Decision-Maker's Guide to
Solid Waste
Landfills
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DECIS$ON-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLiD
WYASTE LANDFILLS
This report is a summary of a technical document on the
planning, siting, design and operation of landfills in
middle and lower-income countries. The full technical
report is intended for professional waste managers.
This summary aims to identify the most important factors
involved in decision-making, and is a guide for local
politicians and others.



The practice of open dumping must be stopped on the grounds
of public health and safety.
A higher standard of waste disposal is achievable at affordable
cost by moving towards sanitary landfilling.
Practical guidance is available to waste managers to achieve
these standards.
It requires only the political will to lead a municipality away
from open dumping.
Author Notes
This Summary was compiled by Maggie Thurgood from the full text of the
'Decision Maker's Guide on the Planning, Siting, Design and Operation of
Landfills in Middle- and Lower-income Countries' written by Philip
Rushbrook and Mike Pugh, WHO Nancy Project Office, France. Additional
material for this Summary was provided by them, together with further com-
ments and suggestions from: Carl Bartone, Gabriela Boyer, Lars Mikkel
Johannessen, and colleagues at the World Bank, Washington DC, USA; Jurg
Christen and colleagues at SKAT, St Gallen, Switzerland; and various other
individuals and organisations. Specialist assistance to enhance further the
practical information presented was provided by Binnie, Black & Veatch. Fund-
ing for this project was provided for the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation and the World Bank.
IB 1649



Where will all the waste go? The conversion of the open dumps character-
istic of many cities around the world to controlled and sanitary landfills is a
critical step for protecting public health and the environment. As cities grow
and produce more waste, and their waste collection systems become more
efficient, open dumping becomes increasingly intolerable. This guide serves
as a tool for decision-makers in the solid waste management policy dis-
course to make gradual improvements in the short term by upgrading dis-
posal of wastes at modest cost while still providing acceptable levels of en-
vironmental protection. In the medium to long term, the target should be to
achieve full sanitary landfilling together with comprehensive policies and
programs to reduce waste generation and increase recycling when it is eco-
nomically viable. A more comprehensive technical document on landfill
siting, design, construction, operation and closure, which is aimed at pro-
fessional waste managers, will also be published.
In releasing this publication jointly, the World Bank, the Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation (SDC), the World Health Organization Re-
gional Office for Europe, and the Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation
in Technology and Management (SKAT) hope to guide local politicians and
decision-makers with the planning, siting, design and operational aspects of
waste disposal. We must all cultivate the political will to stop open dumping,
and promote an affordable and higher standard of waste disposal while pro-
tecting human health and the environment.
Anthony Pellegrini              Dr. Gunter Klein
Director                        Director Environment and Health
Transport, Water and Urban      World Health Organization
Development Division            Regional Office for Europe
The World Bank                  Copenhagen
Washington, DC                  Denmark
USA
3



Disposal of waste to land is an inevi-  service is to be provided and main-
table part of every solid waste man-  tained.
agement system. Even where waste
is processed in some way, for example
for recycling or energy recovery, there   PROBLE1IS WIAM  [RUScC.I1URE DM0AL
will still always be a residue which
needs land disposal. Wastes which are  When wastes are dumped along
incorrectly disposed of cause many
problems.
This Guide aims to help municipali-
ties make improvements in solid    * Landfill will always be needed
waste management by upgrading the    * Support of political leaders vital
standard of land disposal of wastes
at modest cost while still providing    * Open dumping damages human
acceptable levels of environmental      health
protection. It should also aid in stra-
tegic decision-making on what stan-    * Upgraded landfills protect health
and the environment
dards are to be adopted, what capac-
ity is needed, and whether in-house    * Improvements can be achieved at
technical resources are available.      modest cost
Many current problems with waste
have resulted from increased urban  roads and riverbanks, or in aban-
population with its inevitable increase  doned quarries, it is inevitable that the
in waste generation. In addition, there  contaminants in that waste will affect
are often less resources provided for  human health and pollute water sup-
solid waste management, and waste  plies as well as affect the aquatic food
management staff often have a low   chain. Grazing animals on dumps can
professional status.                pass diseases via the terrestrial food
Waste management is a vitally impor-  chain, as well as by pests through in-
tant municipal service and it requires  festation. People living on or near a
high-calibre managers able to make  dump are also at risk. Open dump-
decisions if a good quality  ing is thus mistakenly believed to be
the cheapest disposal method.
Adopting a general philosoph.y that
open dumping is acceptable because
Wastemanagersneedthesupportof    "we cannot afford to do anything
their political leaders to achieve and    else" is wrong.
maintain real improvements in the
standard of service they provide.  It is not acceptable to protect the
I health of the majority, by taking away
4



