SUPPORTING REPORT 1 2 35 CONFERENCE EDITION CHONGQING Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development Photo: 4045. © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, inter- pretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judg- ment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Citation Please cite the report as follows: World Bank. 2019. Chongqing 2035: Spatial Transformation Strate- gy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development. Supporting Report 1. Washington, DC: World Bank. Acknowledgments The Lead Authors of the Overview and four supporting reports are Serge Salat, Xueman Wang, and Zhou Linjun. Cover photo: Onlyyouqj. Design: Ultra Designs, Inc. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3 FIGURES Figure 1. Chongqing’s Urban Population Density 2. Current Trends and Key Issues 5 Compared to Other Provincial-Level Cities, 2000–2014 6 Municipal-Level Trends 5 Figure 2. Chongqing Central Chongqing 6 Municipality’s Economic Density Compared to China’s Average and to Other Provincial-Level 3. Benchmarking and Lessons from Cities (2017) 6 Global Cities 13 Figure 3. Urban Land Growth vs. Urban Municipality Level 13 Population Growth in Chinese Cities, 2000–2014 7 Central Chongqing Level 14 Figure 4. Land Converted to Accommodate 1 Additional Urban Resident, 2000–2014 7 4. Payoffs to Successful Spatial Figure 5. Density of Population on Built-Up Planning Are Large: Comparing Land Area in Central Chongqing 7 Two Urban Growth Scenarios for Figure 6. GDP Per Capita in Central Chongqing 8 Central Chongqing 21 Figure 7. Economic Density in Central Chongqing 8 Figure 8. Illustrative Diagrams Depicting 5. Recommendations: Chongqing’s the Urban Form of Superblocks (Left) Spatial Transformation 25 and Walkable Development (Right) 9 Spatial transformation I Figure 9. Share of Chongqing’s Urban A compact growth transformation that Built-Up Area, Population, and Jobs in reduces land consumption and increases Different Urban Types 9 economic density 25 Figure 10. People and Job Densities in Spatial transformation II Chongqing by Urban Form Type 10 Transit-oriented development that Figure 11. Job/Resident Ratio in Chongqing articulates accessible densities 27 by Urban Form Type 10 Spatial transformation III Figure 12. Chongqing Urban Forms 11 Design vibrant mixed-use neighborhoods Figure 13. Density of Intersections and Average based on Chongqing’s unique landscape of Distance between Intersections in Chongqing’s mountains and water, on small blocks, Five Urban Form Types 11 and on streets as places for people 29 Figure 14. Economic Density and Length of References 33 Streets Per Unit of GDP in Chongqing’s Five Urban Form Types 11 Figure 15. Chongqing Municipality’s Urban Endnotes 35 Population and Urban Economy Compared to Those of Large Metropolitan Regions 13 Photo: Tonyja44. Figure 16. Chongqing Municipality’s Economic Figure 33. Jobs/Population Ratio in 2035 23 Density Compared to Other Large Metropolitan Figure 34. New Population and Jobs in Regions 13 Walkable Transit-Oriented Development Area 23 Figure 17. Density of Central Chongqing’s Figure 35. Transportation Mode Share 23 Built-Up Area Compared to Asian Global Cities 14 Figure 36. Annual Auto VKT, 2035 24 Figure 18. Additional Land Required Per Additional Urban Dweller in Central Chongqing Compared Figure 37. Annual Auto GHG, 2035 24 to Hong Kong SAR and Singapore 14 Figure 38. Annual Auto Air Pollutant Figure 19. Central Chongqing’s Economic Density Emissions, 2035 24 on the Built-Up Area Compared to Global Cities 15 Figure 39. Illustrative View of Liangjiang New Figure 20. Share of Population (Left) and Jobs Area’s TOD Concept Plan 28 (Right) WithinWalking Distance of Public Transport Figure 40. Commercial Activity Distribution (15-Minute Walk) 16 in Liuyun Xiaoqu 31 Figure 21. Intersection Density in Chongqing Figure 41. Motor Vehicle and Pedestrian-Bicycle Yuzhong and Jiulongpo Compared to Selected Network in Liuyun Xiaoqu 31 World Cities 17 Figure 22. Average Distance between Intersections in Chongqing Yuzhong and Jiulongpo Compared BOXES to Selected World Cities 17 Box 1. Key Messages of Chongqing’s Spatial Figure 23. The High Density of Stations in Strategy 3 Tokyo’s City Center as Defined by the Box 2. Chongqing Municipality’s Sub-Regions 5 Yamanote Line 19 Box 3. Lessons from Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Figure 24. Residential Densities in Tokyo 19 Tokyo, and Seoul for a Transit-Oriented Figure 25. High Levels of Centrality in Tokyo Polycentric Urban Form 18 Concentrated along the Yamanote Line 19 Box 4. Liangjiang New Area 26 Figure 26. Tokyo Zoning Map with High FARs Box 5. The 5D Compact City Framework 30 along the Yamanote Line 19 Box 6. The Transformation of Liuyun Xiaoqu Figure 27. Using Higher FARs Values to from a Gated Residential Community to a Encourage High-Density Development around Vibrant and Connected Mixed-Use Neighborhood 30 Major Transit Nodes in Seoul 20 Figure 28. New Population Growth by Urban Form Type 21 Figure 29. Job Growth by Urban Form Type 21 Figure 30. New Greenfield Land Consumption 22 Figure 31. Cumulative Infrastructure Costs to 2035 22 Figure 32. Annual Household Driving and Residential Energy Costs in 2035 23 2 / Spatial and Economic Transformation for a Global City SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 3 1. Introduction Chongqing Municipality, located Chongqing presents two distinct scales: the municipality is comparable to a country. Chongqing in the southwest of inland China Municipality’s land area is 80 percent the size of the and upstream of the Yangtze River, Republic of Korea, and its population is 60 percent is one of the largest cities in the that of Korea. Central Chongqing’s nine districts world, with an area of 82,400 km2 comprise the core of the municipality and are its economic engine. It also has a vast administrative area and a population of 33.92 million of 5,473 km2, which is equivalent to the entire Shanghai (Chongqing Municipal Bureau of municipality, 3.7 times the size of Greater London, Statistics and NBS Survey Office and seven times the size of New York City. However, in Chongqing 2016).1 To put it in only 10 percent of central Chongqing’s administrative perspective, the municipality’s area land is built up; hence it is comparable to other large cities such as New York City, central Tokyo’s 23 wards, is as large as that of Austria and its or Seoul Special City, both in terms of land size and population is close to that of Canada. population. In 2014, central Chongqing had a resident population of about 8.2 million, which is comparable to the Big Six global cities: central Tokyo’s 23 wards, Seoul Special City, Singapore, London, New York City, and Hong Kong SAR, China.2 The municipality has a distinct topography with limited developable land. The Yangtze River flows This report is based on two analytical streams: for 679 km through the entire municipality and has its confluence with the Jialing and other rivers. As a city 1. An assessment of Chongqing’s issues and built on mountains surrounded by rivers, Chongqing challenges at municipality and central city is known as “a city of mountains and rivers.” While scales based on the trends of the past 20 the municipality has a large administrative size, years, benchmarked with other provincial-level mountainous areas account for 75.8 percent of the municipalities in China and with global cities to municipality and hilly areas for 18.2 percent. Only 6 derive policy lessons for Chongqing percent of its land area consists of flat land suitable 2. A scenario analysis comparing a Trend scenario for development. and a Compact Growth scenario for central Chongqing. 4 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development BOX 1 Key Messages of Chongqing’s Spatial Strategy Chongqing has a high risk of losing its land use Recommendations: efficiency and unique urban form as a city of A modeling comparison of a Trend scenario and mountains and rivers. The city can increase its a Compact Growth scenario has been undertaken efficiency, livability, and inclusiveness through for central Chongqing, and the results are clear— articulated density, connectivity, mixed-use land use, urban livability, household expenditure, developments, and high-quality public spaces. infrastructure costs, and environmental A compact urban form increases agglomeration sustainability could be greatly improved with and brings people closer to jobs, while reducing compact growth transformations: infrastructure costs and environmental impact. Encouraging the development of livable ■■ About 200 km2 of land would be saved in neighborhoods with unique urban fabrics would central Chongqing, preserving a valuable enhance Chongqing’s livability and global appeal. asset for future expansion beyond 2035, and increasing economic density, agglomeration and Current trends and key issues:  productivity. ■■ Over the last 20 years, Chongqing Municipality’s ■■ Cumulative expenditure in infrastructure3 density has halved. Expansion has fragmented to 2035 would be reduced by 30 percent, the city and exacerbated inequalities of achieving RMB 34 billion in savings and allowing development and imbalances between districts the redeployment of public expenditure to R&D and neighborhoods. to improve competitiveness and to the extension ■■ Its expansion has been driven by land-financed of social services such as education and health. urbanization and took the form of superblocks. ■■ Chongqing would be more affordable. This inefficient land use pattern limits access Household costs for transportation and home to transit (reducing access to jobs and social energy would be 32 percent lower, achieving inclusiveness), raises infrastructure costs, annual savings of RMB 5,100 per household, and and leads to poor walkability and excessive thus enhancing inclusiveness. land consumption. It prevents economic agglomeration and has high environmental ■■ Central Chongqing would be less car- impacts such as poor air quality and high carbon dependent, with a reduction of congestion emissions. and an increase of accessibility to jobs with affordable transportation. The mode share of ■■ By 2015, only 807.47 km2 remained available walking and public transport would increase for further development. If the past expansion by 9 percentage points in the compact growth pattern continues, with the growth of 5.8 million scenario compared with the trend scenario. people and 4 million jobs in central Chongqing, no more developable land will be left after 2035. ■■ Air quality, which is currently above critical thresholds and threatens human health, would Benchmarking with global cities:  be significantly improved. CO2 and air pollutant ■■ Central Chongqing’s population, job, and emissions from auto travel could fall by 39 GDP densities are considerably lower than percent. those of other global cities, which places the Thus, Chongqing should aim for three spatial city in a disadvantaged position to reap the transformations: compact and land-light growth, agglomeration economies needed to transition transit-oriented development, and new livable towards high-end manufacturing and services.  