37009 PAPER NO. 93 E N V I R O N M E N T A L E C O N O M I C S S E R I E S Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies An Assessment of Fifty Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers Jan Bojö Rama Chandra Reddy November 2003 THE WORLD BANK ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies An Assessment of Fifty Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers Jan Bojö Rama Chandra Reddy November 2003 Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discussion. The use and citation of this paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Copies are available from the Environment Department of the World Bank by calling 202-473-3641. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 2003 Contents ABSTRACT v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii ABBREVIATIONS ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 Building on Previous Reviews 3 Purpose and Organization of the Report 4 Chapter 2 The PRSP Sample 7 Interim PRSPs and Full PRSPs 7 Joint Staff Assessments 7 PRSP Progress Reports 7 Chapter 3 Method of Assessment 9 Components of Mainstreaming Considered 9 Joint Staff Assessments 12 Scoring 12 Chapter 4 Results 13 Average Country Scores 13 Disaggregated View of Environment Scores 14 Evolution of Environmental Priorities from Interim to Full PRSPs 15 The Implementation of Environmental Priorities 16 JSA Comments on Environmental Mainstreaming in PRSPs 17 Environmental Economics Series iii Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies Chapter 5 Good Practice in Environmental Mainstreaming 19 Issues 19 Poverty-Environment Links 20 Response Systems 23 Process 25 Chapter 6 Scope for Improvement 27 Dissemination of Implementation Lessons 27 Long-Term Perspective and MDG Horizon 27 A Holistic Perspective on Environmental Health 27 Appendix A Interim PRSPs and Full PRSPs 29 Appendix B Scoring Format of the PRSP Assessment 31 NOTES 33 REFERENCES 35 BOXES 1 Environment Targets and Indicators 25 TABLES 1 Regional distribution of PRSPs 7 2 Countries in the PRSP preparation process during 2002­03 8 3 PRSP implementation progress reports 8 4 Average country environmental mainstreaming scores 13 5 Evolution of country environment scores from Interim PRSP to Full PRSP 16 6 Implementation progress on the PRSP proposals 17 iv Environment Department Papers Abstract More than 50 countries are in various stages of environment. An unweighted average for each preparation and implementation of Poverty country is reported. Reduction Strategies. This report examines the extent to which countries have integrated The results show (a) considerable variation environmental considerations into such across countries, (b) an average level of strategies. mainstreaming that is still low, and (c) a strong tendency for full PRSPs to better integrate The assessment is based on the 50 PRSPs and 7 environmental factors than interim PRSPs. PRSP Progress Reports available as of October 2003, and their Joint Staff Assessments. Of the This report contains several examples of good 50 PRSPs, 20 are in an interim stage, while the practice in mainstreaming, and identifies areas rest are full. This report uses a simple scoring of potential improvement. scale applied to 17 variables related to Environmental Economics Series v Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Norwegian seminars inside and outside the World Bank Government for financial contributions to this have commented on the previous edition of work through the Trust Fund for this review (Bojö and Reddy 2002) Many of Environmentally and Socially Sustainable those comments have been integrated into this Development. report. The authors wish to acknowledge constructive We thank Robert Livernash for his editorial comments from our peer reviewers, including support and Jim Cantrell for editorial Lead Environmental Specialist Aziz Bouzaher assistance and managing production of the and Lead Sustainable Development Economist report. Robert Schneider. Sunanda Kishore also contributed to the paper. The authors are solely responsible for the views expressed here, which do not necessarily This report is the second in an ongoing review represent the opinion of the World Bank, its of environmental considerations in PRSPs. A executive directors, or the countries they large number of colleagues and participants at represent. Environmental Economics Series vii Abbreviations AET Actual evapotranspiration CAS Country Assistance Strategy DFID Department for International Development, United Kingdom EC European Commission HIPC Heavily indebted poor countries IDA International Development Association IMF International Monetary Fund IPR Implementation Progress Report IPRSP Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper JSA Joint staff assessment MDG Millennium Development Goals PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WDI World Development Indicators Environmental Economics Series ix Executive Summary Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), 3 (good practice). The country scores are which are written by the Bank's client country unweighted averages. governments, are comprehensive, results- oriented frameworks for reducing poverty. The main findings are: This paper (a) assesses the degree to which · High variance. There is considerable integration (mainstreaming) of environmental variation in environmental mainstreaming. factors occurs in PRSPs, Joint Staff Assessments It ranges from marginal attention (0.3) to (JSAs), and PRSP Progress Reports (PRSP-PRs); consistent mainstreaming across sectors and (b) provides selected examples of good (2.4). practice. · Low but improving average. The average score This assessment builds on a previously across the sample is only 1.3 on the 0­3 published review (Bojö and Reddy 2002), but scale. It is not reasonable to expect all goes beyond that report in several ways. First, countries to score a "3" across the board, as it expands the sample to cover 50 PRSPs, of priorities differ across countries. The which 30 are now full PRSPs. Second, it includes average is an improvement over the 2002 reviews of the Joint Staff Assessments of the assessment, which averaged 0.9. World Bank and IMF. Third, the seven available Implementation Progress Reports are also · Full PRSPs are better mainstreamed. In included. comparison to interim PRSPs, there is a tendency for full PRSPs to better integrate We have assigned ratings across 17 variables environmental factors. As the sample under four major areas of environmental matures, we expect mainstreaming to mainstreaming: (1) diagnosis of environmental further improve. issues; (2) analysis of poverty-environment links; (3) environmentally relevant actions; and · High-scoring countries. Countries in the high- (4) the extent to which participation and scoring cluster are Zambia, Ghana, consultation processes have allowed Cambodia, Mozambique, Azerbaijan, Sri environmental concerns to be heard. The PRSPs Lanka, Yemen, Honduras, Nicaragua, and are assessed on each of the 17 criteria, using an Bolivia. Examples of good practice are integer scoring range of 0 (no mention), 1 given from these and other PRSPs. (mention, but no elaboration), 2 (elaboration), to Environmental Economics Series 1 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies · Environmental priorities. As expected, such issues are dealt with, the discussion is environmental priorities differ across often focused on water and sanitation. countries. PRSPs devote relatively more Inadequate feedback on the treatment of attention to issues such as water supply, environmental issues is associated with PRSPs sanitation, vulnerability to natural hazards, giving limited attention to the environment. On land tenure, and institutional capacity. They the other hand, PRSPs with much attention devote relatively less attention to indoor air given to environment sometimes have JSAs pollution, biodiversity, gender and urging further improvements. environmental relationships, urban environment, and the impacts of · PRSPImplementationProgressReports. macroeconomic policies on the Implementation progress reports are environment. generally not satisfactory in their discussions of the environmental proposals The conditions for effetive monitoring are often weak. outlined in the PRSPs. Future annual Few PRSPs present quantified, time-bound, progress reports provide good costed, realistic targets and indicators relating to opportunities to address these gaps. environment. Environmental health indicators generally get more attention than natural resources management indicators. This report includes many examples of good practice across the 17 assessed variables. · Long-term perspective. A few PRSPs explicitly introduce a long-term perspective and make Among the areas identified as needing reference to MDGs for 2015, but most do improvement, probably the most important one not. PRSPs that present long-term targets is environmental health. PRSPs generally do corresponding to the MDG 2015 horizon not take a holistic view of the burden of disease often present unrealistic plans without in a country; in addition, indoor and outdoor air adequate budget support and institutional pollution are generally given no or very cursory capacity for implementation. attention. The severity of these issues varies across countries, but this is often a genuine The JSAs are quite varied. Attention to shortcoming rather than the result of a rational environmental issues in the Joint Staff priority-setting process. Assessments is inconsistent. To the extent that 2 Environment Department Papers 1 Introduction A Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) "luxury" that concerns only a rich elite in provides a framework for domestic policies and industrialized countries. It is an integral part of programs, as well as for foreign assistance, with the well-being of poor people, and "the the overall aim of reducing poverty. Written by environment cannot wait."5 In short, economic the countries, PRSPs are comprehensive and growth matters a great deal, but so does the results-oriented documents.1 quality of that growth. The World Bank's Environment Strategy (World Bank 2001a) If PRSPs are country-owned, what justifies their specifically states that "..integrating assessment by World Bank staff? We undertake environmental considerations into the new Poverty this assessment with a clear recognition of the Reduction Strategy Papers is an urgent task." country authorship of PRSPs. This perspective is captured in the following statement of the IDA 13 Deputies: "Early experience shows that Building on Previous Reviews countries' strategies have often given insufficient An earlier assessment of environmental issues weight to issues that are important for sustainable in the PRSPs of 40 countries was published as development, such as the role of women, World Bank Environment Department Paper 86 environmental management, fiduciary controls, and in June 2002. During 2002­03, several interim analysis of the social impacts of policy reforms. PRSPs were revised into full PRSPs; in many While recognizing that the PRSP is a country-owned cases, implementation is under way. This report document, Deputies reaffirmed that IDA should builds on the assessment reported in the continue to advocate good policies." 