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS                      5
WVAY L5 [21' SIU ftLYR I. 1 xPiL DL l o
Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until
it is safe.
It is considered safe when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically
and physically. In high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved may be
high. However, such an expensive high level of isolation may not be technically
necessary to protect public health. Four basic conditions should be met before a
site canbe regarded as a sanitary landfill (see below). The ways of doing this should
be adapted to local conditions. The immediate goal is to meet, to the best extent
possible, the four stated basic sanitary landfill conditions, with a longer term goal
to meet them eventually in full.
Small incrernenal lmorcvelments in lan fill dfsigrn and operation over several
years a-e more likely t- succeed tha te af Xe    e p-^p  'c make a single, large leap in
engineering expectations.
Large landfills will require more investment to improve standards than smaller
sites. However, the unit cost of these improvements (measured per tonne of waste
landfilled or per head of population served) will decrease with increasing site
size. There are financial and other benefits to sites with long operating lifetimes
(ten years or more). Large regional sites serving two or more cities could be eco-
nomically beneficial, providing waste transport costs are not too high.
Basic remulnenern's
As a minimum, four basic conditions should be met by any site design and opera-
tion before it can be regarded as a sanitary landfill:
Full or partial hydrogeological isolation - if a site cannot be located on land which
naturally contains leachate securely, additional lining materials should be brought
to the site to reduce leakage from the base of the site (leachate) and help reduce
contamination of groundwater and surrounding soil. If a liner - impermeable or
semi-permeable - is provided without a system for leachate collection, all leachate
will eventually reach the surrounding environment. Leachate collection and treat-
ment must be stressed as a basic requirement.
Formal engineering preparations - designs should be developed from local geo-
logical and hydrogeological investigations. A waste tipping plan and a final res-
toration plan should also be developed.
Permanent control - trained staff should be based at the landfill to supervise site
preparation and construction, the depositing of waste and the regular operation
and maintenance.
Planned waste emplacement and covering - waste should be spread in layers
and compacted. A small working area which is covered daily helps make the
waste less accessible to pests and vermin.



In all communities, people generate  den wastes, old clothes and furniture,
domestic wastes. At the most basic  abandoned equipment, packaging
level, these consist of food wastes, ani-  and newsprint.
mal manure, ashes, broken tools and
utensils, and old clothing. In an agri-  In lower-income countries, domestic
cultural community this waste is  waste is dominated largely by food
readily absorbed into the natural cycle.  and ash wastes, while in middle- and
However, since the last century, there
has been an increase in the number of
people living in towns. Urbanisation
and industrial development have rap-    To manage wastes properly, it is im-
idly increased the range and the di-   portant to know:
versity, as well as the quantity, of    * how  much  waste is being
wastes being produced which require     produced
collection and disposal.
* the composition of wastes from
Within a municipality there are seven   each of the different sources
main sources of waste which require     (residential, commercial, industrial
management. If the community has        etc)
only a landfill for disposal, all of these  how the quantity and composition
wastes will need to be landfilled. The  of wastes might change in
waste manager needs to know about       the future
the sources and types of waste in the
town, as well as the quantities, in or-
der to dispose of the wastes safely    higher-income countries there is a
larger proportion of paper, plastic,
metal, glass and discarded manufac-
Wastes produced from household ac-  tured items.
tivities, including food preparation,  ,/ _      -  ,
cleaning and fuel burning plus gar-
Wastes from shops, offices, restau-
Domestic waste (also called residen-    rants, hotels and similar commercial
tial or household waste) consists of a    establishments. The waste typically
wide variety of materials. These in-    consists of packaging materials, of-
clude:                             fice supplies, and food wastes, and
* food wastes       * metal       has a close similarity to domestic
• plastics          * glass       waste. In lower-income countries,
* paper             * rubber      food markets may contribute a large
* leather and hide  * textiles    proportion of commercial waste.
* ash, soil, pottery and china
6



