ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY i~i4~V\ SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Rulral Dvelopment Work in progress 119673 for public discussion Mxilbr19 =3.TWiliber 1999 - Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Toward So ud Practices Jitendra P? Srivastava NigelJ H. Smith Douglas A. Forno ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Rural Development Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Toward Sound Practices Jitendra P Srivastava NigelJ H. Smith Douglas A. Forno The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1999 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. 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Srivastava is principal agriculturist in the Europe and Central Asia Regional Office of the World Bank. Nigel J. H. Smith is professor of geography in the Department of Geography at the University of Florida. Douglas A. Fomo is sector manager in the Rural Development Family of the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network at the World Bank. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Srivastava, Jitendra, 1940- Integrating biodiversity in agricultural intensification: toward sound practices / Jitendra P. Srivastava, Nigel J. H. Smith, and Douglas A. Forno. p. cm. - (Environmentally and socially sustainable development. Rural development) Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-8213-4263-0 1. Agrobiodiversity. 2. Agrobiodiversity conservation. 3. Agricultural intensification. 4. Agricultural development projects. I. Smith, Nigel J. H., 1949- . II. Forno, Douglas, 1946- . III. Series: Environmentally and socially sustainable development series. Rural development. S494.4.A43S75 1998 630-dc2l 98-38771 CIP @ The text and the cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover. Contents Foreword v Abstract vii Acknowledgments viii Executive Summary 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 Destroying Myths about Modem Agriculture 3 Harnessing and Managing Biodiversity 4 Rationale 5 Conceptual Approach 5 Chapter 2 Promising Signposts to Sustainable Intensification 7 Intensification of Dairy Farming in Uruguay 7 Adjustments to Farming Practices in Response to Rapid Population Growth in Southeastern Nigeria 8 Home Gardens in Mexico and the Amazon: A Pantropical Cornucopia 9 Oil Palm in Malaysia and the Amazon 10 Upholding Intensive Rice-Wheat Farming on the Indo-Gangetic Plain 11 Soybean on India's Black Cotton Soils: Filling a Vacant Niche with a New Crop 12 Agricultural Intensification through Fallow Reduction in Anatolia, Turkey 13 INTERFISH and NOPEST Projects in Bangladesh 14 Chapter 3 Sound Practices at the Farm and Community Levels 15 Entry Points for Promoting Sound Practices at the Farm Level 16 Chapter 4 Sound Practices at the Landscape Level 19 Promote a Balanced Mix of Land Use Systems 19 Minimize Off-site Impacts 20 Conduct Rapid Agrobiodiversity Surveys in Advance of Agricultural Projects 21 Monitor Agricultural Projects for Impacts on Biodiversity 23 Expand the Scope of Parks and Reserves to Include Agrobiodiversity 23 iii iv Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Chapter 5 Strengthening Institutions and Technology Delivery 24 Agricultural Research: Elements of the Emerging Paradigm 24 Training and Extension 27 Quarantine: Forgotten Link in Sharing Biodiversity Resources 28 Chapter 6 Fine-Tuning Fiscal and Regulatory Environments 30 Tap Market Opportunities and Employ Specially Targeted Credit Programs 30 Trade and Intellectual Property Rights 33 Chapter 7 World Bank's Role and Leverage 34 Country Assistance Strategies 35 Economic and Sectoral Reviews 35 Agricultural and Rural Development Projects 36 Environmental Assessments 36 National Environmental Action Plans 36 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans 37 Environmental Adjustment Loans 37 Policy Dialogue 37 Chapter 8 Toward Implementation 38 References 39 Boxes 6.1 A renaissance of local breeds 32 7.1 Crop and livestock megadiversity centers 35 Tables 3.1 Agricultural practices that reduce natural resource degradation while boosting yields and enhancing biodiversity 16 4.1 Agrobiodiversity performance indicators 22 6.1 Fiscal policies that constrain adoption of more biodiversity-friendly agricultural practices 31 Foreword A grobiodiversity has emerged from be- September 1996. This international conference, ,Ajing an obscure, little-understood con- jointly organized by the Bank, the World Wild- cept to assuming center stage in global life Fund, the World Resources Institute, and efforts to intensify and sustain crop and live- the Biodiversity Support Program, provided a stock production. Much progress has been fruitful forum for several nongovernmental or- made in sensitizing the agricultural commu- ganizations (NGOs), development banks, aid nity to the value of protecting and better agencies, and government officials to discuss managing biological resources as well as un- constraints and opportunities to enhance bio- derscoring the fact that agriculture is not al- diversity in agriculture. The Food and Agricul- ways the "enemy" of the environment and ture Organization conference on The State of biodiversity. Indeed, considerable biodiversity the World's Plant Genetic Resources for Food is found in many agricultural landscapes, and and Agriculture, held in Leipzig, Germany, farmers on all continents have learned that June 17-23, 1996, also helped to sharpen think- they can improve their living standards by de- ing on agrobiodiversity, because it brought the ploying a broader range of biological assets. concerns and aspirations of dozens of nations Furthermore, it is increasingly apparent that to the surface. Much common ground was dis- habitats for wildlife will be saved from the ax covered during discussions at these confer- or plow only if future demands for food and ences, and useful insights and perspectives other agricultural products are met from areas provided by representatives from a variety of currently cultivated or grazed by livestock. In- institutions worldwide have enriched this tensification is an imperative across a broad report. range of land-use systems-from "traditional" This report pinpoints practical ways in to "modern," from well-watered to semi-arid, which the environmental impacts of agricul- and from marginal areas to optimal farmlands. ture can be mnitigated and demonstrates how Agrobiodiversity is key to accomplishing this biodiversity can be deployed to boost the pro- goal worldwide. ductivity of crops and livestock. It builds on The many issues surrounding biodiversity current work at the Bank to reconcile agricul- conservation and use in agricultural develop- tural development with environmental con- ment have been spotlighted at several confer- cerns. Earlier Bank publications, particularly ences and in World Bank publications, all of Biodiversity and Agriculture: Implicationsfor Con- which have contributed to this report. A wide- servation and Development (Srivastava, Smith, ranging discussion on agrobiodiversity took and Forno 1996b) and Biodiversity and Agricul- place at a one-day conference hosted by the tural Intensification: Partnersfor Development and World Wildlife Fund in Washington, D.C., in Conservation (Srivastava, Smith, and Forno v vi Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification 1996a), lay out a conceptual framework for ex- environmental assessments in agricultural de- ploring the many issues surrounding the better velopment. It is recognized throughout that no integration (rather than destruction) of biodi- technological quick fixes are available to har- versity in agricultural development. monize environmental conservation with agri- In "Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Agricul- cultural development. Policy distortions need tural Development" (World Bank 1996), a joint to be removed, and institutions involved in effort of the Environment and the Agriculture technological development and dissemination and Natural Resources Departments, conflicts need to be strengthened. More support for the and complementarities between agriculture further development of technologies, particu- and biodiversity are explored, with a major larly those related to managing agrobiodiver- emphasis on understanding the causes of con- sity, is clearly warranted. At the same time flicts and developing possible responses. This deficiencies in the broader policy and institu- report takes its cue from the concluding section tional environment must also be addressed. of "Mainstreaming Biodiversity" by address- This report is geared primarily to the needs ing an agenda for the future. of task managers in agricultural projects, but it The action agenda examined here proposes also offers some useful insights for other areas concrete steps for implementing "do no harm" of the Bank's work, particularly in the prepa- strategies in the design of agricultural projects, ration of country assistance strategies and pol- including the identification of synergies be- icy dialogue with national governments. A tween environmental conservation and agri- concerted effort is needed to propel the main- cultural intensification. Sound practices are streaming of biodiversity in agriculture. This also offered for ways to broaden the use of report contributes to this vital process. Alex McCalla Director Rural Development Abstract grobiodiversity-biological resources from this review help to identify sound prac- A that directly and indirectly contribute tices for designing and monitoring agricultural )AIto crop and livestock production-is projects so that they improve rural incomes arguably the single most important natural re- while safeguarding environmental assets, par- source in worldwide efforts to intensify agri- ticularly biodiversity. The successful protec- culture while protecting the environment. tion and deployment of biodiversity hinges on Agrobiodiversity is key to transforming agri- a favorable policy enviromnent and on agricul- cultural systems that are currently wreaking tural research and extension activities that havoc on wildlife and human health and is also stress farmer participation and greater sensi- essential to boosting yields to satisfy the tivity to the off-site impacts of agriculture. Sug- world's growing appetite for food, fiber, and gestions for sound practices, therefore, include other crop and livestock products. modifications of the policy environment and This report highlights case studies in which ways to strengthen research institutions and modern and traditional agriculture have been extension services so that agriculture can be successfully transformed to enhance biodiver- intensified while better protecting and manag- sity without sacrificing yield. Lessons learned ing biological resources. vii Acknowledgments M any of the ideas explored in this re- Group for International Agricultural Research. port were honed during interactions We are grateful to Eric Roberts, acting associate with individuals at different forums director general for research at the ]nterna- in the World Bank and other organizations, tional Crops Research Institute for the Semi- such as the World Wildlife Fund. The encour- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT); Grant Scobie, agement of many individuals in the Bank, as director-general of Centro Internacional de well as nongovernmental organizations such Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Cali, Colombia; as the World Wildlife Fund and World Re- and Michael Jones, Jan Valkoun, and Salvatore sources Institute, has helped further thinking Cecceralli of the International Center for Agri- on this complex topic with many policy impli- cultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). cations. In particular, we would like to ac- M. S. Swaminathan of the M. S. Swaminathan knowledge Marjory-Anne Bromhead, Nicole Research Foundation also kindly critiqued an Glineur, and Steven Oliver within the World earlier draft of the report. Bank, who took the time to comment on an The views and recommendations of this pa- earlier draft of this report. per are those of the authors and are meant to Helpful comments on an earlier draft were stimulate discussion rather than imply en- also received from three international agricul- dorsement of any institution. tural research centers within the Consultative viii Executive Summary A gricultural intensification, a world- Biodiversity has already been mainstreamed ,A wide imperative, can be accomplished with varying degrees of success in many tradi- only if biodiversity is better protected tional agricultural systems. Traditional systems and managed. Conversely, biodiversity will be have not solved all the environmental problems safeguarded only if it contributes in a tangible associated with agriculture, but such systems way to human welfare and if essential needs are generally richer in the array of crops and are being met from areas already in produc- livestock deployed and also harbor greater ge- tion. This report highlights ways that agrobio- netic variation within crops than do modern diversity-that portion of biodiversity used production systems. The main challenges are to directly or indirectly in agricultural produc- boost the productivity of traditional systems tion-can be harnessed more effectively to while maintaining their "environment- boost productivity. The report also underlines friendly" dimensions and to transform modern agrobiodiversity's critical role in intensifying agriculture so that collateral environmental agriculture. Practical ways are identified to bet- damage is reduced or eliminated as yields ter manage and conserve the biological re- ratchet up. Agriculture will have to be intensi- sources that underpin crop and livestock fied along the entire spectrum-from tradi- production. tional to modern production systems-in order A central theme of this report is that techno- to have any chance of protecting forests, wet- logical "solutions" alone will neither sustain lands, and other habitats essential for wildlife greater agricultural productivity nor enhance and environmental services. This can be accom- biodiversity in the long run. Policy distortions plished only by better management of biologi- that drive inappropriate land use practices cal resources. must also be addressed, and institutions must In many cases the "educating" phase of high- be revamped and strengthened in order to lighting the importance of biodiversity to agri- raise and sustain yields while safeguarding culture has been accomplished. Two biodiversity. Agricultural projects are usually overriding constraints remain, however. The inserted into a policy environment and an in- first obstacle is how to convince politicians that stitutional framework that can hinder or pro- they must act. Many politicians are aware that mote their success. The purpose of this report, biodiversity is important in the abstract, but then, is to highlight policy, institutional, and they need to be shown how mainstreaming technological issues to improve agricultural biodiversity contributes to increased agricul- projects designed to boost crop and livestock tural production so that growing urban popu- yields while incorporating greater biodiversity lations are fed, export earnings are increased, and reducing pressure on wildlife habitats. and urban and rural poverty is alleviated. The 1 2 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification second is to offer guidelines or "best bets" as strategies and microorganisms essential to how to encourage environmentally sound for recycling nutrients in cultivated soils. agriculture while still addressing the need to * "Protected" areas embrace only a small increase production. fraction of the earth's surface. Most of the The case studies in this report illustrate how world's biodiversity is thus under varying managing biodiversity in agriculture can make degrees of pressure from human activities. a practical contribution to rural well being, but Land use practices can be modified to en- more analysis is needed. The main points to con- hance the broader spectrum of biodiver- sider in reconciling biodiversity conservation sity, such as by creating wildlife corridors with agricultural development are: between fragmented habitats. * Agricultural intensification will be suc- Biodiversity will be successfully main- cessful in the long run only if biological streamed in agricultural development only if resources are protected and managed the ultimate managers of biodiversity-farm- wisely. ers and livestock raisers-are involved in the * Many agricultural research programs and design and implementation of research and de- development projects are ignoring poten- velopment projects. Without local participa- tially useful agrobiodiversity, an oversight tion by farmers and their communities, major that will likely further erode biodiversity. stakeholders in biodiversity management will Not enough consideration is being given to be cut off from decisionmaking, thereby under- ways to better harmonize biodiversity con- cutting the chances for success. Farmers and servation and agricultural development. livestock owners can provide important in- * A great deal of biodiversity is found in sights on suitable ways to use and manage bio- managed landscapes. Biological resources diversity. A blend