2 (IDA 2002, p. previous Environment Department Paper and 11). focuses on the progress made during the year, including: Why should poor countries be concerned with environmental issues? Isn't it possible to have First, all countries that progressed from interim growth first and clean up later? It is generally PRSP to full PRSP stages and countries that agreed that poverty reduction and joined the PRSP process by preparing interim environmental management are closely linked-- PRSPs during 2002­03 were considered in this primarily through livelihoods based on natural report. resources, environmental factors impacting health, and vulnerability to natural hazards.3 If Second, the Joint Staff Assessments (JSAs) of we define "environment" in this way,4 it PRSPs provide feedback from the staffs of the becomes clear that the environment is not a World Bank and the IMF to a country on its Environmental Economics Series 3 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies PRSP (World Bank 2000). World Bank staff levels and trends of environmental guidelines recommend that JSAs comment on mainstreaming in PRSPs. cross-sectoral issues such as environment and on the scope of PRSP proposals in addressing Does it matter what is written in the PRSP environmental sustainability. The guidelines document? It is certainly possible that a well- recommend that these assessments should focus articulated strategy may not be implemented "on the extent of income/consumption and other well. However, PRSPs are public documents dimensions of poverty (health including that are widely available and often translated environmental diseases, natural resource into local languages. Annual progress reports degradation, vulnerability, disempowerment) and and built-in systems for monitoring and their evolution over time." This report includes a evaluation--including targets and indicators, review of JSAs. timetables, and explicit costs--force an increasing level of transparency. Underpinning Third, the annual PRSP Progress Reports (PRSP- this is the enhanced participation encouraged in PR) provide insights into the extent to which the development of PRSPs, which will gradually environmental priorities are reflected in the build greater accountability for results. As the implementation process (World Bank and IMF PRSP process matures, we will increasingly be 2002a, 2002b). able to compare the text of the PRSP with the implementation record. Fourth, feedback from the relevant World Bank country teams is considered in this assessment. While undertaking the assessment of a country Purpose and Organization of the Report PRSP, each World Bank country director was The objectives of this paper are to (a) assess the provided with a preliminary assessment with a status and evolution of mainstreaming of request for specific comments. environmental issues in PRSPs, Joint Staff Assessments (JSAs), and PRSP Progress Reports Because of resource constraints, this report (PRSP-PRs); and (b) provide examples of good focuses only on the text of the PRSPs, JSAs, and practice. progress reports.6 It would be useful (but not possible) to undertake an in-depth country What we mean by "mainstreaming" of the study for each of the 50 cases we have reviewed. environment is summarized here and discussed This assessment thus should be seen as an in detail in the methods chapter. It is not the overview that supplements country-level existence of a stand-alone section or chapter in analyses. the PRSP, nor is it the frequent reference to the "environment" in the PRSP. The term We have tried to develop a transparent "mainstreaming" is used to denote the (a) framework to maximize consistency in the description of environmental issues and assessment across countries. However, opportunities; (b) analysis of links between subjectivity cannot be eliminated. Our aim is poverty and environment; (c) design of not scientific precision--only for transparent responses to meet the identified challenges; and and consistent reporting on the approximate (d) inclusion of the environmental constituency 4 Environment Department Papers Introduction in the processes leading to the design and presents the methods used in the environmental implementation of the PRSP.7 review of PRSPs. Chapter 4 presents the results of the assessment. Chapter 5 highlights This report is organized into six chapters. examples of good practice. Chapter 6 presents Chapter 2 describes the PRSP sample. Chapter 3 concluding remarks. Environmental Economics Series 5 2 The PRSP Sample This report is based on an assessment of 50 feedback on the core elements of a PRSP, such Interim and full PRSPs, their Joint Staff as poverty diagnosis, priority public actions, Assessments, and 7 Implementation Progress participatory process, targets, indicators, and Reports. The list of countries included in this monitoring systems. The JSAs provide an assessment and their stage in the PRSP are important opportunity for the Bank and the IMF presented in Appendix A. to advise countries on their poverty reduction agendas. All PRSPs reviewed here also have an associated JSA. Interim PRSPs and Full PRSPs Of the 50 PRSPs considered for this assessment, PRSP Progress Reports 30 are full PRSPs and 20 are interim PRSPs. In the previous assessment in 2001­02, 40 PRSPs Annual reports on the implementation of PRSPs were reviewed, including 8 full PRSPs and 32 highlight efforts to convert identified priorities interim PRSPs. The regional breakdown in into actions.8 Of the 30 countries that are in the Table 1 illustrates the dominance of the Africa full PRSP stage, only seven have submitted region. implementation progress reports. Table 3 presents the list of countries and their Table 2 categorizes countries according to their implementation progress reports. The World stage in the PRSP process. Bank and IMF guidelines on implementation progress reports recommend consistency between national decisionmaking and reporting Joint Staff Assessments processes and their integration into annual Joint Staff Assessments are prepared by the budget and national development reports staffs of the World Bank and IMF. They provide (World Bank and IMF 2002a). Table 1. Regional distribution of PRSPs Region Interim PRSPs Full PRSPs Total PRSPs Sub-Saharan Africa 11 17 28 Eastern Europe & Central Asia 5 4 9 East Asia 1 3 4 South Asia 2 1 3 Latin America & Caribbean 4 4 Middle East & North Africa 1 1 2 Total 20 30 50 Environmental Economics Series 7 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies This report seeks to assess environmental issues not revised into full PRSPs and covered in the in PRSPs and the progress reports submitted previous report (Environment Department during 2002­03. For purposes of comparison, Paper 86) have also been retained as part of the the 8 full PRSPs and 10 interim PRSPs that were sample. Table 2. Countries in the PRSP preparation process during 2002­03 Region Interim PRSPs Full PRSPs Africa Cote D'Ivoire, Democratic Cameroon, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Ghana, Republic of Congo, Djibouti Guinea, Malawi, Mali, Nķger, Rwanda, Senegal, Zambia East Asia and Cambodia, Vietnam, Mongolia Pacific Eastern Europe & Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan Central Asia Maldova, Serbia and Montenegro Middle East Yemen Latin America & Guyana Caribbean South Asia Bangladesh, Pakistan Sri Lanka Table 3. PRSP implementation progress reports Region Country and year Africa Burkina Faso 2000 -01, Burkina Faso 2001 -02, Mauritania 2001 - 02, Mozambique 2001-02, Tanzania 2000 -01, Tanzania 2001 -02, Uganda 2000-01, Uganda 2001-02 Eastern Europe & Central Asia Albania 2002-03 Latin America & Caribbean Nicaragua 2001-02 8 Environment Department Papers 3 Method of Assessment The assessment framework used in this report is · Causal links -- An analysis of multiple built on the previous work on mainstreaming poverty-environment linkages the environment in PRSPs (Bojö and Reddy · Responses -- An outline of proposals 2002); aligning the environmental priorities of relating to environmental management, poverty reduction strategies with the Millen- investments in natural and human-made nium Development Goal on Environmental capital, monitoring, and evaluation Sustainability (Bojö and Reddy 2003); · Process -- Approaches used to promote the mainstreaming the environment in the Country inclusion of environmental constituencies Assistance Strategies (Ekbom and Bojö 1997; andthe environmental agenda. Shyamsundar and Hamilton 2000); and on the Guidelines for the Joint Staff Assessment of Issues PRSPs (World Bank 2000). Priority environmental issues in developing countries vary significantly based on their We define the term mainstreaming to include resource base, problems, and opportunities. Not (a) a description of environmental issues; (b) an all countries are expected to give the same level analysis of links between poverty and of attention to all issues. There are four themes: environment; (c) policy and program responses to meet those challenges; and (d) the process · Land use. Issues relating to soil and sub-soil underpinning the strategy. Each of these resources, including mining, erosion, components