealing with a full range of foods and particularly of nutrients, it is efficient to obtain direct elasticities which are independent of the units of measurements of quantities. The problem with this function of forcing constant elasticities over the entire income/expen- diture or price range is mitigated to some extent by confining part of the discussion to the population deficient in calories, broken down by Java and the Outer Islands. IV. SOURCES OF VARIATIONS IN THE DEMAND FOR FOODS AND NUTRIENTS In this section, we report and discuss the estimated income and price elasticities of demand for foods and nutrients, as well as the effect of household characteristics on consumption patterns. The analysis is done separately for Java and the Outer Islands, and for households which are deficient in calories. 4.1 Sources of Calories and Other Nutrients As suggested earlier by the conceptual framework, a clearer under- standing of how changes in incomes and relative prices affect the consumption of nutrients requires an appreciation of the contributions of different foods to the various nutrients. These are given for the lower 40% and upper 30% 21 Households with zero expenditure on any food item are assigned a value of .001 in the regression analysis. - 38 - expenditure classes for Java and the Outer Islands in Tables 14 and 15. Calories come primarily from rice, which also contributes substan- tially to protein, carbohydrates, thiamine, iron, riboflavin, niacin and, to a lesser extent, fat. Cassava and corn are also important contributors of calories, especially among the poor in Java. Fish, legumes, fruits and vegetables are other important nonrice sources. It is important to note that the dependence on rice as a source of calories increases with income. Next to rice, fish is an important source of protein, especially in the Outer Islands. Other sources are vegetables and legumes. It is clear from the tables that, as people get wealthier, they tend to get a larger proportion of their protein from meat and poultry. Fat comes in relatively substantial amounts from legumes and "other" sources, which include various fish products, oils, and coconut. Again the wealthier households tend to get a higher proportion of fat from "other" products and meat, and less from rice and vegetables. Carbohydrates come primarily from rice and cassava, as well as other food products. To a lesser degree this is the case for corn among the poor. For the poor, calcium comes primarily from cassava, vegetables and legumes. Fish plays a major role as a source of calcium in the Outer Islands. Similarly, iron comes primarily from vegetables, legumes and cassava, especially in Java and among the poor. Fish is also important as a source of iron in the Outer Islands. Vitamin A comes primarily from fruits and vegetables, as well as corn and potatoes. For the poor, corn is relatively more important, while for the better-off, it is potatoes and fruits. Table 14: SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS, JAVA, INDONESIA, 1978 (X) Expenditure Group Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Rice - Total 57.30 44.92 13.16 64.27 9.46 30.29 0.00 45.00 25.92 53.51 0.00 Lower 40S 52.95 43.21 15.45 57.68 9.53 28.70 0.00 42.66 23.74 48.88 0.00 Upper 30X 58.67 43.28 9.25 68.84 8.31 29.63 0.00 44.39 26.10 55.59 0.00 Corn - Total 5.13 5.58 4.61 6.50 1.55 5.18 8.43 6.25 5.81 6.74 2.98 Lover 402 8.29 8.90 7.52 10.59 2.44 7.66 11.05 9.06 8.87 10.84 4.84 Upper 30X 2.26 2.42 1.88 2.76 0.65 2.69 5.32 3.56 2.67 2.73 0.93 Wheat - Total 0.91 0.90 0.76 0.97 0.40 1.02 0.53 1.41 0.74 0.87 0.00 Lower 40X 1.27 1.19 1.21 1.32 0.49 1.28 0.70 1.67 0.95 1.09 0.00 Upper 30X 0.66 0.73 0.38 0.75 0.34 0.90 0.25 1.37 0.61 0.79 0.00 Cassava - Total 9.16 3.06 2.08 10.47 10.94 8.06 0.00 5.60 1.36 4.25 11.26 Lover 402 12.96 4.58 3.29 14.42 14.04 11.03 0.00 7.50 1.75 5.90 10.96 Upper 302 5.04 1.50 0.81 6.11 6.86 4.63 0.00 3.38 0.84 2.41 10.07 Potatoes - Total 1.12 0.69 0.55 1.30 1.74 1.40 7.14 1.68 1.28 1.02 2.88 Lover 402 1.10 0.69 0.65 1.22 1.61 1.27 5.62 1.52 1.13 0.90 2.29 Upper 30X 1.06 0.63 0.37 1.31 1.61 1.40 8.06 1.74 1.30 1.14 3.26 Fish - Total 1.67 11.53 2.38 0.00 10.78 4.42 0.96 0.65 4.31 6.70 0.00 Lover 402 1.65 11.46 2.31 0.00 10.19 4.20 0.88 0.51 4.01 6.23 0.00 Upper 302 1.71 11.25 2.34 0.00 11.02 4.57 1.13 0.82 4.49 7.30 0.00 Meat 6 Poultry - Total 0.43 1.44 1.52 0.00 0.15 0.82 0.22 0.40 0.91 1.56 0.00 Lower 402 0.09 0.34 0.40 0.00 0.03 0.17 0.05 0.09 0.19 0.31 0.00 Upper 302 0.99 3.27 3.33 0.00 0.33 1.96 - 0.48 0.94 2.11 3.62 0.00 Eggs - Total 0.19 0.53 0.86 0.00 0.43 0.53 0.96 0.26 0.96 0.03 0.00 Lover 402 0.08 0.22 0.45 0.00 0.19 0.21 0.46 0.11 0.36 0.01 0.00 Upper 30% 0.40 1.06 1.54 0.00 0.85 1.11 1.81 0.53 2.00 0.07 0.00 Dairy Products - Total 0.19 0.49 0.36 0.11 2.30 0.05 0.46 0.25 1.53 0.05 0.10 Lower 40X 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.06 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.05 Upper 302 0.55 1.39 0.93 0.33 6.49 0.14 1.20 0.72 4.35 0.15 0.20 Vegetables - Total 4.36 9.49 3.48 4.89 37.79 25.17 71.97 17.17 44.25 15.73 72.27 Lover 402 5.28 11.93 4.94 5.65 42.01 26.55 73.92 19.57 49.67 18.95 74.35 Upper 302 3.61 7.20 1.99 4.39 32.23 23.99 68.67 15.17 37.15 12.42 70.27 Legumes - Total 4.27 14.48 15.61 2.08 18.30 13.60 0.67 18.07 8.59 5.76 0.29 Lover 402 3.61 12.21 13.90 1.74 13.96 10.67 0.60 14.96 6.35 4.39 0.11 Upper 30% 5.34 17.74 17.43 2.63 24.12 17.72 0.74 22.48 11.78 7.88 0.58 Fruits - Total 1.06 0.54 0.48 1.40 1.65 2.20 6.57 1.28 1.87 1.18 7.97 Lover 402 0.66 0.35 0.28 0.85 1.00 1.30 4.18 0.83 1.14 0.71 4.70 Upper 302 1.66 0.83 0.79 2.25 2.58 3.55 10.26 1.99 2.94 1.85 12.82 Other - Total 14.16 6.28 54.06 7.97 4.44 7.21 0.94 1.92 2.39 2.55 0.97 Lover 402 11.99 4.84 49.44 6.46 4.24 6.89 0.63 1.39 1.62 1.71 0.78 Upper 302 17.98 8.57 58.87 10.55 4.54 7.64 1.72 2.82 3.59 3.96 1.37 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 15: SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS, OUTER ISIANDS, INDONESIA, 1978 (2) Expenditure Group Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Rice - Total 60.80 46.40 11.80 70.80 11.32 32.51 0.00 52.11 29.67 53.95 0.00 Lover 402 61.65 49.33 15.31 70.23 12.83 34.50 0.00 54.01 31.35 56.24 0.00 Upper 302 57.84 41.48 8.26 69.28 9.14 28.89 0.00 47.78 26.33 49.60 0.00 Corn - Total 2.47 2.66 2.24 3.02 1.37 3.12 5.62 3.94 3.31 2.75 1.41 Lower 402 3.85 4.27 3.78 4.70 2.52 4.77 8.24 5.69 5.33 4.56 2.38 Upper 30X 1.64 1.63 1.19 1.99 0.60 2.07 3.74 2.95 1.88 1.52 0.51 Wheat - Total 0.96 1.26 0.42 1.12 0.89 1.75 0.22 2.90 1.04 1.34 0.00 Lower 40X 0.53 0.66 0.34 0.61 0.51 0.91 0.29 1.44 0.59 0.66 0.00 Upper 302 1.47 1.94 0.54 1.76 1.29 2.73 0.09 4.66 1.54 2.13 0.00 Cassava - Total 4.76 1.61 1.02 5.81 7.30 4.70 0.00 3.89 1.00 2.43 9.53 Lower 40S 6.35 2.25 1.57 7.54 9.23 6.28 0.00 4.96 1.31 3.30 10.27 Upper 302 3.46 1.06 0.56 4.42 5.46 3.31 0.00 2.94 0.71 1.69 8.66 Potatoes - Total 2.02 1.42 0.96 2.39 3.32 2.77 8.77 3.49 2.56 2.15 4.66 Lower 402 2.51 1.90 1.47 2.85 4.13 3.42 7.90 4.11 3.15 2.66 5.40 Upper 302 1.66 1.03 0.54 2.10 2.70 2.27 10.28 3.04 2.08 1.76 4.19 Fish - Total 3.99 24.15 7.94 0.00 19.59 10.31 4.74 2.93 10.52 15.45 0.00 Lower 402 3.42 21.69 7.56 0.00 18.24 9.09 4.79 2.37 9.67 13.25 0.00 Upper 302 4.61 26.18 8.17 0.01 20.77 11.26 4.66 3.46. 11.28 17.48 0.00 Neat & Poultry - Total 0.95 2.76 4.01 0.00 0.42 1.93 0.38 1.45 2.15 2.93 0.00 Xr Lover 402 0.45 1.37 1.98 0.00 0.28 0.92 0.25 0.65 1.05 1.40 0.00 0 Upper 302 1.67 4.65 6.54 0.00 0.37 3.35 0.55 2.60 3.67 5.03 0.00 Eggs - Total 0.22 0.62 1.09 0.00 0.63 0.65 1.03 0.34 1.23 0.04 0.00 Lower 402 0.15 0.43 0.90 0.00 0.48 0.44 0.88 0.23 0.85 0.02 0.00 Upper 302 0.33 0.87 1.36 0.00 0.81 0.91 1.13 0.48 1.71 0.05 0.00 Dairy Products- Total 0.23 0.50 0.61 0.12 2.92 0.05 0.38 0.25 1.72 0.05 0.07 Lover 402 0.07 0.17 0.26 0.03 0.93 0.02 0.13 0.08 0.54 0.02 0.02 Upper 30X 0.45 0.96 1.06 0.24 5.62 0.10 0.71 0.49 3.35 0.10 0.11 Vegetables - Total 3.46 7.48 2.34 4.17 38.25 25.31 66.27 16.92 37.82 11.36 71.32 Lower 402 3.45 7.97 2.89 4.06 38.86 24.37 66.56 16.65 38.74 12.06 69.34 Upper 302 3.51 7.05 1.84 4.36 36.49 25.97 64.04 17.05 36.33 10.70 72.12 Legumes - Total 1.87 5.35 6.29 0.95 6.70 4.93 0.83 7.05 3.50 3.83 0.84 Lower 402 1.40 4.39 5.01 0.72 5.08 3.96 0.85 5.69 2.68 2.58 0.69 Upper 302 2.51 6.69 7.91 1.27 8.69 6.24 0.92 8.89 4.62 5.44 1.13 Fruits - Total 1.67 0.77 0.64 2.30 2.68 3.24 10.12 2.36 3.27 1.69 9.49 Lower 402 1.33 0.63 0.49 1.80 2.10 2.53 7.85 1.94 2.73 1.44 7.73 Upper 302 2.13 0.96 0.82 2.97 3.35 4.12 12.44 2.93 3.92 2.04 11.51 Other - Total 16.56 4.98 60.61 9.28 4.57 8.70 0.86 2.35 2.15 1.97 1.71 Lover 402 14.74 4.85 58.34 7.35 4.74 8.69 0.48 2.10 1.93 1.72 2.02 Upper 302 18.72 5.49 61.22 11.60 4.44 8.79 1.29 2.73 2.51 2.40 1.62 Soerce: SUSYltS 1978 data tapes, Biro Puvat Statistik, Jakarta. - 41 - In addition to rice, the major sources of thiamine in Java are vegetables and legumes. There are no noticeable differences between the two major regions. For riboflavin, vegetables again constitute a major source, next to rice. However, there is a noticeable difference between Java and the outer Islands; in the latter, fish contributes relatively more to this nutrient, while legumes are more important in Java. Niacin comes primarily from rice. In addition, it comes from vegetables and fish in the Outer Islands, and from legumes and cassava in Java. Vitamin C is basically embodied in vegetables and fruits, as well as in cassava. Fruits are more important for the rich than for the poor as a source of vitamin C. Given the importance of rice in the Indonesian diet, the intakes of all nutrients except for calcium, vitamin A and vitamin C are bound to be very sensitive to any changes in income and the price of rice, or any factor affec- ting them, even if its own income and price elasticities are low. This will be the case especially for the poor and in Java, where rice is a basic staple, accounting for a substantial portion of total household expenditures on food. For similar reasons, but to a lesser extent, the prices of cassava and vegetables are particularly important in Java. Fish is significant in the outer Islands, and so are legumes in Java as major sources of almost all other micronutrients. 