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS                7
I--sf -,  -  - .  1:/-~..- -
Waste from schools, hospitals, gov-       :             Ui H-I,
ernment offices, military bases. Insti-  After assessing the quantity, the
tutional waste is similar to both do-    other characteristics of waste needed
mestic and commercial waste, al-   to select the most appropriate waste
though there is generally a larger pro-    disposal option include: moisture
portion of paper than food waste.    content, potential to biodegrade,
Hospital wastes inevitably include    heating value and density
potentially infectious and hazardous    Moisture content - the percentage of
materials such as used bandages,   the weight of wastes which is water.
sharp objects like syringes and         This can be determined by drying a
needles, and items contaminated with    known weight of waste and measur-
body fluids. It is important to sepa-    ing the weight change.
rate the hazardous and non-hazard-
ous components in healthcare waste    Biodegradable material - the proportion
to reduce the risk to health.           of biodegradable material in the
waste can be calculated by first re-
__ ._ee:  -<-.iTee,ir.gs          moving non-biodegradable organic
wastes like plastics and rubber, and
Dominated by dust and soil, together    then drying the waste at a tempera-
with varying amounts of paper, metal    ture high enough to burn off the re-
and other litter that is picked up from  maining organics.
the streets. In some countries street    Calorific value - this is the amount of
sweepings may also include drain    heat energy that can be produced if
cleanings, plus varying amounts of    all of the combustible parts of the
household waste dumped at the side    waste are burned. If a town or city is
of the road, plant remains and animal    considering waste incineration, this
manure.                                 information is crucial to establish
whether the waste will burn without
2 '-  CC o T E _         - =    G      the use of additional fuel such as oil
or gas.
The composition depends on the type    Waste density - this is important at each
Thebuildingmaderialssends in te ypae    stage in collection and disposal. For
of building materials used in a par-    planning waste collection, the density
ticular area but is typically soil, stone,    achieved in each collection vehicle in-
brick, wood, clay, reinforced concrete    fluences how many are needed to col-
and ceramic materials. Inevitably    lect the waste in a particular area.
some construction waste will need
disposal, even though some may be    Waste density is also important at the
recycled within the construction site.   landfill site, as an indication of how
recycled within the construction site.    much space each delivery of waste
,   _ . . - .  c<\   will take before and after compaction
and as a consequence, how long the
Where no sewage networks exist   total landfill space will last.
within towns human waste may be



8                                                       WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
collected separately and used for ag-  cant when a municipality is making
riculture or disposed of in landfills. If  decisions about the suitability of a
improperly disposed of, this material  specific treatment or disposal method,
can contaminate water courses and be  such as composting or incineration.
a source of infectious diseases.
It is important for a waste manager
7. Industrial YWJaste                in a city to have an indication of the
composition of waste in the locality.
The composition of industrial waste  Sampling of the wastes is not techni-
depends on the industries involved.  cally difficult, and must be done in
Much industrial waste is relatively  one or more areas which are statisti-
similar to waste from commercial and  cally representative.
domestic sources, and includes pack-
aging, plastics, paper and metal items.  In this way, information on waste
However, wastes from some indus-  composition and characteristics can
tries are chemically hazardous. Dis-  be obtained to aid in decision-mak-
posal routes for hazardous wastes are  ing about the viability of waste treat-
usually different from those for non-  ment processes, collection equipment
hazardous wastes, and depend on the  changes and recycling initiatives.
composition of each waste type. Haz-
ardous wastes pose a risk of pollut-
ing drinking water supplies, water-
courses or land, or harming waste       * In general, waste generation per
workers, and may need pre-treatment       person in high-income countries is
to reduce their toxicity if they are to   much greater than in lower-income
be disposed of on land.                   countries
* Typically, wastes as collected in
high-income countries are less
dense, as more packaging and
lighter materials are discarded, and
The compositions of the seven solid       less ash and food waste.
waste types are highly variable. They
are influenced strongly by: climate     * Moisture content is higher in
and seasonal variation, the economy       lower-income countries because of
of the region, the physical character-   the water in food wastes. Wastes
istics of the city, and social and reli-  from higher-income countries with
gious customs. Variations in solid        proportionately less food waste
waste composition are most signifi-       have lower moisture levels.