of indigenous knowledge in cultural settings therefore need to be and scientific research will be needed to further better used and conserved, ranging from the transformation of agricultural systems so farmer-derived crop varieties to insect that they are more biodiversity-friendly and predators for integrated pest management achieve higher productivity. CHAPTER 1 Introduction A gricultural intensification is under Destroying Myths about Modern jLA way across a broad array of land use Agriculture l systems on every continent. Increased demand for food and other agricultural prod- The debate surrounding agricultural develop- ucts as a result of population growth and dy- ment and environmental conservation often namic economies is driving this widespread depicts "modern" agriculture as an almost sin- process. Agricultural intensification is well ad- ister force that is destroying the planet's bio- vanced in some agricultural production sys- logical heritage. However, this "straw man" tems, while in others it is only just beginning. approach to the complex issue does not illumi- In some cases productivity is faltering after nate many of the promising paths to enhancing many years of yield gains. In all systems sus- biodiversity in agricultural intensification. tainable management of natural resources First, modern agriculture may not deploy a needs to be taken into consideration. large assortment of crops and varieties in a Time-worn agricultural intensification relatively small area, but that does not mean strategies of adding more fertilizer or relying that agrobiodiversity has been wiped out. In on increased use of machinery no longer work the case of hybrid maize, for example, the rela- in many areas because of soil degradation. tively small number of varieties grown over Moreover, these strategies are no longer ac- large areas rests on a massive pyramid of genes ceptable because of off-site environmental im- that are constantly being rearranged and tested pacts. Off-farm inputs are still an important by breeders. The image often conjured up of component of intensification efforts, but they modern agriculture with expensive tractors can now be combined with better management and the heavy application of pesticides and of biological resources. For many farmers fer- fertilizers does not apply in all cases. Modern tilizer and machinery are not an option for in- and highly productive farms may still rely on tensification. They will have to follow different purchased inputs, but they are increasingly bio- paths for raising productivity and protecting logical rather than chemical or mechanical. the environment. A new paradigm for agricul- While the potential and reality of nonsustain- tural research and development is emerging, able practices exist in modern agriculture, ef- one that emphasizes diverse approaches to in- forts and practices at reducing environmental tensification, but with two key ingredients in impact and promoting biodiversity need to be all cases: a blend of scientific and indigenous encouraged. Agricultural practices emphasiz- knowledge allowing for wiser management of ing integrated pest, nutrient, and crop manage- biological resources. ment techniques such as pesticide reduction, 3 4 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification crop diversification, precision farming, and use are counteracting the adverse impacts of their of biological inputs need to be encouraged and activities on the environment, and we need to promoted. know more about what factors facili-ate this Another myth that needs to be put to rest is regenerative process. that the release of modern, high-yielding va- Biodiversity needs to be better harnessed rieties inevitably bulldozes aside traditional and protected to foster the worldwide process varieties. Similarly, the deployment of popular of agricultural intensification and to avoid po- super breeds of livestock is said to extinguish tentially serious setbacks in productivity locally adapted breeds either by replacing gains. Further gains in the productivity of ex- them outright, or by genetic swamping as they isting crops and livestock, as well as the do- interbreed. Modern varieties and livestock mestication of new crops and animals, will be breeds merely provide additional options to difficult and ephemeral if biodiversity losses farmers who have access to them; they do not continue. Encouragingly, governments in de- necessarily lead to the abandonment of heir- veloping countries increasingly recognize that loom varieties or ancient breeds. The area de- agricultural intensification must clearly ad- voted to the cultivation of traditional varieties dress biodiversity conservation issues, as in may diminish, but they are not always lost. the Brazilian Northeast (Magalhaes and Lima Many small-scale growers of maize, wheat, 1995:108). and potato, for example, continue to cultivate The management of biodiversity for agricul- their traditional varieties after they adopt mod- tural intensification implies a more rational use ern varieties (Bellon and Brush 1994; Brush of this resource and improved conservation ef- 1995; Brush and others 1988, 1992; Smale 1997). forts. Because it is difficult to predict what Sometimes high-yielding varieties replace rela- parts of the broader biodiversity pool might tively recent lower-yielding material rather provide a yield breakthrough in the future or than indigenous varieties honed over hun- a new biocontrol agent for reducing pest dam- dreds or even thousands of years by local farm- age, a wise course is to safeguard as much bio- ers. Continued investment in technology diversity as possible in natural and cultural development is essential in order to develop habitats. With the adoption of appropriate varieties that suit specific agro-socioeconomic farming practices, crop and range lands can be requirements. used in such a way that they minimize damage to wildlife, water supplies, and nearby habi- Harnessing and Managing Biodiversity tats. Agricultural intensification could help al- leviate destructive pressure on habitats by In the past agricultural research and develop- meeting agricultural production needs on ex- ment has tended to promote monocultures and isting farmland. a commodity approach rather than a systems This report outlines measures that can be perspective. The resulting toll on biodiversity taken to alleviate some of the collateral damage and the natural resource base has been well associated with agricultural development and documented-salinization in irrigated areas, pinpoints ways that biodiversity can be en- rampant soil erosion, the draining or despoil- hanced on landscapes managed for crop and ing of wetlands, and the disruption of food livestock production. A number of measures chains by pesticides. In the case of the Punjab, are being taken to mitigate at least some of the for example, indiscriminate applications of more obvious off-site impacts of agriculture. In chemical inputs, improper management of addition to highlighting steps that can relieve water for irrigation, and continuous cropping the adverse impacts of agriculture on sur- with rice and wheat have damaged soil health rounding habitats (both wild and cultural), at- and structure and depleted the water table. tention also focuses on ways to enhance However, farmers in the Punjab and elsewhere biodiversity within agricultural systems. Introduction 5 Rationale provide income and sustenance for the next generation of farmers and consumers. The conservation and sound management of Farmers are constantly seeking new crops to biodiversity is essential for improving agricul- replace those that are no longer profitable. ture and a host of other economic activities, but Similarly, varieties often become obsolete be- agricultural expansion or inappropriate inten- cause of pest pressure or other factors. Farmers sification is a major cause of natural habitat can stay in business only if they can secure new degradation. Yet farming and livestock raising and better-adapted crops and varieties. The can also enhance biodiversity in disturbed ar- pipeline of new crops and varieties, introduced eas. And by deploying sound management from other regions or recently domesticated, practices, farming can relieve pressure on a must therefore remain open. The erosion of mosaic of habitats so essential for a broad biodiversity is akin to turning down the spigot range of environmental services (Srivastava, and can stall agricultural intensification efforts. Smith, and Forno 1996b). Whereas biodiversity is reduced by the de- Conceptual Approach struction of natural habitats, the apparent economic productivity of the resulting agro- Cultural landscapes-areas that have been ecosystems is usually higher than the current modified to varying degrees by human activ- economic value of the intact habitat it has re- ity-now dominate most of the earth's land placed. Natural habitats are being replaced surface, and surprisingly high levels of biodi- mainly because the carrying capacity of modi- versity are often found in areas devoted to crop fied landscapes is generally greater than the production and livestock raising, particularly original environment. Yet the economic pro- in "traditional" farming areas. Some of that ductivity of land transformation should be as- biodiversity is directly useful to improving ag- sessed in light of ecological and environmental ricultural productivity, such as traditional va- costs. Biodiversity destruction as a result of rieties of crops with disease resistance genes habitat modification is a negative externality and wild or weedy populations of crops that because it is not reflected in the marketplace. are tapped by breeders for other useful traits. The implementation phase of an agricultural In order to improve agricultural productivity project usually has a short time horizon, usu- and raise rural incomes, biodiversity must ally five years or less, and although productiv- therefore be better managed in transformed ity gains may look impressive, they may not habitats. This report not only outlines meas- hold up over the long term. Also, damage in- ures that can be adopted to reduce the off-site flicted on biodiversity and the environment impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, but also may not show up on the books when economic pinpoints policy options to help conserve and and cash flow analyses continue to be per- better utilize agrobiodiversity-plants and ani- formed after the project has been implemented. mals, including beneficial insects, that are es- The value of wild areas as a source of novel sential for agriculture. crops and domesticated animals is often unap- We begin by presenting several case studies preciated. Few crops or animals have been do- in which biodiversity has been enhanced as mesticated in the past two thousand years, agricultural systems were intensified. The although there has been considerable effort to cases sampled here are drawn from a variety improve the productivity of existing cultivated of production systems in different climates and plants and livestock. As changing consumer continents to illustrate the widespread nature tastes have created an interest in domesticating of intensification. The sample of case studies new plants and animals, some agricultural clearly illustrates that progress toward envi- practices are destroying the very resources- ronmentally sound agricultural intensification undervalued plants and animals-that could is feasible and is being achieved in diverse set- 6 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification tings. The case studies reveal that break- farmers. Resuscitating vignettes of the past is throughs can usually be attributed to the coa- not the way to mainstream biodiversitv in ag- lescing of a variety of factors, including ricultural development. In some cases modern changes in the policy environment, institu- farms with high-yielding varieties are more re- tional reform, and the agile diffusion of biodi- silient and less vulnerable to diseases, pests, versity-friendly technologies. and other environmental insults than tradi- The case studies serve as the foundation for an tional farms. Modern farms may not match the analysis of specific measures that can be adopted spatial heterogeneity of traditional operations, to promote agricultural intensification in a bio- but they often deploy appreciable agrobiodi- diversity-friendly manner. Sound practices are versity over time because of high rates of varie- grouped for convenience into four sections: tal turnover and diversified agriculture and cropping systems. * Farm or community level An appreciation for land use dynamics is em- . Landscape scale phasized in the discussion of actions that can * Fiscal and regulatory environment be taken to promote biodiversity-friendly agri- • Institutional aspects, including the gen- culture at the ground level. Biodiversity is gen- eration and transfer of appropriate tech- erally enhanced if a mix of land use systems nologies. prevails in a given area. That does not mean that all farms should intercrop in a given area. The above-mentioned categories are not Monocropping makes economic and ecological stand-alone components, but they have been sense in some cases. But it is generally wise to teased apart to help focus the discussion. It is support diversification across farms in order to important for decisionmakers, especially task slow the spread of diseases and pests, among managers, to realize that these topics are all other challenges to agricultural production. Too interconnected. For example, sound practices often, agricultural intensification leads to a ho- can be implemented at the farm or community mogenization of landscapes as a single produc- level only if the right policy environment and tion system expands at the expense of others. incentive structures are in place. And gains in Remedial measures proposed here are not agricultural intensification will be sustained meant to tie the hands of development plan- only if investments in appropriate research and ners or task managers. Tradeoffs between con- technology dissemination are supported over serving biodiversity and meeting the need to the long term. increase agricultural production are inevitable, Constraints to adopting more biodiversity- and policymakers and other decisiormakers friendly agriculture can be traced to failures of should at least be aware that tradeoffs are in- the policy and regulatory environment, insti- volved. As many items as possible in the sug- tutions, and markets. Sound practices for main- gested checklist of sound practices should be streaming biodiversity therefore focus on such addressed to the extent feasible. It is no longer recommendations as removing subsidies for sufficient to ignore biodiversity because it has inputs that destroy biodiversity when more be- not been "valued." In many cases such valu- nign technologies are available that can sustain ation is difficult and fraught with shaky as- or even raise yields, realigning priorities at ag- sumptions. In other cases valuation efforts are ricultural research institutions, and taking ad- under way, but it is not always easy to place a vantage of emerging market opportunities to monetary value on all aspects of biodiversity diversify agriculture. It is also recognized, and ecosystem services of natural habitats. The however, that enhancing biodiversity does not cautionary principle should be applied here mean that high-yielding varieties that tend to (Myers 1993). A wise course would be to save as dominate large areas should be replaced by a much biodiversity as feasible in order to keep as hodgepodge of varieties long abandoned by many options as possible open for the future. CHAPTER 2 Promising Signposts to Sustainable Intensification A broad range of land use systems in a had encouraged nonsustainable agricultural 1A.variety of climatic zones are sampled practices that degraded the soil. LI.. to highlight the diverse ways in which agricultural systems have been intensified Intensification of Dairy Farming while mitigating adverse impacts on the envi- in Uruguay ronment and biodiversity. The examples pre- sented below are meant to be neither an Uruguay is naturally endowed with extensive exhaustive survey nor an in-depth analysis. grasslands that have been exploited for centu- Rather, they are meant to illustrate succinctly ries for cattle and sheep grazing. As urban ar- some of the creative ways in which farmers are eas expanded, demand for food products boosting productivity and their incomes while increased and some grasslands were plowed enhancing biodiversity. under to grow cereal crops, particularly in the While it is recognized that many traditional 1920s and 1930s when tractors first became agricultural systems, such as home gardens in widely available. The continuous cultivation of Sri Lanka and Mexico, are highly productive, wheat, maize, and sugarbeet in southern Uru- only systems that have undergone change as a guay triggered serious soil erosion, degrading result of deliberate efforts to transform them fields and often resulting in their abandon- are scrutinized here.. Case studies are drawn ment. from Africa, tropical Asia, and Latin America, During the 1980s much of this degraded land where traditional systems and modern farming was restored to pasture for intensive dairy