4.2 Total Expenditure Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients The total expenditure elasticities of demand for foods and nutrients are reported in Tables 16 and 17 respectively, with breakdowns by expenditure Table 16: TOTAL EXPENDITURE ELASTICITIES OF DEMAND FOR FOOD, INDONESIA, 1978 Expenditure Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Meat Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruit Other Group & Poultry Products Java Lower 40% 3.022 -0.622 0.061 0.238 0.539 1.317 3.948 1.143 0.076 0.953 2.613 1.901 1.243 (16.410) (-2.52) (0.672) (0.912) (4.398) (8.120) (5.561) (7.453) (2.377) (10.649) (14.257) (10.998) (21.753) Hiddle 30% 0.914 -0.425 -0.027 0.790 1.238 1.825 2.162 2.871 0.783 0.990 1.991 3.708 0.911 (4.087) (-0.929) (0.148) (1.454) (3.884) (5.374) 8.196) (5.935) (3.900) 95.369) (5.248) (8.031) (9.573) Upper 30% 0.034 0.203 0.943 -0.074 1.673 0.979 2.534 2.544 2.203 0.559 0.653 2.617 0.696 (1.098) (2.210) (12.957) (-0.580) (14.836) (11.936) (26.233) (18.787) (23.967) (13.689) (9.383) (25.007) (25.667) Calorie-Deficient 0.903 -0.580 0.194 -0.257 0.964 0.823 1.680 2.416 1.274 0.615 1.370 2.768 0.798 Population (13.444) (-5.973) (4.457) (-2.278) (13.114) (10.927) (26.355) (23.843) (22.550) (14.319) (17.298) (29.833) (30.055) Outer Islands Lower 40% 1.149 -0.290 0.424 0.365 0.667 1.834 1.332 2.110 0.119 1.735 1.425 2.814 1.331 (14.565) (-2.041) (5.243) (2.002) (4.833) (16.703) (13.692) (13.037) (10.229) (19.505) (10.348) (16.958) (28.731) Middle 30% 0.398 -0.133 1.224 0.717 1.666 1.638 3.112 3.621 1.856 0.895 2.362 4.288 0.945 $P (4.423) (-0.399) (3.752) (1.358) (0.444) (7.429) (8.785) (6.787) (5.996) (5.565) (5.392) (9.243) (10.968) Upper 30% 0.053 0.574 1.672 0.108 1.632 0.459 3.148 3.050 2.779 0.554 2.311 2.052 0.705 (2.330) (5.453) (13.391) (0.694) (11.190) (8.650) (24.570) (18.672) (24.140) (15.510) (18.044) (17.976) (32.250) Calorie-Deficient 0.287 -0.223 0.702 0.177 0.974 1.201 2.278 2.987 1.859 1.077 2.142 3.015 0.866 Population (6.162) (-2.373) (8.851) (1.348) (8.680) (17.843) (25.109) (22.922) (22.999) (19.763) (19.811) (25.375) (27.840) Note: t-Statistics are given in parentheses. Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 17: TOTAL EXPENDITURE ELASTICITIES OF DEMAND FOR NUTRIENTS, INDONESIA, 1978 Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitanin C Java Lover 40% 0.789 0.914 1.224 0.702 0.805 0.759 0.992 0.933 0.753 0.790 0.876 (21.750) (29.203) (23.746) (19.776) (15.629) (21.624) (5.768) (27.327) (23.622) (29.497) (6.217) Middle 30X 0.543 0.682 0.952 0.479 0.900 0.660 1.535 0.652 0.642 0.559 1.450 (7.771) (10.041) (9.155) (7.116) (8.878) (9.678) (4.844) (9.528) (10.561) (9.513) (5.285) Upper 30% 0.298 0.424 0.604 0.218 0.611 0.438 0.836 0.366 0.507 0.362 0.820 (12.541) (19.388) (22.526) (9.973) (22.843) (21.287) (16.148) (20.092) (28.084) (18.561) (16.753) Calorie-Deficient 0.304 0.410 0.678 0.237 0.538 0.386 0.477 0.411 0.436 0.315 0.834 Population (14.555) (21.057) (26.125) (12.246) (21.019) (21.724) (13.645) (24.636) (27.371) (19.395) (13.582) Outer Islands Lower 40% 0.617 0.788 1.122 0.556 0.846 0.729 1.736 0.695 0.762 0.694 1.434 (18.483) (26.622) (25.999) (17.622) (22.147) (25.983) (13.558) (27.311) (31.139) (27.113) (12.497) Middle 30% 0.535 0.666 0.920 0.472 0.847 0.726 1.199 0.640 0.691 0.621 0.561 (15.398) (18.348) (12.466) (12.013) (13.479) (16.443) (7.05) (14.222) (15.727) (17.067) (3.119) Upper 30% 0.288 0.436 0.597 0.213 0.626 0.457 0.632 0.429 0.569 0.421 0.512 (16.474) (26.291) (27.845) (12.477) (28.402) (28.038) (15.347) (27.464) (30.812) (23.696) (13.645) Calorie-Deficient 0.212 0.370 0.702 0.144 0.607 0.411 1.116 0.336 0.472 0.308 0.835 Population (8.867) (18.106) (24.593) (6.482) (22.456) (21.405) (14.910) (20.632) (27.755) (16.461 (12.637) Note: t-Statistica are given in parentheses. Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 44 - class; separate parameter estimates are given for the population deficient in calories. Among the staples, including potatoes, it is clear that rice, the major staple, has the highest income elasticity of demand among low-income groups in both Java and the Outer Islands. This is particularly true for Java, where the lower 40% expenditure group is poorer than in the Outer Islands. On the other hand, among the higher-expenditure groups we find higher expenditure elasticities for corn, wheat, and potatoes. This under- lines the fact that these staples are consumed by the higher-income groups. Cassava consumption appears not to respond to any changes in income in both regions. The calorie-deficient population in Java appears, with regard to consumption of rice and corn, to have the attributes of the middle income group. It has a relatively high price elasticity for rice and a low one for cassava. These estimates show that, as household total expenditure increases, people at low incomes increase rice consumption and eventually switch to some corn, wheat and potatoes. The calorie-deficient population is inclined to increase their consumption of rice and wheat with rising incomes, and not the consumption of corn and cassava in Java. Cassava appears more appealing to the calorie-deficient population in the Outer Islands. Among the major sources of protein, namely fish, meat, poultry, milk, eggs, and legumes we find relatively high income elasticities of demand for fish and legumes among the lower income groups, and for meat, poultry, dairy products and eggs, the more expensive items, among the higher-income groups. This marks a relative shift from fish and vegetables to the other sources of protein as income rises. Among the major sources of micronutrients, namely legumes, vegetables - 45 - fruits and "other" foods, we observe almost uniformly high income elasticities of demand for fruits, especially among the middle classes, and for "other" foods and legumes among the lower classes. The total expenditure elasticities of demand for nutrients are not easy to predict from the previous discussion, as these combine the effects of total expenditures on all foods, as well as the relative contributions of various foods to different nutrients. The findings are reported in Table 17. What is commonly observed are the falling elasticities by income groups. This signifies saturation in terms of nutrients, and underscores the previous findings that households shift to more expensive foods as their income rises, while maintaining their nutrient consumption. That is, while changes in total expenditures bring about some dramatic changes in food consumption, the changes in nutrient consumption are much less pronounced. Among low-income groups, fat stands out with a high income elasticity of demand. Likewise vitamin A and vitamin C in the Outer Islands. The finding concerning fats may signify the substitution, which is apparent among the poor, from fish to meat as income rises, as well as the dependence of the poor on legumes. Vitamin A and vitamin C are known to be income-sensitive micronutrients, since they are so closely related to the consumption of particular fruits and vegetables. The relatively lower elasticities, especially for the lower-income group, in the Outer Islands, reflects the fact that the lower 40% expenditure group there is better-off than the lower 40% expenditure group in Java. In both Java and the Outer Islands, changes in incomes of the calorie-deficient population are most likely to affect their consumption of fats, vitamins A and C, and calcium. - 46 - 4.3 Price Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients We turn now to a discussion of own and cross (compensated) price elasticities of demand for foods and nutrients in which we focus on the population deficient in calories who are of the most concern to policy makers. Table 18 gives price elasticities of demand for different foods for the calorie-deficient groups for Java.and the Outer Islands separately.