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS                    9
7:C[. ` !]eXr  L-ti    I-.>II  1gl - R;  3 'S.
•  How much waste is being produced in the area?
It is helpful if this is further broken down into districts and
different sources of waste e.g. households, industry, shops and
institutions
*  What is its general composition?
*  How  might  the amount or general composition of wastes
change in the future?



§7iA''s  fu-]ll, \.1 C[ F738  %%rC --in SeX,700<t,l r
Selecting a site on which to develop a  should be encouraged and facilitated.
landfill is one of the most important
decisions to be made by a municipal-  Priority should be given to areas
ity in developing and implementing  where leachate would be likely to
its waste management plan.
Making the wrong decision will be                 -
expensive and may also cause long-
term problems resulting from public     * Sound site selection is a key factor
opposition. Unnecessary transport    * A systematic process for site
costs, as well as higher than necessary  selection is needed
expenditures on site development,
operations and environmental protec-    * Preliminary studies will identify
tion measures may be incurred.           possible sites and eliminate
unsuitable ones
To ensure that an appropriate site is
chosen, a systematic site selection pro-    * Detailed studies can confirm
cess should be followed. Selection cri-  preferred sites
teria should be prioritised according   * Site selection criteria include land
to local circumstances, including cli-   use, geology, site capacity,
mate, political and cultural condi-      transport distances
tions.
* Groundwater protection is a main
To enable choices between possible       concern
sites, desk and field studies must be
made. After these preliminary stud-
ies,mor deaile  sie ivestgatonshave little or no impact on the envi-
ies, more detailed site investigations  ronment, so that measures to collect
need to be carried out on the preferred  and treat leachate which are often ex-
site, or short-listed sites, to confirm a
site's characteristics, develop designs
and establish likely costs. Public par-  Since the principal environmental
ticipation in the siting procedure  concern associated with waste dis-
posal to land is the generation and
control of leachate, it is beneficial to
choose a site whose geology will natu-
rally contain or limit releases of
Once the decision has been taken to   leachate to the wider environment.
seek a suitable site for developing a
landfill, the municipality should ac-    The distances and impacts of trans-
tively encourage participation in the    port to and from the site should also
process by  communities and
organisations with an interest in the    be considered, as this will affect col-
choice of site.                    lection services and modes of trans-
port as well as travel times.
10



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS             11
The geographical area served, and   *   ease of land acquisition
type of waste to be handled in a new
landfill site, together with the capaci-  *   lack of use for any other purpose
ties of potential sites, will determine  This shortlist of sites could also in-
their probable lifetimes. Large re-     de the ope
gional sites will require co-operation  ceu  ,     dump ich s  ob
bewe mncplties                       rep7laced, providing it meets some of
the criteria above and it would have
Site selection criteria may be grouped  a lifetime of several years more as a
into headings including transport, ge-  sanitary landfill. Conversion of an ex-
ology and conditions relating to land  isting open dump site may offer finan-
use, public acceptability and safety.    cial advantages over the development
of a new site since the cost of closing
These site selection criteria have the  down the open dump will be in addi-
effect of excluding whole areas of land  tion to the cost of developing a new site.
from further consideration. Mapping
those excluded areas can focus atten-  The first steps identified will not need
tion on the remaining areas where  first-hand knowledge of the possible
landfill sites may be located.       sites, but any further elimination of
The amount of land required, which
can be calculated from the amount of
waste expected to be generated and
waste expected to be generated  .n   ..Conceptual designs for each remain-
the desired operating life of the site,   ing site will need to be developed,
can then be used as a guide in the    and taken to the point that rough es-
search. The land should preferably be    timates can be made, for comparison,
in single ownership, and in a state of    of:
neglect or non-use.
* the site capacity
A range of positive selection criteria
can also be identified to help find    * the volume of daily cover which
potential sites.                         would be needed
One such positive.factorwouldb   the resources needed for leachate
One such positive factor would be        coto
control
areas where controlled or accidental
release of leachate will have little or    * the extent of surface water
no impact on the local environment.      diversion works
Abandoned clay workings may be an
example of a suitable location.        . the amount of work required
to provide all-weather access
The municipality should aim to draw    . the costs - a cost per cubic
up a list of up to five possible sites,  metre of waste can be calculated
whose positive features may include:     to enable comparisons between
sites
*   easy access to the road system
. the impact on the waste collection
*   proximity to the urban area          service of using each site
and waste source