op- practices have been altered to boost yield while erations by smallholders and mediumholders conserving biodiversity. The case studies also alike (Wallis 1993). The degraded areas were sample a diverse range of ecological environ- restored by sowing pastures with several spe- ments, from temperate grasslands to semiarid cies of legumes to help restore soil nitrogen and regions and tropical forests. In some situations, organic matter and by adding phosphate fer- where population densities were high and tra- tilizer to jump start the exhausted soil, a prac- ditional production systems were stressing the tice honed in New Zealand. Scientists working natural resource base, the agricultural produc- for the Uruguayan government produced an tion system was modified to suit the natural inoculum of nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria resource base. In other situations population for farmers to mix with their legume seeds. densities were low but inappropriate subsidies More recently, dung-consuming beetles, earth- 7 8 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification worms, and other creatures involved in recy- The salient lessons from the intens,.fication cling nutrients have been added to restored of dairy operations in Uruguay are: pastures. After several years of grazing on re- stored pasture, a rotational cereal crop is * It is possible to increase productivity by planted. With soil structure and conditions for deploying modern breeds as long as the soil microorganisms thus improved, milk pro- natural resource base is enhanced. duction has increased dramatically. In addi- . Removal of subsidies can provide a stimu- tion, many dairy farms have created ponds for lus to become more competitive by invest- watering livestock and irrigating rice, thereby ing in more intensive production methods. creating pockets of suitable habitats for aquatic . Intensification is facilitated when mecha- wildlife. nisms are in place for exchanging informa- Sustainable agricultural practices have been tion about appropriate technologies uneven in the area's transformation to inten- developed in distant locations. sive agriculture. Some farms have employed * A good infrastructure of roads and electri- techniques to reduce contamination to the wa- cal power is essential for commercially ori- tershed. Manure from stalls is redistributed to ented intensive agriculture. grazing areas through mechanical spreaders, . The restoration of soil agrobiodiversity or is conveyed as slurry through irrigation boosts crop productivity. pipes back to the land. Previous excessive chlo- rine use had a detrimental impact on aquatic Adjustments to Farming Practices ecosystems, but many farms now use less dam- in Response to Rapid Population aging disinfectants. Some dairy plants have Growth in Southeastern Nigeria successfully established pig operations. Whey is fed to the pigs, thereby reducing water pol- Southeastern Nigeria has some of the highest lution from that cheese- making by-product. population densities in Sub-Saharan Africa However, some farms continue to contaminate and one of the most threatened ecosystems on local watercourses by pumping their effluent the continent: the rainforests of West Africa. As into nearby streams and rivers. population pressure has mounted, fallow peri- Although the size of the national dairy herd ods have declined. In the past the rest period has remained stable at 660,000 head, milk pro- for the acid and leached soils of southeastern duction more than doubled from the early Nigeria was around seven years, but by the 1950s to the early 1990s. Between 1980 and 1992 early 1990s the fallow period had been short- alone milk production jumped by 40 percent circuited to less than four years in many parts while the area devoted to dairy farms re- of Imo State. Four years is generally considered mained constant at 1 million hectares. Uruguay an insufficient period to restore soil fertility in currently exports dairy products to nearly two the forest belt of southern Nigeria (Goldman dozen countries, including the United States. 1992). When the population density reached The public sector initially played an impor- around 500 persons per square kilometer in tant role in promoting the restoration of de- Imo State, sufficiently long fallow periods were graded lands, but the effectiveness of the no longer possible. Farmers complained that government agency responsible for this task the soil was becoming exhausted and crop has waned as its autonomy and resources de- yields were dropping. clined (Wallis 1993). The private sector has Instead of doggedly pursuing old strategies, now assumed the lead in sustaining intensifi- farmers shifted their agricultural practices in the cation efforts in the dairy industry. For exam- face of mounting population pressures. Farmers ple, the commercial sector and farmers have intensified their traditionalbush-fallow cul- associations have introduced modern machin- tivation system by adopting several strategies: ery for intensifying dairy operations. applying fertilizer (albeit in modest amounts), Promising Signposts to Sustainable Intensification 9 intensifying their management of fallow vege- fire-resistant Acioa bush is specifically planted tation, and relying more on species-rich home to produce a wood crop between seasonal gardens for subsistence and commerce. crops. Compound gardens around homes are an Salient lessons from the Nigeria case study effective way of keeping land in continuous are as follows: production without deteriorating the resource base. Multitiered home gardens are common . Fertilizer use is not necessarily an undesir- to many parts of West Africa, as well as other able part of the intensification package, parts of the humid tropics, and are islands of particularly if applied judiciously. Indeed, agrobiodiversity in transformed landscapes. it may be essential to sustain productivity Home gardens in Imo State contain a rich as- and to build up organic matter in the soil. sortment of vegetables, fruits, tree crops, and The use of organic mulches alone as a some staples such as manioc and yams (Gold- means of increasing soil organic matter in man 1992). Animal and human manure, ashes fields is rarely practical in the humid trop- from domestic fires, kitchen waste, and leaves ics because of the rapid rates of decompo- and crop residues maintain soil fertility in sition of plant material and the high cost of home gardens. In Imo State home gardens are transporting and applying the huge quan- serving as refuges for "lost crops," such as tities needed to make a difference. cocoyam and yam beans, which have disap- . Some traditional land use systems-in this peared from cultivated fields for a variety of case home gardens-which are often ig- reasons. The greater the density of the rural nored by mainstream agricultural research population, the larger the home gardens. Spe- can play a critical role in agricultural inten- cies-rich home gardens with their year-round sification. production of crops are an important strategy * Indigenous knowledge of plant resources, in increasing the resilience of agriculture in rather than reliance on top-down ap- densely settled areas (Goldman 1995). In south- proaches to technology transfer, warrants ern Nigeria home gardens can occupy close to close scrutiny in efforts to intensify agri- a third of the cultivated area and account for culture. This Nigerian case study shows nearly two-thirds of crop output (Cooper and how local useful plant experts helped to others 1996). manage fallow. Farmers in much of Imo State and other parts of southeastern Nigeria have traditionally Home Gardens in Mexico and the managed fallow by planting an assortment of Amazon: A Pantropical Cornucopia shrub and tree species, particularly for soil im- provement (Cooper and others 1996). Farmers Home gardens are arguably the most species- enrich fallow by sowing such species as the rich agricultural systems in the world. In some fast-growing bush Dactyladenia barteri and by cases they represent miniature cultural forests, cutting down species that compete with useful festooned with a wide variety of products for shrubs and trees. The resistant wood of Dacty- the kitchen and cottage industry. Shady, mul- ladenia barteri is used for a variety of purposes, titiered home gardens contribute significantly including the staking of yams, and the leaves to subsistence and income generation in town help maintain soil organic matter. This multi- and country, and women play a particularly purpose, semidomesticated bush is most inten- important role in assembling and maintaining sively managed in areas with the highest these rich islands of agrobiodiversity (Abro- human population density, attesting to its role movitz 1994). in helping raise crop yields and providing a In addition to their social and economic variety of other commodities, such as firewood benefits, home gardens are also havens for the and construction material (Goldman 1993). The largely unseen helpers in agriculture: soil 10 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification microfauna and microflora and beneficial in- 3. Conventional agricultural research institu- sects that pollinate crops and control pests. In tions and development organizations have spite of all the benefits of home gardens, they largely neglected home gardens. It is now represent probably the least studied and ap- time to bring their merits to the attention preciated agricultural production system in the of a wider audience of policymakers. tropics. In Europe and North America the func- tions of the home garden have changed over Oil Palm in Malaysia and the Amazon time from a primarily utilitarian place to a place for aesthetic pleasure, relaxation, and, At first glance oil palm cultivation may seem play (Taylor and Lawson 1994). Home gardens like an odd example of how to intensify agri- in much of the industrial world are now mostly culture while enhancing biodiversity. Oil palm showcases for flowers, manicured lawns, and is generally grown as a monocrop and oil palm painstakingly cultivated vegetable plots. Far plantations have been a major driving force more has been written about the ornamental behind deforestation in Malaysia. Also, oil plants of home gardens in Europe and North processing mills have been among the worst America than about the hundreds of food, me- water polluters in the country. Nevertheless, dicinal, fiber, and other plants tended in tropi- oil palm productivity has increased dramati- cal home gardens. cally in Malaysia, deforestation to establish A few examples will serve to illustrate the perennial crops has slowed considerably, and rich diversity and untapped potential of home mill wastes are now largely recycled on plan- gardens for agricultural intensification. The tations. And because oil palm is grown by home gardens of a single village in the Yucatan smallholders as well as large estates, successful Peninsula of Mexico have recorded 387 plant intensification of this crop enhances the well- species (Herrera 1994). A survey of 21 home being of broad segments of society. gardens on the uplands near Manaus in the Although oil palm plantations certainly do middle of the Amazon found 61 cultivated spe- not match the biodiversity levels of the habitats cies; one garden alone had 41 intercropped spe- they have replaced, they are not ecological cies (Leuuwen and Gomes 1995). On the "deserts." Oil palm plantations in Malaysia Amazon flood plain itself home gardens are have adopted a range of practices that mitigate equally diverse, a surprising finding consider- environmental damage and enhance agrobiodi- ing the sweeping annual floods (Smith 1996). versity (Wallis 1993). For example, the Guthries Dozens of fruit and nut-bearing trees are Estate Company deploys locally adapted adapted to the varied terrain and to differing breeds of sheep to control weeds among young flood regimes of the Amazon River. Many of oil palms. Several species of legumes are them are largely unknown outside the re- planted on mature plantations to further check gion, but could contribute to efforts to inten- weeds and to enrich the soil with nitrogen. And sify agriculture and rehabilitate degraded in some plantations nest boxes have been set wetlands. up to attract the common barn owl, an effective Three main points are worth emphasizing predator of rats, which often proliferate in oil with respect to home gardens in developing palm estates. Not all oil palm estates or small countries: farms have adopted the above-mentioned envi- 1. They can generate food and other agricul- ronment-friendly practices, but most deploy at tural products in towns, villages, and least a ground cover of legumes. even in bustling cities (on rooftops or in In the Brazilian Amazon a 9,000-hectare oil tightly packed backyards). palm plantation, owned by the Banco Real 2. They are important arenas for plant do- Group along the PA 150 highway between mestication and serve as launching pads Bel6m and Maraba in Para, deploys a number for some of tomorrow's crops. of sustainable practices that go even further Promising Signposts to Sustainable Intensification 11 with regard to coexisting with the surrounding Degradation of the natural resource base is ecosystems. A substantial portion of the prop- a major reason for the plateauing of rice and erty will remain in forest, in part because it wheat yields. Loss of soil organic matter as a harbors biocontrol agents that help suppress result of continuous cultivation with cereals pests. No insecticides are used on the planta- has triggered a decline in organisms involved tion because the palm depends on weevils for in recycling nutrients and has adversely af- pollination. A 100-meter strip of forest is be- fected soil structure. Although fertilizers are ing left along water courses, and oil palm used extensively, nutrient imbalances have is planted only on relatively level terrain arisen in some fields, thereby impairing crop (Smith and others 1995). Buffer strips of forest development. Prolonged irrigation, a major in- help bring biocontrol agents closer to the crop. gredient in the success of the green revolution, A thick mat of ground cover is provided by has provoked salinization of the topsoil in Pueraria, a nitrogen-fixing legume that smoth- some areas, another factor in the braking of ers weeds, helps preserve soil moisture, and productivity gains. Water tables are falling in checks erosion. Finally, about 20 oil palm hy- northern India, as in many other parts of the brids are planted and the mix of clones provides world, because of the growing thirst of farm- a genetic mosaic, possibly further reducing pest ers, industry, and urban areas, thus restricting and disease pressure. supplies of water to flush away accumulated The implications of some recent develop- salts. Continuous cropping with cereals has ments in oil palm production are: also led to a build up of weeds, pests, and diseases. * Synergies can be found between maintain- The intensification of agriculture during the ing natural habitats and boosting crop green revolution has helped to feed millions of yields, particularly for integrated pest people and has raised incomes for numerous management. farmers. But adjustments to agricultural prac- * Deploying a mix of clones enhances agro- tices were called for in order to prevent slip- biodiversity even on large, monocultural page in productivity gains. Fortunately, plantations. farmers on the Indo-Gangetic plains are re- * Intercropping with a leguminous ground sponding to the challenge by deploying a num- cover reduces the need for herbicides and ber of tactics, including: fertilizers, thereby reducing or eliminating the downstream impacts of agricultural * Adoption of precision farming techniques, development. particularly in the management of soil nu- trients (amounts, timing, and placement) Upholding Intensive Rice-Wheat Farming . Crop diversification, particularly with on the Indo-Gangetic Plain vegetables, pastures, and agroforestry * Relay cropping The Indo-Gangetic Plain, spanning 11 million * Alley cropping hectares in six states, is India's main bread bas- . Reduced tillage ket. The green revolution in wheat and rice * Improved management of water for irriga- took off here in the rnid-1960s and has contrib- tion. uted to dramatic increases in grain production. Most of this increased production was The pace of regeneration appears to be achieved by increasing yields rather than in- quickening. In the case of precision farming, creasing the cultivated area. After spectacular for example, some farmers are sending soil yield gains in the 1960s and 1970s productivity samples to laboratories for analysis of soil nu- gains slowed or in some areas even halted by trient deficiencies. Trace element deficiencies the mid-1980s. are then corrected in customized fertilizer for- 12 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification mulations. Fertilizer use has declined because tent. Traditionally, wheat or cotton heve been application rates are calibrated according to planted during the tail end of the rainry) season soil analysis results; this not only saves the so that the crop can take advantage of residual farmer money, it also produces less stress on soil moisture. However, when soybean the environment, particularly on aquatic eco- emerged