-1 All of the own price elasticities of demand, except for legumes and corn in Java, are negative, as would be expected. In Java, the consumption of potatoes, fish, meat and poultry, dairy products and fruits is especially sensitive to changes in their own prices; this is the case for corn, wheat, potatoes, meat and poultry, dairy products, eggs, legumes and fruits in the Outer Islands. Relatively inelastic demand for corn, vegetables and "other" food items with respect to their own prices is observed in Java, and for rice and "other" food items in the Outer Islands. The price elasticity of demand for rice is higher in Java than in the Outer Islands; a 10% increase in the price of rice will bring about a 15% decline in the quantities consumed by the calorie-deficient households in Java, but only an 8% decline in the Outer Islands, where the population is less dependent on rice. In interpreting the effects of price changes on other commodities, we focus on those cases where the cross price elasticities are not only statisti- cally significant but also relatively large. First, among the staples we clearly observe some substitution among them, although the cross price elasti- cities are not always consistent in magnitude and sign. An increase in the price of rice leads to greater consumption of corn in Java. An increase in the price of corn has a particularly strong positive impact on consumption of _1/ Only statistically significant coefficients are presented. Table 18: PRICE ELASTICITIES OF DEMAND FOR FOODS, FOR POPULATION DEFICIENT IN CALORIES, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/ Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Meat and Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Food Category Poultry Products Java Own Price Elasticity -1.48 0.52 -0.74 -1.36 -3.35 -1.95 -1.86 -1.83 -2.75 -0.81 1.07 -2.40 -0.55 Cross Price Elasticities: Rice ^ 2.69 1.13 -0.78 -1.45 1.66 0.91 0.72 -1.27 Corn 0.38 * 0.32 1.43 0.56 3.33 0.63 0.66 -0.29 Wheat 2.49 -4.36 ^ 0.73 3.00 -0.39 -0.43 -1.07 1.49 Cassava -0.79 1.33 0.61 * 0.82 0.33 0.31 0.73 Potatoes -0.50 * -0.30 -.44 -.48 Fish -0.22 -0.11 -0.25 -.25 -0.30 -.40 0.16 0.12 -0.15 Meat and Poultry -1.34 -0.89 ^ -.76 -0.68 Eggs -0.12 -0.53 -1.72 1.15 2.16 * -0.85 -1.57 -0.26 Dairy Products -.61 -0.51 8 -0.63 Vegetables 0.16 -0.66 0.27 ^ 0.16 Legumes 0.27 -0.46 0.16 0.28 0.14 0.28 -.13 ^ 0.29 0.65 Fruits -0.35 -0.29 0.19 0.30 0.16 ^ -0.08 Other -0.06 -0.55 -0.13 -0.21 -0.27 -0.24 -0.49 -0.15 -0.17 outer Islands own Price Elasticity -0.83 -3.28 -1.82 -1.47 -2.82 -1.20 -2.31 -2.88 -2.36 -1.01 -2.24 -2.14 -0.60 Cross Price Elasticities: Rice ^ 1.12 1.05 0.65 -1.12 -0.58 -1.15 -0.23 Corn 0.78 * 2.16 1.11 -0.89 -0.74 .48 Wheat -0.39 ^ 1.03 2.62 -0.55 1.73 0.89 -.87 1.38 0.25 Cassava -0.30 1.39 0.31 0.85 0.35 -0.41 -0.46 -0.27 -0.51 0.36 -0.11 Potatoes -0.32 0.21 Fish 0.24 -0.39 -0.51 0.67 ^ 0.68 0.55 0.22 0.40 meat and Poultry -1.36 1.64 0.81 ^ -0.52 0.61 -.10 Eggs -0.61 0.66 0.65 -0.74 * 0.72 0.17 -0.89 Dairy Products -0.70 -1.85 1.14 -0.72 ^ -0.85 Vegetables -0.85 -0.30 0.26 * -0.27 Legumes -0.12 0.25 0.19 0.14 -0.23 -0.37 -0.12 * Fruits 0.20 -0.48 -0.63 0.26 -0.19 0.25 -0.35 -.63 ^ -0.59 Other -0.27 -0.13 -0.38 -0.25 0.22 -0.20 Note: Statistically insignificant coefficients have been omitted. source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 48 - cassava and potatoes, especially in the Outer Islands. An increase in the price of wheat leads to increasing consumption of cassava and potatoes, as well as rice in the Outer Islands. Hence, there is a fair amount of substi- tution among the staples. Second, what is perhaps more interesting is the extent to which changes in the prices of staples affect the consumption of nonstaple foods, and vice versa, as well as the way in which the consumption of different nonstaple foods is affected by the prices of other nonstaples. The food groups the consumption of which is most sensitive to price changes in both the prices of staples and of other nonstaples are fish, fruits and vegetables in Java; and fruits in the Outer Islands. Unlike the case of fish, meat and poultry consumption is not as sensitive to the prices of any of the other food groups. The nature of the effects relates to specific food consumption patterns which are hard to study with these data. It is not clear, for example, why consumption of meat and poultry in Java is positively correlated with the price of rice. One effect may be related to the correlation between consumption of expensive varieties of rice by the rich and consumption of meat and poultry. In the Outer Islands, the situation is quite different in that the cross price elasticities tend to be lower than in Java, so that the consump- tion of a food group is less sensitive to changes in the prices of the other foods. This may reflect the fact that the population in the Outer Islands is better-off than that in Java and therefore food prices matter less in the latter region. The consumption of nutrients is affected by price changes through their impact on food consumption, given the shares in the total food budget of the food groups which are significantly affected. The price elasticities of demand for nutrients are presented in Table 19. As would be expected, given Table 19: PRICE ELASTICITIES OF DEMAND FOR NUTRIENTS, FOR POPULATION DEFICIENT IN CALORIES, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/rood Category Calories Protein Pat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Java Rice -0.35 -0.27 -0.38 0.25 -.90 -0.13 -0.41 0.51 Corn 0.08 0.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.16 Wheat 0.31 0.18 -0.29 0.33 -0.27 0.11 -1.03 -0.25 -0.21 -1.01 Cassava -0.09 -.16 -0.10 0.11 0.81 0.76 -.1- -0.09 Potatoes -0.09 -0.11 -0.06 -0.73 -0.07 -0.07 -0.17 Fish -0.14 -0.06 -0.09 Heat & Poultry -0.13 -0.02 Eggs -0.26 -0.18 0.20 Dairy Products Vegetables -0.04 -0.18 -0.12 -0.36 -0.28 -0.01 -0.42 Legumes -0.06 0 0 -0.07 -0.03 0.-5 -0.04 -0.04 0.15 Fruits -0.06 -0.20 Other -0.08 -0.11 -0.22 -0.07 -0.22 -0.15 -0.66 -0.08 -0.13 -0.08 -0.60 1 48- outer Islands Rice -0.20 -0.17 -0.24 -0.14 -0.22 0.56 Corn -0.02 0.11 0.21 Wheat Cassava -0.10 -0.12 -0.21 -0.07 -0.28 -0.07 -0.04 -0.05 -0.43 Potatoes -0.04 -0.07 -0.06 -0.36 -0.08 -0.03 -0.03 -0.24 Fish -0.04 -0.12 0.07 -0.06 -0.05 Meat & Poultry 0.16 0.20 -0.09 0.79 -0.07 0.16 0.86 Eggs -0.09 -0.06 -0.28 Dairy Products 0.07 -0.29 Vegetables -0.02 0 -0.03 -0.20 -0.12 -0.31 -0.10 -0.23 -0.05 -0.19 Legumes -0.09 -0.13 -0.23 -0.13 -0.17 -0.17 -0.10 -0.18 Fruits -0.07 -0.04 -0.17 -0.04 -0.21 other -0.05 -0.04 -0.13 -0.10 -0.19 -0.05 -0.08 -0.04 -0.33 Note: Statistically insignificant coefficients have been omitted. Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. 50 - the importance of rice as a source of nutrients, a rise in its price adversely affects the intakes of calories, protein, carbohydrates, thiamine and niacin, especially in Java. However, through the substitution of other foods, there is in fact a net increase in the consumption of vitamin A and calcium in Java, and vitamin C in both regions. The prices whose rises bring about negative effects on the consump- tion of nutrients are the price of wheat, on the consumption of calcium in Java; the price of cassava, on the consumption of calcium in the Outer Islands; the price of vegetables, on the consumption of iron and riboflavin; the price of cassava and potatoes, on the consumption of vitamin A in the Outer Islands; and the prices of cassava and wheat, on the consumption of vitamin C. 4.4 Size Elasticities of Demand for Foods and Nutrients Next we turn to the effect of the household's demographic character- istics on food consumption and nutrition. These effects are expected to be similar to those from changes in income which constrain the household's budget. 1/ The findings for the calorie-deficient population of Java and the Outer Islands are presented in Tables 20 and 21. The results exhibit some general and expected patterns. As the number of household members increases, households reduce their consumption of meat and poultry, eggs, and fruits, as well as legumes in the Outer Islands. They do so in order to increase consumption of all other categories of food; there is a notable relative increase in consumption of cassava. 