12                                                  LANDFILL SITE IDENTIFICATION
sites will depend on formal inspec-  serious, it may have to be acknowl-
tions and studies.                    edged that the potential for harm is
unavoidable and the site abandoned.
A number of factors, both favourable
and unfavourable, will quickly be
identified by visiting the possible
sites. The objective of these site visits
should be to reduce the number of  Before the project can be imple-
sites for detailed consideration to a  mented, approval must be given by
maximum of three.                     the appropriate committee of the mu-
nicipality, regulatory authorities and/
or by the provider of the funds as well
JIIFIE-RUIEL 571-1 $;as meeting the requirements of any li-
Once one preferred site has been iden-  censing authority.
tified, further site investigations should  In order to obtain that final approval,
be undertaken to confirm assumptions  it may be necessary to promote the
made in the conceptual design.        scheme by demonstrating an urgent
need to improve waste disposal prac-
Waste management staff of the mu-  tices.
nicipality, or consultants, should then
prepare a feasibility report on the vi-  The feasibility report should show
ability of developing the preferred site  that the site chosen is the best avail-
as a landfill.                        able in the area, and that the new site
will be operated to satisfactory envi-
ronmental standards.
E El v u  E' Co X 0 , ul"a E~ IMu IL\  [ ,,~ U1 @ 5 X C, X5 S 3 E N 5 L "I I i El sir
It should also be shown that the im-
Assessing the possible environmental  pact of the new site on the waste col-
impacts of the site can help identify  lection system  has been fully ac-
which activities, if any, are likely to  counted for, and that the cost of the
give rise to significant adverse im-  changes to the waste management
pacts. These impacts may then be re-  system as a whole are reasonable and
duced by amending the design. Alter-  affordable.
natively, if the impacts are sufficiently
* What area should the site serve?
*  What site selection criteria should be used?
There are positive as well as negative indicators
*  What are the views of the community and of organisations
with an interest in the site development?



Paying careful attention to the detail  and to construct effective drainage
when designing a landfill can avoid -  control systems.
or at least reduce significantly - future
operational problems.                The third method allows more wastes
to be placed on the same surface area
In order to design properly and plan  than the other two methods.
the landfill, it is essential to under-
stand the practical and logistical prob-
lems of waste delivery and discharge,
waste compaction and covering.
* Attention to detail at design stage
There are three general ways of form-     can simplify future management
ing a landfill. These are the 'trench',
'ramp' or 'area' methods. Which one    * Control of water in and out of site
is appropriate depends on local to-       is crucial
pography and landscape.                * Wastes can be manually or
A trench landfill is usually located in   mechanically placed
an area of flat land where the soil has
been excavated and waste is depos-
ited into the void. The stockpiled soil  Controlling the movement of water
is then used to cover the waste.     into and out of a landfill is essential
A rap lndfll i usall whee alow in good landfill design. The site de-
A ramp landfill is usually where a low   sign can either control leachate by
bank iS present, or has been created,sincnetrcorllahteb
bandkwast is  deporsiten oned,  completely sealing the site, only per-
Soil ecavtesderomithe font ofe tde  mitting leachate to be discharged af-
Soil excavated from the front of the  ter treatment, or alternatively, by al-
wase of the ramp is used to cover thelowing the leachate to attenuate by
waste.                               gradually seeping through the soil.
The most common type of landfill is  The decision is largely based on the
the area landfill. It may be constructed  geology of the site, as well as
in a natural depression, in excavated  hydrogeological factors, the ground-
mineral workings or built above the  water flow and the vulnerability of
ground into a hill.                  water sources. Where the option to
seal the site is taken, significantly
The first two methods are usually con-  more cost is incurred and more man-
fined to smaller centres of population   agement control needed, both during
as the amount of soil excavation   site preparation and operation, and
needed to prepare the sites would be  after closure.
excessive for larger quantities of
waste. Also it is difficult to control  Developing the site in phases allows
water movement through such sites,  some of the costs to be deferred and
13