as a viable cash crop in the 1980s, systems. The soil laboratories are privately run, farmers found that they could grow soybean another example of how the private sector is during the monsoon, when fields were involved in sustainable intensification. "empty." Salient lessons from farming experiences on Farmers were able to improve the w orkabil- the Indo-Gangetic Plain include: ity of their soils by creating ridges and furrows to improve drainage. Furrows conduct the . Intensification improved living standards water to small ponds, which are used to raise for farmers so that they were able to invest fish. The ponds do not have to be lined with in improved technologies and services, plastic or other impervious material because such as paying for soil analyses. the fine-particle soil seals the bottom and sides . A paradigm shift is well under way with of the ponds. Furthermore, the ponds provide agricultural research institutions, which water for irrigating crops during the dry sea- has enabled them to tackle natural re- son. The emergence of a viable cash crop that source degradation issues more effec- could survive the increased disease and pest tively. pressure associated with the wet season pro- vided the incentive to intensify agricultural The new paradigm shift incorporates a systems practices in ways that have enhancecl, rather rather than a commodity approach, thereby fa- than destroyed, biodiversity. cilitating farmers in their transition to more Double cropping with soybean also in- diversified cropping. creased farmer income and produced a ripple effect through the regional and national econo- Soybean on India's Black Cotton Soils: mies. Soybean processing plants provided ur- Filling a Vacant Niche with a New Crop ban employment opportunities, and the transport of soybean by road and rail created Double cropping with soybean in central India more jobs. Soybean meal exports soared to illustrates the importance of policy decisions $318 million in 1993, while exports of de-oiled in the process of intensification. Public policy soy cake reached $25 million by 1991 (Wallis decisions to help make India self-sufficient in 1993). Soy oil production, destined entirely for cooking oil spurred the establishment of more the domestic market, had an import substitu- than one hundred soybean-processing plants tion value of $191 million in 1993. in central India. As a result, soybean produc- Further research will be needed to uphold tion in India increased tenfold in the 1980s, the gains from the widespread adoption of soy- through improved farming techniques and in- bean cropping on India's black cotton soils. In tensification rather than through the extension some areas excessive demand has drawn down of farmland into wildlife habitats or otherwise groundwater supplies, thereby imperiling fu- unsuitable areas for cultivation. ture agricultural intensification. More efficient In the past farmers achieved only one har- use of industrial and irrigation water as well vest per year on the black cotton soils in central as water recycling and recovery will be needed. India. Technically known as vertisols, these Pests and diseases specific to the soybean are black cotton soils are relatively fertile but pose likely to build up as the crop is cultivated over a major challenge to farmers: they are excep- vast areas every year. "Maintenance" research tionally sticky and hard to work during the is always needed whenever productivity rainy season because of their heavy clay con- breakthroughs are achieved (Plucknett and Promising Signposts to Sustainable Intensification 13 Smith 1986). The impressive growth in soybean Affairs had completed plans for the training of production in India nevertheless demonstrates extension staff, made credit available, and that agricultural intensification, agrobiodiver- taken measures to ensure that the expected in- sity enhancement, improved incomes, and job crease in pulse production would find ready creation can go hand-in-hand. markets. In the meantime the agricultural re- search community in Turkey was in touch with Agricultural Intensification through similar efforts at fallow reduction in Australia Fallow Reduction in Anatolia, Turkey and in Texas in the United States. A favorable public policy environment cou- In the previous example land was left fallow pled with an agile agricultural research com- until a suitable cash crop emerged, which not munity helped farmers to achieve impressive only provided additional income to farmers productivity gains. During the 1980s the fallow but helped to enrich the soil with nitrogen. In area shrunk from one-third to one-fifth of the the case of the Anatolian Plateau in Turkey cultivated area, and pulse production has dou- fields were being left fallow for about a year bled in Turkey. Some 1.3 million hectares of after cropping with wheat or barley in order to formerly fallow land are now cropped with help restore soil fertility and structure. Because chickpeas, lentils, or forage legumes-particu- only one crop was possible per year due to the larly vetch (Wallis 1993). As the national out- lack of irrigation, farmers were increasing pro- put of pulses, mainly from Anatolia, more than duction by encroaching on erosion-prone doubled in the 1980s, Turkey has emerged as slopes. a world leader in the export of pulses. Wheat Fallow elimination would reduce pressure and barley production increased by 20 percent on marginal areas. But two questions re- and 35 percent, respectively, during the same mained. First, under what conditions could period without expanding the area devoted to the fallow period be eliminated without de- those cereals. On the other hand some areas pressing wheat yields? Second, which crops formerly cultivated with wheat or barley have could safely replace fallow without exhaust- reverted to a more natural vegetation cover. ing the soil or interfering with the succeeding Soil erosion has thus been reduced, and areas wheat crop? Valuable insights to these ques- taken out of crop production can be used for tions were gained from a World Bank-sup- grazing livestock. Fallow has not been elimi- ported rural project in northern Anatolia in nated entirely, however. About every five the late 1970s, which promoted the cultiva- years land is allowed to rest in order to check tion of high-yielding pulse and forage crops the buildup of plant diseases, weeds, and to replace fallow. Wisely, the project was at- pests-particularly nematodes. tempted on a pilot scale first, and eventually Implications of the Anatolia case study can many farmers in the project area (Corum- be distilled as follows: Cankiri) adopted a legume-wheat rotational pattern (Wallis 1993). * Technology development alone is not Still, it took action in the public policy arena enough to ensure sustainable intensifica- for this more intensive agricultural production tion; it takes a concerted effort between system to take hold over a wider area. A sym- the research organizations, government posium on prospects for improving agriculture organizations involved in policy forma- in rain-fed areas, organized in 1981 by the tion, and the private sector to market op- Turkish Scientific and Technological Research portunities. Organization, provided the catalyst for launch- * New or improved farming practices are ing the National Program for the Utilization of best honed in relatively small pilot projects Fallow Areas. Within two years of the sympo- before attempting to promote technologies sium the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural over wide areas. 14 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Redundancy in research can be reduced by duce integrated pest management (IPM) tech- networking with scientists working in similar nologies to Bangladesh, the NOPEST pilot pro- environments on other continents. ject was launched in 1992. NOPEST targeted two districts with eight IPM practices for rice INTERFISH and NOPEST Projects cultivation and included a fish culture compo- in Bangladesh nent with assistance from Britain's C)verseas Development Administration. Although not As rice systems have intensified, biodiversity all the lPM strategies were effective, farmers has often been lost on several accounts. First, participating in NOPEST cut pesticide use by the number of varieties deployed has shrunk three-quarters, while increasing yields by a as farmers adopt semidwarf, fertilizer-respon- tenth (Ingram and Kamp 1996). Farmers who sive modern varieties. In Sri Lanka, for exam- did not participate in NOPEST experienced no ple, the number of cultivated rice varieties has increase in rice yields. shrunk from 2,000 in 1959 to 5 major varieties Although the NOPEST pilot program was today (Swanson, Pearce, and Cervigni 1994:13). discontinued in 1993, it was instrumental in Second, many farmers no longer bother with launching INTERFISH, a broader program de- Azolla water ferns and their associated nitro- signed to reach 22,500 farming households. In gen-fixing systems now that fertilizers are addition to IPM and fish farming, INTERFISH widely deployed. Third, the use of rice-fish also promoted vegetable growing on dikes. As systems has declined as rice production has in the case of NOPEST, the INTERFISH pro- intensified, in part because of the widespread gram emphasized participatory learning with use of pesticides (Zandstra 1992). farmers (Ingram and Kamp 1996). In 1]994 the The INTERFISH and NOPEST projects in program boosted rice yields by an average of Bangladesh were designed to wean farmers off 7 percent, while eliminating the cost of pesti- dependence on pesticides by deploying inte- cides. Fish farming and vegetable growing grated pest management strategies. By restor- have increased family income, a clear indica- ing natural pest predators and diversifying tion that enhancing agrobiodiversity can pro- crops, thousands of farmers have been able to mote improved living conditions. relinquish the expensive and environmentally Salient lessons from the INTERFISH and damaging use of pesticides without suffering NOPEST experiences are: any yield declines. On the contrary, rice pro- ductivity has increased since the inception of . Start with modest pilot projects. Scarce re- the projects (Thrupp 1996a). Because pesticides sources are used more efficiently that way, are no longer used, carp can be integrated with and the risk of promoting inappropriate paddy rice production; growth rates of the fish advice and technologies is reduced. in rice paddies compare favorably with those * Involve farmers with project design from in ponds. Furthermore, vegetables and sesbania the start, rather than trying to encourage are grown on dikes to provide food and fuel- them to adopt technology packages de- wood, thereby reducing the diversion of using vised elsewhere. cow dung for cooking meals and, instead, ap- * Foster collaboration between nongovern- plying it to fields. Sesbania also enriches the soil mental organizations, government agen- with nitrogen because it is a legume. cies, and international organizations, After a little more than a decade of collabo- rather than attempting a go-it-alone ap- ration by CARE, the Bangladesh Department proach. of Agriculture and Extension, and the U.N. . Adopt IPM practices in order to increase Food and Agriculture Organization to intro- crop yields. CHAPTER 3 Sound Practices at the Farm and Community Levels armers generally start shifting their agri- have practiced mixed farming in their diverse < cultural practices in response to alarm agroforestry systems. But as agriculture was bells such as declining yields, a drop in mechanized along more modern lines, many of income, or in response to new opportunities to these ancient practices were dropped or mar- become a more efficient producer and possibly ginalized. The time is ripe to reintroduce them take on new crops. Falling productivity, in as part of the intensification process rather than turn, is a symptom of a degrading natural re- discard them as symbols of obsolete, even source base. Degradation and impaired ecosys- backward agriculture. tem functioning can generally be attributed to A menu of recommended practices should four main causes: not be forced on farmers in order to bring their 1. Increased pest or disease pressure due to agricultural systems round to a single model destruction of natural predators, of agricultural intensification. Rather, they monocropping, or excessive reliance on should represent a smorgasbord of opportuni- uniform varieties that are not backed up ties to intensify their crop and livestock sys- by a pipeline of suitable replacements tems while minimizing adverse impacts on 2. Increased competition from weeds biodiversity. In other words, recommended 3. Degradation of the soil through erosion, practices will always have to be tailored to the destruction of organic matter and asso- specific climatic, soil, vegetation, and socioeco- ciated microfauna and flora, and nomic conditions of areas targeted for inter- changes in soil structure vention. 4. Increased salinity due to the mismanage- Each of the sound practices outlined above ment of irrigation water. is essentially a tree with many branches, offer- Given the variety of ecological environments ing a diverse array of distinct variations on the and the cultures involved, only sound practices theme. For example, conservation tillage has a at the generic level are highlighted here (table drop-down menu of numerous practices, from 3.1). It bears remembering that there is little sod-planting, where seeds or cuttings are in- new about the sound practices; farmers have serted directly into unplowed ground, to plow- employed many of them for centuries or even ing (Srivastava and others 1993). Varietal mixes millennia. The Romans, for example, discov- can include a basket of different cultivators in ered the benefits of crop rotation early and the same field, the use of multilines, which are farmers in many parts of the humid tropics essentially identical except for a few genes con- 15 16 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Table 3.1 Agricultural practices that reduce natural resource degredation while boosting yields and enhancing biodiversity Conserve Control water quality Maintain soil Practice Weeds Pests Disease and supply lertility Relay cropping + + + + a Crop rotation + + + + a Mixed cropping + + + + b + b Varietal mixes + + Maintenance of traditional as well as modern breeds + + Buffer zones of natural habitats + c + + + d Release of biocontrol agents + Fallow management + + + + + Conservation tillage + - e + + Crop-livestock integration - f + "Precision" irrigation + 'Precision' fertilization + Terracing + + Contour bunding + + Contour strips of grass or perennial crops + + Note: Integrated pest management is not a separate line item because it embraces several practices, such as relay cropping, mixed cropping, and the release of biocontrol agents. a. If one of the crops is a legume or provides sufficient mulch to maintain levels of organic soil matter. b. Especially if trees are involved that create a moist microclimate and help protect the soil against erosive forces. c. Natural or relatively undisturbed habitats as integral parts of a farm can provide environments to support predators of crop pests. On the other hand, they may harbor crop pests and pathogens. However, the safeguarding of natural habitats is likely to be positive from the pest control perspectve, among other benefits. d. By reducing soil erosion by wind and water. e. In some cases conservation tillage can increase disease pressure since crop debris left on the soil can harbor crop pathogens. f. Can fertilize ponds for aquaculture, particularly with ducks or pigs, but cattle can pollute streams with their dung, and farmers may clear vegetation along water courses to increase pasture. Source: Author's compilation. ferring pest or disease resistance, or the plant- example of biodiversity enhancement, except ing of varieties in separate blocks. Close inter- that by so doing the need for pesticides can be action with farmers is essential in order to reduced or even eliminated. choose the right mix of sound practices and their numerous variants. Entry Points for Promoting Sound At first glance it may seem that the sound Practices at the Farm Level practices identified in table 3.1 have little to do with biodiversity per se. Indeed, weed control The case studies highlight how best practices generally lowers biodiversity levels in a field are being applied in many different situ- as unwanted, volunteer plants are eliminated. ations. Before looking at how such practices But from the perspective of sustainable agri- can alter the agrobiodiversity picture at the cultural intensification practices that reduce landscape level, it would be useful to outline weed populations through nonchemical means some of the entry points for catalyzing the are less likely to trigger collateral damage to adoption of sound practices in managing bio- the environment, such as the buildup of herbi- diversity for agricultural intensification. Inte- cides in the soil or the leakage of such chemi- grated pest management and the promotion of cals into the groundwater. Similarly, the a balanced mix of modern and traditional crop deployment of several varieties of a crop in the varieties and livestock breeds are examples of same field rather