is further broken down into desertification, waterlogging, salinization, specific items under 17 variables. A brief nutrient depletion, and overgrazing; and description of these variables is provided aboveground resources, including below. deforestation and the degradation of forests and woodlands · Water. Issues relating to the quantity and Components of Mainstreaming Considered quality of water supply for human The format for assessing environmental consumption, irrigation and other uses; priorities in interim and full PRSPs is grouped water pollution; coastal zone and marine into four major categories: aspects; climate variance; and droughts and floods · Issues -- A description of specific concerns · Air and climate. Issues relating to indoor and and opportunities relating to the outdoor pollution­including lead, environment particulate matter, sulfur, nitrogen oxides Environmental Economics Series 9 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies and emissions of greenhouse gases­from hurricanes impact the poor is valuable for domestic energy use, industrial processes, implementing mitigation and adaptation and transport systems. strategies. · Biodiversity. Issues relating to the · Property rights. An analysis of how natural degradation of ecosystems, threats to resources are "owned" and how tenure species or genetic resources, and regimes impact their utilization can be of opportunities for sustainable use. significant value. Unequal land ownership and insecure tenure can force the poor to Causal links cultivate marginal environments, and may Diagnosing a country's environmental issues deter long-term investments. provides the foundation for a causal analysis. In · Incentives. Policies relating to pricing, such an analysis, two important questions need subsidies, taxes, restrictive trade practices, to be answered. First, is poverty contributing to and the exchange rate can significantly environmental degradation? Second, is environ- influence the use of natural resources and mental degradation hurting the poor? In this the emission of pollutants into the context, we look at seven key linkages to assess environment. Gasoline and diesel fuel sales the performance of PRSPs: benefited from about $18 billion in subsidies in 1999, and irrigation from $10­ · Natural resource degradation and poverty. $15 billion (IMF, UNEP, and World Bank Most poverty is still rural, and most rural 2002). people are directly dependent on the use of · Empowerment. In this context, natural resources to secure a livelihood. empowerment largely concerns the degree The linkage between poverty and the to which the poor control the quality of soils, vegetation, and water decisionmaking of a country's resources resources is critical. and environment. While this point is closely · Environmental health. Up to one-fifth of the related to property rights, it is more total burden of disease in the developing concerned with the level of participation world, and close to a third in Sub-Saharan and rules of collective decisionmaking Africa, may be associated with about the environment than about legal environmental risk factors (Lvovsky 2001). title. PRSP analysis of how indoor and outdoor · Gender and environment. This link draws pollution, provision of water supply and attention to gender-related policies such as sanitation, and the housing environment the extent to which women have a voice in are linked to health outcomes and the the management of communal resources, burden of disease can be valuable in and whether they have the right to secure preparing cost-effective interventions. tenure. Women and girls are particularly · Vulnerability. Globally, natural hazards burdened by the degradation of the claim about 100,000 lives per year, most of environment; for example, shortages of them in developing countries (DFID and fuelwood and water often mean that others 2002). Analysis of how climate women must travel longer distances and variability and natural disasters such as spend more time searching for these droughts, floods, earthquakes, and resources. 10 Environment Department Papers The PRSP Sample Response systems water stress or scarcity, such as per capita availability in cubic meters; and energy, To be meaningful, the discussion on issues and such as dependence on traditional energy an analysis of causal links must be followed by and the shift to renewable energy--provide a set of actions. These are grouped into five the relevant information.9 categories. · Monitoring human resource outcomes. Indicators that measure human resource · Environmental management capacity. outcomes such as health are important. Environmental management capacity is Examples include infant mortality and assessed in terms of actions concerning morbidity, such as the infectious and legislation, regulation, environmental respiratory disease burden attributable to standards, data and information systems, indoor pollution; access to safe water, such institutional capacity, enforcement as the percent of the population with access capability, and the use of economic to safe water in rural/urban areas; instruments such as user fees, effluent/ sanitation, such as the percent of population emission charges, and green taxes. and poor households covered; and housing · Investment in natural capital. The proposed standards, such as crowding (floor area/ programs for natural resource management person). indicate the government's priorities and its commitment to improve natural resource Process productivity. Examples include programs supporting the sustainable management or The description of the process employed in the restoration of soils, forests, woodlands, preparation and implementation of a PRSP is wetlands, coral reefs, fisheries, and part of the assessment. Process issues are management of protected areas. relevant for all aspects of the PRSP, but they are · Investment in human-made capital. Programs considered in this assessment because an relating to slum improvement, water inclusive and participatory process is required supply, sanitation, energy efficiency, waste for identifying and addressing the concerns of management, air and water pollution, environmental health, natural resource urban and rural infrastructure investments degradation, vulnerability to natural disasters, aimed at environmental improvements and for undertaking environmental investments indicate the government's commitment in and monitoring their progress. these areas. · Monitoring natural resource outcomes. It is not possible here to evaluate the quality of Indicators are important components of the consultation other than through its expression PRSP monitoring process. In this context, in the PRSP. Critics have argued that targets and indicators for natural resource "participatory" events are sometimes designed management--including land use and soil as top-down events, leaving little room for conservation, such as trends in productivity upward feedback. It has also been argued that or the rate of rehabilitation of degraded consultations often result in the focus of lands; forest resources, such as the annual immediate priorities to the detriment of long- rate of deforestation; area protected, such as term ones such as those relating to the the percent of land or sea area protected; environment. This may be true in some cases, Environmental Economics Series 11 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies but the lack of inclusion of environmental Though not intended to be scientifically precise, concerns or actions is then reflected in low this scoring method is a practical way to ratings under those categories. condense considerable information into numbers that have a clear interpretation. The unweighted average scores are presented in the Joint Staff Assessments results section (Table 4). We considered Guidelines for the Joint Staff Assessment (JSA) applying explicit weights to different variables, of full Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers but this would have made the scoring process (World Bank 2000) recommend that the JSA less transparent.10 Instead, we assigned scores examine the trends in key poverty determinants according to our valuation of the significance of and outcomes presented, specifically, the extent of each set of variables. income/consumption and other dimensions of poverty, including environmental diseases, natural Any assessment, including scoring, involves resource degradation, vulnerability, subjective judgments. In this format, disempowerment, and their evolution over time. subjectivity is transparent and consistent across Feedback from the JSA could serve to improve countries. We do not encourage attention to the focus on environmental sustainability small differentials in scores between countries. aspects during implementation. JSAs are The assessment process enables us to succinctly assessed according to the extent their comments present quantitative information to complement and feedback relating to environment in the the qualitative analyses undertaken by the PRSPs are explicitly noted. The JSAs of 22 full Country Teams and the Poverty Reduction and PRSPs, 8 interim PRSPs, and 7 Implementation Economic Management (PREM) Network Progress Reports are considered in this report. within the Bank, as well as by external donors and NGOs. An overview of the aspects incorporated in the scoring format is presented Scoring in the following sections; the scoring format used is summarized in Appendix B. Assessing 50 PRSPs across 17 variables is not practical unless qualitative judgments are PRSP Progress Reports are scored in a similar formalized and simplified. The 17 variables manner. However, the focus of that assessment discussed below are scored with respect to each is only on the follow-up of the implementation country's PRSP. A score in the range of 0 to 3 is envisaged in the PRSP. Hence, that assessment used depending on the treatment of relevant is more of a consistency check between the issues: Progress Report and the PRSP. 0 = no mention In contrast to the use of a structured scoring 1 = mentioned but not elaborated format used for the PRSPs, the JSAs are 2 = elaborated assessed qualitatively on the coverage of 3 = good practice environmental issues and the