14                                                 SITE DESIGN AND PREPARATION
minimises environmental impacts. In
this case, a sequential tipping plan                     - -
must form part of the initial design.   Scavenging is disruptive to good
The design must include access to and    landfill operation. It presents safety
hazards to both the scavengers them-
around the site, as well as the con-    selves and the landfill employees. It
struction of waste reception facilities.    reduces productivity by delaying
waste compaction and soil cover, and
Sanitary landfilling can be compared    scavengers sometimes cause fires.
with a highway or civil engineering
construction project, as many of the    Ideally, it should not be allowed to
same skills are required.               take place. However, in many places
it is inevitable, and in such cases it
The purpose of having a detailed de-    should be controlled. Ways of en-
sign for a sanitary landfill is to com-    abling scavengers to sort through the
municate (by means of drawings and      waste without interfering with the
speifiatins)how the designer in-    landfill operation need to be devised.
specifications) to be designer The    These should include improving their
tends the site to be developed. The    health, safety and welfare.
design should be detailed enough to          ,
show how and when the site is to be    (The Guide which accompanies this
prepared for accepting wastes; the    Summary provides practical infor-
wastes are to be landfilled; the site is    mation on this subject in Appendix
to be restored; and monitoring is to    4D)
be carried out.
Questions of operational policy have
Before having identified the site for  to be addressed: will waste emplace-
the development of a sanitary land-  ment be manual or mechanical, and
fill, the municipality will have consid-  will scavengers (also known as waste
ered whether it has the technical re-  pickers, or informal recyclers) be per-
sources to design and operate the  mitted to operate at the site.
landfill itself. It will also have made a
decision at to what standards of de-  Mechanical equipment, such as a bull-
sign and operation are to be adopted.  dozer, makes it easier to control the
placement of waste. It is riot essential
A wide range of professional skills  for small sites, though, and if there are
will be needed for the landfill project.  no machines, the waste placement can
A project team, managed by an expe-  still be properly managed at sites re-
rienced civil engineer, should be  ceiving less than 50 tonnes a day. A
formed, either from within the mu-  combination of mechanical and
nicipality or brought in from other  manual methods can also be consid-
organisations.                        ered.
Part or all of the project may have to
be carried out by outside agencies,
such as consultants or waste manage-
ment contractors.