than the planting of a single practices that can be promoted at the farm cultivator may not sound like an impressive level. Sound Practices at the Farm and Community Levels 17 Integrated Pest Management if more resistant and productive modern varie- ties are not waiting in the wings to counteract Integrated pest management (IPM) provides sudden challenges to productivity. an especially useful catalyst to promote the Modern varieties are understandably pro- concept of increasing biodiversity in agricul- moted in agricultural development projects ture at the farm level. IPM has already served because they are generally higher yielding. as the vanguard for much of the thinking on While it is true that modern varieties have sustainable agriculture (Thrupp 1996b). Farm- helped to increase food production several- ers are generally amenable to IPM approaches fold and have improved the livelihoods of because they can reduce their pest control costs millions of farmers, they are not always the and increase yields. Furthermore, IPM is appli- only choice. The widespread policy in both cable to all crop production systems. IPM industrial and developing countries of pro- strategies include a basket of practices ranging moting the use of modern varieties has in- from crop rotation to the release of biocontrol curred hidden costs in some cases, including agents and the judicious use of pesticides. the genetic narrowing of our crop production Constraints to a more widespread adoption base if the obsolete varieties are not saved in of IPM include: genebanks. Typically, credit is only available for approved varieties that have been certi- * IPM is more knowledge-intensive than ap- fied by national seed boards. Certified varie- plying off-the-shelf chemicals. ties are generally those that have been tested . Investments in research are needed to by government agricultural research pro- tailor IPM strategies to different farming grams and have been deemed sufficiently ro- situations. bust to deliver on their promise. Traditional * Training is required for farmers and exten- varieties are rarely included in such trials, sion agents. even though they may perform better than . Although more durable over the long run, improved varieties, particularly under the IPM approaches may not provide the suboptimal application of inputs. immediate impact on pest populations The farmer should be given more options. In provided by heavy applications of insecti- many cases it makes sense to deploy only mod- cides. ern varieties, but in some situations the farmer might want to plant a mix of modern and tra- Promoting a Balance of Modern ditional cultivators. It is a question of leveling and Traditional Varieties the playing field, rather than denigrating mod- ern varieties. Farmers in many developing regions often As a matter of policy, then, it makes sense to plant several varieties of their main crops as a analyze the relative advantages of modern and risk-aversion strategy, particularly to provide traditional varieties when promoting a crop. It a buffer against unseasonable weather or dis- would probably make sense to identify a bas- ease attack. Small-scale farmers in the great ket of improved and older varieties for farmers lakes region of eastern Africa, for example, to chose from, rather than pushing only an ap- typically cultivate a dozen or more bean varie- proved variety or a single traditional cultiva- ties in the same field. Many modern produc- tor. If farmers prefer to plant modern varieties tion systems promote the use of a single variety at the expense of older, "heirloom" varieties, over large areas, often requiring heavy doses they should be free to do so. Hitherto, however, of pesticides. Farmers then find themselves on many farmers have abandoned traditional va- the pesticide treadmill as pests develop resis- rieties because credit was not available for tance. Furthermore, farmers can be vulnerable planting them. 18 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Promoting a Balance of " Super" and Local cally adapted livestock. But at least some farm- Livestock Breeds ers might opt for traditional breeds if the credit system is balanced. Second, incentives can be Livestock raising, especially cattle, chicken, introduced to maintain breeds that might oth- turkeys, pigs, and sheep, is increasingly domi- erwise disappear. Several European countries nated by a handful of breeds. In the case of are at the forefront of this trend. For example, cattle, a few breeds now dominate the beef and the Roquefort cheese industry in France is dairy industry worldwide. Agricultural devel- based only on the milk of the Lacaune breed opment policies often promote the spread of (Alderson 1994:67). In Italy Parmesan cheese major beef and dairy breeds in the tropics and can only be made from the milk of the Reg- subtropics, leading to the extinction of local, giana breed, while Fontina cheese is made ex- better-adapted breeds. The driving force be- clusively from the milk of Valdostana cows. hind selection in the major cattle breeds has Ultimately, the survival of breeds hinges on been rapid weight gain or volume of milk pro- decisionmaking by individual farmers. Unlike duction. Although local breeds may not be as seed crops, it is not easy to store livestock productive, their cost-effectiveness is often germplasm ex situ. Frozen sperm is used higher because they require less intensive care mostly to store genetic traits of superior breeds, and thrive on poorer quality feed. and then only the most desirable studs of those The alarming erosion of traditional breeds of breeds. Frozen embryo technology is expensive livestock can be counteracted by two means. and not feasible for safeguarding, in a practical First, credit systems can be structured so that sense, the diversity of traditional breeds. How farmers can choose breeds they prefer. In many many breeds see the next century will depend cases they are likely to continue selecting wide- largely on whether farmers retain them as pay- spread, popular breeds at the expense of lo- ing propositions. CHAPTER 4 Sound Practices at the Landscape Level C ertain practices can be adjusted at the farmers from adopting alternative crops (NRC farm level, but broader-scale processes 1989: 68). In some cases agricultural projects are under way that warrant attention. have promoted, directly or indirectly, the ex- The aggregate action of individual farmers pansion of agricultural activities into habitats translates into patterns of land use at the scale used formerly for extraction purposes only, as of a plain, valley, or entire watershed. The has occurred in the Brazilian Amazon, where landscape ecology of farming areas is an excit- pasture formation has been encouraged at the ing new dimension to conservation work be- expense of forest (Mahar 1989). cause at this level steps can be taken to ensure Development projects should promote a mix that wildlife has sufficient space and resources of land use systems in a given area whenever to survive. For example, wildlife corridors, an appropriate, thereby increasing agrobiodiver- important way to promote gene flow and sus- sity as well as biodiversity in general. The di- tain larger predators at the top of food chains, verse agricultural production and extractive can only be effective if habitat fragmentation systems of densely populated southeastern Ni- is avoided. geria are a good example of a rich landscape A few concrete steps that can only be taken mosaic of essentially cultural habitats. In that at the landscape level are explored here. Par- region farmers extract oil palm and other use- ticular attention is paid to ensuring a balanced ful products from old second growth and cul- mix of land use systems, minimizing the off-site tivate food crops in fields and home gardens. impacts of farming, and initiating rapid agro- Particular attention should be paid to natural biodiversity surveys at the project design stage. or near-natural habitats that contain significant The need to expand the scope of "protected" plant resources that are extracted for local use. areas to include biological resources of poten- Such wild plants may not appear significant tial value for agriculture is also discussed. in market terms, but they are important to the livelihoods of locals and efforts need to Promote a Balanced Mix of Land be made to account for them in land use plan- Use Systems ning. Specific measures to accomplish this goal include: Governrnent policies often promote the expan- sion of a particular land use because of its per- * The removal of fiscal incentives for certain ceived economic value, and agricultural cash crops or cattle raising that tend to projects often build in such land use biases. promote the homogenization of land- Commodity programs typically discourage scapes 19 20 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification * Setting aside natural habitats, with vary- . Pesticides that are washed into wate r ing degrees of human intervention ranging courses from near total protection to multiple use * Fertilizers in run-off that alter the wate,r * Recognizing the importance of wild col- quality of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, bays, lected foods where appropriate for local and estuaries inhabitants and safeguarding such habi- * Effluent from agricultural processing tats from destruction plants that can contaminate water supplies . Identifying habitats that contain wild * Diversion of water for irrigation that alters populations of crops or their near relatives, the quality and quantity of water to the and encouraging locals to manage such detriment of wildlife environments without destroying them * Construction of dams for irrigation that • Identifying habitats that contain wild may destroy wildlife habitats populations of livestock species or their * Increased sedimentation in water courses near relatives and encouraging communi- because agricultural practices have acce]- ties to manage such environments without erated soil erosion. destroying them * Establishing buffer zones or shelter belts to The impacts of agriculture on freshwater and reduce soil erosion and providing habitats coastal biodiversity are often far-reaching and for wildlife, including biocontrol agents, profound (Kottelat and Whitten 1996: 22). An especially in degraded landscapes accounting is needed of such potential impacts * Recognizing how farmers and livestock before an agricultural project is approved. This owners use different habitats in a land- does not imply that pesticides or irrigation scape at different times of the year so that should not be used, but their adverse impacts essential seasonal grazing lands, for exam- on the environment need to be considered. ple, are not cut off or eliminated by devel- Task managers of development projects need opment activities. operational tools to help mitigate the off-site impacts of agriculture on biodiversity. Bio-in- Minimize Off-site Impacts dices can serve as barometers of ecosystem health, and some pioneering work in this area Many downstream and upstream impacts of has been accomplished by farmers collaborat- agricultural activities on the environment can ing with the M. S. Swaminathan Foundation in be mitigated (World Bank 1996). In the past Madras, India, who check on the status of li- many agricultural development projects fo- chens as a means of gauging the levels of pol- cused exclusively on raising productivity on lutants in the environment. The challenge is to farm and grazing land. Historically, little atten- come up with a streamlined list of bio-indices tion has been paid to how the development to assess the vigor of a wide range of ecosystem project may affect surrounding areas. Head- functions. way is being made in systematically incorpo- Bio-indices might include: rating more biodiversity in agricultural intensification, but much remains to be done. . Lichens or other plants in the environment The following adverse impacts of agriculture that are especially sensitive to environ- need to be addressed: mental pollution * Periodic censuses of insect populations in * Pesticides that reach nontarget organisms agricultural settings and contiguous areas to in and around fields, such as predators of detect any large-scale changes that cannot crops and pollinators be attributed to natural population cycles * Herbicides and pesticides that filter into . Checking certain mollusks or other aquatic ground water supplies fauna that are easy to capture to see whether Sound Practices at the Landscape Level 21 pollutants are entering water courses from livelihoods of locals. In this way it should be crop and livestock production areas possible to weigh the comparative advantages Checking water quality in streams, rivers, of traditional and improved crop varieties and lakes, estuaries, and groundwater for ex- livestock breeds and alert planners to the dan- cessive nutrients or other chemicals that gers of losing unique germplasm. If enough can be traced to farms and agricultural agrobiodiversity surveys are undertaken and processing plants. the findings are entered into computer data- bases and geographic information system (GIS) Such monitoring is not particularly expen- software, it should be possible to cross-refer- sive, at least when the harmful impacts of ag- ence varieties and crops that might be transfer- rochemicals on the environment are taken into able to areas with similar soils and climate. The consideration. Genetically engineered biosen- systematic recording of cultural information sors are now used routinely to detect pollut- about traditional crop varieties-how they are ants. Immunoassays have been tailored to used and what roles they play in nutrition and detect a wide range of toxic compounds, in- sometimes the religious life of people-has cluding pesticides. One immunoassay has been barely begun (Nazarea and others 1997). developed that can detect the presence of a Local people should be asked to participate herbicide even at highly diluted concentrations in the design of the project, as evidenced by of one part per billion. Recombinant DNA tech- experiences with forestry and agroforestry nologies have provided an array of tools for development projects (Tamale, Jones, and monitoring the environmental safety of agri- Pswarayi-Riddihough 1995). Survey teams cultural production systems. would assess the agricultural project with re- spect to its potential impact on: Conduct Rapid Agrobiodiversity Surveys Localized breeds or varieties. If farmers are in Advance of Agricultural Projects likely to retire breeds or abandon varieties as a result of the project, measures should be put In an extensive polling of more than one hun- in place to see that any unique material is trans- dred nations on the threats to their plant ge- ferred to in situ or ex situ germplasm collections netic resources and possible remedial or both. measures, many countries specifically cited the need for surveys to determine the status of lo- * Habitats that provide vital environmental cal plant genetic diversity (FAO 1996a: 34). One services, such as watershed protection of the merits of such an undertaking is that it . Habitats that provide important supple- provides a baseline from which to quantify mental income or nutrition to local people, trends. While such an undertaking is certainly such as the gathering of forest products worthwhile and warrants high priority, na- * Habitats that are important gene reservoirs tional-scale inventories of crops and traditional because they contain wild populations or varieties are expensive and time-consumring. near relatives of crop plants. An intermediate step can nevertheless be taken: a rapid agrobiodiversity survey as part Agrobiodiversity surveys would address the of the planning phase of an agricultural project. following questions: Such rapid surveys are not a Noah's ark ap- proach to genetic resources, designed to rescue . What are the dynamics of varietal and crop materials about to be swamped by new and replacement on the farm? Are obsolete va- improved technologies. Rather, the idea is to rieties discarded or saved in a genebank? understand the existing patterns of agrobiodi- Do modern varieties always replace heir- versity and the role that diverse combinations loom varieties, or are the heirloom varie- of plants and animals play in sustaining the ties simply grown on smaller plots? 