feedback provided on the PRSP. 12 Environment Department Papers 4 Results This section presents scores of countries with environmental priorities into PRSPs, with the respect to environmental mainstreaming; the average country score ranging from 0.3 to 2.4. salient aspects of environmental mainstreaming Second, the average score is about 1.3 on the 0-3 common to PRSPs; and an overview of their point scale. This is a broad indicator of the evolution from the interim to the full PRSP level of attention paid to environmental aspects. stage. There may be more or less good reasons for not mentioning or elaborating on such issues. We are not in a position to pass judgment on each Average Country Scores particular case, but offer these scores for more From the scores in Table 4, three observations detailed country-specific scrutiny to our stand out. First, it is clear that there is a readers. Third, the full PRSPs generally rank significant variation in the integration of much higher than the interim PRSPs. The Table 4. Average country environmental mainstreaming scores Average S.No Country Region PRSP type environment score 1 Zambia Sub Saharan Africa Full 2.4 2 Ghana Sub Saharan Africa Full 2.2 3 Cambodia East Asia Full 2.2 4 Mozambique Sub Saharan Africa Full 2.2 5 Azerbaijan Central Asia Full 2.1 6 Sri Lanka South Asia Full 2.1 7 Yemen Middle East Full 2.1 8 Honduras Latin America Full 2.1 9 Nicaragua Latin America Full 2.0 10 Bolivia Latin America Full 2.0 11 Vietnam East Asia Full 1.9 12 Kenya Sub Saharan Africa Ķnterim 1.9 13 Bosnia and Herzegovina Eastern Europe Interim 1.9 14 Mali Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.7 15 Burkina Faso Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.7 16 Senegal Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.7 17 Rwanda Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.7 18 Malawi Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.7 19 Albania Eastern Europe Full 1.6 20 Ethiopia Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.6 21 Guinea Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.6 22 Lao PDR East Asia Interim 1.6 Environmental Economics Series 13 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies Table 4. Average country environmental mainstreaming scores (continued) Average S.No Country Region PRSP type environment score 23 Nķger Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.5 24 Guyana L. America & Caribbean Full 1.5 25 Benin Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.5 26 Mauritania Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.4 27 Bangladesh South Asia Interim 1.4 28 Tajikistan Central Asia Full 1.2 29 Gambia Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.2 30 Kyrgyz Republic Central Asia Full 1.2 31 Uganda Sub Saharan Africa Full 1.1 32 Madagascar Sub Saharan Africa Interim 1.1 33 Pakistan South Asia Interim 1.1 34 Georgia Central Asia Interim 1.0 35 Cape Verde Sub Saharan Africa Interim 1.0 36 Tanzania Sub Saharan Africa Full 0.9 37 Mongolia East Asia Interim 0.8 38 Maldova Eastern Europe Interim 0.8 39 Chad Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.8 40 Cote d'Ivoire Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.8 41 Armenia Central Asia Interim 0.7 42 Cameroon Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.6 43 Lesotho Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.6 44 Sierra Leone Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.6 45 Dem Rep of Congo Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.6 46 Guinea-Bissau Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.5 47 Djibouti Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.5 48 Serbia & Montenegro Eastern Europe Interim 0.4 49 Central African Rep Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.3 50 Sao Tome Principe Sub Saharan Africa Interim 0.3 Average score 1.3 average as a sub-group is about 1.8 for the full available data from the World Development PRSPs. Indicators 2003 (World Bank 2003b) show that several of these countries have a high level of In the debate about environmental rural population dependent on natural mainstreaming, we are sometimes asked to resources for their livelihood; high levels of identify "the best example." Rather than traditional fuel usage; low levels of access to picking a specific PRSP, we would point to a safe water and adequate sanitation; and high top cluster of PRSPs with scores of at least 2.0 to infant mortality. Low ratings on these variables reflect the coverage of environment priorities. indicate that there is considerable scope for This includes the geographically diverse PRSPs improvement in focusing on such issues. of Zambia, Ghana, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Mozambique, Azerbaijan, Yemen, Honduras, Disaggregated View of Environment Nicaragua, and Bolivia. Scores The cluster of PRSPs with low scores is made The country averages reported in Table 4 mask up entirely of interim PRSPs.11 Readily the differences in scoring among the 17 14 Environment Department Papers Results variables considered. Disaggregated analysis of this theme is 1.2. It shows that even with a the overall environment score into component weak description of environmental issues, scores provides additional insights. We refrain several PRSPs highlight the links between from commenting separately on all variables, poverty and environment. but consolidate the scores (in accordance with section 3) into (a) diagnosis of issues and Responses. On this theme, the average score opportunities; (b) analysis of poverty- across five rated aspects is 1.7. Most PRSPs environment links; (c) proposed responses; and present a generic outline of proposals relating (d) process. to legislation, institutions, and regulation to strengthen environmental management. Issues. There is strong heterogeneity in the Though programs relating to natural resources issues covered in PRSPs, with land and water management, water supply, and sanitation are receiving some attention, while air pollution, often described, information on the cost of energy use, and biodiversity receive limited interventions and schedule for the interventions attention. The environmental issues that PRSPs is often missing. Inadequate information on often highlight in rural areas are land targets and indicators makes it difficult to degradation and deforestation; in the urban assess performance of actions of the PRSP context, water pollution, lack of proper countries. sanitation, and growth of slum environments are often mentioned. Poor air quality--indoor Process. The averages score across countries for or outdoor--is seldom mentioned and rarely this one item (participation) is about 1.6. discussed at length. Biodiversity receives Though PRSPs describe the processes limited attention, although a few countries see undertaken to promote consultation, it is this as an important asset that can generate difficult to assess the extent to which income to poor people. Short-term climatic environmental constituencies have been variability is sometimes discussed, and is consulted and the extent to which extensively discussed in countries facing environmental concerns of the poor are persistent drought and severe flooding. The considered in developing the implementation average score of this component (covering four priorities. The attention devoted to process aspects) is 1.0 on a scale of 0 to 3 (see Appendix issues is generally improving as interim PRSPs B for a summary format). The low score indicates that many countries have not utilized are turned into full PRSPs. the diagnostic basis laid down in their National Environmental Action Plans or similar Evolution of Environmental Priorities initiatives.12 from Interim to Full PRSPs Links. Poverty-environment links--in terms of The revision from the interim into the full PRSP natural resources degradation, environmental stage improved the treatment of environment health, and climate vulnerability--received significantly. As shown in Table 5, the average more attention than aspects of property rights, environment score of the interim PRSPs that empowerment, incentives, and gender. The underwent revision to full PRSPs more than average score for the seven items listed under doubled. Environmental Economics Series 15 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies Table 5. Evolution of country environment scores from Interim PRSP to Full PRSP S.No Country Score of interim PRSP Score of full PRSP 1 Zambia 0.5 2.4 2 Ghana 0.9 2.2 3 Mozambique 0.5 2.2 4 Cambodia 1.2 2.2 5 Honduras 1.6 2.1 6 Yemen 0.4 2.0 7 Nicaragua 1.3 2.0 8 Bolivia 0.7 2.0 9 Vietnam 0.8 1.9 10 Senegal 0.4 1.7 11 Rwanda 1.3 1.7 12 Malawi 0.6 1.7 13 Mali 0.6 1.7 14 Albania 0.7 1.6 15 Ethiopia 0.8 1.6 16 Guinea 0.9 1.6 17 Guyana 1.0 1.5 18 Benin 0.5 1.5 19 Tajikistan 0.4 1.2 20 Gambia 0.9 1.2 21 Kyrgyz Republic 0.5 1.2 Average Score 0.8 1.8 The Implementation of Environmental implementation (see Appendix B). Under the Priorities response systems, we assessed (a) measures to enhance environmental management capacity, What ultimately matters is how a PRSP is (b) investment in natural capital, (c) investment implemented. To assess the extent to which in human-made capital that can improve countries are successful in implementing the environmental quality, and (d) monitoring and environmental priorities outlined at the PRSP evaluation of environmental programs and stage, it is useful to review the PRSP Progress plans. Reports (World Bank and IMF 2003). A total of seven countries have made their From Table 6, it is clear that progress reported implementation reports available. Countries on the environmental proposals outlined in the that initiated the implementation in 2000 have PRSPs is not satisfactory except for Albania. In reported for two years, while countries that this case, the progress report discusses priorities initiated the implementation in 2001 provide outlined in the PRSP, along with information on one year of implementation progress. indicators used in the implementation and the gaps in implementation. In the case of For this assessment, we considered the portion Mozambique, the implementation report was of the PRSP scoring format under response assessed to be particularly weak, particularly in systems, which is