2. Unlike the previous estimates, these are not elasticities, but coeffi- cients of a semi-logarithmic relationship; the marginal effect of an increase in the independent variable rises with the rise in the dependent variable. Table 20: ESTIMATED EFPECTS OF FAMILY SIZE AND COMPOSITION ON FOOD CONSUMPTION, POPULATION DEFICIENT IN CALORIES, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/Age Group Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Neat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Poultry Products Java Ages 0-4 0.087 0.097 -0.005 0.275 -0.046 0.159 -0.145 -0.158 0.274 0.170 0.027 0.038 0.064 (2.403) (1.843) (-0.24) (4.49) (-1.17) (3.909) (-4.198) (12.881) (8.951) (7.302) (0.634) (0.756) (4.455) Ages 5-9 0.098 0.115 0.029 0.356 -0.032 0.091 -0.064 -0.135 -0.186 0.103 0.014 -0.219 0.023 (2.25) (1.822) (1.031) (4.851) (-0.689) (1.873) (-1.553) (-2.055) (-5.059) (3.704) (0.285) (-3.63) (1.365) Ages 10+ 0.041 0.205 0.009 0.311 0.017 0.049 -0.112 -0.196 -0.154 0.150 0.034 -0.338 0.037 (1.749) (5.959) (0.584) (7.753) (0.67) (1.858) (-4.461) (-5.468) (-7.697) (9.872) (1.21) (-10.282) (3.926) Outer Islands Ages 0-4 0.098 0.105 0.056 0.199 0.081 0.025 -0.169 -0.23 0.072 0.058 -0.153 0.027 0.055 (5.028) (2.687) (1.687) (3.639) (1.744) (0.902) (-4.459) (-4.227) (2.155) (2.584) (-3.394) (0.553) (4.242) Ages 5-9 0.174 -0.046 0.02 0.009 0.013 0.055 -0.114 -0.39 -0.146 0.018 -0.11 -0.183 0.054 (7.795) (-1.039) (0.53) (0.143) (0.259) (1.711) (-2.62) (-6.241) (-3.79) (0.716) (-2.135) -3.211) (3.626) Ages 10+ 0.150 0.111 -0.009 0.114 0.08 -0.007 -0.127 -0.254 -0.095 0.041 -0.087 0.055 0.040 F' (12.12) (4.464) (-0.459) (3.272) (2.676) -0.409) (-5.263) (-7.327) (-4.447) (2.879) (-3.024) (4.242) (4.928) Note: t-statistics are given in parentheses. Source: Data tapes of SUSFNAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Table 21: ESTIMATED EFFECTS OF FAMILY SIZE AND C04POSITION ON NUTRIENT CONSUMPTION, POPULATION DEFICIENT IN CALORIES, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/Age Group Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Java Ages 0-4 0.138 0.130 0.11 0.144 0.141 0.116 0.202 0.116 0.127 0.134 0.195 (12.174) (12.352) (7.897) (13.76) (10.167) (12.065) (5.202) (12.918) (14.741) (15.201) (5.861) Ages 5-9 0.148 0.124 0.091 0.159 0.091 0.126 0.079 0.122 0.09 0.134 0.094 (10.879) (9.827) (5.401) (12.704) (5.464) (10.918) (1.702) (11.293) (8.684) (12.670) (2.363) Ages 10 + 0.167 0.148 0.099 0.180 0.128 0.149 0.157 0.147 0.126 0.161 0.163 (22.478) (21.473) (10.758) (26.277) (14.107) (23.734) (6.194) (24.861) (22.399) (27.919) (7.473) Outer Islands Ages 0-4 0.114 0.088 0.076 0.119 0.094 0.092 0.115 0.099 0.086 0.094 0.155 (11.406) (10.316) (6.444) (12.817) (8.404) (11.524) (3.677) (14.572) (12.177) (12.026) (5.624) LA Ages 5-9 0.146 0.120 0.063 0.159 0.062 0.103 0.04 0.122 0.079 0.130 0.03i (12.734) (12.248) (4.614) (14.91) (4.826) (11.216) (1.134) (15.605) (9.726) (14.519) (1.169) Ages 10 + 0.151 0.120 0.074 0.163 0.085 0.111 0.071 0.128 0.094 0.130 0.096 (23.782) (22.028) (9.815) (27.487) (11.961) (21.887) (3.564) (29.579) (20.809) (26.098) (5.501) Note: t-statistics are given in parentheses. Source: Data tapes of SUSENAS 1978, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 53 - As expected, with the advent of children, households consume more dairy products; these are given up when the household has a relatively larger number of adults who consume more corn and cassava. These shifts in food consumption due to variations in family size and composition do not bring about fundamental changes in the consumption of nutrients, as shown in Table 21. Cassava has a relatively important role in protecting the consumption of nutrients of larger families, although not enough to avoid a decline in terms of nutrients per capita. Nutrients which are particularly vulnerable are protein and fat, iron for children, and vitamins A and C for adults. On the whole, the Outer Islands are more vulnerable to inadequate nutrient con- sumption as a result of increasing family size. 4.5 Efficiency in Food and Nutrition Consumption Some of the major practical and conceptual issues related to food consumption concern food quality and efficiency of nutrient consumption. As is evident in the data, wealthier households buy more expensive food varieties. In fact, the estimated price elasticities incorporate a degree of quantity-quality substitution, whereby households consuming more expensive foods buy smaller quantities than households consuming relatively inexpensive foods. There are many explanations to this behavior in terms of taste, such as variety or packaging, and possible time saving in preparation. As pointed out earlier, however, a more expensive diet does not necessarily imply a - 54 - better diet in terms of nutrition. I/ Hence, from a narrow perspective of the relation between food consumption and nutrition, one can pose the question of how efficiently households attain their nutritional requirements. In other words, for given incomes and market prices, are some households better than others in attaining certain levels of nutrient intakes? We first address this question by looking at the prices that people pay for a given amount of a particular nutrient embodied in an average basket of foods comprising their diet. This is a function of food prices and the shares of foods in the provision of particular nutrients. These average prices are presented in Table 22. The results show relatively expensive diets in Jakarta and relatively inexpensive diets in East Java. Diets are more expensive in urban areas compared with rural areas, and in November compared with the other months observed. While the rich pay more for their diets than the poor, there is no evidence that the calorie-deficient population pays more than the nondeficient population. On the whole, protein and vitamins are derived from more expensive sources for the nondeficent population, compared with the calorie- deficient group. This conclusion is supported by a set of unreported regressions in which the prices of nutrients have been used as dependent variables to be explained by household monthly expenditure, family size and composition, education of the spouse of the household head, and source of income 2/ Higher levels of expenditures and smaller numbers of household members, particularly 21 Given the estimated level of calorie deficiency in Indonesia, we do not deal with the qualitative aspects of expensive diets, traces of which can be seen in the data which show higher consumption of fats and "other" foods, including soft drinks, with rising incomes. 2/ These regressions can be obtained upon request. Table 22: AVERAGE 'PRICES' OF NUTRIENTS EMBODIED IN A KILOGRAM OF FOOD Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Indonesia 125 176 105 120 171 157 179 141 177 168 170 Region DKI Jakarta 170 261 166 158 279 255 283 211 270 249 290 West Java 133 184 110 128 175 156 154 138 167 169 140 Central Java 105 131 77 106 128 122 154 118 144 133 149 DI Yogyakarta 104 131 80 106 127 126 198 127 153 138 195 East Java 106 149 88 103 135 130 151 121 153 145 146 SumaLra 143 214 120 138 203 187 206 167 209 201 191 Bali & Nusatenggara 117 167 108 112 176 155 174 140 184 161 193 Kalimantan 151 239 155 138 251 222 277 184 247 223 238 Sulawesi 132 196 122 125 199 174 218 153 197 180 200 Maluku & Irian Jaya 146 227 133 138 227 217 318 191 257 213 258 Location Urban 155 225 146 146 222 215 239 184 228 216 232 Rural 118 166 97 115 160 145 167 133 167 158 157 Season -n February 125 169 100 122 166 152 167 139 168 163 160 LA May 117 167 102 113 170 153 180 136 172 158 169 1 November 132 192 114 126 171 166 192 150 193 184 180 Expenditure Class Lower 40% 109 148 84 108 147 130 155 123 151 140 147 Middle 30% 124 171 100 121 169 152 175 139 173 163 163 Upper 30% 145 216 137 135 202 196 214 168 215 208 204 Nutritional Status Calories: Deficient 121 165 118 164 149 173 136 167 157 165 Not Deficient 129 110 112 123 179 166 187 148 189 181 174 Protein: Deficient 113 153 89 112 52 131 167 129 159 145 160 Not Deficient 132 191 116 120 183 170 187 150 189 183 175 Vitamin A: Deficient 123 169 102 120 169 151 190 137 171 160 105 Not Deficient 126 182 108 121 172 162 171 145 183 175 173 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta - 56 - of adults, are associated with higher prices for nutrients. The prices of iron and vitamin A appear to be particularly sensitive to variations in income and family size. Education has a somewhat similar effect to the level of expendi- tures. That is, higher levels of education are in general associated with more expensive diets in Java, and to a lesser degree in the Outer Islands. As far as sources of income are concerned, households reporting incomes from agriculture also report the least-cost diets, all other things equal. This presumably reflects the fact that people engaged in agriculture have easier access to food. These results suggest that the poor can to a degree "protect" their nutritional intake by obtaining their food from relatively inexpensive sources. But to the extent that the findings of previous sections indicate clearly that lower food prices in themselves do not give enough "protection' for the poor, it is important to study the effect of education and sources of income on the diet while incomes, prices, and family size and composition are controlled for. The results reported in Tables 23 and 24 show that in both Java and the Outer Islands higher education is associated