22 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification * Which traditional practices that are biodi- The notion of agrobiodiversity survey tearns versity-friendly can be encouraged with- is simnilar in spirit to recent efforts to conduct out compromising yield or income rapid assessment of biodiversity priority areas generation? (World Bank 1995b: 96). With agrobiodiversity * What is the scope for introducing new assessment teams, though, the aim is to ascer- technologies on the farm that boost yields tain whether any key parts of the managed while reducing negative impacts on the biota will be imperiled by inappropriate prac- enviromnent? tices or development schemes before they are * What mechanisms are in place at the com- implemented and to assess whether govern- munity level to resolve conflicts over the ance at the local level is capable of protecting use of biodiversity resources? biodiversity resources. . Is the tenure picture clarified and property Given the many dimensions to managing or use rights well established so that re- and conserving agrobiodiversity, survey teams source users feel they have a stake in the should include individuals with various disci- long-term productivity of the land? plinary backgrounds. A range of disciplines-- Table 4.1 Agrobiodiversity performance indicators Objective Performance indicator Monitoring and supervision Reduce natural habitat loss Intensification of systems to increase Encroachment by agricultural production productivity and income-generating options systems; over-harvesting of extractive on areas already in production products from reserves Reduce habitat fragmentation Minimize fragmentation (and interruption of Encroachment of agriculture in an gene flow and loss of certain species uncoordinated manner because remnant patches are too small to support them) by providing wildlife corridors along "bridges" of natural habitat Reduce species loss even when natural Decrease dependence on agrochemicals Air and water pollution or both; excessive habitat still intact by shifting to integrated pest management; sedimentation of water courses; excessive incorporate crop rotation, more perennials, hunting, fishing, collecting, or logging or both; promote "green" labels for environment-friendly production systems; devise management plans for harvesting wild plant and animal resources Arrest the decline of biodiversity of crop Eliminate fiscal and regulatory measures Adoption of new farming practices, such as species on farm that promote homogeneity; explore monocropping with a cereal crop, possibly aspects of traditional, polycultural systems propelled by fiscal incentives that can be rehabilitated while still raising yields and income Slow or prevent a decline in biodiversity Support research on traditional varieties Release of modern varieties and within species that can achieve high yield; support application of agrochemicals to protect research on modern varieties that may be them, possibly propelled by fiscal replaced frequently (biodiversity over time) incentives; adoption of intellectual property but are less dependent on agrochemicals rights to achieve high yields; promote heterogeneous crop varieties rather then genetically pure varieties; provide incentives for both modern and traditional varieties; provide eco-labeling of products certifying that they come from traditional varieties Source: Author's compilation. Sozund Practices at the Landscape Level 23 from genetics, botany, agronomy, ecology, and Expand the Scope of Parks and Reserves the social sciences-need to be tapped to un- to Include Agrobiodiversity derstand the dynamics of genetic erosion and to devise appropriate strategies to manage Most efforts to conserve wild areas focus on agrobiodiversity (Brush 1994). The Philippines places with spectacular scenery or showcase national agricultural research program is at the animals and plants. In most cases parks and forefront in this regard: ethnobotanical projects reserves are never set up because they contain have been launched recently to study how species or populations of agricultural interest. communities manage and conserve plant ge- If they happen to contain near relatives or wild netic resources (FAO 1996a: 41). And the M. S. populations of crops, it is usually by default Swaminathan Research Foundation in Madras, rather than by design. India, has developed training modules on bio- A few countries, however, recognize the im- diversity indexing in agriculture for use on portance of setting aside reserves because they farms. The foundation is also training rural contain biodiversity of direct relevance to ag- youth for the Agrobiodiversity Conservation riculture (FAO 1996:36; Smith and others 1992): Corps, which helps to conserve and monitor agrobiodiversity at the landscape level. * Mexico has established a reserve to safe- guard the population of a perennial maize. Monitor Agricultural Projects * Germany uses its system of nature reserves for Impacts on Biodiversity to conserve relatives of apples and pears. - Bulgaria and Turkey have recently under- Few agricultural projects traditionally incorpo- taken projects to conserve the genetic rate performance indicators with respect to im- resources of several cereal, forage, and me- pacts on biodiversity. Even when agricultural dicinal plants in situ. projects are designed to be "green," the moni- * Israel has conducted pioneering research toring of performance indicators should be in- on strategies for the in situ conservation of corporated in the periodic evaluation of them wild populations of emmer wheat, one of (table 4.1). The importance of putting in early the earliest domesticated forms of the crop. warning systems to alert citizens and policy- * Sri Lanka has set aside areas with potential makers about rates of genetic erosion is now agrobiodiversity value, including promis- widely recognized (FAO 1995). ing fruit species in the forest. CHAPTER 5 Strengthening Institutions and Technology Delivery T mhe agricultural research and extension Agricultural Research: Elements systems in many developing countries of the Emerging Paradigm are often weak and in many cases em- ploy top-down research and development Ultimately, it is the farmers, ranchers, and pas- approaches that typically ignore local agro- toralists who will determine how much biodi- biodiversity and may promote the destruc- versity survives in the coming years and how tion of biodiversity. Thus the issue is not just agrobiodiversity can be better managed. In increasing support for agricultural research some cases locals have already honed sensibLe and extension systems; it is also helping to practices, and development programs can reform those systems so that they are more draw on this indigenous knowledge (PicEn effective and systematically incorporate bio- and Uquillas 1996). Indigenous knowledge can diversity concerns in their work. Revamped help identify local varieties with greater com- approaches to extension could play a critical mercial potential and can point to valuabte role in promoting more biologically and ge- plant resources in forest and other habitats that netically diverse agricultural systems, pro- are exploited by gatherers (Moock and Rhoades vided that they are equipped with adequate 1992; Rhoades 1997). Yet agricultural research information tailored to the areas in which and development programs often ignore the they work. ethnobotanical knowledge of locals. Education is another broader issue related to institution building and outreach. People at Tap Indigenous Knowledge Systems all levels, from farmers to government officials and staff at nongovernmental organizations Canada's International Development Research (NGOs), need to be reached with information Centre (IDRC) is one development organiza- about best practices in agrobiodiversity. tion that is promoting ways to enrich the Given the relative newness of agrobiodiver- agrobiodiversity of cultivated areas by incor- sity as a vital concern, much work remains porating indigenous knowledge. One such in- to be done in educating decisionmakers about itiative at IRDC is the Community Biodiversity what is involved in conserving and better and Conservation Program (CBDC) that tar- utilizing biological resources for agricultural gets farmer breeders in parts of Africa, Latin intensification. America, and Southeast Asia. 24 Strengthening Institutions and Technology Delivery 25 Several of the international agricultural re- Enhance Crop Genetic Diversity search centers are also exploring ways to im- prove the management of agrobiodiversity Agrobiodiversity can be enhanced along two through greater involvement of farmers in re- dimensions: increasing genetic diversity search design. Traditionally, the international within species and deploying a wider range of centers work with national programs, rather crops. Markets tend to streamline the number than with the farmers themselves. That distinc- of crop varieties deployed in the field. This is tion does not always hold up, especially in the to be expected and is sustainable as long as the economic and social science departments of the supporting genetic pyramid is sufficiently international centers that often work in part- large and well-evaluated. For example, it is nership with national programs to survey often pointed out that maize production in the farmers' needs and to incorporate feedback Unites States, a multibillion dollar crop, rests from farmers into technology research and de- on only a handful of genetically similar hy- velopment. On one level the international cen- brids. But that does not mean that the genetic ters have been heavily involved in the spread base of the commercial crop is narrow. Maize of high-yielding varieties in developing coun- breeding programs in the private and public tries, which in turn has reduced local agrobio- sectors in the United States maintain impres- diversity in some areas. But the international sive collections of well-evaluated material centers can also play a role, as exemplified by from which they can develop new varieties the International Center for Tropical Agricul- relatively quickly. ture's (CIAT's) hillside program, in incorpo- Such is not always the case in many de- rating farmers' input in the design and veloping countries. When modern varieties implementation of agricultural technologies, a are imported, they may not hold up for long process that can lead to greater valuation of and no breeding program may be in place local agrobiodiversity. Several of the crop-ori- to develop modern varieties better adapted ented international centers now promote par- to local conditions. In such cases the more ticipatory plant breeding with farmers. judicious mix of modern and local varieties An impressive number of initiatives are un- is a safer course for raising agricultural pro- der way worldwide to promote the conserva- ductivity. tion of traditional varieties and local breeds in Another way to promote biodiversity on ag- their natural settings rather than in genebanks. ricultural landscapes and to enhance the risk- Much work needs to be done, however, in un- aversion strategies of farmers is to encourage derstanding how local people can help pre- crop diversification. Of the roughly 7,000 plant serve agrobiodiversity in situ. An assessment species that are cultivated or gathered by peo- of lessons learned from such experiences ple for food, only a handful dominates food would be timely since they involve a wide production worldwide. A total of 30 crops ac- range of institutional actors, including NGOs, count for 95 percent of the energy and vegeta- community organizations, national agricul- ble protein consumption of humanity (FAO tural research programs, and some interna- 1996a: 8). Commodity programs typically fo- tional centers-especially the International cus on a handful of crops, often totally neglect- Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). The ing "minor" crops. Yet some of the lesser- benefits and drawbacks of the ex situ approach known crops may hold the key to turning food to conserving the genetic resources of crops production around in some regions, especially and livestock are well documented, but much in hunger-plagued Africa (Vietmeyer 1996). less is known about the long-term implications Only a small fraction of the world's half- of in situ conservation programs for crop va- million plant species have been screened for rieties and local breeds. their economic potential. 26 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification The policy implications of the prevailing un- systems in different areas intensify. Econo- derutilization of biodiversity are clear: support mists can employ models, particularly linear for the major commodities needs to be main- programming models, to predict the yield in- tained, but a relatively small investment in crease and expect a windfall in terms of income lesser-known plants could produce major pay- for given input levels. But it is much harder to offs and would help stem the loss of biodiver- calculate the value of biodiversity saved from sity. When priorities for crop research are alternative approaches. How much biodiver- being established, therefore, consideration sity loss is "acceptable" in the interest of boost- should be given to underutilized species so ing yields? that they are not further marginalized (FAO 1996a: 9). Redouble Supportfor Taxonomists: Specific measures that can be adopted by Unsung Heroes of Biodiversity Work crop-breeding programs to promote greater species and genetic diversity include the fol- The painstaking work of sorting out species- lowing: systematics-is often perceived as one of the least glamorous areas of biological research, yet * Focus more effort on location-specific re- it is one of the most vital. For much of the gen- search in crop breeding because it tends to eral public, as well as policymakers, the work increase agrobiodiversity between sites, a of taxonomists is little understood or appreci- practice already under way at a number of ated. Images of scientists shuffling through agricultural research institutes, including sheets of dead plants in mothballed scented the International Center for Agricultural cabinets come to mind. But an understanding Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), of relationships between species is essential to based in Aleppo, Syria. efforts to conserve and better utilize biodiver- * Incorporate farmers in the breeding proc- sity (Campbell 1989; Harlan 1984). Taxonomy ess as active partners rather than as passive is not only fundamental to the continuous proc- testers of improved varieties and proto- ess of enriching the crop gene pool, but is also types. essential for the identification of suitable bio- * Breed heterogeneous varieties of cross- control agents in integrated pest management pollinated crops. (Claridge 1991). And taxonomists are at the cut- @ Adopt gene rotation as a means of staying ting edge of some biotechnology work. Power- ahead of disease and pest pressure. ful new taxonomic tools are now being used to • Develop multilines that are agronomically sort out species and genetic variation within similar but contain different genes confer- species, such as DNA fingerprinting with re- ring pest and disease resistance. striction fragment length polymorphism * Develop a number of varieties that can be (RFLP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)- grown together in different farming situ- PCR being more familiar to the general public ations, rather than the current pattern of because of its extensive use in crime detection promoting super varieties over vast areas. work. RFLP began to be used to sort out plant * Support research on potentially valuable germplasm in the 1980s, while PCR technologi- traits in wild populations and near rela- cally only became available in the 1990s. Both tives of crops and livestock. techniques are now used in the laboratory to obtain a better handle on genetic variation Approaches such as these increase the up- within species (Bisby and others 1995). front cost of breeding, but may save money- Another exciting area of work in systematics and certainly biodiversity-in the long run. is the use of paratoxomists, the equivalent of More research is warranted, however, in the barefoot doctors when it comes to sorting out hard tradeoffs that will be involved as farming species. Rural people often have intimate Strengthening Institutions and Technology Delivery 27 knowledge of plant resources and their natural vesting of products. In some cases multiple-use history. They can therefore be quickly trained reserves can harmonize the goal of conserving to do the preliminary collecting and sorting of wild populations or crop plants and their near materials, thereby saving time and money for relatives or the equivalent with domesticated formally trained taxonomists. This approach animals, but in other instances the overharvest- has been tried successfully in several tropical ing of plant and animal resources may impair forest regions where the diverse plant life has the ecosystems. The main point is that reliance been little studied. on genebanks and reserves alone to safeguard the genetic diversity of crops and livestock is Diversify Approaches to Conserving the Genetic unwise. Resources of Crops and Livestock While genebanks and in situ conservation in reserves and in farmers' fields have important A balanced approach to conserving crop varie- roles to play in safeguarding the global heri- ties and livestock breeds will best serve the tage of crops and livestock, specialty markets needs of farmers as they intensify their produc- can help keep traditional varieties and breeds tion systems. In the past the debaters of how in production. Furthermore, ecotourism with to best conserve the genetic diversity of crops a new twist-agrobiodiversity-might also and livestock have been largely divided into encourage some farmers to maintain interest- two camps: those that favor ex situ collections ing and unique crops and livestock on their in genebanks, and those who argue for in situ properties. collections. Both ex situ and in situ approaches have their merits and drawbacks, and the ap- Training and Extension propriate balance between them will vary ac- cording to local conditions. Many kinds of training