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS               15
rI4C!0X3<;!  ,. [site. In many climates, the simplest
form of treatment could be a series of
Sanitary landfilling enables waste dis-  lagoons or flow through wetlands.
posal to land to be handled in a way
which reduces to an acceptable level
adverse environmental impacts. Part of    Barriers made of synthetic liners are
the design brief is to identify that 'ac-    expensive to install and require a
ceptable level' and ensure that it is met.    high level of quality control in site
preparation, insallation,and protec-.
Minimising contamination of ground-    tion.
water by  leachate  is  one  of the  pri-  -  i ____     . ____________________  __
mary objectives of landfill design.             -3           b
(However, it should be noted that in
arid climates the potential for produc-  Limiting the amount of water which
ing leachate is greatly reduced.)     gets in to the waste will reduce the
The approach depends on whether  amount of leachate produced, though
the groundwater is a drinking water  this will also slow the degradation of
wastes and the final stabilisation of
resource. It also depends on otherthladi.Teraeanubro
the landfill. There are a number of
downstream  water users, on the  simple design and operational mea-
depth of the groundwater table below   puresign and  oerationalema-
the waste, and the type of the soils  s      h      da-
below the site. If untreated leachate  tion
would have an unacceptable impact  Managing the surface water is impor-
on the groundwater, then a contain-  tant not only to reduce leachate but also
ment design is needed. Otherwise an  to reduce flooding which could de-
'attenuate and disperse' approach   stabilise slopes and cause slips.
may be followed, allowing the
leachate to seep gradually through
the soils.                                    .     7L2I%   LIX
If it is necessary to construct a con-  As wastes decom-pose in a sanitary
tainment site, a natural barrier (eg  landfill, landfill gas will be generated.
clay) or a synthetic barrier system will
inhibit the release of leachate into sur-  Gas will start to be given off within a
rounding soils.                       few weeks of wastes being deposited,
and may be generated for many de-
No barrier can be 100% watertight,  cades after the site is closed. Landfill
but the barrier in combination with a  gas can migrate considerable dis-
leachate removal system (which treats  tances from the landfill site.
leachate before discharging it into a
water course) can be effective.       Landfill gas contains methane which
is both potentially explosive and
If the site is close to a municipal sew-  flammable. Carbon dioxide, the sec-
age works, leachate may be treated   ond predominant constituent of land-
there. Otherwise a leachate treatment  fill gas, can cause asphyxiation.
plant will need to be established on



16                                               SITE DESIGN AND PREPARATION
Landfills can be designed to collect     rFM 1P1iTMriFAL .sl.`Ik76,
and vent, or burn, the landfill gas, as
well as preventing off-site migration.  Not only should upgraded landfills
be designed and constructed to pro-
vide an acceptable level of environ-
UY11111EP             mental protection, they should also
include systems for monitoring that
Soil or similar inert material should  protection.
be used throughout the lifetime of the
landfill site, to cover the wastes on a  Boreholes and sampling points to
daily basis. Extra thickness of "final  monitor the quality of groundwater
cover" material should also be used,  should be installed at site preparation
once the site has reached completion.  stage.
The simple spreading of daily cover
is a very effective way to:                     ( 0 f,RL  EGl]¶(
*   reduce the attraction of wastes  Settlement will continue for several
to birds                       years after filling as organic wastes
decay This must be taken into account
*   suppress odours                 and the site 'over filled' so that when
*   prevent fly infestations        settlement is complete, the intended
final landform is achieved.
*   discourage rats and other  Slopes should be designed to be stable
vermin                         and final contours designed to be
v   reduce exposure to atmospheric  sympathetic with surrounding land-
conditions                     forms. Flat surface areas should be
avoided as, with uneven settlement,
i   reduce wind blown litter        low areas may be created which al-
low surface water to collect.
Ideally, cover material should be
taken from within the site, increasing  The design needs to take into account
the available space for waste disposal  one or more possible end uses for the
and reducing the need to bring mate-  site once it is completed.
rial from elsewhere.
End uses which are compatible with
If not all of the material needed can  a completed landfill are generally lim-
be found on site, alternatives such as  ited to agriculture and open space rec-
construction and demolition materi-  reation. Development for housing, or
als and ash from power stations may  commercial or industrial use, should
be used.                            not normally be considered due to the
problems of settlement and methane
hazards.



SUMMARY: DE(ISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS           17
ID,I  AL IFk D1J
A key part of the design for an up-
graded landfill is a planned sequence
of filling to achieve the final landform.
The purpose of a disposal plan is to
minimise the environmental impact
of the landfill while at the same time
reducing the amount of construction
work needed.
* Does the municipality's waste division have the skills to design
the site?
If not, skills may be brought in from other parts of the
municipality, or from the private sector
* What standards are to be adopted?
* What will the policy be on scavenging?