with a reduction in the con- sumption of calories, protein, carbohydrates, iron, thiamine and niacin. Interestingly enough, there does not seem to be a compensating gain in any other particular nutrient. This finding, combined with that concerning prices, strongly suggests that the more educated homemakers buy more expensive foods, but at a net loss in terms of nutrition. The exception is the higher consumption levels of fats among families of homemakers with elementary schooling. Table 23; REGRgSSION COEFFICIENTS ON EDUCATION OF SPOUSE OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD, WITH CONSUMPTION OF NUTRIENTS AS DEPENDENT VARIABLES Region/Level of Education Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Java Education of Spouse of Head: Elementary School * * 0.1245 * * * * * * * * (3.3858) Junior High School -0.1397 * * -0.1409 * * * -0.1264 * -0.1303 * (-2.1301) (-2.2220) (-2.1895) (-2.3581) Senior High School -0.1939 -0.1654 * -0.1755 * -0.1800 * -0.2570 * -0.1802 * (-2.5828) (-2.1822) (-2.0203) (-2.6201) (-3.8901) (-2.8475) Higher Education * * * * * -0.3482 * -0.3920) * * * (-2.0535) (-2.4103) Outer Islands Education of Spouse of Head: Elementary School * * 0.0699 * * * * * * * * (3.1020) _ Junior High School -0.1011 * * -0.0924 * -0.0727 * -0.0982 * -0.0956 * (-2.7460) (-2.5404) (-2.2474) (-3.0926) (-3.1083) Senior High School -0.1445 -0.1022 * -0.1524 * -0.1028 * -0.1078 * 0.1199 (-3.0872) (-2.5126) (-3.2755) (-2.5002) (-2.6716) (-3.0672) Higher Education -0.2358 * * -0.2893 * -0.2113 -0.2610 * -0.2022 (-2.0350) (-2.4806) (-2.0673) (-2.6111) (-2.0905) SOURCE: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik. Jakarta. NOTE: * Statistically insignificant coefficient; income, prices of foods, sources of income and family size are controlled for; t-statistics in parentheses. Table 24: REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS ON SOURCES OF INCOME, WITH CONSUMPTION OF NUTRIENTS AS DEPENDENT VARIABLES Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Java Source of Household Income: Agriculture 0.1296 0.1103 0.1445 * 0.0739 * * 0.1099 0.1669 * (3.5184) (2.9619) (4.0209) (2.1848) (3.5622) (5.3744) Industry 0.1037 0.0783 * 0.1178 0.1051 0.0901 * 0.0918 0.0740 0.0792 0.2297 (2.9050) (2.1705) (3.3851) (2.3373) (2.7491) (2.9202) (2.4755) (2.6328) (2.0912) Government * * * * * * * * * * Other -0.1086 -0.0764 * * * -0.0976 * * * * * (-2.0438) (-1.4232) (-2.0012) Outer Islands in Source of Household Income: Cc Agriculture 0.1747 0.0932 0.0560 0.2076 0.0837 0.1279 * 0.1626 0.1085 0.1714 0.2612 1 (9.4535) (5.7950) (2.3233) (11.1598) (3.7416) (7.8441) (10.2015) (7.1841) (11.1072) (4.5557) Industry 0.0592 a * 0.0789 a a a a 0.0509 0.0567 0.1817 (2.0402 (2.7038) (2.1488) (2.3427) (2.0201) Government a a a a a a a a * a Other a a a a a a -0.1551 * * (-2.0960) SOURCE: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. NOTE: * Statistically insignificant coefficient; income, prices of foods and family size are controlled for; t-statiatics in parenthesis. - 59 - In conclusion, households engaged in agricultural and industrial activities have better diets in terms of nutrition. The relatively educated homemakers have more expensive diets at some sacrifice of a broad range of nutrients. This last point strongly suggests that there is scope for nutrition education in Indonesia, especially in Java where nutritional inadequacy is less related to income than in the Outer Islands. V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This paper has two objectives. The first is to show how food and nutrition consumption in Indonesia vary by region, location of residence, season, and socioeconomic class. The second is to identify and estimate the basic parameters which explain why households consume what they do in terms of foods and nutrients, given their characteristics and market conditions. Particular attention has been given to the estimation of income and price elasticities of demand; these are good indicators of how households will respond to changes in incomes and prices, given their demographic and other characteristics. Understanding these responses is critical for the design of policies related to nutrition. The study is based on the 1978 National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS) which was conducted in four rounds and covered some 6,300 households in each round. Among others, information concerning the quantities of, and expenditures on, roughly 120 food items was collected. We observe in the data great variations in food consumption patterns. The share of rice in household budgets ranges from 17% in Maluku and Irian Jaya to 44% in West Java. Cassava constitutes a relatively minor item in the household budget. The vast majority of the population report consumption of rice, vegetables and "other" foods. Fish, fruits, and legumes are relatively important as well. - 60 - Urban dwellers and the rich tend to have more varied diets. In this context it is important to point out that, while the budget share on staples declines with rising incomes, the share spent on rice increases, while that on corn, for example, decreases. Spatial and seasonal variations in food consumption patterns are highly consistent with observed variations in income levels and prices. Consumption of different nutrients exhibits similar patterns to food consumption. Consumption of nutrients is generally higher in the relatively more affluent Outer Islands than in Java. Generally high consumption levels are reported in Sumatra and Kalimantan, and low levels in Central Java and Yogyakarta. Calories, carbohydrates and vitamin C are consumed in larger quantities in rural areas than in urban areas. Protein and vitamin A consumption is higher in urban Java than in rural Java. The opposite holds for the Outer Islands. Although data on reported consumption should be interpreted with caution, the data strongly suggest widespread deficiencies in all nutrients. The problem is more serious in Java than in the Outer Islands, at least as far as calories are concerned. Furthermore, it appears that the problem is more one of maldistribution than of an overall shortfall in the availability of foods. The major distinguishing characteristic between households which meet minimal nutritional requirements and those which do not is the level of household expenditure, especially in the Outer Islands. Households not deficient in calories tend to be smaller and have more educated homemakers. In examining the sources of the various nutrients, the significance of rice as a contributor of most nutrients is striking. No other food group is so important from a nutritional standpoint in the Indonesian diet. Variations in household incomes/expenditures are associated with - 61 - marked variations in food consumption patterns. Except for the consumption of corn and cassava, households increase their consumption of all foods as they become wealthier. This is particularly true for wheat, potatoes, meat and poultry, milk, legumes and fruits. The same is true for nutrients, although the changes are much less dramatic than for foods. These particular findings, combined with the effects on consumption patterns of household composition, indicate that the substitutions taking place in food consumption with changes in income and family size and com- position are fairly efficient in "protecting" the nutritional intake of households. The results concerning the effects of prices on food consumption patterns are relatively tentative, as these prices reflect in part qualitative differences in food consumption which require further study. Nonetheless, it is already apparent that there is a great deal of substitution going on as prices change. Among staples, consumption of rice among low-income groups in particular is relatively sensitive to changes in its own price; people tend to substitute rice with corn and cassava, and to a relatively lesser degree with wheat. Among the relatively poor, consumption of potatoes, fish, meat and fruits is relatively sensitive to changes in the prices of these commodities. The substitution taking place when prices change is also manifested in the effect of price variation on the consumption of nutrients. We again see changes which are relatively smaller than those taking place in food consumption as prices vary. Consumption of calories, protein, and carbohy- drates is adversely affected by an increase in the price of rice to such an extent that it can hardly be compensated for by lowering the price of any particular food group. Relatively wealthy households with educated homemakers buy relatively expensive diets with some sacrifice in terms of nutrients. - 62 - Households which report incomes from agriculture are better-off, in terms of nutritional intake, than households with incomes from other sources. This suggests that agricultural households, which are relatively poor, also have easier access to their food. To conclude, the results suggest that there is wide