programs and technol- Without delving into all the intricacies of ogy delivery approaches can be used to bring genebank and in situ approaches to conserva- know-how and improved practices to farmers. tion, a few salient points warrant attention: Empower People with Knowledge to Manage * Collections in many existing genebanks and Conserve Agrobiodiversity have not been properly evaluated, thereby impairing their usefulness. A broad array of training courses is needed to . Many accessions at genebanks, even in promote more biodiversity-friendly agricul- developed countries, are losing their vi- ture. Short courses are needed for farmers, ability. Funds are lacking, however, to re- individuals, and organizations involved in dis- generate many of these materials. seminating information, research administra- * Infrastructure at many genebanks is inade- tors, and development officers. The Bank could quate because freezing equipment needs offer in-house courses for task managers, while repair or replacement, no back-up gener- the World Bank Institute (WBI) could promote ators are in place, and curators lack com- training opportunities in client countries. puters to enter "passport" and evaluation Agrobiodiversity instruction modules could information in databases. also be developed at international agricultural research centers, national agricultural research The existing global system of genebanks programs, universities, and botanic gardens in therefore warrants strengthening as part of an developing countries. The Global Plan of Ac- overall, diversified strategy to conserve crop tion approved at a recent international techni- genetic diversity. cal conference on plant genetic resources (FAO With in situ conservation the issue is how to 1996b) calls for stepped-up training in such preserve habitats while still allowing some har- areas as taxonomy, population biology, ethno- 28 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification botany, and ecoregional and agroecological works among growers, seed suppliers, and surveying. produce buyers. In addition to training courses, information Another approach that warrants closer scru- on agrobiodiversity issues could be posted on tiny is harnessing the private sector in exten- the Internet. While few farmers in developing sion. Too often this approach is dismissed countries have access to computers, many na- because it purportedly only works for the tional programs and all international agricul- "richer" farmers. But even the poorest farmers tural centers enjoy access to the Internet. are willing to pay for technology or services if Furthermore, most NGOs, government agen- they improve their lot. In Madhya Pradesh in cies, and development organizations are either central India, the Soybean Processors Associa- already linked to the Internet or soon will be. tion of India and farmers cooperatives provide Websites could be set up to open doors to in- seed and technical advice to farmers (Wallis formation on agrobiodiversity issues, confer- 1993). ences, and workshops. Some "meetings" could NGOs are playing a valuable role in dissemi- be held on the Internet through chat groups, nating sustainable agricultural practices in and videotaped conferences can now be posted many parts of the developing world. Such or- live on the Internet. ganizations range from church to green and social-issue groups. Unfortunately, little analy- Diversify Approaches to Technology Delivery sis has been done on the record of NGOs in agricultural extension. It would be helpful if For the most part government-run extension an impartial, lessons-learned exercise was car- services do not operate efficiently. In many ried out for the benefit of all those concerned cases they are either pushing the wrong tech- with agricultural intensification. NGOs have nologies or they rarely visit the field. Even in many strengths, including their close contact industrial countries extension services are with farmers and their ability to make and im- often behind the private sector. Given the plement decisions quickly, but they also suffer mixed record of extension services, it would from limitations, such as their limited coverage make sense to pursue other or parallel means and generally weak links to research. For this to bring know-how and improved practices re- reason parallel approaches to extension work lated to agrobiodiversity to farmers. need to be pursued, rather than attempting to One such approach is using the farmers rally the research and development commu- themselves as a springboard to launching more nity behind the latest fashion in technology biodiversity-friendly agricultural practices. By dissemination. training small groups of farmers and providing them with modest logistical support, it is often Quarantine: Forgotten Link in possible to reach a much larger target group Sharing Biodiversity Resources than with conventional extension agents. The state extension service in Turkey used this Quarantine services worldwide are generally farmer-to-farmer approach to disseminate understaffed and underfunded. Why is further chickpea and lentil seeds among growers who investment in such services justified given were reducing fallow on the Anatolian Plateau competing demands for other institutions in- (Wallis 1993). In Indonesia the farmer field volved in agricultural research and develop- school has been instrumental in disseminating ment? Because weak quarantine services can IPM approaches to controlling rice pests. Self- impair the vital exchange of crop and animal help farmer groups embody the advantage that genetic resources or allow diseased material to they are self-motivated to provide extension slip through, thereby imperiling efforts to in- services and they use existing interaction net- tensify agriculture. Quarantine officers with in- Strengthening Institutions and Technology Delivery 29 sufficient information or training sometimes ground information on plant or animal condemn imports of seeds and other plant ma- materials in question terial to the chagrin of crop breeders (Plucknett . Create "quarantine support" groups and Smith 1989). to link taxonomists, plant and animal pa- Ways to increase the efficiency of quarantine thologists, and quarantine officers by services worldwide include: e-mail * Provide on-going training opportunities * Develop CD-ROM materials for quick ac- for quarantine officers so that they are cess to information on plants and known more familiar with emerging issues in their diseases and pests associated with them work area * Equip quarantine services with computers . Streamline the paperwork involved in ob- with CD-ROM drives taining phytosanitary certificates so that * Create one or more websites for use by delays are reduced, but without impairing quarantine officers to help them gain back- the integrity of the service. CHAPTER 6 Fine-Tuning Fiscal and Regulatory Environments S. ome of the major constraints to farmers means to help diversify farmlands is one ap- adopting more environmentally friendly proach, but the tapping of market opportuni- agricultural practices can be traced to dis- ties involves a broader set of initiatives. Scope tortions in the fiscal and regulatory environ- exists for capitalizing on market opportunities ments in which they operate. Furthermore, to promote diversification on the farm, thereby inappropriate fiscal policies are driving habitat increasing agrobiodiversity and possibly re- degradation in several agricultural settings on ducing the need for heavy appLications of ag- virtually every continent. A wide assortment rochemicals associated with monocropping. of credit and tax regulations either prevent Business opportunities abound for exploiting farmers from using greater biodiversity in their niche markets for specialty produce. In many operations or accelerate wanton destruction of cases no government intervention is needed at natural habitats (table 6.1). all. For example, similar approaches are already Some points of intervention in the policy working successfully for some ancient, heir- arena are explored here. Policy interventions loom cereal crops, such as spelt wheat, which that are appropriate for a given country or re- have been recently introduced in some break- gion will vary widely according to such factors fast cereals. Several businesses have emerged as macroeconomic policies, trade relationships, in Europe that specialize in the products of rare and the degree to which land reform may have or endangered breeds, and their examples been pursued. Issues explored briefly here in- could be followed elsewhere (box 6.1). clude incentives for tapping niche markets, se- Although green markets may have been curity of land tenure, and trade and inteLLectual oversold in some cases, agrobiodiversity can property rights. be promoted by addressing the concern of con- sumers for products that do not require mas- Tap Market Opportunities and Employ sive doses of agrochemicals to grow them. Specially Targeted Credit Programs Green farming techniques promote soil biodi- versity and often incorporate multiple crop- Markets are just as important in driving technol- ping and the deployment of numerous ogy change on the farm as are fiscal poLicies and varieties as a means to combat pests and dis- the regulatory environment. Little hope exists for eases. In Costa Rica, for example, it is the small- saving much agrobiodiversity unless it is valued scale coffee growers, rather than the larger by farmers. The importance of agroindustry as a plantation owners, who are pursuing the grow- 30 Fine-Tuning Fiscal and Regulatory Environments 31 Table 6.1 Fiscal policies that constrain adoption of more biodiversity-friendly agricultural practices Distortion Remedial measure Relevant Bank instrument Credit that is geared only to exotic, high- Make credit available for local as well as Country assistance strategies (CASs), performance livestock breeds modern livestock breeds-at the discretion agricultural sectoral reviews, agricultural of the farmer; create incentives to maintain projects, and policy dialogue local breeds whenever appropriate Credit that is available only for modern, Make credit available to plant traditional CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, high-yielding varieties as well as modern varieties, at discretion agricultural projects, and policy dialogue of farmer Credit that is available for the purchase of Make credit available for integrated pest CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, pesticides, but not for other, less toxic management approaches agricultural projects, and policy dialogue approaches to pest control Heavily subsidized fertilizers that Reduce or eliminate subsidies for CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, encourage over-application and pollution fertilizers, encourage deployment of crops agricultural projects, environmental of water supplies, thereby impairing or varieties that are productive with little if assessments (EAs), environmental aquatic habitats any fertilizer, increase support for research adjustment loans, and policy dialogue on Biological Nitrogen Fixation systems and inoculation with mycorrhizae Heavily subsidized irrigation water that Reduce or eliminate subsidies for irrigation CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, EA, encourages inefficient use, excessive water; invest in more efficient irrigation environmental adjustment loans, and runoff impregnated with agro-chemicals, technologies, such as drip irrigation; switch policy dialogue and water diversion for irrigation to crops or develop varieties that produce good yields with little if any irrigation Fiscal incentives for monocropping or a Encourage a more level playing field for a CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, single land use system, such as cattle variety of land uses, promote crop agricultural projects, and policy dialogue raising, that tend to promote the diversification homogenization of landscapes Higher tax rates for unproductive land that Remove tax penalties for landowners who CAS, agricultural sectoral reviews, often encourages unnecessary habitat wish to maintain land in forest or other agricultural projects, EA, national conversion natural vegetative cover environmental action plans (NEAPs), environmental adjustment loans, and policy dialogue Insecure land tenure that promotes Promote the security of property and CAS and policy dialogue clearing in order to establish 'ownership" resource use rights by local inhabitants Source: Authors compilation. ing market for organic coffee in North America chemicals to maintain productivity. Green la- and Europe. Several coffee brands in Europe, beling is increasingly common, especially in Canada, and the United States buy directly Europe and North America. And in many de- from cooperatives whose members eschew in- veloping countries, such as Brazil, markets are secticides, herbicides, and even fertilizers on developing for green products among more af- their farms. Instead, they opt for mulches, fluent consumers in urban centers. shade trees that fix nitrogen, and intercropped Certification programs to encourage green fruit trees that help suppress pest populations farming and the use of threatened traditional and maintain a congenial microclimate for soil varieties and livestock breeds is another way microorganisms (The Economist, 1 February to promote more environment-friendly agri- 1997: 42). Coffee produced "the old fashioned culture. The European Union is at the forefront way" commands a 20 percent premium over of such efforts. The Council of the European the price of mass-produced coffee that employs Union has passed a number of regulations to no shade trees and a gamut of purchased help harmonize agricultural production with 32 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Box 6.1 A renaissance of local breeds Credit can be a powerful tool to promote the better use of agrobiodiversity, but it should be In the United Kingdom Heal Farm markets qual- used judiciously. Excessive reliance on credit ity traditional meats based on rare, indigenous to achieve a larger mix of crops in a given area breeds and traditional recipes. Farmers are again would be unwise. If farmers depend heavily turning to one of Britain's oldest cattle breeds, on government subsidies in order to enrich the White Park, because it is more efficient at their crop mixtures, such hot-spots of agrobio- converting feed and is hardier and calves more easily than dominant beef breeds. In France, an- diversity are likely to prove ephemeral. Rather, other important center of diversity of livestock the selective use of credit to encourage the in- breeds, a breeder of endangered Basque pigs troduction of new crops or promote the greater from the Pyrenees has established a business utilization of local, so-called minor crops selling meat from that unique breed. And in makes sense in some situations, provided that Spain much appreciated jabugo is produced ex- chronic dependency on subsidies does not clusively from the meat of dark and hardy Iberic pigs. Special credit lines could be made available ensue. to small businesses to accelerate this process in Some would argue, with good reason, that many parts of the world, especially in centers of credit programs tend to trigger further distor- diversity for livestock breeds. tions in the production and marketing of goods. If credit for biodiversity-friendly agri- minimal damage to the environment in general cultural technologies is deemed unwarranted, and to agrobiodiversity in particular. For ex- then at least such technologies should operate ample, Council Regulation No. 2078, passed in on a level playing field. Targeted credit en- 1992, provides financial assistance to farmers hances agrobiodiversity in some crop and live- who adopt or continue a wide variety of agri- stock systems by providing the wherewithal cultural practices that are compatible with the for crop diversification. For example, the estab- environment and the "maintenance of the lishment of credit lines to promote agroindus- countryside" (FAO 1996a: 39). Under Council try can create markets for new crops. We have regulations some farmers are eligible for yearly seen how this has helped with crop diversifi- grants if they cultivate varieties that are cation in the case of soybean production on adapted to local conditions but are threatened vertisols in central India. With greater oppor- by genetic erosion. Another council regulation tunities to market produce, farmers have more establishes a certification scheme for agricul- options for growing crops. The opening of tural products derived from old cultivars. fruit-processing plants in several parts of the Such programs should not just be targeted at Brazilian Amazon has spurred the diversifica- growers who cater to the discriminating tastes tion of farms for example, toward commercial of well-to-do consumers. In most consumer agroforestry. markets in industrial countries organically- When designing an agricultural project, grown produce is usually more expensive than then, the following checklist focusing on the mass-produced vegetables using modem, in- private sector needs to be addressed: tensive methods. Ways need to be found to ef- fectively grow vegetables with fewer if any * Have any market studies been conducted pesticides, while maintaining high