most directly relevant for the 16 Environment Department Papers Results Table 6. Implementation progress on the PRSP proposals Score on the environment programs and monitoring proposed in the full PRSP Country (part score under response systems)* Score of PRSP Progress Reports Albania 2.4 2.4 Burkina Faso 2.0 0.8 (2000-01); 1.2 (2001-02) Mauritania 2.2 1.6 Mozambique 3.0 0.6 Nicaragua 2.2 2.0 Tanzania 2.2 0.8 (2000-01); 1.2 (2001-02) Uganda 2.4 1.2 (2000-01); 1.4 (2001-02) Note: * This score considers a specific part of the overall score, so it varies from the overall score presented in Table 1. The scores for Burkina Faso, Tanzania, and Uganda are for two annual progress reports. view of the high score for the environment issues received either no or passing reference. proposals in the full PRSP. In the cases of However, certain JSAs give explicit attention to Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Tanzania, and the environment, holding the PRSPs to high Uganda, the Progress Reports are considered to standards. Interestingly, some of the best be weak in comparison to their full PRSPs. mainstreamed PRSPs (such as Zambia) still receive JSA comments on the need for There is a strong need to examine the reasons improvements--and vice-versa. Informally, behind weak implementation scores, and there appears to be some correlation between suitable actions should be initiated to the level of attention of the PRSP and the JSA in strengthen the implementation and reporting terms of environmental mainstreaming. This is processes. The continued weak environment probably based on close communication scores of the implementation progress reports is between PRSP teams and the associated World a cause for concern in terms of the realism of Bank teams. Some--but not all--JSAs focus on the proposals made and resources committed to environmental priorities; those that do present their implementation. Implementation progress feedback on a variety of multi-sectoral issues. and the reporting process should be a high Some examples are given below. priority in the country level monitoring of PRSPs to generate reliable information on the The JSA for the Cambodia PRSP expresses translation of PRSP priorities into action. concern about three environmental issues. First, it notes the resource and capacity constraints of the ministry of environment to lead national JSA Comments on Environmental environment initiatives. Second, the JSA Mainstreaming in PRSPs discusses the low level of integration of An overview of JSAs and their feedback on environmental considerations into the strategic environmental priorities indicates a highly plans of ministries and line agencies as a cross- uneven level of attention. Scant feedback on cutting theme requiring action. Although there the environment is strongly associated with the are examples of forest crime monitoring and countries having low attention to the ecotourism development, very few line agencies environment. In several JSAs, environmental have defined objectives in their planning. Third, Environmental Economics Series 17 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies the JSA-- in the context of protected area 100 percent in 2010) is unrealistic, given past management--points to conflicting institutional progress and anticipated budget allocations. roles of agencies in wildlife development, community development, and land tenure For the Zambia PRSP, the JSA highlights the administration. With respect to forestry, the JSA importance of consistent coverage of notes the slow progress on governance and environment across sectors, the need for a monitoring, while it appreciates progress made review of the extent of current coverage, the with respect to a new forestry law and the development of a cross-cutting agenda, and the extension of land titling benefits to women. need for better environment indicators. For Guinea, the JSA highlights the overly For Sri Lanka, the JSA calls for improvements in ambitious nature of long-term targets the monitoring framework, with a focus on coinciding with the MDG time frame. The JSA environment appraisal, data collection, analysis, notes that the target for access to safe water linkages with policy, and monitoring of inputs, supply (to increase from 49 percent in 1999 to outputs, and outcomes. 18 Environment Department Papers Good Practice in Environmental 5 Mainstreaming Many priorities compete for attention in a Water resources PRSP. One should therefore not expect to find PRSPs highlight water resources issues such as lengthy elaboration or comprehensive coverage water scarcity (Yemen), inadequate planning of issues. This section highlights good practice and usage (Zambia), pollution (Sri Lanka), and in PRSPs in terms of (a) the issues identified; (b) fishery loss (Ghana). Increasing water pollution the analysis of poverty-environment linkages; is attributed to a poor regulatory framework, (c) response systems; and (c) the process lack of enforcement, inadequate sanitation, and followed in developing PRSP priorities. The poor waste management. section presents only brief examples of good practice, as the full PRSPs are easily available to The imbalance in available water resources and the general public. their usage is clearly reflected in the Yemen PRSP, which notes that the per capita share of Issues 137 m3 is 2 percent of the world average per capita and is expected to decline to 66 m3 by Several countries highlight the environmental 2026. Over 91 percent of the water is used for issues resulting from unsustainable use of agriculture, most of it very inefficiently. The water, land, air, and biological resources. expansion of Qat cultivation has adversely impacted water resources. The scarcity of water Land use resources constitutes a real constraint to Countries present diverse issues of land use development projects that depend upon water, such as loss of vegetation, soil erosion, since most of the known water resources have desertification (Yemen, Niger). Severe already been tapped and are subject to rapid deforestation has been highlighted as a major depletion. Costs rise significantly during land use change in Ghana, Niger, and Sri drought periods, affecting the ability of the poor Lanka. The forested area in Ghana is reported to access groundwater. to have declined from 8.2 million ha to 1.7 million ha in the last few decades. Niger In contrast, Zambia's PRSP highlights the issues highlights the impact of deforestation and of inadequate planning, utilization, and lack of desertification, leading to the loss of 2 million reliable data as major factors influencing the ha of forest cover during the 1990s. Sri Lanka country's water resources. It is estimated that reports adverse impacts of deforestation and Zambia accounts for over 35 percent of degradation of biodiversity, irregular water Southern Africa's water resources and is a flows, soil erosion, and a shortage of fuelwood. source of several wetland ecosystems that Environmental Economics Series 19 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies support economic activities of significance such population living on the Absheron Peninsula is as tourism, fishing, and transport. severely affected because of the large concentration of nearby manufacturing Sri Lanka emphasizes the widespread erosion industries and power plants and the poor of 55 percent of the country's coast, which is enforcement of pollution controls. adversely affecting the livelihoods of fishing families. The armed conflict has also Biodiversity contributed to the destruction of rainwater PRSPs do not often present information on harvesting, lagoon barrages, and solid waste biodiversity. Countries that mention this issue management facilities on the Jaffna Peninsula, are either those with high threats to their causing aquifer pollution and a decline in recharge. biodiversity (Yemen) or countries that have a large untapped potential (Zambia). In Ghana, marine fish production has declined. Factors contributing to the decline include a Zambia's protected areas--including 19 drop in marine fish stocks, the proliferation of national parks and 34 game management demersal trawling activities near shore, the high areas--cover 33 percent of the country, but only cost of fishing operations, the absence of a legal 5 percent has been developed for tourism. In framework, and the lack of active fisheries Yemen, rich biodiversity is found in the resource management. mountain and coastal areas and islands of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. However, Air quality overgrazing and firewood collection have With the exception of countries in Eastern adverse impacts on diversity in the mountain Europe, most PRSP countries use biomass fuels region. Chemical pollutants, explosives, and to a large extent in rural and even in urban fishing with dragnets threaten coral reefs and areas. Solid fuel usage has adverse impacts on marine diversity. indoor and outdoor air quality, as well as on forest resources. Urbanization and the ensuing air pollution is also a source of concern for some Poverty-Environment Links countries. The relationships between poverty and environment are complex and vary across In Sri Lanka, a large number of old cars and countries. Some of the linkages noted in the trucks and the poor quality of gasoline and assessed PRSPs are summarized below. diesel fuels contributed to an alarming rise in urban air pollution. Vehicular emissions of lead Poverty and natural resources degradation and particulates affect the poor disproportion- ately; malnourished children and those with Cambodia notes that on average fish iron or calcium deficiency have a particularly consumption accounts for 30 percent of the high propensity for lead absorption. population's intake of animal protein. The increasing population has placed strong Air pollution in Azerbaijan is mainly from the pressures on natural resources, especially on emissions of toxic pollutants of power plants, community fisheries. The failure of legal industry, and transport. The health of the procedures has also resulted in growing 20 Environment Department Papers Good Practice in Environmental Mainstreaming conflicts between small and commercial fishery study of 60 communities in