scope for nutri- tion policies based on changes in incomes and relative prices, as food and nutrient consumption respond rather dramatically to such changes. These may come about both in terms of the numbers of households consuming different food items and the quantities consumed of various foods. It is not clear at this stage how people respond to income and price changes in terms of buying more or less expensive food varieties, and what effect this has on nutrition. As incomes rise, the dependency on rice increases as well. This dependency can be reduced by appropriate pricing policies. However, any such policies must take into account the evidence suggesting that no single food can substitute for rice as a major source of most nutrients. For example, inducing more cassava consumption at the expense of rice may increase calorie consumption but could at the same time be detrimental in terms of the intakes of other nutrients. It is clear that the problem of nutritional adequacy in Indonesia is closely associated with levels of income and rice consumption. However, the data strongly suggest that inadequate diets are prevalent among the better-off and the better-educated as well; some of them consume more expensive diets at a loss in terms of nutrition. Hence, alleviating malnutrition in Indonesia is not just a matter of raising levels of income but also of nutrition education. Appendix Table Table A.1: PER CAPITA DAILY CONSUMPTION OF FOODS, FOR HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING CONSUMPTION, BY REGION AND LOCATION, INDONESIA, 1978 (in grams except for eggs which are numbers) Region/ Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Heat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits other Location Poultry Products DKI Jakarta 300 42 19 47 32 29 26 0.236 22 95 62 86 241 Urban 300 42 19 47 32 29 26 0.236 22 95 62 86 241 west Java 402 86 23 129 69 29 31 0.184 20 136 47 93 234 Urban 345 50 28 75 42 28 31 0.242 26 130 68 121 279 Rural 409 89 21 132 74 29 31 0.167 17 137 44 89 229 Central Java 270 267 147 209 130 15 20 0.166 19 151 47 74 202 Urban 263 67 18 73 53 16 19 0.225 26 129 72 97 208 Rural 270 275 172 219 145 15 21 0.146 14 154 43 69 202 DI Yogyakarta 209 224 13 207 74 8 14 0.169 15 145 38 53 224 Urban 247 173 16 67 37 12 16 0.224 22 138 59 73 196 Rural 202 225 10 217 85 7 13 0.150 10 146 35 47 229 East Java 241 234 101 206 97 22 21 0.148 21 156 50 85 177 tJ Urban 264 112 35 75 43 23 22 0.164 24 140 65 75 197 Rural 237 239 110 222 113 22 21 0.142 18 158 47 88 174 Sumatra 406 108 52 179 92 68 36 0.181 18 150 52 112 247 Urban 349 49 39 90 47 68 28 0.191 19 148 52 98 209 Rural 418 114 57 194 104 68 38 0.177 18 151 52 116 256 Bali a Nusatenggara 349 276 83 213 281 43 58 0.164 24 169 44 122 202 Urban 369 151 52 100 54 45 33 0.211 21 157 39 68 192 Rural 347 281 87 219 292 43 61 0.157 25 170 41 126 203 Kalimantan 411 104 44 153 75 92 38 0.163 19 141 54 118 286 Urban 342 73 50 94 52 95 29 0.177 20 159 58 9i 275 Rural 433 114 42 168 84 91 41 0.158 18 135 53 127 290 Sulawesi 361 199 57 150 171 91 41 0.170 20 119 41 129 276 Urban 359 152 51 103 84 100 44 0.210 20 141 40 105 234 Rural 361 205 59 157 184 89 40 0.161 21 114 41 134 285 Maluku & Irian Jaya 231 60 55 258 136 121 30 0.204 22 146 44 137 231 Urban 295 61 41 121 84 108 23 0.237 25 186 54 110 263 Rural 183 60 75 315 173 131 52 0.140 18 118 28 166 208 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Appendix Table Table A.2: PER CAPITA DAILY CONSUMPTION OF FOODS, FOR HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING CONSUMPTION, BY REGION AND SEASON, INDONESIA, 1978 (in grams except for eggs which are numbers) Region/ Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Meat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Season Poultry Products DKI Jakarta 300 42 19 47 32 29 26 0.236 22 95 62 86 241 February 319 54 18 46 29 33 30 0.236 20 98 68 112 255 May 294 29 21 49 35 28 24 0.247 23 92 56 72 237 November 286 23 19 47 32 26 25 0.224 22 96 62 71 232 West Java 402 86 23 129 69 29 31 0.184 29 136 47 93 234 February 384 81 27 132 76 30 35 0.215 22 143 60 118 265 Kay 420 174 24 126 69 29 26 0.173 20 137 45 86 228 November 402 60 16 128 63 27 31 0.174 19 127 37 73 207 Central Java 269 267 147 209 130 15 20 0.166 19 151 47 74 202 February 246 242 163 226 113 15 21 0.149 17 180 58 87 236 May 291 323 34 196 139 16 21 0.187 22 150 44 65 191 November 267 267 30 205 134 13 19 0.161 19 122 37 72 178 DI Yogyakarta 209 224 13 207 74 8 14 0.169 15 145 38 53 224 February 201 241 11 155 83 8 13 0.222 11 152 36 54 226 May 205 207 17 197 57 9 12 0.139 10 143 41 50 237 November 221 48 15 245 77 7 17 0.165 20 139 38 55 209 East Java 241 234 101 206 97 22 21 0.148 21 156 50 85 177 February 221 255 116 205 92 24 25 0.146 25 162 55 89 195 May 266 226 95 214 85 24 19 0.147 16 149 51 93 171 November 233 200 77 199 115 19 21 0.149 22 157 44 72 163 Sumatra 406 108 52 179 92 68 36 0.181 19 150 52 112 247 February 404 113 53 184 109 71 37 0.191 19 167 68 142 255 May 413 101 48 184 87 68 35 0.178 17 144 47 102 248 November 401 106 54 168 81 63 35 0.173 17 140 42 92 239 Bali & Nusatenggara 349 277 83 213 281 43 58 0.164 24 169 41 122 202 February 339 301 81 219 362 40 54 0.171 28 170 36 122 219 Kay 373 310 92 195 279 50 70 0.165 20 189 48 130 204 November 334 187 76 224 230 40 48 0.155 25 145 36 113 183 Kalimantan 411 104 44 153 75 92 38 0.163 19 141 54 118 286 February 414 160 49 142 81 101 38 0.139 18 165 64 152 291 Kay 406 79 38 154 67 92 43 0.168 19 137 58 100 271 November 412 79 44 165 78 84 34 0.179 19 122 44 97 297 Sulawesi 361 199 57 150 171 91 41 0.170 20 119 41 129 276 February 348 181 67 149 198 89 42 0.166 20 132 36 136 303 Kay 362 254 53 168 161. 93 41 0.176 18 113 44 149 257 November 372 161 52 136 160 90 40 0.169 23 113 42 101 269 Maluku & Irian Jaya 231 60 55 258 136 121 30 0.204 22 146 44 137 231 February 239 63 50 245 118 111 25 0.196 23 151 44 151 247 May 230 53 56 266 158 123 38 0.203 21 147 45 162 233 November 223 66 59 261 133 130 28 0.215 23 140 43 92 213 Sources SUSENA6 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statietik, Jakarta. Appendix Table Table A.3. PRICES OF FOODS, BY REGION AND LOCATION, INDONESIA, 1978 (In Rupiah per kilogram, except for eggs) Region/ Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish meat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits Other Location Poultry Products DKI Jakarta 157 104 147 45 127 620 1126 51 864 251 204 206 767 Urban 157 104 147 45 127 620 1126 51 864 251 204 206 767 West Java 140 71 154 24 69 401 989 45 690 88 167 119 369 Urban 152 85 191 32 114 538 1108 49 727 103 181 172 517 Rural 139 70 137 23 60 386 951 43 670 87 165 112 352 Central Java 137 53 92 21 46 291 1004 35 741 66 182 91 779 Urban 153 60 138 28 67 414 1028 40 705 92 183 131 582 Rural 135 53 84 20 42 279 993 33 763 63 181 84 802 DI Yogyakarta 139 42 141 22 56 351 1017 33 757 78 152 114 561 Urban 154 35 142 29 99 519 1002 35 776 84 149 138 893 Rural 137 42 140 21 44 315 1029 32 745 77 152 107 501 East Java 138 66 100 26 52 322 972 34 830 65 172 103 318 Urban 150 65 125 30 90 392 1037 42 811 96 185 140 474 0' Rural 136 66 97 25 41 313 939 32 853 60 169 93 294 Sumatra 152 69 147 29 106 371 1041 45 647 160 198 115 362 Urban 156 81 147 31 125 382 1157 45 669 168 184 138 444 Rural 152 68 147 28 100 369 1001 45 637 158 202 108 344 Bali & Nusatenggara 133 70 135 36 45 344 602 36 779 96 211 103 339 Urban 140 73 144 46 108 352 660 40 865 95 227 134 578 Rural 132 70 134 36 42 343 594 35 741 96 209 101 320 Kalimantan 148 89 163 32 115 386 983 53 751 165 286 125 428 Urban 153 99 149 38 140 355 1082 56 740 146 243 159 423 Rural 146 86 168 31 106 396 945 51 759 171 309 114 429 Sulawesi 144 62 133 51 76 329 782 41 647 119 232 101 300 Urban 149 70 124 52 94 368 999 47 649 114 260 130 425 Rural 143 60 135 51 73 321 714 39 646 120 225 95 273 Maluku & Irian Jaya 158 102 163 54 140 344 1295 63 678 153 308 152 465 Urban 137 104 167 62 174 426 1415 66 706 156 294 182 579 Rural 173 100 157 51 116 286 872 58 638 152 331 121 383 Source: SUSENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Appendix Table Table A.4: PRICES OF FOODS, BY REGION AND SEASON, INDONESIA, 1978 (In Rupiah per kilogram, except for eggs) Region/ Rice Corn Wheat Cassava Potatoes Fish Heat & Eggs Dairy Vegetables Legumes Fruits other Season Poultry Products DKI Jakarta 157 104 147 45 127 620 1126 51 864 251 204 206 767 February 154 93 142 49 139 691 1123 52 790 256 199 171 609 N4ay 155 109 137 46 118 618 1076 52 898 261 208 244 912 November 161 127 160 43 127 652 1181 50 898 236 207 206 778 West Java 140 71 154 24 69 401 989 45 690 88 167 119 369 February 148 70 165 26 63 371 899 47 698 93 152 121 346 May 123 78 149 24 69 392 989 45 679 88 162 111 401 November 150 79 138 21 73 439 1047 43 692 83 186 127 362 Central Java 137 53 92 21 46 291 1004 35 741 66 182 91 779 February 147 52 87 26 56 272 939 37 767 60 179 105 1477 t4ay 120 50 140 20 42 290 960 34 699 61 177 92 494 November 147 64 127 17 