neighborhood planning and design taking ■■ The superblock typology dominating the urban advantage of the city’s unique topography of form in central Chongqing presents a sharp mountains and rivers. contrast to the fine-grained urban fabrics of other global cities. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 5 2. Current Trends and Key Issues BOX 2 Chongqing Municipality’s Sub-Regions In 2014, Chongqing Muncipality had a resident population of 29.9 million (including 17.83 million urban) on an urban built-up area of 2,470 km2, resulting in an urban density of 12,129 people/km2. Accounting for 7 percent of Chongqing Municipality’s territory, central Chongqing (in red and orange) accommodated 41 percent of Chongqing Municipality’s urban population and produced 47 percent of Chongqing Municipality’s urban GDP in 2014. It had a resident population of 8.2 million (including 7.22 million urban dwellers) on 545 km2 of built-up urban land, resulting Central Chongqing is the heart of the “1-hour in a density of 13,248 people/km2. Chongqing economic circle” (in yellow, orange, and red, Municipality’s population and economic above) that comprises 18.98 million people activities are increasingly concentrated in central (including 13.3 million urban residents).4 To the Chongqing. Its share of Chongqing Municipality’s east, the municipality extends into the huge total population grew from 17 percent in 2000 to northeastern (blue) and southeastern (green) 27 percent in 2014; its share of GDP grew from 38 areas. Altogether, these two areas cover 53,700 percent in 2000 to 44 percent in 2014. Yuzhong km2 (two-thirds of the municipality) and comprise district is the densest and wealthiest part of central 5.2 million people (17 percent of the municipality’s Chongqing, with a density of 38,200 people/km2 total population). and a GDP/capita about three times Chongqing Source: Information extracted from Chongqing Municipality Master Municipality’s average. Plan: 2007 to 2020. The analysis of trends and key issues includes two Municipality’s urban land consumption has levels—the municipality level, which covers 82,400 grown twice faster than its urban population. The km2, and central Chongqing, which covers 5,473 municipality’s population density has almost halved, km2 across nine districts. Data and benchmarks will dropping from 22,820 people/km2 in 1997 to 12,013 be used at one or both scales as most relevant. As people/km2 in 2015, and is now significantly lower than shown in box 2, population and economic activity that of other provincial-level municipalities (figure 1). have agglomerated over the last 15 years in central Economic agglomeration is also significantly lower Chongqing, achieving a higher GDP per capita. This in Chongqing than in other provincial-level cities.5 explains the choice of focusing more on central Chongqing’s spatial transformation strategies while Chongqing’s economic density is only 28 percent putting them in perspective within the larger scale of that of Shanghai, 41 percent that of Tianjin, and 44 the municipality. percent that of Beijing (figure 2). To catch up with other provincial-level municipalities, Chongqing needs to climb the manufacturing value chains to increase its Municipal-Level Trends GDP per capita and to grow in a more compact form For the past 20 years, Chongqing Municipality to foster agglomeration and associated productivity has expanded in a low-density pattern. Chongqing gains. 6 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development FIGURE 1 Chongqing’s Urban Population Density FIGURE 2 Chongqing Municipality’s Economic Density Compared to Other Provincial-Level Cities, Compared to China’s Average and to Other 2000 vs. 2014 Provincial-Level Cities (2017) 30,000 440 26,893 (urban population per km2 of urban built-up area) 428 400 21,873 21,774 23,291 360 20,430 Urban population density (GDP/km2 in million USD) 18,686 320 295 20,000 Economic density 275 15,659 280 15,052 48% 240 12,198 200 10,000 140 160 122 Chongqing Chongqing 120 Shanghai Shanghai Tianjing Tianjing Beijing Beijing CHINA CHINA 80 – 0 2000 population density 2014 population density al g e g in ai ag ip in jin gh nj ity ic gq a ei er an Ti B av un n Sh M Cho na hi C Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China 2000; National Bureau of Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute Statistics of China 2014. for this report, based on National Bureau of Statistics of China 2017. Chongqing’s strategic land reserve is fast being and it has huge inequalities across its districts. depleted. Chongqing has a limited developable land Though it is beyond the scope of the analysis of this supply due to its mountainous topography. Despite report, it is important to note that urbanization and its vast territory of 82,400 km2, only 2,336.47 km2 is economic growth have not alleviated the significant available and planned for development. In 2015, only inequalities in income, education, and health between 807.47 km2 remained available for future development, rural and urban populations and between districts. including industrial land use (Chongqing Municipal Twelve million rural inhabitants, living mostly in rural Bureau of Statistics and NBS Survey Office in outlying districts, have an income that is on average Chongqing 2016). In the past two decades, Chongqing 2.7 times lower than the 18 million urban dwellers, Municipality’s built-up area has grown twice faster with ongoing geographical biases in education and than the growth of the urban population (figure 3).6 health access between districts in spite of huge The city has used more land to accommodate each investment and significant progress. These challenges new urban resident (136 m2) than the Chinese average are particularly acute as there is a net migration (94 m2) and other Chinese cities (Beijing: 114 m2; outflow. The municipality must attract more migrants to maintain its human capital and compensate for Tianjin: 78 m2; and Shanghai: 65 m2) (figure 4). its aging population. To become a global city that Chongqing’s high land consumption has three major creates opportunities for all, Chongqing needs to implications: emerging land shortfall; declining address the looming inequalities, especially between population density; and reduced economic density. different districts. If the excessive conversion rate of 136 m2 of land per new urban inhabitant since 2000 continues, Central Chongqing Chongqing will use all its developable land to accommodate the projected 5.8 million new urban Central Chongqing’s nine districts are increasingly dwellers in central Chongqing by 2030, leaving no fragmented. The expansion of the city center has fragmented its urban form (figure 5). Huge room for industrial uses and for further urbanization. infrastructure investment has allowed the creation of Another important issue at the municipality level is pockets of urbanization across mountain ridges. The related to spatial inequity. Chongqing Municipality’s superblock form of expansion has left empty land in size and scale are comparable to those of a country, between urbanized land. Fragmentation matters for a SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 7 FIGURE 3 Urban Land Growth vs. Urban Population FIGURE 4 Land Converted to Accommodate 1 Growth in Chinese Cities, 2000–2014 Additional Urban Resident, 2000–2014 400 150 m2 of urban land needed for accommodating 136 Chigna’s official land quota: 335% convert 1 km2 of rural land for every 1 new urban population 1 additional urban population 300 114 (1km2 for 10,000 people) 238% 100 94 222% 207% 78 200 % 174% 182% 173% 173% 65 163% 147% 50 100 0 0 Chongqing China Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Chongqing China Beijing Tianjin Shanghai ● 2000-2014 growth of urban built-up area ● 2000-2014 growth of urban population Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China 2000; National Bureau of Statistics of China 2014. number of reasons. The more fragmented the built- With a saturation index of 0.67, central Chongqing is up area, the greater the distance between locations more fragmented than Shanghai Municipality, which in the city, and the more open space is disturbed has a similar population size.8 In 1991, Shanghai’s by the city. When expanding, cities capture vast urban extent was more than double its urban built- amounts of open land that is either surrounded by up area. Shanghai has decreased its fragmentation over the years, moving up from a saturation index built-up land or located at its fringe. The built-up area of 0.49 in 1991 to 0.68 in 2015, thanks to a growth combined with captured and fringe open land is what based mostly on infill: 35 percent between 1991 and is called urban extent, which is by far much larger 2000, to 55 percent between 2000 and 2015 (Angel, than the built-up area. An index of fragmentation is et al. 2016). Thus Chongqing should increase the the degree to which the built-up area saturates the percentage of infill in its urban growth. city’s urban extent.7 Land and economic development are uneven in FIGURE 5 central Chongqing. Chongqing’s core—Yuzhong Density of Population on Built-Up Land Area in Central Chongqing district9—is densely built up, while adjacent districts are built up from 20 to 27 percent and extension districts from 1.4 to 5.4 percent. Population densities in built-up areas vary greatly, from 38,200 people/ km2 in Yuzhong district to around 12,500 people/ km2 in other districts (figure 5). Moreover, central Chongqing presents extreme inequalities of economic density and wealth across districts. In 2015, Yuzhong district produced 15 percent of central Chongqing’s GDP despite occupying only 3.7 percent of its built-up land area. Yuzhong district creates significantly more wealth than the other districts— with a GDP per capita of RMB 147,000, it is 2.5 times Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on satellite analysis and Chongqing higher than the average for Chongqing Municipality Statistical Yearbook 2016. (figure 6). This stands in contrast to Dadukou 8 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development district,10 which was hit by a severe recession that these differences. The uncoordinated distribution affected its core industry of iron and steel and never of economic densities reduces agglomeration recovered. As a result, the two districts have extreme economies, productivity, and inclusiveness, as some differences in population densities, GDP per capita, districts, even within central Chongqing, are lagging. and economic density, which are respectively three Chongqing’s massive disparities between districts times, three times, and nine times higher in Yuzhong highlight the need for policies to address them and than in Dadukou. Productivity benefits derived to reduce inequalities between different districts. from agglomeration economies tend to exacerbate FIGURE 6 GDP Per Capita in Central Chongqing FIGURE 7 Economic Density in Central Chongqing (1,000 RMB) GDP/km2 (100 million RMB) Chongqing: GDP/Capita (1000 RMB) Chongqing: Economic Density: GDP/km² (RMB 100 Million) Beibei Beibei Yubei Yubei Shapingba Shapingba Jiangbei Jiangbei Nanan Nanan Jiulongpo Jiulongpo Dadukou Dadukou Banan Banan Central city districts Central city districts GDP/Capita (1000 GDP/km² (RMB 100 RMB) Million) 48 - 55 0.96 55 - 60 0.96 - 6.50 60 - 65 6.50 - 11.00 65 - 80 11.00 - 11.75 80 - 85 11.75 - 12.00 85 - 100 Kilometers 12.00 - 22.00 ° ° Kilometers 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 100 - 150 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 22.00 - 61.10 Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on satellite analysis and Chongqing Statistical Yearbook 2016. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 9 Central Chongqing has expanded with a superblock pedestrians (figure 8). This type of urban form pattern, which is an inefficient urban form that has led to Chongqing’s growing fragmentation, limits access to transit and jobs and affects social vast expansion, and decreasing densities. Today, inclusiveness. Characterized by single-use zoning residential superblocks cover three-quarters of that separates residential and commercial areas, central Chongqing, despite housing only 36 percent and by large blocks served by wide arterial streets, of its population and providing only 15 percent of its superblocks are designed to prioritize cars over jobs (figure 9). FIGURE 8 Illustrative Diagrams Depicting the Urban Form of Superblocks (Left) and Walkable Development (Right) Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenario. Note: The diagrams are at the same scale. FIGURE 9 Share of Chongqing’s Urban Built-Up Area, Population, and Jobs in Different Urban Types Area Population Jobs 1.13% 9.69% 19.02% 2.01% 10.47% 36.66% 7.29% 15.46% 11.88% 7.25% 19.38% 22.80% 74.51% 26.97% 35.48% ● Walkable commercial mix ● Walkable residential mix ● Walkable medium-density mix ● Superblock commercial mix ● Superblock residentail mix Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on the assessment made for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenario. 10 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development Compared to all other urban fabric types, jobs in walkable commercial mix areas, which offer superblocks are less efficient in terms of land 1.36 jobs per resident but represent only 1.13 percent consumption per inhabitant and per job. On average, of the built-up land area and 9.69 percent of the human density, specifically for people and jobs, is population, while residential superblocks offer only more than six times higher in Chongqing’s walkable 0.29 jobs per resident and include 36 percent of the residential and commercial core neighborhoods than population (figure 11). This has increased travel time in its superblocks (figure 10). The lowest densities between low-density residential areas and economic are found in residential superblocks, with only 5,700 centers, thus contributing to traffic congestion. people/km2 and 1,660 jobs/km2, which are well Policies should limit these imbalances so that central below central Chongqing’s average and about three Chongqing can have a more balanced distribution of times below the thresholds of efficient densities densities and activities across its urban forms. recommended by international organizations. Chongqing has an imbalance of densities, with very Moreover, superblocks are much less connected high densities—in particular for jobs—in its core and less walkable than other urban forms in walkable commercial mixed-use areas, and very Chongqing, are inefficient in terms of economic low densities in its extension superblocks. As a density, and have higher infrastructure costs result, 80 percent of central Chongqing’s residents (figure 12). More street intersections in an urban area are located in car-dependent areas with little or no allow for many points where vehicles, cyclists, and pedestrian access to public transit—a figure well pedestrians can move in different directions across below global city benchmarks.11 The job/resident the blocks, thus reducing connection distances and ratio is unbalanced: there is a high concentration of increasing urban interaction. Conversely, a coarse FIGURE 10 People and Job Densities in Chongqing FIGURE 11 Job/Resident Ratio in Chongqing by Urban Form Type by Urban Form Type 2,400 1.4 1.36 2,200 1.3 1.27 1.2 2,000 People/ha (red) and job/ha (orange) Number of jobs/number of residents 1.1 1,800 1.0 1,600 1,367 0.9 1,400 0.8 1,200 0.7 0.68 1,000 0.6 0.58 0.5 800 0.4 600 278 0.3 0.29 1,000 400 0.2 273 154 200 0.1 407 214 263 0 0 ix ix ix ix ix ix ix ix ix ix m lm m m lm m lm m m lm al ty al al ty al tia tia tia tia ci ci ci ci si si en en en en er er er er en en m m m m id id id id -d -d m m m m s s s s m m re re re re co co co co iu iu e ck e ck ed ed bl bl e ck e ck lo lo bl bl ka ka m m lo lo rb rb ka ka al al rb rb e e pe pe al al W W bl bl pe pe W W Su Su ka ka Su Su al al W W ● Population density (people/ha) ● Jobs density (jobs/ha) Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on the assessment made for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenario. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 11 urban fabric is pedestrian-unfriendly and car- than in Chongqing’s mixed-use walkable areas, and oriented. The density of intersections in Chongqing’s the cost of street infrastructure per unit of GDP can superblocks drops below 10 and the length of streets be 11 times as much (figure 14). To increase economic falls to 5 km per km2 when counting only those agglomeration and walkability while reducing with public access. The average distance between infrastructure costs, Chongqing must transform its intersections reaches 400 m in superblocks (figure urban form to promote walkability and mixed use by 13).12 Moreover, economic density is significantly retrofitting existing superblocks and planning future lower—by about 16 times—in residential superblocks expansions with smaller blocks and diverse uses. FIGURE 12 Chongqing’s Urban Forms A. Walkable B. Walkable C. Walkable medium- D. Superblock E. Superblock commercial mix in residential mix in density mix in Yuzong commercial mix in residential mix in Yuzhong district Yubei district district Jiulongpo district Jiulongpo district Source: Produced by China Sustainable Transportation Center (CSTC) for this report. FIGURE 13 Density of Intersections and Average FIGURE 14 Economic Density and Length of Streets Distance between Intersections in Per Unit of GDP in Chongqing’s Five Urban Chongqing’s Five Urban Form Types Form Types 60 369 18 12 Density of intersection public streets (N/km2) 11 Average distance between intersections (m) 16 50 308 10 14 Economic density (RMB/km2) 9 40 246 12 8 Km street/trillion RMB GGP 7 10 30 185 6 8 5 20 123 6 4 3 4 10 62 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 m ng ou ei ua ng w po ua po m ng ua ng ua po w po eg ub ng zho Sq ho ng zho Sq ho jia g Sq ng Sq ong jia g ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) re re re re en an en an ie lon ie lon Y in Yuz in Yuz o Yu Yu ao l ao iul (X u u u Ji qi Ji Ji ih J gq jia jia (X in in m m om qi (L (L en en hi hi (H (R (R (S (S ● Density of intersections public streets (N/km2) ● Economic density (trillion RMB/km2) ● Average distance between intersections (m) ● Km street/trillion RMB GDP Source: Based on information provided by China Sustainable Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Transportation Center (CSTC) and Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Institute for this report. Statistics and NBS Survey Office in Chongqing 2016. 12 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development Chongqing’s superblock-based expansion also emissions intense, have grown at the same pace as has major environmental impacts and contributes output value of construction. For example, aluminum to poor air quality with high carbon emissions. production has grown twice faster than GDP. The Superblock expansion entails significant impacts urbanization patterns dominated by superblocks— on the energy embodied in infrastructure, energy associated with an economy based on heavy industry use, and CO2 emissions.13 Comparative studies in and an energy mix that comprises 75 percent coal and Jinan have demonstrated that households living in fossil fuels—mean that Chongqing Municipality’s CO2 superblocks use twice the amount of energy for emissions per unit of GDP are twice higher than those transportation and for the built environment as those of Shanghai and Beijing. Air quality has deteriorated, living in any other Chinese urban form (Massachusetts with the average concentration of fine particulate Institute of Technology and Tsinghua University 2010). matter well above WHO critical thresholds according Superblock expansion has contributed to the high to data from Chongqing, Beijing, and Shanghai material intensity of Chongqing’s economy and its Statistical Yearbooks for 2016. To reduce its high high emissions. Construction projects account for material, energy, and emissions footprint, and improve three-quarters of capital growth, while one-third of its air quality, Chongqing needs a more compact capital investment has been invested in transportation urban form based on smaller mixed-use blocks. infrastructure made necessary by the municipality’s fragmented form. As a result, cement and steel production, which are more energy consuming and SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 13 3. Benchmarking and Lessons from Global Cities Municipality Level Comparing Chongqing Municipality to large metropolitan regions suggests that Chongqing Due to its sheer size and large rural population of needs to increase its spatial and economic 12 million, it is difficult to benchmark Chongqing integration beyond the central city boundaries by Municipality against any other city. Moreover, its developing connectivity between central Chongqing urban population of 17.83 million people is divided and the 10 million people in other districts. Although into central Chongqing, which has 7.22 million comparing fully integrated functional urban regions residents, and a number of smaller towns comprising such as the ones above is of limited value, some 10.61 million people scattered across a vast territory. lessons can be derived from density indicators. The These small towns present, however, a built-up area average urban population density of Chongqing and population size that can give a sense of scale at municipality scale is similar to that of the Seoul compared to huge metropolitan regions. Chongqing Capital Area at 11,880 people/km2 in the built- Municipality’s urban population is half that of the up area and significantly higher than that of the Greater Tokyo Area,14 two-thirds that of the Seoul Greater Tokyo Area at 8,062 people/km2 (figure 16) Capital Area,15 and 90 percent that of the New York (Angel, et al. 2016). However, Chongqing’s economic metropolitan area (figure 15).16 agglomeration is much lower, and the insufficient FIGURE 15 Chongqing Municipality’s Urban Population FIGURE 16 Chongqing Municipality’s Economic Density Compared to Those of Large Metropolitan Compared to Other Large Metropolitan Regions Regions 40 1,800 350 0.34 0.31 35 1,575 300 Regional urban population (million) 30 1,350 Regional GDP (billion US$) 250 0.23 25 1,125 200 Billion 20 900 0.166 150 15 675 100 10 450 5 225 50 0 0 0 al g A yo re l A rk al g A yo re al A rk A ita ip in ip in it n Yo n Yo k k ity a a a ity a a a ap ap ic gq ic gq To To re re re re ol New ol New lC lC un on un on A er er ou ou h h at at ita ita C C re re Se Se G G M M p p ro ro et et M M ● Regional urban population (million) ● Regional GDP density (billion US$/km2 of built-up land) ● Regional GDP (billion US$) Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and NBS Survey Office in Chongqing 2016; New York, Seoul, and Tokyo departments of statistics for GDP; and Angel, et al. 2016. 