the Kumasi stakeholders. municipality and five other districts found that 23 percent of the sample did not have access to In Zambia, five major environmental problems piped water. More than 63 percent had a piped impose high social costs: water pollution, network, but did not have water or experienced inadequate sanitation, soil degradation, air irregular flow, and up to 30 percent of pollution in the copper belt, and deforestation/ households depended on dug wells. Using wildlife depletion. The environmental and water as an indicator of poverty, it is estimated social costs fall disproportionately on the poor. the level of poverty falls between 50­75 percent. Those hardest hit by high exposure to In Yemen, small and fragmented land holdings contamination are the poor. pose major impediments to land productivity improvements. The cultivated area is In Mali, trypanosomiasis infection causes distributed among 1.2 million landholders, with sleeping sickness in humans and animals and is 44percent holding less than 5 ha. The rapid transmitted by the tsetse fly, which infests growth in population density on agricultural 200,000 km2 with moderate to severe intensity. land and the per capita decline in water reflect The disease causes mortality, morbidity, the adverse impact of demographic pressure on infertility, stunting, and low work capacity of Yemen's natural resources. animals, accentuating the protein deficiencies in already poor regions. Azerbaijan inherited several environmental problems from the Soviet period. Poverty is an Poor households in Sri Lanka cite the provision aggravating factor in the overgrazing of of safe drinking water and sanitation as the pastures and in overfishing of the Caspian Sea. highest social service priority. Inadequate Poor people cannot afford the cost of modern sewage and sanitation infrastructure in urban energy; as a result, the country's forests are and peri-urban areas is a leading public health threatened due to uncontrolled fuelwood problem, requiring active participation of the removals for cooking and heating. private sector in the provision of water and sanitation services to urban settlements. Environmental health Vulnerability Environmental risks account for approximately one fifth of the Disability-Adjusted-Life-Years Natural hazards such as hurricanes, floods, and (DALYs) in developing countries. The droughts affecting rainfed agriculture can be proportion is even higher for Sub-Saharan formidable sources of vulnerability to the poor. Africa, where most of the PRSP countries are located.13 In this context, the role of In Niger, average annual rainfall varies environmental factors in the disease burden of significantly from the Sahara to the Sahel- poor households cannot be overemphasized. Sudan zone. Since it is difficult to manage rivers that cross international boundaries, water The high incidence of diarrhea in northern potential is limited to ponds and artificial Ghana is attributed to the lack of access to safe reservoirs. Underground water replenishment drinking water and adequate sanitation. A is low. People perceive population growth, Environmental Economics Series 21 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies drought, poor harvests, isolation, and locust land holdings. As a result, about 97 percent of attacks as major constraints that compromise farmers do not have title to the land they their already difficult living conditions. In rural cultivate, strongly limiting their motivation to areas, livestock is the second leading activity invest in land improvement and infrastructure after crop cultivation, and is affected by development. recurrent droughts. A poor rainy season always leads to a famine that increases the Incentives vulnerability of the impoverished. Public policy can enhance the incentives for environmental management, but policy Property rights distortions have the potential to increase the Several PRSPs highlight the importance of land adverse impacts on the environment. A few tenure to investment in land productivity and PRSPs highlight the negative impacts of the rising income levels. existing policy and incentive structure. Cambodia proposes to establish a nationwide The Azerbaijan PRSP discusses the perverse land administrative system as part of land influence of energy subsidies. It is estimated tenure reform. This includes measures to that government spending on energy is 50 improve incentives for investment in percent higher than on health and education agriculture, enhance the value of land as because of the subsidies granted to energy and collateral, and improve land registration, gas companies. Even subsidized prices are not dispute resolution, and demarcation of effectively passed on to consumers. The average administrative boundaries. With respect to land level of energy bill collection was found to be 27 distribution, idle state land is proposed to be percent for electricity and 30 percent for gas, distributed as part of social concessions to the encouraging wasteful use of energy and landless and the victims of natural disasters. ensuing pollution. Since the amount of subsidy received by households depends upon the The Sri Lanka PRSP finds that state ownership quantity they consume, and low-income of over 80 percent of the land is the most families have limited access to modern energy important impediment to agricultural sources, household utility subsidies have been prosperity. Most poor farmers operate land found to be regressive. parcels without a clear title. Since the poor are not empowered to make choices on land use, In Zambia, state control of prices for water they cannot use land to its most productive supply and waste disposal discouraged new potential. Uncontrolled access and insecure investments in these sectors. This led to usufruct rights to natural resources are the two deterioration of plant and equipment, causing major causes of common land degradation. The outbursts of diseases such as cholera. fragmented nature of land tenure also creates inefficiencies in farm management decisions. Empowerment Since most farmers do not have clear title, they cannot use it as collateral for loans. Cambodia's fishery management is slowly transforming from a state monopoly to co- In Zambia, customary tenure accounts for about management. This entails encouraging the 94 percent and leaseholds for about 6 percent of participation of local communities in the 22 Environment Department Papers Good Practice in Environmental Mainstreaming management and conservation of fisheries, and and allocate state-owned land on the basis of controlling undesirable practices of illegal marketable title, and correcting anomalies in fishing and toxic pesticide dumping in fishing the legal structure relating to land inheritance areas. that discriminate against women. Zambia's Community-Based Natural Resource Management Program seeks to build the Response Systems necessary capacity of local communities in the management of their natural resources such as As expected, the response systems of countries forests, wildlife, fisheries, water, and arable vary depending on socioeconomic conditions, land. The Zambia Forestry Action Program and pressing environmental issues, institutional Provincial Forest Action Programs seek to framework, and policy measures already assess forest resources, and to support national implemented. Some initiatives mentioned in and provincial capacity. The Soil Conservation PRSPs are summarized below. and Agro-Forestry Extension Program promotes Environmental management capacity extension efforts in soil conservation. Environmental management capacity refers to Gender and environment the institutional capacity to plan, legislate, and Poverty and environmental degradation have a implement environmental interventions. It profound influence on women and girls in includes the capacity to enforce environmental terms of greater time expended in gathering standards, implement economic instruments, fuelwood and water. Women also often do not build data systems, and manage knowledge. A have property rights to land, which limits their strongly related variable is the level of public ability and incentive to invest in land expenditure for environmental management. productivity improvements. Their knowledge is sometimes ignored by male-dominated Sri Lanka proposes to revise the tourism law, agencies, and extension services tend to direct rain forest law, and human settlement planning their information more to males than females. law. The revisions of the tourism and rain forest laws have the potential to improve the tourism The Zambia PRSP emphasizes the actions sector and to improve the conservation of proposed to integrate women's traditional natural resources. The regulatory framework knowledge for environmental management into and tariff structure for water supply aim to extension programs. The government of facilitate private sector involvement in the Zambia has initiated policies to mainstream delivery of clean urban drinking water. The gender into land use policies and reserved 30 strategy for solid waste management is to percent of land allocations to women. combine the capacity of local authorities and form public-private partnerships to expand Under the land development ordinance of Sri sanitary disposal systems. Lanka, women are not ensured the right to tenure and title in land settlement areas, and In the case of Zambia, environmental legislation incomplete land records further exacerbate their is already enacted, but implementation needs disadvantages. Proposals include a policy to sell improvement. The Environmental Council of Environmental Economics Series 23 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies Zambia seeks to enforce the standards for resources include improvements in farm-level mining and industrial production and to irrigation with active farmer participation, and implement and monitor the environmental optimal use of fisheries and the marine management plans for mines and define the environment. Proposed surveys would develop commitments for adherence. In the context of a database on fishery resources. This will water supply and sanitation, the Water Supply provide a basis for regulation of fisheries and Sanitation Act 28 of 