43 317 1091 33 743 78 189 79 338 DI Yogyakarta 139 42 141 22 56 351 1017 33 757 78 152 114 561 February 148 40 147 28 58 395 949 34 774 63 164 142 462 Nay 126 44 136 23 71 308 1049 35 809 79 146 103 801 0' November 145 56 135 17 44 350 1040 31 711 93 147 104 406 East Java 138 66 100 26 52 322 972 34 830 65 172 103 318 February 146 62 101 31 56 326 959 36 737 65 165 105 281 t4ay 121 62 96 25 52 320 962 33 859 71 172 104 315 November 148 77 102 21 47 320 987 33 964 57 177 99 361 Sumatra 152 69 147 29 106 371 1041 45 647 160 198 115 362 February 158 73 145 28 100 340 967 43 648 155 179 110 333 May 139 56 148 28 103 362 1001 44 643 162 205 114 351 November 161 72 150 30 113 412 1134 48 650 163 209 120 402 Bali C Nusatenggara 133 70 135 36 45 344 602 36 779 96 211 103 339 February 142 73 123 42 41 344 587 36 818 133 210 116 336 t4ay 122 66 142 32 56 339 574 34 732 70 209 101 290 November 133 73 139 36 42 348 649 36 797 85 214 94 396 Kalimantan 148 89 163 32 115 386 983 53 751 165 286 125 428 February 146 81 161 32 98 354 975 51 769 148 269 129 384 Kay 143 92 178 32 120 365 880 52 759 176 284 131 407 November 153 93 155 33 123 437 1071 55 731 170 301 117 491 Sulawesi 144 62 133 51 76 329 782 41 647 119 232 101 300 February 154 67 125 56 82 301 854 41 628 104 237 105 259 May 140 50 131 47 67 330 724 38 689 131 224 93 309 November 139 67 140 50 78 356 782 43 622 122 236 105 330 Maluku & Irian Jaya 158 102 163 54 140 344 1295 63 678 153 308 152 465 February 152 96 167 53 154 358 1340 61 690 148 302 163 444 Nmay 155 100 162 51 125 346 1096 63 659 144 302 145 431 November 166 128 160 59 142 327 1399 67 682 169 322 148 520 Source: SIISENAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Appendis Table Table A.5: PER CAPITA DAILY CONSUMPTION OF NUTRIENTS, BY REGION AND LOCATION, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/ Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine RiboflaVin Niacin Vitamin C Location (calories) (grams) (grams) (grams) (mg.) (mg.) (int. unit) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) DKI Jakarta 1854 54 42 320 324 9 4863 0.9 0.7 13 130 Urban 1854 54 42 320 324 9 4863 0.9 0.7 13 130 west Java 2082 54 27 406 264 9 4559 0.9 0.7 16 140 Urban 1971 56 35 360 321 9 5604 0.9 0.7 15 137 Rural 2095 54 26 411 257 9 4433 0.9 0.7 16 140 Central Java 1556 39 23 309 276 9 5750 0.8 0.6 11 146 Urban 1593 45 28 299 300 9 6107 0.9 0.6 11 126 Rural 1552 38 22 310 274 9 5709 0.8 0.7 11 149 DI Yogyakarta 1488 34 25 292 280 9 4122 0.8 0.6 9 120 Urban 1486 40 28 277 255 9 4348 0.9 0.5 10 98 Rural 1488 33 24 294 284 9 4081 0.7 0.6 9 124 East Java 1639 42 27 319 303 10 5037 0.9 0.7 11 120 Urban 1669 46 35 300 297 9 4853 0.9 0.7 11 104 0 Rural 1634 41 26 322 304 10 5064 0.8 0.7 11 122 Sumatra 2401 63 43 443 346 12 9282 1.0 - - 246 Urban 2097 59 43 373 347 11 8885 1.0 - - 251 Rural 2469 63 43 459 345 12 9370 1.1 - - 245 Bali & Nusatenggara 2234 55 35 429 282 11 11946 1.1 0.8 16 153 Urban 2016 53 32 380 251 9 5129 0.9 0.7 15 102 Rural 2252 55 36 433 285 12 12486 1.1 0.8 17 157 Kalimantan 2420 68 37 454 358 11 7426 1.0 0.8 20 166 Urban 2139 65 37 389 411 11 6978 1.0 0.8 17 157 Rural 2512 68 37 476 341 12 7573 1.0 0.8 20 169 Sulavesi 2234 62 37 416 255 10 6071 0.9 - - 116 Urban 2119 61 34 393 248 10 5793 0.9 - _ 105 Rural 2259 62 38 421 257 10 6134 0.9 - - 118 Maluku & Irian Jaya 1996 56 43 350 349 10 8697 0.9 0.8 15 215 Urban 2150 64 47 373 405 11 8530 1.0 0.9 17 189 Rural 1886 51 41 333 308 10 8817 0.8 0.7 14 234 Source: SUSERAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. Appendix Table Table A.6: PER CAPITA DAILY CONSUMPTION OF NUTRIENTS, BY REGION AND SEASON, INDONESIA, 1978 Region/ Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Calcium Iron Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C season (calories) (grams) (grams) (grams) (mg.) (mg.) (int. unit) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) (mg.) DKI Jakarta 1854 54 42 320 324 9 4863 0.9 0.7 13 130 February 1975 56 42 341 348 10 5342 0.9 0.7 14 135 May 1795 51 42 312 307 8 4298 0.8 0.6 12 117 November 1760 53 42 306 317 9 4966 0.9 0.7 13 139 West Java 2082 54 27 406 264 9 4559 0.9 0.7 16 140 February 2097 56 29 409 284 10 6172 1.0 0.7 17 146 May 2128 55 26 411 262 9 3743 0.9 0.7 16 141 November 2065 52 25 397 244 8 3685 0.8 0.6 16 132 Central Java 1556 39 23 309 276 9 5750 0.8 0.6 11 146 February 1552 41 25 299 314 10 6767 0.9 0.7 11 173 May 1503 39 21 307 260 9 5619 0.8 0.6 11 137 November 1673 36 21 324 254 8 4780 0.7 0.6 10 128 DI Yogyakarta 1488 34 25 292 280 9 4122 0.8 0.6 9 120 February 1442 34 25 271 268 9 5199 0.8 0.6 9 118 May 1405 34 25 279 269 9 3373 0.7 0.5 9 122 November 1621 34 25 327 303 9 3823 0.8 0.6 9 121 East Java 1639 42 27 319 303 10 5037 0.9 0.7 11 120 O February 1650 43 30 315 319 10 5668 0.9 0.7 11 118 May 1649 42 26 320 289 10 4644 0.9 0.7 11 122 November 1661 40 25 323 402 9 4783 0.8 0.7 11 118 Sumatra 2401 63 43 443 346 12 9282 1.0 - - 246 February 2434 66 45 455 382 13 11668 1.1 - - 262 May 2372 62 43 441 333 11 7780 1.0 - - 242 November 2332 60 41 434 322 11 8399 1.0 - - 235 Bali a Nusatenggara 2234 55 35 429 282 11 11946 1.1 0.8 16 153 February 2396 56 40 440 281 12 13713 1.2 0.8 16 157 may 2270 61 37 448 289 12 11096 1.2 0.8 18 165 November 2062 48 28 398 277 10 11004 0.9 0.7 15 137 Kalimantan 2420 68 37 454 358 11 7426 1.0 0.8 20 166 February 2485 71 38 470 390 13 10881 1.1 0.8 21 200 May 2344 66 35 439 344 11 5712 1.0 0.8 19 157 November 2411 65 37 455 340 11 5744 1.0 0.7 19 142 Sulavesi 2234 62 37 416 255 10 6071 0.9 - - 116 February 2274 62 37 419 266 11 8319 1.0 - - 115 May 2183 62 37 411 249 10 5575 0.9 - - 121 November 2193 61 38 418 251 10 4396 0.9 - - 111 Maluku a Irian Jaya 1996 56 43 350 349 10 8697 0.9 0.8 15 215 February 1983 56 44 351 358 10 9843 0.9 0.8 15 206 May 2052 58 43 362 366 11 10658 0.9 0.8 15 234 November 1911 56 42 337 322 10 5609 0.8 0.8 15 204 Source: SUSEtIAS 1978 data tapes, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta. - 69 - Annex 1: GROUPING OF FOODS The grouping of foods is as follows: (1) Rice includes free-market, self-produced, and glutinous rice, as well as rice byproducts (such as rice flour). (2) Corn includes both fresh and dried corn on the husk, shelled corn, and corn meal. (3) Wheat includes wheat flour and other grains. (4) cassava refers to fresh and dried cassava, and cassava meal. (4) Potatoes cover sweet potatoes, potatoes, taro and sago. (The latter two are starchy plants similar to potatoes.) (6) Fish includes fresh ocean and inland fish, salted and dried fish, canned fish, shrimp, and shellfish. (7) Meat and poultry covers beef from cattle and carabao (water buffalo), mutton, pork, preserved meat, veal, chicken, and turkey. (8) Eggs are treated separately because of the difficulty of combining this item with any other. (9) Dairy products cover fresh milk, evaporated milk, powdered milk, and cheese. (10) Vegetables include spinach, kangkung spinach, cabbage, mustard greens, beans, peas, strong beans, tomatoes, radishes, carrots, cucumbers, cassava leaves, eggplant, bean sprouts, squash, red and white onions, red and cayenne peppers, and papaya leaves. (11) Legumes refer to peanuts, green and red beans, soybeans, tunggak. beans, bean curd, soybean cake, tauco, peanut cake, and lamtoro. (12) Fruits include citrus fruits, mangoes, apples, avocados, rambutan, dukuh, durian, salak, pineapple, bananas, papaya, jambu, guava, sawo, belimbing, kedongdong, and water melon. - 70 - (13) "Other" includes salt, pepper and other spices, fish paste, ketchup, coconut, cooking oil, butter, lard, brown and granulated sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, fried fish sticks, noodles, monosodium glutamate, lemon syrup, bottled drinks (lemonade, cola, orange soda, etc.), bread, beer, and alcohol. For computational purposes, those foods given in units other than kilograms were converted to kilograms. All items in food groups 1-6 and 10-12 were given initially in kilograms; conversion for foods in the remaining groups are given below. Group 7 contains chicken and turkey, each given in units of one bird. A chicken was assumed to weigh one kilogram; a turkey was assigned a weight of 4.5 kilograms. Group 8 comprises only eggs; therefore, no conversion was necessary. In group 9, the item "fresh milk" was given in liters. One liter of fresh milk has a weight of 1.032 kilograms. Because of the diverse nature of group 13, the foods it contains are presented in several different units. Fried fish sticks, noodles, and bread were the only items given in kilograms. A number of items were given in units of 100 grams which have been converted into kilograms. These items are salt, pepper and other spices, fish paste, butter, lard, brown sugar, granulated sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, and monosodium glutamate. A bottle of ketchup was assigned a weight of 500 grams; likewise, a coconut was assumed to weigh 500 grams. Cooking oil, lemon syrup, and bottled drinks were each