14 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development agglomeration is exacerbated by the lack of which are well connected by public transport. Their connectivity between urban settlements outside the compact urban form contributes to the decoupling central city. Lessons from this benchmark are that of economic growth from environmental impacts and the huge economies of global cities are supported resource use. Their unique and people-oriented urban by large fully integrated economic urban regions that fabrics enhance their livability and attractiveness. constitute commuting zones and very large markets. These functional urban regions are economic giants. Central Chongqing’s density of 13,253 people/km2 The Seoul Capital Area has half of Korea’s population. is lower than that of Asian global cities (figure 17). The GDP of Tokyo is larger than Russia, the country In terms of built-up area, its density is 36 percent with the biggest landmass in the world. In 2016, that of Hong Kong SAR (37,100 people/km2) and 45 Russia’s nominal GDP was less than 80 percent percent that of Seoul Special City (29,100 people/ of Tokyo’s, despite having a population four times km2). Global cities control their land expansion and greater than that of Tokyo. have policies to ensure the ongoing protection of land as a valuable asset. For example, London and Central Chongqing Level Seoul have set a growth boundary while policies in Hong Kong, and Singapore have reduced the amount With a population of 8.2 million and a built-up area of land expansion for each new inhabitant to 40 m2 of 545 km2, central Chongqing is comparable to and 38 m2 respectively from 2000 to 2009 (figure the Big Six global cities in terms of built-up area 18). In contrast, central Chongqing has provided three and population. times more land for each new inhabitant.17 Moreover, At this scale, international experience suggests cities such as London, Brussels, Boston, Tokyo, that global cities reap agglomeration economies Hamburg, and Nagoya have become denser as they from high densities of people, jobs, and firms, have grown, and have returned to more concentrated FIGURE 17 Density of Central Chongqing’s Built-Up FIGURE 18 Additional Land Required Per Additional Area Compared to Asian Global Cities Urban Dweller in Central Chongqing Compared to Hong Kong SAR, and Singapore 40,000 140 139 37,100 130 35,000 120 Regional urban population (million) 110 30,000 29,100 100 90 91 25,000 80 m2 20,000 70 18,248 61 60 15,346 54 15,000 50 13,253 40 40 38 10,000 30 5,000 20 10 0 0 l c ng la AR la ore nd s la ity l c ng la rd R e or C ra qi ra qi ity ) ) ) ) ity SA up g S a up ap nd nd nd -u w nt ng nt ng ap up al lt- g lt- n g lt- ci ilt 23 ce h o ce h o ui Sin ng ui Ko n ui e p Ko (b l Sp C C bu o Si (b g a l ky on g ou ot To on H (b Se H (t ● Additional land per new inhabitant 1990-2000 ● Additional land per new inhabitant 2000-2009 Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems Institute for this report, based on Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and NBS Survey Office in Chongqing 2016 and Angel, et al. 2016. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 15 FIGURE 19 Central Chongqing’s Economic Density on the Built-Up Area Compared to Global Cities 1,200 1,180 1,100 1,070 GDP (million US$ current prices)/km2 1,000 940 900 800 780 700 600 580 500 600 400 300 200 100 180 0 Chongqing Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo 23 Seoul Special Greater New York City central city SAR (built-up wards (total City (built-up London (built-up (built-up land) built-up land) land) (built-up land) land) land) Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems institute for this report, based on Angel, et al. 2016 and Government of Hong Kong Planning Department 2018. forms (Floater et al. 2013, 2014). Since 2000, km2 in central Hong Kong SAR. This high density London’s population growth has been concentrated of jobs increases productivity. The City of London, within a radius of 10 km of its historic city center, represented by the Square Mile, accounts for only 0.2 closest to the highest peaks of employment density. percent of the Greater London area, but produces Between 2004 and 2011, 53 percent of all newly 14 percent of London’s GDP and 3 percent of the constructed floor area in London was located within UK’s total GDP, while its productivity is almost three 500 m of the nearest rail or Underground station times the national average (Centre for Cities and (Rode 2014). Cambridge Econometrics 2015). Similarly, higher agglomeration of job density in Yuzhong district Central Chongqing’s low economic density does not currently allow the city to reap the full potential fosters higher economic productivity and a GDP per of economic agglomeration, that is created in capita three times higher than the average of central global cities. Economic density, measured in terms Chongqing. of GDP/km2, is about six times lower in central Central Chongqing’s employment opportunities Chongqing than in Hong Kong SAR or Singapore. It is are less accessible by public transit than in global three to five times lower that in of global cities such cities. Global cities maximize public transport as Tokyo, Seoul, London, or New York (figure 19). access, which enables people to easily reach other The average employment density in central people, goods, and ideas. For example, the dense Chongqing is less than one-third that of Hong Kong provision of subway infrastructure in New York City SAR. However, Chongqing has areas of high job has created a highly efficient urban form with an densities that can contribute to fostering higher integrated labor market: 1.35 million jobs can be productivity. In limited areas such as Linjiangmen in reached with a 30-minute transit commute including Yuzhong district, employment density peaks at over walking time, and employers also have access to a 130,000 jobs/km2. These peaks of high economic labor market comprising 700,000 workers within a activity are similar to those found in global cities. 30-minute transit commute (Salat and Ollivier 2017). For example, employment density peaks at 150,000 This accessibility peaks in Manhattan neighborhoods, jobs/km2 in the 3-km2 City of London, and in New where people can reach more than 4 million jobs in a York’s Midtown, while it peaks at 120,000 jobs/ 1-hour transit window (Kaufman, et al. 2015). This is 16 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development made possible because half of New York’s population pedestrian-friendly and walkable environments. and two-thirds of its jobs are within walking distance The compact urban form of global cities reduces of a subway station. London’s accessibility is similar, their environmental impacts. Tokyo, for example, and that of Hong Kong SAR is even higher, with has achieved the world’s highest energy productivity three-quarters of the population and 84 percent of (the ratio of energy consumption to value added)— jobs located within walking distance of mass transit nearly three times the global average—through a (Rode et al. 2013). In contrast, only 20 percent of the combination of a compact urban form, the alignment resident population and one-third of jobs are within of densities with the most extensive urban rail walking distance of an urban rail or transit station in network in the world,19 stringent national regulations Chongqing (figure 20).18 on emissions standards, a comprehensive energy Central Chongqing’s superblock patterns present policy, and investments in renewable energy. Japan a sharp contrast to the fine-grained urban form of has succeeded in reaching an absolute decoupling global cities. Global cities have highly livable urban in its industry and service sectors as well.20 Hong environments with mixed-use development, vibrant Kong SAR’s compact development model has also and people-centered streets, and a fine-grained led to a decoupling of economic growth and per urban fabric. This report benchmarks Chongqing’s capita consumption of hydrocarbon resources. dominant urban form—residential and commercial Its gross value added per capita increased by 50 superblocks—to typical urban fabrics in global cities percent between 1993 and 2011, while per capita CO2 at the same scale of 1 square mile. The average block emissions and per capita gasoline consumption fell size in Tokyo Nihonbashi (0.26 ha) is over 20 times by about 10 percent in the same period (Rode et al. 2013). smaller than in Chongqing Jiulongpo (5.7 ha). The urban fabric of global cities is made of small blocks: Lessons learned from global cities suggest that 0.57 ha in Paris Louvre, 0.7 ha in the City of London, compact urban forms and small block patterns 0.65 ha in Lower Manhattan, 0.34 ha in central have many positive effects. These include Hong Kong SAR, 0.9 ha in Singapore, and 0.36 ha in increased productivity due to agglomeration-scale Seoul. Urban environments in global cities are highly economies and innovation due to the higher number connected by dense street patterns: there are 456 of interactions and exchange of knowledge; the street intersections/km2 in central Hong Kong SAR, reduction of commuting time and transportation 386 in Tokyo Nihonbashi, 333 in Seoul, 242 in Paris, costs due to shorter trips; resource and infrastructure and 188 in London (figure 21). This helps to create cost savings and a smaller ecological footprint FIGURE 20 Share of Population (Left) and Jobs (Right) Within Walking Distance of Public Transport (15-Minute Walk) 80 90 75 84 70 80 within walking distance to transit within walking distance to transit 70 60 67 Percentage of people 53 Percentage of jobs 60 50 48 58 50 40 40 30 33 30 20 20 20 10 10 0 0 Chongqing Hong Kong New York London Chongqing Hong Kong New York London SAR SAR Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems institute for this report, based on information provided by Calthorpe Associates and Rode et al. 2013. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 17 FIGURE 21 Intersection Density in Chongqing Yuzhong and Jiulongpo Compared to Selected World Cities 480 459 440 Number of street intersections per km2 400 386 360 342 333 320 314 280 240 200 188 160 132 120 112 114 109 86 80 49 40 0 ng m ) n) ) o l e) ) o n) i) ou ity al an sc gp sh da vr w ow tr ho Se tt (C ci ba to on ou en er ha nt z an id on Yu st on (L ul (C ow an Fr (M m Ji ih nd ris ng R M A (D n (N ng SA k Lo Sa Pa qi er r Yo qi e yo ng ow or g ng n k ew ho ap (L Ko To ho C ng N k C g r Si on Yo H ew N FIGURE 22 Average Distance between Intersections in Chongqing Yuzhong and Jiulongpo Compared to Selected World Cities 400 397 Average distance between intersections 360 320 280 263 240 200 160 128 108 120 115 86 83 80 75 54 53 40 43 37 0 ng m ) n) ) o e) ) o n) l i) ou ity al an sc gp sh da vr w ow tr ho Se tt (C ci ba to on ou en er ha nt z an id on Yu st on (L ul (C ow an Fr (M m Ji ih nd ris ng g M A (D n (N ng n k Lo Sa Pa qi Ko er r Yo qi e yo ng ow or ng g k ew ho ap on (L To ho C ng N H k C r Si Yo ew N Source: Produced by the Urban Morphology and Complex Systems institute for this report, based on Jacobs 1993; Salat, Labbé, and Nowacki 2011, UN-Habitat 2013; and the information provided by CSTC. 18 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development due to lower energy and land use (Ahlfedlt and a more inclusive society, while the development Pietrostefani 2017). Finally, closer proximity increases of fine-grained urban fabrics creates more livable the opportunities for accessible employment, in and attractive cities for the young and talented particular for the urban poor, which contributes to workforce. BOX 3 Lessons from Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Tokyo, and Seoul for a Transit-Oriented Polycentric Urban Form Asian global cities, such as Tokyo, Seoul, Singa- developments at or near Marunouchi, Shibuya, pore, and Hong Kong SAR, have successfully inte- Shinjuku, Shinagawa, Ikebukuro, and Ueno stations. grated transit infrastructure development and land At a larger scale, the polycentric urban structure use for decades. This integration, complemented also results from the development of new towns by by a high transit modal share, has resulted in high- private railway operators along corridors radiating ly efficient urban forms, both for creating wealth from the Yamanote Line, such as the Den-en Toshi and for reducing the demand on resources and Line starting from Shibuya and extending over energy while improving congestion and air quality. 31.5 km with a total of 27 stations (figures 23, 24, These cities share the following characteristics: 25, 26). Seoul 1. Compact and dense urban core and radial public transport routes that link the core to new growth Transportation has shaped Seoul’s city form. centers Its grid-like subway network has fostered the 2. High-density in terms of population, jobs, and emergence of sub-centers such as Gangnam-gu. economic density (GDP/km2) Seoul Basic City Plan 2020 suggests a spatial 3. Polycentric urban structure restructuring plan to make Seoul Special City a multi-core distributed metropolis that is spatially Singapore divided into five neighborhood areas for more As early as 1991, the revised Singapore Concept balanced living environments among different Plan emphasized sustainable economic growth and areas. At the regional scale, high-density compact proposed the idea of decentralization. The city new towns connected to Seoul by transit have been was planned to be surrounded by several regional developed. Seoul has also preserved its unique centers, sub-centers, and fringe centers. This identity through its inclusion of a landscape of policy has been gradually implemented since then. protected hills. Forty percent of the city center Hong Kong SAR is mostly undeveloped areas and natural parks. The skillful and highly differentiated use of floor The development of the Hong Kong SAR subway area ratios (FARs) and land use ensures residents led to the emergence of rail towns, for example live in comfort despite its high density. Density is along 31.3-km Tung Chung Line, which links the unevenly distributed, with spikes around City Hall city to Tung Chung and the airport. and very quiet and low-density neighborhoods such Tokyo as Bukcheon. The hyper-density with high FARs Tokyo’s polycentric urban structure results from is correlated to the density of subway hubs in the the Yamanote rail line encircling Tokyo’s core area, center. Outside Seoul, new towns in highly dense which is about the size and shape of Manhattan, urban forms are linked to the city with high-speed with major terminals and high-rise office trains (figure 27). SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 19 FIGURE 23 The High Density of Stations in Tokyo’s City Center as Defined by the Yamanote Line The Yamanote Line is 34.5 km and encircles a land area about the size and shape of Manhattan. It ensures a 10-minute-walk accessibility to everything in central Tokyo and most of its 23 wards (622 km2). Sources: Sakaki 2017. ©Shige Sakaki. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. 5-minute walk (400m) 10-minute walk (800m) Yamanote Loop railway Other railway lines Railway under construction FIGURE 24 Residential Densities in Tokyo The residential densities in Tokyo follow patterns of transit accessibility and transit coverage, with densities of 30,000 people/km2 within and around the Yamanote Line where transit coverage and centrality are the highest. Density remains high along transit corridors and levels of density match transit accessibility. Sources: Ogata 2011. © Noboru Ogata. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. FIGURE 25 High Levels of Centrality in Tokyo FIGURE 26 Tokyo Zoning Map with High FARs along Concentrated along the Yamanote Line the Yamanote Line Yamanote line JR East lines Subways Private lines Historical Central Business District Sub-centers Sources: Chorus and Bertolini 2016, drawing on original source from Sources: Chorus and Bertolini 2011. © Paul Chorus and Luca Bertolini. the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. © Paul Chorus and Luca Bertolini. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. Reproduced with permissioi; further permission required for reuse. 20 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development FIGURE 27 Using Higher FARs Values to Encourage High-Density Development around Major Transit Nodes in Seoul Seoul’s zoning regulations set floor area ratios as high as 10 for Metro stations commercial uses around the most connected and central transit FAR = 10 stations, 2–4 for mixed residential and business areas, and 4 > = FAR < 10 1–2 for residential uses. Uses are defined with fine granularity, 2 > = FAR < 4 depending on the proximity and importance of transit stations. The result is a varied city in which small residential 1 > = FAR < 2 neighborhoods abut thriving business districts and higher FARs FAR < 1 (indicated in red) are allowed near metro stations (indicated Industrial areas with blue circles). Sources: Bertaud 2008.© Alain Bertaud. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 21 4. Payoffs to Successful Spatial Planning Are Large: Comparing Two Urban Growth Scenarios for Central Chongqing To highlight the stakes of getting spatial policy would reverse the development pattern of the decisions right, two different urban growth past two decades by ensuring that nearly all new scenarios were modeled for central Chongqing: housing and over half of new jobs would be allocated a Trend scenario, in which current patterns of to walkable areas. Occurring largely in the core- development are extrapolated into the future, adjacent area, this projected new growth represents in particular the concentration of job growth in an opportunity for Chongqing to reinforce and the urban core and the development of housing expand its unique character through the definition and single-use superblocks in the core-adjacent of a cohesive structure of new communities. In areas; and a Compact Growth scenario, in which contrast, the baseline Trend scenario allocates most development leads to a polycentric regional structure new housing to superblocks. Figure 28 and figure created through focused, walkable, mixed-use 29 compare population and employment growth by development around existing and planned transit place type in the two scenarios. nodes.21 Implementing the Compact Growth scenario FIGURE 28 New Population Growth by Urban Form Type FIGURE 29 Job Growth by Urban Form Type 6,000,000 4,000,000 115 k 217 k 198 k 5,000,000 1,233 k 3,000,000 725 k 1,903 k 4,000,000 243 k 3,916 k 2,610 k 3,000,000 2,000,000 385 k 121 k 2,000,000 2,504 k 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,720 k 1,591 k 1,402 k 0 237 k 0 Trend Compact Growth Trend Compact Growth ● Walkable commercial mix ● Walkable commercial mix ● Walkable residential mix ● Walkable residential mix ● Medium-density residential mix ● Medium-density residential mix ● Superblock commercial mix ● Superblock commercial mix ● Superblock residentail mix ● Superblock residentail mix ● Superblock industrial ● Superblock industrial Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenarios. 22 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development The modeling results are clear: land use, urban percent lower, achieving an annual savings of RMB livability, household expenditure, infrastructure 5,100 per household, thus enhancing inclusiveness costs, and environmental sustainability could be (figure 32). greatly improved with compact growth. In the ■■ Job distribution across central Chongqing is Compact Growth scenario for central Chongqing: more balanced, ensuring a better access to local jobs and reducing commuting congestion and ■■ About 200 km2 of land is saved, preserving a costs (figure 33). valuable asset for future expansion beyond 2035, ■■ Central Chongqing is significantly more walkable. and increasing economic density, agglomeration, More than half of the population and jobs are and productivity (figure 30). located in walkable areas instead of only less than ■■ Cumulated expenditure in infrastructure22 to 15 percent in the Trend scenario (figure 34). 2035 is reduced by 30 percent, achieving RMB 34 ■■ Central Chongqing is less car-dependent. There billion in savings, and allowing the redeployment is a reduction in congestion and an increase in of public expenditure to R&D to improve accessibility to jobs with affordable transportation. competitiveness and to the extension of social Mode share of walking and public transport services, such as education and health (figure 31). increases by 9 percentage points in the compact ■■ Chongqing is more affordable. Household costs growth scenario compared with the trend scenario for transportation and home energy are 32 (figure 35). FIGURE 30 New Greenfield Land Consumption FIGURE 31 Cumulative Infrastructure Costs to 2035 600 140,000 120,000 500 100,000 400 80,000 Million RMB 300 km2 553 km2 60,000 200 358 km2 40,000 100 20,000 0 0 Trend Compact Growth Trend Compact Growth Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenarios. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 23 FIGURE 32 Annual Household Driving and Residential FIGURE 33 Jobs/Population Ratio in 2035 Energy Costs in 2035 140,000 1.20 120,000 1.00 1.02 1.12 0.92 100,000 Regional 0.80 average: 0.7 0.63 Million RMB 80,000 0.60 0.61 0.53 0.50 60,000 0.40 0.40 115,189 mil 0.28 40,000 81,328 mil 0.20 20,000 0.00 Base 2015 Trend Compact Growth 0 ● Walkable commercial mix ● Walkable residential mix Trend Compact Growth ● Medium-density residential mix Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenarios. FIGURE 34 New Population and Jobs in Walkable FIGURE 35 Transportation Mode Share Transit-Oriented Development Area 8,000,000 20% 24% 7,000,000 29% 6,000,000 5,000,000 37% 35% 33% 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 40% 43% 38% 1,000,000 0 Trend Compact Growth Base 2015 Trend Compact Growth ● Population ● Jobs ● Walk ● Transit ● Auto Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenarios. 24 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development FIGURE 36 Annual Auto VKT, 2035 FIGURE 37 Annual Auto GHG, 2035 FIGURE 38 Annual Auto Air Pollutant Emissions, 2035 35.0 bil km 8.00 MMT 350,000 MT 30.0 bil km 7.00 MMT 300,000 MT 6.00 MMT 25.0 bil km 250,000 MT 5.00 MMT 20.0 bil km 200,000 MT 4.00 MMT 15.0 bil km 150,000 MT 3.00 MMT 10.0 bil km 100,000 MT 2.00 MMT 5.0 bil km 1.00 MMT 50,000 MT 0.0 bil km 0.00 MMT 0.00 MT Trend Compact Trend Compact Trend Compact Growth Growth Growth Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for Chongqing 2035: Urban Growth Scenarios. Note: VKT = vehicle kilometers traveled; GHG = greenhouse gas. The modeling exercise demonstrates that major contribution to Chongqing’s Vision 2035. successfully implementing compact growth, The following section highlights three key spatial transit-oriented development, and new livable transformations that are necessary for central neighborhood planning and design can make a Chongqing to pursue compact growth. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 25 5. Recommendations: Chongqing’s Spatial Transformation Further urbanization in Chongqing will act as a ■■ Manage land with a fine granularity. This powerful driver of growth but entails high risks if can be done by (1) assessing and designating current trends continue into the future. By 2035, redevelopment sites based on minimum density Chongqing’s urban population is likely to grow by and economic development needs; (2) aligning 5.8 million— a number equivalent to the present floor area ratios with transit accessibility to population of Singapore.23 As these new residents incentivize development near new subway are absorbed, Chongqing’s spatial planning needs lines; and (3) increasing the granularity of land to encourage the development of a compact urban markets with smaller parcels that can be further form that takes into account land use, transportation redeveloped based on the market’s needs. planning, economic density, and neighborhood ■■ Consider containing urban expansion with an livability with density, diversity, and small block urban growth boundary. When managed with design. Three transformations are needed to achieve flexibility, urban growth boundaries (UGBs), such this: compact growth, transit-oriented development, as those used in London and Seoul, can be an and livable neighborhood planning and design. effective planning tool for achieving compact development. The boundary should encompass enough land to accommodate future growth and Spatial transformation I incorporate suitable development areas so that Pursue compact growth to reduce land it has no inflationary impact on land and housing consumption and increase economic prices. A UGB for Chongqing would provide a density strong foundation for prioritizing infill in those areas mostly in the core that are already urbanized; This transformation points to curbing Chongqing’s and it would contain greenfield growth throughout excessive land consumption and addresses the risks the core-adjacent and extension areas, where the of land shortage if current land use patterns continue pressure to convert agricultural land is high due into the future. It also increases central Chongqing’s to abundant land resources and high resettlement economic agglomeration and, as a result, enables costs in developed areas. productivity gains. It includes the following actions: B. Increase economic density A. Manage land as an asset To support its economic transformation and move ■■ Develop by infill rather than by rural land up the industrial value chains, Chongqing needs to conversion. Rather than filling all designated significantly increase its economic density to reap developable area in Chongqing’s present master productivity gains derived from agglomeration. A plan, compact growth would first consider project which has good potential as an example is the infill capacity of existing urban areas and the Liangjiang New Area in the northern section of limit expansion beyond it. This would curb the core-adjacent area that, if planned well, could unsustainable trends in land conversion. For accommodate a significant amount of the region’s example, 69 percent of Singapore’s growth and 50 projected growth and potentially become a new percent of Hong Kong SAR’s growth requirements engine of growth for the city (box 4). between 2002 and 2013 have been realized by infill, which has allowed these two cities to contain their land expansion to less than 50 m2 for each new inhabitant (Angel, et al. 2016). 26 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development BOX 4 Liangjiang New Area Established in 2010 and located in central Liangjiang New Area has the potential to allow the Chongqing, Liangjiang New Area is the third city to increase its land use efficiency and absorb Chinese state-level development zone. With a total a significant part of the expected population of 1,205 km2 and a developable land area of 550 growth of 5.8 million. If the area is planned so km2, the area can accommodate a major portion that the population density of its built-up area of Chongqing’s projected growth. Liangjiang reaches the current average of the four provincial- New Area is a growth priority for the city and an level municipalities (13,993 people/km2), it could opportunity to increase economic density and accommodate 7.2 million people, which is 5.1 million agglomeration.24 It already has a comprehensive more than its registered population of 2.1 million.28 multi-modal transport network covering water, This would represent 88 percent of the 5.8 million air, road, and railway transport. In addition, it has people the city is expected to accommodate by dedicated functional areas such as the China- 2035. For each new inhabitant, only 71.4 m2 of Singapore Connectivity Demonstration Project, land would need to be converted, which is about Port Area, Industrial Park, and Free-Trade Zone. half of the 136 m2 rate of land conversion seen in As a result, growth has been fast.25 According to Chongqing’s expansion since 2000. the current development plan, by 2020, its GDP is expected to exceed RMB 1 trillion through the Source: Chongqing Liangjian New Area Government 2018. creation of “one center” and “four belts,”26 which is equivalent to doubling Chongqing’s economy within 10 years.27 SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 27 Spatial transformation II Tokyo, Hong Kong SAR, and Seoul. Average density is less important than articulated and accessible Pursue transit-oriented development density (UN Environment 2018). Articulated density that articulates accessible densities is achieved by mixed uses around transit nodes Chongqing is planning to extend the subway and street networks with human-scale blocks that network fourfold to 820 km and 482 stations—a facilitate walking and diverse travel modes. The 5D length similar to the Seoul subway. The extension Compact City Framework (box 5) is a helpful tool gives Chongqing the opportunity to shape its urban for planners to develop compact, connected, and form efficiently like other global cities such as polycentric cities. BOX 5 The 5D Compact City Framework A city can combine multiple nodes of articulated density with a rich mix of housing, jobs, and amenities at the neighborhood level. HIGH DENSITY: Approx. 15,000 persons/km2 LOW DENSITY: Approx. 7,500 to 10,000 persons/km2 DENISITY DIVERSITY OF USE AND Maximizing compact urban INCOME form while mitigating negative Neighborhoods with mixed income aspects such as air pollution groups and diverse opportunities for and congestion. jobs, commerce, and leisure. DESIGN Shaping cities so that urban residents benefit from the advantages of dense areas. Good design includes walkability, traffic safety controls, and tree cover. DISTANCE TO TRANSIT DESTINATION ACCESS Transit options should ideally be Sustainable transportation accessible within 400–800m. modes that take people where they want to go. Source: UN Environment, GI-REC, International Resource Panel, “Building Better Cities: ASEAN Looks to the Future,” https://citiesipcc.org/ wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Fact-Sheet_-South-East-Asia_Future_Infrastructure-1.pdf. 28 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development The benefits of articulated density and transit- The TOD transformation requires the following oriented development (TOD) include significant actions: increases in economic agglomeration and productivity by concentrating jobs at higher A. Set targets for the amount or proportion densities around transit nodes. TOD also increases of new housing and jobs to occur in employment opportunities and job opportunities TOD—region-wide and by district—and for the entire population, and it creates a larger match densities of people and jobs to labor market and thus a more inclusive society. transit capacity Cities around the world that have pursued TOD have proved to be more desirable places to live and work ■■ Policies must effectively address superblocks as it allows the creation of complete communities or low-density development near public transit, with multiple transportation options. With its recent which wastes valuable land capacity and plans, like those for the new Liangjiang district, development potential. This can be achieved Chongqing has already embarked on the concept by using a hierarchy of TOD types, using both of mixed-use TOD centers as polycentric nodes for redevelopment and new construction. The targeted employment and housing (figure 39). development characteristics and intensity of new centers must be tuned to their regional location, level of transit service, and proximity to key sites such as educational centers, new central business district (CBD) areas, and the new convention FIGURE 39 Illustrative View of Liangjiang New Area’s facility. TOD Concept Plan B. Define TOD standards ■■ This policy aims at ensuring that the urban form and development features near public transit support pedestrian and bike access to stations and discourage the use of automobiles. It encompasses: (1) creating higher density mixed- use nodes around transit; (2) concentrating commercial and major retail developments within the TOD areas; (3) increasing walkability around transit stations and creating a sense of place by using parks and plazas; (4) emphasizing bike and pedestrian connections to stations by integrating bike parking and shops; (5) ensuring convenient and safe entrances to transit stations; Source: Produced by Calthorpe Associates for the Liangjiang New District Transit Oriented Districts Plan in 2013. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 29 and (6) setting maximum commercial parking A. Design neighborhoods according to the ratios (Calthorpe Associates, China Sustainable unique mountain and river landscape of Transportation Center, and Glumac 2017).29 Chongqing Chongqing’s urban landscape should incorporate C. Make public transit the first transport the city’s invaluable natural assets—the river, the mode mountain’s undulating ridges, and lushly landscaped ■■ Making public transit accessible and convenient parks. is one of the best ways to reduce dependency ■■ Integrate the landscape into the city’s design to on private vehicles. Public transit must be well create a unique urban fabric. Unique landscapes integrated with cycling and walking to solve the have shaped the identity of cities as diverse as ‘last mile’ issue of how people reach their final Hong Kong SAR, Seoul, San Francisco, Zurich, destinations. The main recommendations for Rome, and Porto. The impacts of the hills and Chongqing include: topography can manifest not only as undulating • Creating a transit plan that targets a public strips of public space between streets and blocks transit mode share of 40 percent; but also as determinants of street patterns that follow the contours of the land and provide • Locating all new major housing and job centers walking paths. The hilly terrain of Chongqing can within 500 m of a local transit station and 1 km create many panoramas, which provide a natural from public transit with exclusive right-of-way; backdrop to urban areas. • Ensuring frequent and direct transit service with ■■ Protect major visual corridors towards unique interconnected transit technologies; topographies. Developments should not have • Integrating metro, BRT, light rail, streetcar, and a negative impact on meaningful views. If well bus services; protected, distant nature will remain intact as in • Building a smart transit card system; and Hong Kong SAR, but its visual connection to the city is improved and better appreciated in the • Coordinating transit so it is easy to switch modes urban area. To ensure the design of the urban or lines and limit transfer distances to 150 m. landscape incorporates the city’s topography, urban design plans that take into account the mountainous landscape should be developed. Spatial transformation III Design vibrant mixed-use neighborhoods B. Retrofit existing neighborhoods to based on Chongqing’s unique landscape improve livability of mountains and water, on small blocks, and on streets as places for people ■■ Retrofitting actions should aim to improve the existing built environment in the densely This transformation consists of a reversal of developed urban areas of central Chongqing. Chongqing’s current superblock approach—86 percent This mainly entails improving the connectivity and of the central city is made up of such blocks that permeability of urban blocks, developing mixed- fail to give identity and sense of place to Chongqing use spaces, and enhancing public spaces and extensions. It comprises the following actions: public facilities (box 6). 30 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development BOX 6 The Transformation of Liuyun Xiaoqu from a Gated Residential Community to a Vibrant and Connected Mixed-Use Neighborhood Initially, Liuyun Xiaoqu, Guangzhou, was an exclusive gated residential complex typical of housing developments built in the past. From about the year 2000, the owners of ground-floor apartments in the area realized that they could make a living by converting their premises for commercial purposes, first for local shops and later for boutiques and cafes. Conversions on the ground floor transformed the place into an open mixed-use area. Its old gates were dismantled, and its narrow pedestrian and bicycle streets were opened to the public. Today, as a result of its fine-grained fabric and its the disconnection of cul-de-sacs in most Chinese diversity and vibrancy, Liuyun Xiaoqu has become developments. It significantly increases the the center of the district’s daily life. It is a model connectivity of the street network. All blocks are for combining community life with commercial open with controlled access in individual buildings activities and is an example for how medium- during the day (figure 41). sized living areas in central Chongqing can be Source: Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China revitalized, in particular through improvements 2016. in connectivity and mixed-use functions (figure Image credit: Karl Fjellstrom. ©Karl Fjellstrom. Reproduced with 40). The fine mesh of people-oriented connected permission; further permission required for reuse. streets in Liuyun Xiaoqu stands in contrast with SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 31 FIGURE 40 Commercial Activity Distribution in Liuyun Xiaoqu Source: Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China 2016. © Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. FIGURE 41 Motor Vehicle and Pedestrian-Bicycle Network in Liuyun Xiaoqu Source: Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China 2016. © Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China. Reproduced with permission; further permission required for reuse. 32 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development C. Adopt urban design strategies that ■■ Provide human-scaled and accessible public enhance livability, identity, and sense realms, green space, and parks. Chongqing of place should provide its citizens with a variety of public open spaces and parks and develop parks ■■ Plan the city with a wide variety of small, with a range of uses, from active recreation to mixed-use blocks.30 Small blocks—of less than passive leisure for a full range of ages.33 It should 1.5 ha area—provide a human-scale environment target for at least 80 percent of residents in with greater variety in built form and street central Chongqing to be located within walking patterns. Small blocks also offer a variety of distance of neighborhood parks, a policy already public spaces, architectures, and activities. They implemented in New York and Singapore, with should be developed with active sidewalks and targets of 90 percent. with perimeter buildings to provide shared interior ■■ Promote variety and contrast to enhance the courtyards.31 UN-Habitat recommends that at least city’s identity. Global cities offer varied and 40 percent of floor space should be allocated for memorable streets. They provide direction, economic use in any neighborhood and that land structure, and identity to their surroundings. specialization should be limited to single function For example, the three straight, direct streets blocks covering less than 10 percent of any that fan out from Piazza del Popolo through the neighborhood (UN-Habitat 2014).32 labyrinth of central Roman streets immediately identify Rome. Las Ramblas, which crosses ■■ Create dense and connected street patterns Barcelona’s Gothic Quarter and Passeig de with streets designed as places for people. Gracia, are streets that structure the city (Jacobs Chongqing’s street densities are well below 1993). These streets stand out and order the city international benchmarks. The lack of connectivity because of their contrast from other city streets. reduces the livability of neighborhoods. UN- Variety of sizes and shapes of blocks, widths Habitat recommends at least 18 km of street length and lengths of streets, and different rhythms of and 80 to 100 street intersections per square buildings, contribute to creating a city’s identity.34 kilometer. In addition, at least 15–20 percent of Chongqing’s streets should be designed with a land should be allocated to open public spaces variety of patterns that are adapted to its unique (UN-Habitat 2014).32 landscape. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 33 References Ahlfedlt, Gabriel, and Elisabetta Pietrostefani. 2017. “The Government of Hong Kong Planning Department. 2018. Effects of Compact Urban Form: A Qualitative and Land Utilization in Hong Kong 2017. July 14. https:// Quantitative Evidence Review.” Coalition for Urban www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/ Transitions 82. landu.html. Angel, Shlomo, Alejandro M. Blei, Jason Parent, Patrick Ingram, G. K., and Z. Liu. 1997. “Motorization and the Lamson-Hall, Nicolás Galarza Sánchez, Daniel L. Provision of Roads in Countries and Cities.” Policy Civco, Rachel Qian Lei, and Kevin Thom. 2016. Atlas Research Working Paper 1842, World Bank, of Urban Expansion: Areas and Densities. NYU Washington DC. Urban Expansion Program at New York University, Institute for Transportation & Development Policy China. UN-Habitat, and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. 2016. TOD Best Practical Case: A Mixed Mode Bertaud, Alain. 2008. “Options for new alternatives for Open Court. August 6. http://www.itdp-china.org/ development control regulation and justification news/?newid=21&lang=1. for increasing FSI.” alainbertaud.com. http:// Jacobs, Allan B. 1993. Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT alainbertaud.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ Press. AB_FSI_Presentation_4_compr_200dpi.pdf. Kaufman, Sarah M., Mitchell L. Moss, Jorge Hernandez, Calthorpe Associates, China Sustainable Transportation and Justin Tyndall. 2015. “Mobility, Economic Center, and Glumac. 2017. “Emerald Cities: Planning Opportunity and New York City Neighborhoods.” for Smart and Green China.” Energy Foundation NYU Wagner Rudin Center. https://wagner.nyu.edu/ China. http://www.efchina.org/Reports-en/report- files/faculty/publications/JobAccessNov2015.pdf. lccp-20171214-en. Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Tsinghua Centre for Cities and Cambridge Econometrics. 2015. University. 2010. “Designing Clean Energy Cities, The Future of the City of London’s Economy. New Approaches to Urban Design and Energy London: City of London Corporation. Performance.” Understanding China’s Energy Chongqing Liangjian New Area Government. 2018. Landscape. https://understandchinaenergy.org/wp- CQLJ. http://www.liangjiang.gov.cn/. content/uploads/2013/10/Designing-Clean-Energy- Cities_MIT.pdf. Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and NBS Müller, D. B., G. Liu, A. N. Lovik, R. Modaresi, S. Pauliuk, Survey Office in Chongqing. 2016. Chongqing F. S. Steinhoff, and H. Brattebo. 2013. “Carbon Statistical Yearbook 2016. Beijing, China: China Emissions of Infrastructure Development.” Statistics Press. Environmental Science & Technology 47: 11739–46. Chorus, Paul, and Luca Bertolini. 