1997 seeks to improve through definition of appropriate methods and service provision and to provide support to the quantity limits. National Water Supply and Sanitation Council as regulator for service provision. The Zambia Investment in human-made capital Wildlife Authority Act 12 of 1998 supports The investment programs relating to community management of resources and environmental infrastructure and service generates revenue and employment benefits provision concern water supply, sanitation, from wildlife resources. waste management, slum improvements, and other forms of environmental infrastructure Investment in natural resources improvements. Many countries are concerned about the decline in their natural resource productivity. The Zambia's energy sector programs focus on PRSPs provide opportunities to commit electrification, efficient charcoal production, resources to improve their productivity and improved stoves, and substitution of charcoal promote resource conservation. with millennium gel fuel in urban households. The Rural Electrification Master Plan aims to Cambodia seeks to improve the management of integrate renewable energy to support energy water resources in both lowland and highland services to rural communities, and would areas. It proposes to expand irrigation to promote solar energy in education, health, and improve productivity, generate employment, rural development sectors. and control floods. It seeks to improve the efficient use of groundwater and surface water In Mali, water supply and sanitation priorities by licensing water uses, generating resources include increasing access, reducing regional through user fees, promoting private disparities, developing sanitation infrastructure, investment in irrigation and drainage, and linking water supply and sanitation policy regulating groundwater mining, and to health, education, nutrition, rural implementing the provisions of the Mekong development, and revenue-generating Agreement. activities. Yemen seeks to implement the Agricultural and The Sri Lanka government's objective is to Fisheries Production Promotion Fund, the ensure safe water to the entire population by Social Fund for Development, the Management 2010 and to at least 79 percent of the population of the Land Resources Project, and Local by 2005 (from the present 70 percent). In rural Community Development programs as vehicles areas, community-based organizations are to for investment in natural resources. The provide safe drinking water systems in programs to enhance the productivity of natural response to local demand. The costs of 24 Environment Department Papers Good Practice in Environmental Mainstreaming maintaining and operating these systems are to to grow from 20 to 35 percent by 2010, charcoal be borne by the community. In towns and cities, production to be increased by 400,000 metric the private sector is encouraged to invest and tons, and electricity exports to increase by 300 operate clean drinking water systems. percent. Deforestation is targeted to be reduced from 300,000 ha per year in 2001 to 100,000 in Monitoring outcomes 2004, air pollution to decline from 500 µg/m3 in Tracking the outcomes of PRSP implementation 2001 to 200 µg/m3 in 2004, and nitrate pollution requires a sound monitoring and evaluation in water from 6.36 mgl in 2001 to 3.5 mgl in system. To judge progress, baseline data are 2004. The PRSP also sets targets for enforcement essential to monitoring and evaluation. Most of environmental laws, curriculum countries maintain baselines and targets development, training of personnel, and relating to access to water and sanitation. In environmental impact assessments. other areas such as deforestation and biodiversity, very few PRSPs provide baselines Process and targets. The definition of input, output, outcome, impact, and process indicators is often Process refers here to both the design and missing, which makes the sample of good implementation of the PRSP's environmental practice limited. priorities. PRSPs describe the series of consultations involving civil society, Zambia presents targets for ecotourism in terms government, and donor agencies. Participation of tourist arrivals, investment per annum, and appears to have increased from interim to full revenue from park fees. For water supply and PRSP stages in most countries. Improvements sanitation, the targets are service provision to in the process and participation are reflected in 2.5 million peri-urban residents and 2.5 million the higher scores on several aspects of people in rural areas. Energy access is targeted environmental priority setting. The true Box 1 Environment Targets and Indicators Ghana. Degradation relating to crop and livestock activities to be reduced by 20 percent; loss of forests through fire, logging, fuelwood extraction, and encroachment to be reduced by 10 percent; environmental resource degradation from mining and manufacturing to be reduced by 20 percent. Yemen. Increase the coverage of water supply to 69 percent in urban areas and 65 percent in rural areas; in- crease electricity access to 40.3 percent of the population, including 22.2 percent coverage in rural areas, and reduce electricity losses to 25 percent. Mali. Monitor access to water supply and sanitation, villages benefiting from at least one accessible water point, number of hectares reforested, regional development plans implemented, and operational rural wood markets. Azerbaijan. The number and efficiency of protective structures, extent of salinity, number of hectares recultivat- ed, replanting and rehabilitation of native vegetation, new protected areas established, reduction of mercury and oil contamination of soil, transparency of implicit energy subsidies, payment of energy bills, quality of energy supply, and environmental education in secondary schools. Environmental Economics Series 25 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies influence of consultation and participation can development, agriculture, health, and only be observed from the implementation infrastructure development. During the 1998­ results. Programs implemented with greater 2000 period, 99 consultations were held with participation are more likely to be cost-effective the active involvement of line ministries and and have larger impact than those implemented with important contributions from the private primarily as government initiatives. sector, donors, NGOs, provincial authorities, and local people. Improved participation involving the private sector, NGOs, local communities, and donor In Sri Lanka, community-driven agencies is reported in several full PRSPs developmenthas a major role in the (Malawi and Zambia). The consultation and implementation of the PRSP. Community awareness of the PRSP process also improved participation is stressed in coastal zone because of the dissemination of key documents management, reef stabilization, fisheries, and in local languages (Rwanda and Vietnam). social infrastructure development. The government will support community-led The Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan of initiatives in cooperation with nongovernmen- Mozambique exemplifies a strong commitment tal and community-based organizations to to incorporating priorities highlighted in the assist specific target groups of very poor consultations through an interactive and communities. Local community organizations informative multiple stakeholder dialogue at established in park buffer zones will be both national and regional levels. In these provided a share of ecotourism earnings and consultations, the focus on environment formed trained to assist in wildlife preservation. The a cross-cutting theme. Important priorities PRSP proposes a system of transferable water relating to environmental protection were use entitlements for large-scale water users and raised under the umbrella of rural community-based organizations. 26 Environment Department Papers 6 Scope for Improvement Though the PRSPs have improved in the scope adequate budget support and institutional and quality of environmental issues covered, capacity. To verify whether the current and there are still gaps. This section highlights the medium-term strategies are consistent with major gaps. For interim PRSPs, the time achieving those goals, the PRSPs need to be available for revision from interim to full stage aligned with the MDG timeline.14 can be effectively utilized to improve the focus and coverage of the identified priorities. For full PRSPs, improvements in the implementation A Holistic Perspective on Environmental phase and revision possibilities at 3-to-5-year Health intervals provide opportunities to build on the This point is perhaps the most fundamental in achievements and to address the gaps. terms of identifying cross-cutting deficiencies in PRSPs. Most often, the documents take a sectoral perspective on providing health Dissemination of Implementation Lessons services through the ministry of health, and It was noted above that the description of providing water supply and sanitation through environmental issues and opportunities is often the ministry of water & sanitation. Therefore, cursory. All IDA countries could utilize their they lack a holistic perspective on the burden of National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) or disease in the country, and there is generally no similar strategic environment plan. Experience discussion about cost-effective measures to deal from the implementation of NEAPs needs to be with cross-sectoral issues. analyzed and built into the PRSP implementation In this context, it is noteworthy that there is generally very little attention paid to air pollution, and particularly indoor air pollution. Long-Term Perspective and MDG Horizon The number of premature deaths due to air Developing countries have committed pollution has been estimated at close to 3.5 themselves to the Millennium Development million per annum. Of this total, the number of Goals (MDGs). While a few PRSPs explicitly premature deaths attributable to outdoor air introduce a long-term perspective and make pollution is estimated at 1.8 million, and to references to MDGs for 2015, this is not indoor air pollution at 1.6 million. However, in observed consistently. Even for those PRSPs Africa, the number of deaths due to indoor air that present long-term targets corresponding to pollution is almost nine times that of outdoor the MDG horizon, they are often without air pollution (Lvovsky 2001). In estimating the Environmental Economics Series 27 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies burden of disease for developing countries analysis, which allows for a more targeted classified as "high mortality," WHO (2002) approach to environmental management. In ranks unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene this context, the initiative to use regional maps third, and indoor smoke from solid fuels fourth. (Burkina Faso) is commendable and deserves to Together, these risk factors account for almost be elaborated. 