given in liters; the first has a weight of 0.93 kilograms per liter, while the latter two each weighs 1.04 kilograms per liter. A 12-ounce bottle of beer has a weight of 0.36 kilograms; a "shot' of alcohol containing one and a half ounces weighs 0.042 kilograms. - 71 - Annex 2: PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DEFICIENCIES OF NUTRIENTS Nutrient Problems associated with deficiency of nutrient Vitamin A Poor growth, night blindness, eye damage, xerophthalmia. Thamine (Vitamin B1) & Beri-beri, weakness of the nervous system, Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) lesions of skin and tongue, eye damage. Niacin Pellagra, sometimes with mental disorder related to schizophrenia Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Scurvy Iron (associated with Anemia Vitamin B12) - 72 - REFERENCES Chernichovsky, Dov, "The Demand for Nutrition: an Economist's Perspective", Mimeo, Development Economics Department, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1977. Lancaster, Kelvin J., "A New Approach to Consumer Theory", Journal of Political Economy 74, April 1966, 132-157. Muellbauer, J., "Household Composition Engel Curves and Welfare Comparisons Between Households," European Economic Review- No. 5, June 1974, pp. 103-122. Reutlinger, Shlomo and Selowsky, Marcelo, Malnutrition and Poverty: Magnitude and Policy Options, Johns Hopkins for the World Bank, Occasional Papers No. 23, Baltimore, 1979. Thiel, H., "Quantities, Prices and Budget Enquiries," Review of Economic Studies 19, No. 3, 1952, 129-147. World Bank NEW Exmines the economic justification for W ofid Hmflk NEW creating an international facility to fi- Pubhflathogm nance a portion of the food imports to developing countries when special of R ated - Food Policy Analysis needs arise. A stochastic simulation C. Peter Timmer, Walter P. Falcon, model is used to analyze the likely sta- Interest and Scott R. Pearson bilizing effect and benefits of the fi- An innovative attempt to link issues of nancia faciity for different policy food roducion nd fod conump- scenarios and countries. Evaluates the food production and food consump- possible contribution of such a facility B -nefits andbCosts of Food tion. Stresses the role of markets and and assesses the merits and the proba- Benefisb and Cosls of Food marketing while placing the hunger- ble effects of a facility that has been Distribution Polices: The problem squarely in a macroeconomic adopted by the International Monetary India Case context. Fund. Pasquale L. Scandizzo and Notes that the solutions to the Gurushri Swamy problem of hunger lie in Staff Working Paper No. 509. 1982. 54 understanding the food system-the 96 pages. pages. processes ~~~~~that produce agricultural LC 83-48109. ISBN 0-8018-3070-2. Stock commodities on farms, transform No. JH 3070. $15 hardcove. ISBN 0-8213-0011-3. Stock No. 0509. $3. those commodities into foods, and Confronting Urban market them to satisfy the nutritional Malnourished People: A Policy Malntriton: he Dsignof as well as the social and esthetic needs View Malnutrition: The Design of consumers. Analyzes: the behavior Alan Berg Nutrition Programs of food consumers and producer James E. Austin households; the effects ofof adequate Describes a framework for systemati- macroeconomic forces on the nutition as an objective, as well as a cally carrying out urban nutrition pro- performance of the food system; and means of economic development. Out- grams that examines several key con- the role of markets, both domestic and lines the many facets of the nubition siderations in nutrition education, on- international, in linking household problem and shows how efforts to im- site feeding, take-home feeding, nu- issues in the micro sector to policy prove nutrition can help alleviate trient-dense foods, ration shops, food issues in the macro economy., waste in the developing world. coupons, fortification, direct nutrient The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. dosage, and food processing and dis- 301 pages. 1981. 108 pages (includig 6 appendte, tribution.noe) The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8018-3072-9. $25 hardcover; Stock Stock Nos. BK 9029 (English), BK 9030 136 pages. No H37,$29 aebc.(French), BK 90.31 (Spanish). $5. LC 79-3705. ISBN 0-8018-2261-0, Stock No. JH 2261, S6.50 paperback. Malnutrition and Poverty: Food Policy Issues in Low- Magnitude and Policy Options Economics of Supplemental Income Countries Shlomo Reutlinger and Marcelo Feeding of Malnourished Edward Clay and others Selowsky Children: Leakages, Costs, and Staff Working Paper No. 473. 1981. 120 The first large research effort in the Benefits pages. World Bank to determine the global Odin K. Knudsen Stock No. WP 0473. $5. dimension of malnutrition. Staff Working Paper No. 451. 1981. iv + 7he Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976; 76 pages. 2nd printing, 1978. 94 pages (including 5 Stock No. WP 0451. $3. Food Security in Food Deficit append ixes). LC 76-17240. ISBN 0-8018-1868-0, Stock Food Distribution and Countries No. JH 1868. $4.75 paperback. Nutrition Intervention: The Staff Working Paper No. 393. 1980. 39 Spanish: Desnutrici6n y pobreza: magni- Case of Chile pages (including appendix, references). tudes y opciones de polftica. Editorial Tec- Lloyd Harbert and Pasquale L. Stock No. WP 0393. $3. nos, 1977. Scandizzo ISBN 84-309-0726-2, $4.75. Staff Working Paper No. 512. 1982. 50 pages (including'bibliography, annex).' NEW Measuring Urban Malnutrition $3BN 0-8213-.01-6. Stock No. WP.0512. International Finance for Food and Poverty: A Case Study of Security Bogota and Cali, Colombia Barbara Huddleston, D. Gale Rakesh Mohan, M. Wilhelm Prices subject to change without notice Johnson, Shlomo Reutlinger, and Wagner, and Jorge Garcia and may vary by country. Alberto Valdes Staff Working Paper No. 447. 1981. 80 pages (including bilography, appendixe). Staff Working Paper No. 597. 1983. 120 subsidies to nutritionally needy Stock No. WP 0447. S3. paes. groups. Draws lessons from this anal- ISBN 0-8213-0204-3. Stock No. WP 0597. ysis for setting up and/or reforming Nutrition and Food Needs in S5 current food policy systems. Evaluates Developing Countries ration shops (India, Brazil), self-target- Odin K. Knudsen and Pasquale L. mg using an inferior-goods approach Scanizzo NEW (Pakistan, Bangladesh), food-coupon systems (Sr Lanka, Colombia, Indone- Staff Working Paper No. 328. 1979. 73 Prospects for Food Production sia), special intervention programs, pages (including 4 appendixes). and Consumption in and school feeding programs. Provides Stock No. WP 0328. $3. Developing Countries a critical evaluation of the food sub- Malcolm D. Bale and Ronald C. sidy systems that follow a typology re- Nutritional Consequences of Duncan ported in this paper. Agricultural Projects: Food production is expected to con- Staff Working Paper No. 617. 1983. 88 Conceptual Relationships and tinue to improve in developing coun- pages. Assessment Approaches tries, along with consumption of var- ISBN 0-8213-0295-7. Stock No. WP 0617. Per Pinstrup-Andersen ious food items. This study targets S3. Staff Working Paper No. 456.1981. 93 pricing policies as critical factors for pages (incluing bibliography, appendix). maximizing agricultural systems in de- NEW veloping countries. Looks at recent Stock No. WP 0456. $3. world food production and extends Trends in Food and Nutrient _________ ~~~~~~trends based on Bank projections to A~biyi hn,154 NEW 1995. Aalblt nCia 9" Staff Working Paper No. 596. 1983. 40 Alan Piazza Poverty, Undernutrition, and pages. Project planners in the areas of agri- Hunger Stoc No. WP 0596. S3. culture and nutrition will find a wealth Michael Lipton of practical data in this report. Tables of yearly food balance sheets provide a Focuses on the poor and the ultra poor NEW basis for assessing one nation's ability at nutritional risk. Draws on data from to feed its people. National and prov- two comparable poor regions in Asia Targeting Food Subsidies for incial data present generally favorable and Africa to identify.food-related in- the Needy: The Use of Cost- trends in China. dicators of and distinctions among Benefit Analysis and Staff Working Paper No. 607. 1983. 148 poverty levels. Implications for nutri- IntuioaDegnpes tion policy, such as balance among Insttutional Design page. poverty projects, are discussed with Abel Mateus ISBN 0-8213-0217-5.Stock No. WP 0607. supporting tables and graphs. Analyzes schemes for targeting food $5. The wX Bank E1 Publications order Form S8ND TO: YOUR WCAL DISTRIBUTOR OR TO WORLD BANK PUBLICATIONS (Se tiodw Ad of thbfoim.) P.O. BOX 37525 WA INGTON, D.C. 20013 U.S.A. Dde Name - Ship to: (Enter if different from purchaser) Tile Name Firm Title Addres Firm City State Postal Cod . Address Country Vlephone l 4 City State- Postal Code Purchaser Reference No. Country lHlephone I Check your method of payment. 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