2016. “Developing National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2000. China transit-oriented corridors: Insights from Tokyo.” Statistical Yearbook 2000. Beijing, China: China International Journal of Sustainable Transportation Statistics Press. 10 (2): 86-95. —. 2014. China Statistical Yearbook 2014. Beijing, China: —. 2011. “An Application of the Node Place Model to China Statistics Press. Explore the Spatial Development Dynamics of Station Areas in Tokyo.” Journal of Transport and —. 2017. China Statistical Yearbook 2017. Beijing, China: Land Use 4 (1): 45–58. China Statistics Press. Floater, G., P. Rode, D. Zenghelis, M. Montero Carrero, Ogata, Noboru. 2011. “Spatial Demography of the Tokyo and D. A. Smith. 2013. Stockholm: Green Economy Metropolitan Area.” http://www.hgeo.h.kyoto-u. Leader Report. London: LSE Cities - London School ac.jp/ogata/mapRaster2/tokyo/index-e.html. of Economics and Political Science. Rode, P. 2014. “The Politics and Planning of Urban Floater, G., P. Rode, D. Zenghelis, M. Ulterino, D. Smith, Compaction: The Case of the London Metropolitan K. Baker, and C. Heeckt. 2014. Copenhagen: Green Region.” In The Economy of Sustainable Economy Leader Report. London: LSE Cities - Constructure, edited by Ilka Ruby, Andreas Ruby, London School of Economics and Political Science. and Nathalie Janson. Berlin, NJ: Ruby Press. 34 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development Rode, P., G. Floater, J. Kandt, K. Baker, M. Montero, C. Salat, Serge, and Gerald Ollivier. 2017. “Transforming Heeckt, D. Smith, and M. Delfs. 2013. Going Green: the Urban Space through Transit-Oriented How Cities Are Leading the Next Economy. London: Development : The 3V Approach.” World LSE Cities. Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/26405. Sakaki, Shige. 2017. “Transit and Land Use Integration in Tokyo Metropolitan Area.” Presentation given Serge, Salat, Françoise Labbé, and Caroline Nowacki. at World Bank–Tokyo Development Learning 2011. Cities and Forms. On Sustainable Urbanism. Center Technical Deep Dive on Transit-Oriented Hermann. Development, Tokyo and Yokohama, Japan, May 29–June 2. UN Environment. 2018. “Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Transitions in the ASEAN Region: a Resource Salat, Serge. 2016. “The Break-Even Point. Impact of Perspective.” United Nations Environment Urban Densities on Value Creation, Infrastructure Programme, Nairobi. https://citiesipcc.org/wp- Costs and Embodied Energy.” SBE 16 Turin content/uploads/2018/03/Summary_Southeast- Conference Proceedings. http://sbe16torino.org/ Asia-Urban-Future-Infrastructure-Needs-1.pdf. papers/SBE16TO_ID068.pdf. UN-Habitat. 2014. “ A New Strategy of Sustainable Salat, Serge, Loeiz Bourdic, and Marco Kamiya. Neighborhood Planning: Five Principles, Discussion 2017. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Note 3, Urban Planning.” UN-Habitat. https:// Urbanization: A Study on Three-Pronged Approach: unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/5- Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Principles_web.pdf. Municipal Finance. UN-HABITAT. https://unhabitat. org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable- —. 2013. “The Relevance of Street Patterns and urbanization-a-study-on-three-pronged-approach- Public Space in Urban Areas.” UN-Habitat. April. planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and- http://mirror.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/ municipal-finance/. StreetPatterns.pdf. SUPPORTING REPORT ➊ CHONGQING 2035 / 35 Endnotes 1. This refers to the hukou-registered population. The 12. UN-Habitat recommends at least 80 to 100 actual resident population in 2016 was 30.48 million. intersections and 18 km of streets per square kilometer. 2. The populations of these global cities are comparable to that of central Chongqing’s nine 13. Studies on road networks (Ingram & Liu 1997) and districts: Tokyo’s 23 wards that together make up urban water and wastewater networks (Müller et al. the city’s core and its most populous part (9.37 2013) suggest that per capita network length and million in 2016; 619 km2), Seoul Special City (9.84 material stocks tend to increase with lower urban million in 2018; 605 km2), Singapore (5.6 million in density. Müller et al. (2013) computed data on a 2018; 719.9 km2), Hong Kong SAR (7.347 million in representative sample of about 40 cities, which 2016; 2,754 km2), Greater London (8.778 million in has been mathematically analyzed by the Urban 2016; 1,569 km2), and New York City (8.538 million in Morphology and Complex Systems Institute (Salat 2016; 789 km2). 2016; Salat, Bourdic, and Kamiya 2017) to calculate the elasticity of water, wastewater, and street 3. Road, water, and sewer infrastructure. network lengths and costs per capita with regard 4. The “1-hour economic circle” includes 23 counties/ to average residential density. Reducing the density districts, including nine central districts. by half generally increases water network costs per capita by 72 percent and street networks costs per 5. In 2000, Chongqing Municipality’s economic density capita by 117 percent. (measured by GDP/km2 of built-up area) was 2 percent more than the average across China. In 2017, 14. The Greater Tokyo Area, with 38 million people, is it was 13 percent less. the most populous metropolitan area in the world, consisting of the Kantō region of Japan, including 6. From 2000 to 2014, Chongqing municipality’s urban the Tokyo Metropolis, as well as the prefecture of population grew 174% (slightly above the national Yamanashi of the neighboring Chūbu region. In average of 163%) and on par with Beijing and Tianjin Japanese, it is referred to by various terms, one of (both 173%). However, Chongqing Municipality’s the most common being National Capital Region. total urban built-up area grew 335%, from 439 km2 in 2000 up to 1,470 km2 in 2014. 15. The Seoul Capital Area (SCA), is the metropolitan area of Seoul, Incheon, and Gyeonggi-do located 7. Saturation is measured by the ratio of the built- in northwest South Korea, and has 25.5 million up area within the urban extent of the city and its residents. urban extent. The saturation index reaches its limit when the urban extent has no open space at all and 16. The New York metropolitan area, also referred to is at its minimum when it has only open space. as the Tri-State Area, includes New York City, Long Island, and the mid- and lower Hudson Valley in 8. Measured using satellite picture analysis. the state of New York; the five largest cities in New Chongqing’s saturation index is close to the one Jersey—Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, observed in Chengdu (0.69) by Angel, et al. 2016. and Edison, and their vicinities; and six of the seven 9. Yuzhong district, with an area of 22 km2, is the largest cities in Connecticut—Bridgeport, New central district and heart of Chongqing Municipality. Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, and Danbury, It is also the political, economic, and entertainment and their vicinities. It has 20.32 million residents. center of the city. Surrounded on three sides by 17. Trends observed at the municipality scale are used water, Yuzhong is effectively a peninsula. Due to as a proxy. its limited space, its hilly terrain, and the fact that it is Chongqing Municipality’s main business district, 18. Calculations made by Calthorpe Associates for this Yuzhong has some of the tallest skyscrapers in report. China. 19. Comprising 158 lines, 48 operators, 4,714.5 km of 10. Dadukou district produced only 2.5 percent of operational track, and 2,210 stations. central Chongqing’s GDP, despite occupying 7 20. Absolute decoupling refers to an economic growth percent of its built-up area. model where resource impacts decline in absolute 11. According to an assessment made by Calthorpe terms. Resource efficiency must increase faster than Associates for this report. economic growth for absolute decoupling to occur. 36 / Spatial Transformation Strategy: Increasing Efficiency and Livability by Promoting Compact and Human-Centered Development 21. Both scenarios look at central Chongqing only and 29. For example, parking ratios for TOD areas should assume the addition of 5.8 million new residents and be at most 80 percent, or lower than central 4 million new jobs by 2035. To isolate the impacts of Chongqing’s current standards. land use, both scenarios assume the same baseline 30. City blocks come in a variety of sizes and shapes, factors for vehicle performance, energy efficiency, square in Barcelona, elongated in New York, and and fuel and energy emissions. triangular in Paris. Variety and irregularity increase 22. Road, water, and sewer infrastructure. the livability and resilience of cities. In particular, Chongqing’s mountainous topography offers the 23. Projection provided by the Chongqing Planning city an opportunity to have a rich variation in the Bureau. patterns of blocks, should they follow land contour 24. According to the approval document issued by the lines, as Hong Kong SAR or Seoul. State Council, Liangjiang New Area shall become 31. Planning should: (1) ensure that at least 70 percent “the leader among national experimental zones of blocks in residential areas are 1.5 ha or less, and of comprehensive complementary reforms for commercial blocks in non-industrial areas are 3 ha rural-urban integration, an important sophisticated or less; and (2) decrease setbacks to a maximum manufacturing and modern services base in inland of 1 m for retail, 3 m for commercial, and 5 m for China, a financial center and innovation center in residential (Calthorpe Associates, China Sustainable upstream Yangtze River, an important gateway of Transportation Center, and Glumac 2017). opening up in inland China and a demonstration window of scientific development.” 32. This requires creating an additional connective network of narrower streets, some of which should 25. According to Rankings of Local Governments be dedicated to pedestrians and cyclists. in China 2017, the comprehensive development potential of Liangjiang New Area ranks first among 33. Plazas should be human-scale and accessible to the 163 development zones in China (including 137 general public, including people with disabilities and national-level development zones and 26 provincial- the elderly. level development zones). 34. The turn-of-the-century Barcelona grid, for example, 26. “One center” refers to the financial and commercial is unique for its diagonal corners and can be center while “four belts” refers to the metropolitan- distinguished from a similar square grid in Madrid. function industrial belt, logistics and processing Seoul has a unique street pattern overlaying a belt, high-tech and new-tech industrial belt, and newer, large-scale, regular grid over numerous advanced manufacturing industrial belt. small roads and irregular linking alleys dating from much earlier periods. The plaid-like street pattern 27. The total GDP of central Chongqing’s nine districts of Tokyo’s Nihonbashi district is also memorable was about RMB 703 billion in 2016. (Jacobs 1993). 28. In a built-up area of 514.5 km2. 2 35 CHONGQING