10 percent of the DALYs in high mortality developing countries. Many of the PRSP countries within our sample fall within that Progress Reports category. A holistic perspective on the burden The PRSP Progress Reports present good of disease would have identified indoor air opportunities to also update the PRSP's pollution as an issue. We hypothesize that (a) environmental priorities. As noted above the damage function of indoor air pollution is (section 4), our review shows that some not well understood, and (b) because women Progress Reports fall short of the standard that and children bear the brunt of this damage, the country's own PRSP has established. their concerns are not effectively identified and addressed. Joint Staff Assessments Targets and Budgets It is not surprising that JSAs are written with a strong emphasis on macroeconomics. That is Several PRSPs present generic targets that are appropriate. However, an institution such as linked to identifiable budget allocations. More the World Bank--concerned with attention needs to be given to linking medium- environmentally and socially sustainable term expenditures (where applicable) to the development--should take a cross-cutting PRSP's priorities. approach to its assessment of the PRSP. That must also include the environment. Monitoring In summary, we have pointed here to a set of Institutional capacity to monitor progress issues where improvements are possible with appears to be a major constraint in most very limited additional effort and resources. countries. It is essential to clearly define Our paper can only go so far: we provide an environmentally relevant targets and indicators. overview and leave the details for more specific This can be combined with disaggregated country-by-country discussions. 28 Environment Department Papers Appendix A -- Interim PRSPs and Full PRSPs Implementation S. No Country Region IPRSP PRSP progress report 1 Albania Eastern Europe Dec 4, 2001 April 2002 2 Armenia Central Asia Jan 11, 2001 3 Azerbaijan Central Asia May 22, 2001 May 14, 2003 4 Bangladesh South Asia June 2003 5 Benin Sub Saharan Africa July 13, 2000 Feb 23 2002 6 Bolivia L. America & Caribbean Jan 27, 2000 June 5, 2001 7 Bosnia & Herzegovina Eastern Europe Oct. 2, 2002 8 Burkina Faso Sub Saharan Africa June 30, 2000 Dec 6, 2001, Sept 2002 9 Chad Sub Saharan Africa July 25, 2000 10 Cameroon Sub Saharan Africa Oct 10, 2000 11 Cambodia East Asia Jan 18, 2001 Feb 2003 12 Cape Verde Sub Saharan Africa April 8, 2002 13 Central African Rep. Sub Saharan Africa Jan 18, 2001. 14 Congo, DR Sub Saharan Africa June 11, 2002 15 Cote D'Ivoire Sub Saharan Africa March 28, 2002 16 Djibouti North Africa Feb 27, 2001 17 Ethiopia Sub Saharan Africa Mar 20, 2001 Sept 17, 2002 18 Gambia Sub Saharan Africa Dec 14, 2000 July 16, 2002 19 Georgia Eastern Europe Dec 19, 2000 20 Ghana Sub Saharan Africa Aug. 24, 2000 March 4, 2003 21 Guinea Sub Saharan Africa Dec. 22, 2000 July 25, 2002 22 Guinea Bissau Sub Saharan Africa Dec. 14, 2000 23 Guyana Caribbean Nov 14, 2000 Sept 17, 2002 24 Honduras L. America July 6, 2000 Oct 11, 2001 25 Kenya Sub Saharan Africa Aug 1, 2000 26 Kyrgyz Rep. Central Asia July 5, 2001 Jan 23, 2003 27 Lao PDR East Asia April 24, 2001 28 Lesotho Sub Saharan Africa March 6, 2001 29 Mali Sub Saharan Africa Sept 7, 2000 Feb 27, 2003 30 Malawi Sub Saharan Africa Dec 21, 2000 Aug 29, 2002 31 Madagascar Sub Saharan Africa Dec 19, 2000 32 Mauritania Sub Saharan Africa Feb 6, 2001 Sept 25, 2001 June 18, 2002 33 Moldova Eastern Europe Dec 14, 2000 34 Mongolia East Asia Sept 27, 2001 35 Mozambique Sub Saharan Africa April 6, 2000 Oct 1, 2001 April 2003 36 Nicaragua L. America Dec 21, 2000 Sept 25, 2001 37 Niger Sub Saharan Africa Dec 20, 2000 Feb 7, 2002 38 Pakistan South Asia Dec 4, 2001 Environmental Economics Series 29 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies Implementation S. No Country Region IPRSP PRSP progress report 39 Rwanda Sub Saharan Africa Dec 21, 2000 Aug 6, 2002 40 Sao Tome & Prin. Sub Saharan Africa April 27, 2000 41 Serbia & Montenegro Eastern Europe June 20, 2002 42 Senegal Sub Saharan Africa June 20, 2000 Nov 20, 2002 43 Sierra Leone Sub Saharan Africa Sept 25, 2001 44 Sri Lanka South Asia March 7, 2003 45 Tajikistan Europe & Central Asia June 8, 2000. Oct 10, 2002 46 Tanzania Sub Saharan Africa April 4, 2000 Nov. 30, 2000 Nov 27, 2001, March 2003 47 Uganda Sub Saharan Africa Nov. 30, 2000 March 2001, 2002 48 Vietnam East Asia April 12, 2001 July 2, 2002 49 Yemen Middle East Nov 27, 2001 Aug 2002 50 Zambia Sub Saharan Africa August 4, 2000 May 22, 2002 30 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Scoring Format of the PRSP Assessment 1. Issues in Focus 1. Land use: degradation, deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, etc. 2. Water: drinking water, irrigation, fisheries and water pollution, etc. 3. Air & climate: air quality, solid fuel usage, emissions, climate variability 4. Biodiversity: threats to ecosystems, species and genes , nature-based opportunities 2. Causal Link Assessment 1. Poverty and NR degradation: resource dependence and inequality 2. Environmental health: communicable diseases, housing environment, and pollution 3. Vulnerability: impacts of natural hazards 4. Property rights: tenure and user rights 5. Incentives: pricing interventions, taxation, subsidies, exchange rate, trade, etc. 6. Empowerment: community-based management, decentralization and partnerships 7. Gender: role of women in environmental management 3. Response systems 1. Environmental management capacity: legislation, regulation, institutional reform, data systems, cross-sectoral coordination, environmental standards, environmental economic instruments, etc. 2. Investment in natural capital: investment in natural resource productivity 3. Investment in human-made capital: investment in environmental infrastructure 4. Monitoring natural resource outcomes: deforestation, afforestation, rehabilitated areas, protected areas, soil & water conservation measures, renewable energy use, etc. 5. Monitoring human resource outcomes: infant and child mortality, disease burden related to environmental risk factors, time spent collecting fuelwood and water 4. Process 1. Description of the participatory process and inclusion of environmental constituencies, particularly with respect to the identification of environmental issues, poverty links, and actions Score: 0 = not mentioned; 1 = mentioned by not elaborated; 2 = elaborated; 3 = good practice. Environmental Economics Series 31 Notes 1. For countries that have high external debt, 6. The World Bank and IMF Reviews on PRSP PRSPs form the basis for debt relief under preparation and implementation are also to the enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor a large extent based on the PRSP documents Countries Initiative. (World Bank and IMF 2001b, 2002b, 2002c, 2. "IDA13" signifies the 13th round of and 2003). replenishment to the International 7. In this paper, for the sake of simplicity we Development Association, also knows as use the term "PRSP" to also include interim the "credit window" of the World Bank. PRSPs when the distinction is not essential. 3. For a detailed discussion of poverty- 8. The World Bank Board may discuss PRSP environment links, see the World Bank's Implementation Progress Reports and its Environmental Strategy (2001) Making JSA on its own or in association with the Sustainable Commitments, and DFID, EC, IMF and IDA operational programs. The UNDP, and The World Bank (2002): Linking annual progress report is also required for Poverty Reduction and Environmental countries under the poverty reduction Management: Policy Challenges and growth facility (PRGF) of the IMF and for Opportunities, paper prepared for the World those countries that do not update their Summit on Sustainable Development, PRSP within three years under an IDA Johannesburg. For environmental health arrangement (World Bank and IMF 2002b). risks, see WHO (2002). 9. For a detailed discussion about 4. More precisely, "environment" refers to both environmental indicators, see Shyamsundar the living and non-living components of the (2002). natural world. The environment is (a) a 10. In our discussion with Country Teams, we source of raw material and energy, (b) a share our entire scoring sheet, not only the recipient and partial recycler of waste average score. products from the economy; and (c) an 11. In the country with the lowest scoring full important source of recreation, beauty, PRSP (Tanzania), the government is spiritual values, and other amenities. See currently active in shaping a mainstreaming DFID and others (2002) for further discussion. program together with a set of supportive 5. For an expansion of that argument in donors. economic terms, see "Can the Environment 12. See World Development Indicators 2003 for a Wait" (World Bank 1997), which illustrates listing of environmental action plans the significant cost of environmental covering most PRSP countries. pollution to poor people today. 13. Definitions of "environmental risk" vary, but generally include at least the impacts of Environmental Economics Series 33 Status and Evolution of Environmental Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies unsafe water, poor sanitation, indoor and 14. See Bojö and Reddy (2003) for a detailed outdoor air pollution, and agro-industrial review of PRSPs in the context of the waste. 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