productivity on the potential of heirloom varieties or and dealing effectively with pest and disease local breeds? problems. This is a particularly challenging task . Does the project rely on fertilizers and the in the humid tropics. However, the potential further development of irrigation? If so, has benefits include reduced costs to the farmer any analysis been conducted on whether from the reduction in chemical inputs. Such local varieties and breeds are more efficient savings translate into greater profitability. users of fertilizer or water? Fine-Tuning Fiscal and Regulatory Environments 33 * If modern varieties are to be deployed, to Trade and Intellectual Property Rights what extent can green farming practices reduce the need for purchased inputs, such In general, the fewer the trade barriers the as fertilizer and pesticides? greater the chances that cash crops will be * Is anincentive structure inplace to increase grown in areas with a comparative advantage. the options for farmers who may choose to The more trading opportunities, the greater are continue cultivating traditional varieties the options for farmers to diversify their op- and raise local livestock breeds? erations. Tariff barriers tend to hinder the greater integration of biodiversity in agricul- Taxation and Land Ownership ture and should be reduced or removed when- ever feasible. The trend toward the lowering In some regions, such as many parts of Latin and eventual elimination of trade barriers is America, landowners are taxed at a higher rate well under way, as witnessed by the emer- if they leave their land in forest. Precisely the gence and growth of regional trade associa- opposite should occur: forested land should be tions; such trends warrant continued support. exempt from taxes and, in some cases, land- The World Trade Organization is a useful fo- owners with particularly valuable habitat or rum for promoting this cause, and the agrobio- endangered species should be given tax breaks diversity dimension to trade issues deserves for leaving that land out of production. fuller recognition at trading summits. Insecure property rights can also trigger un- The issue of intellectual property rights is warranted deforestation. Small- and large- complex, and it is not possible to come out with scale operators alike often clear substantial a "position" with respect to agrobiodiversity. tracts of tropical forest in Latin America to es- Suffice it to say that the issues warrant careful tablish or reassert a claim to land. Measures tracking by policymakers: on the one hand, as- that can be taken to reduce tension over the signing IPR to germplasm will enhance its land and any resulting habitat destruction in- value and therefore create an incentive for its clude the following: conservation. On the other, varietal protection and patents may slow or even halt the ex- • Address socioeconomic problems in source change of crop and animal genetic resources, areas that are driving migrants into areas thereby impairing efforts to intensify agricul- where contests over land and resulting vio- ture. If intellectual property rights are more lence and forest clearing are increasing. widely respected and mechanisms are in place * Legitimize land ownership by sorting out to recompense all parties that have contributed those who have lived in the area for a long to the improvement of crops and livestock, it time or those who otherwise have credible would facilitate the exchange of both improved claims to the land. and primitive plant materials. CHAPTER 7 World Bank's Role and Leverage A number of instruments are available straints include, but are not limited to, the fol- ,A,within the Bank to help mainstream lowing: biodiversity in agricultural develop- ment. Before such specific levers are identified, . Inadequate pricing and marketing oppor- however, the issue of mainstreaming biodiver- tunities sity should be placed within the context of the * Insufficient agroindustry for value-added Bank's changing relationship with its cdents. processing First, although the Bank remains a significant . Distorted credit and land tax policies supplier of financing to developing countries, . Lack of knowledge and technologies due policy dialogue and technical advice are in- to inadequacies of the agricultural research creasing in importance. Private sector financ- system ing in developing countries is increasing, so the * Suitable technologies available but ineffi- relative importance of the Bank as a supplier cient extension systems for disseminating of loans is diminishing. The Bank is increas- improved practices ingly seen as a leader in providing ideas and . Lack of inputs. fresh approaches to development rather than merely as a financing pipeline. Second, while The various instruments at the disposal of legally the Bank's clients are national govern- the Bank to influence the pace and manner in ments, since they are the guarantors of loans, which biodiversity is mainstreamed into agri- the Bank increasingly seeks dialogue and con- cultural development include: tact with the ultimate beneficiaries-in this case farmers and livestock raisers. Third, the . Country assistance strategies (CASs) Bank is engaging in constructive partnerships . Economic and sectoral reviews, especially with other players on the development stage, in agriculture and forestry such as NGOs. In this manner the Bank is able . Agricultural projects, including extension to enrich its work with other perspectives and projects serve as a means to get closer to the benefici- * Environmental assessments (EA) aries of the Bank's work. * National environmental actionplans (NEAPs) The role of governments and international * Environmental adjustment loans development institutions is to identify and help . National biodiversity strategy and action remove constraints to the better use and safe- plans (BSAPs) guarding of biodiversity. Some of these con- . Policy dialogue. 34 World Bank's Role and Leverage 35 Country Assistance Strategies Several models exist for how biodiversity conservation can be addressed in the CAS, par- The country assistance strategy (CAS ) is the ticularly those of Brazil, Mexico, and Nepal single most important instrument for modify- (World Bank 1996). The relevance of managing ing policies at the national level so that they biological resources for more productive and better promote the conservation and use of sustainable agriculture warrants special atten- agrobiodiversity. In the CAS features of a tion in the CAS, especially in regions of country's fiscal incentive and regulatory envi- megadiversity for crops and livestock (box 7.1). ronment that are responsible for destructive land use activities typically are identified and Economic and Sectoral Reviews remedial measures outlined. By identifying such distortions and suggesting changes, the Most of the important policy decisions affecting chances of alleviating pressure on the remain- biodiversity are taken at the level of individual ing wilderness are improved. The CAS also sectors, such as agriculture, infrastructure, en- typically addresses ways to arrest or slow the ergy, and transport (World Bank 1995a: 20). degradation of the natural resource base. The Bank's recently launched Global Overlays Box 7.1 Crop and livestock megadiversity centers One hundred and fifty years ago the French bio- cacao, yet it falls outside most maps of megacenters geographer Alphonse DeCandolle observed that of crop domestication and diversity. The "lost" the greatest concentration of genetic diversity for a crops of Africa can be found in virtually every coun- crop is likely to be found in the region in which it try on that continent, and the neglected crops may was domesticated. Our understanding of the diver- well hold the key to overcoming chronic food short- sity of crops was furthered in the early part of this ages there. century by Nikolai Vavilov, the great Russian crop The Global Plan of Action promulgated at the breeder and geneticist. Vavilov proposed a number Leipzig conference on plant genetic resources spon- of centers of origin for our major crops, spanning sored by the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organiza- parts of tropical America, Africa, the Middle East, tion recommends that countries prioritize areas and South and Southeast Asia. Discussion of crop with high levels of agrobiodiversity for conserva- "megacenters" tends to focus on the global staffs of tion and management. The success of the confer- life-wheat and barley (domesticated in southwest ence, which was attended by delegates from 150 Asia)-and rice, which was brought into cultivation nations as well as NGOs, is a clear indication of in Southeast Asia. The most widely cultivated root the increasing awareness of and greater consen- crop-the potato-was domesticated in the Andes, sus on how to deal with the complex issues of and more than 2,000 varieties of the tuber crop are safeguarding the equitable use of plant resources cultivated in Peru alone. for agriculture. But we still need to know much While the major food crops would certainly war- more about patterns of agrobiodiversity and rant particular attention with respect to conserving make them available in user-friendly formats us- agrobiodiversity, many countries outside of ing geographic information system (GIS) tech- Vavilov's centers of crop origins also contain a sig- niques. Until we know much more about the nificant diversity of crops and varieties. A megadi- agrobiological resources of all countries, especially versity approach to conserving the genetic diversity those in the tropics, the cautionary principle should of crops and livestock, at least in their conventional apply. No country should be written off as unim- forms, could be a misleading approach. The Ama- portant in terms of crop or livestock genetic re- zon Basin, for example, is home to more than 20 sources. Even arid regions contain pockets of perennial fruit and nut crops, some of which have surprisingly high levels of biodiversity, and are reached global importance, such as rubber and often rich in endemic species. 36 Integrating Biodiversity in Agricultural Intensification Program seeks to extend the analysis of sector would be an opportune time to broaden the policy options to include global environmental scope of the environmental assessment by in- impacts. In conjunction with partners in the cluding such aspects as: donor community and NGOs, the Global Over- lays Program is designed to help identify * Concern for the status of domesticated or policy and investment measures to address managed biodiversity during screening, biodiversity concerns. especially in areas where polyculture is common and many unique varieties or lo- Agricultural and Rural Development calized breeds are found Projects * Attention to the dangers of agricultural practices that can harm soil microorgan- A survey of the Bank's agricultural portfolio isms that are essential to the health of revealed that biodiversity was rarely a compo- agroecosystems. nent of agricultural projects (Jana and Cooke 1996). Considerable scope thus exists for sys- For example, an agricultural development tematically incorporating biodiversity issues in project scheduled for an area where an impor- more of the Bank's agricultural work. Simi- tant crop originated, or where many so-called larly, agricultural sector reviews could pay minor crops were domesticated, is likely to more attention to promoting the conservation contain primitive forms that contain valuable and fuller use of biodiversity. Cross-sectoral genes. Such areas rich in agrobiodiversity linkages are important in biodiversity use and might therefore be classified as an A for project conservation, so sectoral reviews in forestry, purposes; they warrant special scrutiny and energy, and health could also be sensitized to monitoring. Similarly, an agricultural project implications for agrobiodiversity. The Bank that might provoke land use changes and the can play a role in identifying ways that client impingement of farming activities on habitats countries can better coordinate policies and that contain wild populations or near relatives programs between different sectors to promote of crops and livestock might also receive an A more biodiversity-friendly agriculture. rating. While an A rating can slow project preparation, the ultimate costs of not heeding Environmental Assessments precautions are likely to be greater. The Bank has had a systematic process for National Environmental Action Plans screening projects for their potential impact on the environment since 1989. Traditionally, the National Environmental Action Plans (NEAPs) environmental assessment process within the generally ignore the importance of agrobiodi- Bank and other development organizations has versity. Of 46 NEAPs reviewed for a Bank focused on such green issues as impacts on study (World Bank 1996), only about half men- endangered habitats and species. While such tion biodiversity loss as a major environmental concerns are certainly warranted, the environ- concern. NEAPs tend to focus on protected ar- mental assessment procedure that is applied to eas and natural resource degradation, whereas all Bank loans should be expanded to include the explicit inclusion of agrobiodiversity con- agrobiodiversity. A separate agrobiodiversity cerns would strengthen the case for conserva- screening procedure is unwarranted, but the tion. Less than half of the Bank's client agrobiodiversity dimension needs to be explic- countries have drawn up NEAPs, in part be- itly addressed in the environmental assessment. cause they are only suggested rather than re- The Bank has established policies for the pro- quired by borrowers of International Bank for tection of cultural heritage sites, wildlands, Reconstruction and Development funds. As of and the rights of indigenous people. Now June 1996 only 17 of 49 International Develop- World Bank's Role and Leverage 37 ment Association borrowers, which are re- have made much impact on development plan- quired to draw up NEAPs, had actually done ning, either at the macroeconomic or sectoral so. It appears likely, nonetheless, that more policy level. In this case identifying an instru- NEAPs will eventually be prepared, because ment for policy intervention is one task, so much scope exists for incorporating agro- whether it will be an effective lever is another biodiversity concerns in future strategy plans. matter. It therefore remains to be seen how Experience with the implementation of envi- useful NEAPs and BSAPs will be as mecha- ronmental plans has shown that the involve- nisms for promoting agrobiodiversity. ment of all stakeholders is critical for their success (World Bank 1995c: 35), a lesson that Environmental Adjustment Loans should not be lost in efforts to better conserve and utilize agrobiodiversity. Environmental Adjustment Loans, a relatively new instrument, provide opportunities for National Biodiversity Strategy supporting such activities as in situ conserva- and Action Plans tion of crops and their near relatives and re- ducing the off-site impacts of agriculture and As in the case of NEAPs National Biodiversity livestock raising. Strategy and Action Plans (BSAPs) have tended to overlook the value of biodiversity in Policy Dialogue cultivated or grazed areas, which account for much of the landscape in developing countries. Policy dialogue is part of all of the above in- BSAPs have been spurred by the 1992 Conven- struments available to the Bank in shaping the tion on Biological Diversity, which specifically manner in which biodiversity concerns are sys- mentions the importance of biodiversity for ag- tematically incorporated into agricultural de- riculture. BSAPs are relatively recent exercises, velopment. Other opportunities arise for so the Bank and its partners are well positioned exchanging ideas about appropriate policies to influence the scope of such plans, which are and agricultural practices during the course of an important vehicle for implementing the Bank business, ranging from visiting delega- Convention on Biological Diversity. At present tions from client countries to workshops, semi- however, neither NEAPs nor BSAPs appear to nars, and annual meetings. CHAPTER 8 Toward Implementation T'"~~ his report has explored some ideas issues and to assess in more detail "on-the- about how agrobiodiversity can be ground" experiences with agricultural intensi- mainstreamed in agricultural develop- fication where biodiversity has purportedly ment. This report, however, is only part of the been enhanced. Follow-up work is needed to process of attempting to put recommendations visit apparently successful cases where biodi- into practice at various levels from the farm to versity has been mainstreamed in agricultural government agencies, NGOs, and intemational development so that more hard data can be development organizations. Some suggestions obtained to back up policy recommendations. offered here are still preliminary and warrant Findings from location-specific case studies in-depth analysis and testing. would bolster efforts to derive robust and Several steps are required for making pro- generalized principles. Such work would also gress toward implementing recommended provide opportunities to interact with stake- practices. 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