fLF /D      7F ,/5%% EIV\ 
Upgraded landfilling uses modern  activities. Good operatiort of the site
civil engineering techniques to control  will require an improvenment in the
the way in which wastes are depos-  engineering and management skills of
ited and to ensure that products from   the staff. The on-site manager should
decomposing wastes do not pollute  be given the authority, and the re-
the environment or threaten public  sources, to manage the site properly.
health.
A successful landfill is one where it              r
could be considered that the filled site
has been improved by the waste fill-    * Fires should be eliminated on a site
ing process, and not degraded by it.
*Waste should be covered daily
Safe, well-organised waste placement      with soil
is what distinguishes a controlled
landfill from an open dump. The best-     i W asi      s
designed site will have problems if it    ito small areas
is not operated properly. Conversely,    * The disposal plan must be
well-managed sites can make up for        followed
some weaknesses in site design and
location.
A competent landfill manager should   The disposal plan is the operational
be based full-time at the site to direct  guide for the site, and will be used by
the landfill manager fo:r organising
and running the site. T1he disposal
"GN' §i 1  7I  "I 971 Ih       plan has to be preparecd before any
waste is delivered to the site, and will
Two basic requirements of sanitary    specify in detail where waste is to be
landfill operation are that:        placed, what site preparations and
* wastes shiould be deposited in t}lifl    engineering are required, and how
bonds of arouind 0.5m, buiilding utp into    environmental nuisances (for ex-
layers nuot greater than about 2 m?etres    ample birds, vermin, litter, fires, gas,
in depthl; and                      leachate) are to be dealt with.
* the surface of the neWly deposited    It will also provide details of equip-
wL)asteshouldibecoverewdfattheend of each    ment, materials and staff needed to
day with approximately 15cm of soil or    operate the site, what documentation
similar, material,                  and administration is required, what
These two requirements should be    monitoring will be undertaken and
achievable by most municipalities.  when and how each part of the site
will be completed and restored.
18



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS                 1 9
The operational stage of a landfill  civil engineering or waste engineer-
spans many years. Organisational  ing staff within a different part of the
changes may be needed within the  public sector.
municipality in order to operate waste
managenment to higher standards.  Alternatively, it may be preferable to
One of the key decisions is whether  hand the operation of the new land-
the site should be run by existing staff.  fill site over to a private sector waste
It might be possible to identify skilled   contractor, with municipal staff over-
0 P! 0 iL0' DMi E?;.iaP, P,(C.,lL D S U , R a E  ;t Lz
>.A-ILL,7u,D3  Ij  r DI L'V. L - 0  :E r   0 S  ,      L  perLUS31   'Ilr-.U)LR3YsWikq rg
* Waste should be compacted in         * Frequent collection of litter from
thin bands up to 0.5m which            the site helps convey an impres-
should be built up into a layer        sion of a well-managed site.
about 2m deep. This reduces the
likelihood of instability and       * Drainage ditches should be kept
settlement problems in the future      clear to avoid problems during
wet weather
* Compacted waste should be cov-
ered daily with 15cm of soil to de-  * Site access roads should be kept
ter flies and other insects from       in good condition to allow
breeding in waste, as well as re-      vehicles to deposit their waste
ducing wind-blown waste and            loads quickly and efficiently. Bro-
improving the surface for waste        ken fences should be repaired
vehicles                               and maintained to prevent ani-
mals coming onto the site.
* No biodegradable waste should
be deposited in water               * The general public should be ex-
cluded from the site for their own
* Open burning should not be per-        safety.
mitted. Fires can cause hollows in
the waste, encouraging instabil-    * Records of waste deliveries to the
ity, and they could ignite pockets     site should be kept, showing who
of landfill gas, causing explo-        delivered the waste, of what type,
sions.Ifnotquicklyextinguished,        how much and when. These
fires can become deep seated and       records are particularly impor-
smoulder for many years.               tant if the municipality decides to
charge waste generators for their
* Frequent inspections for vermin        waste service.
(rodents, other animals, birds and
flies) should be made and mea-      * Environmental  monitoring
sures taken to prevent infesta-        (which may be simple visual in-
tions in order to reduce health        spections, or more complex sam-
risks.                                 pling and chemical analysis)
must be carried out to a regular
schedule, and records kept.



20                                                    LANDFILL SITE OPERATION
seeing the work to ensure that stan-
dards are met.
The landfill site manager should re-    There is a minimum staffing require-
port directly to the chief officer re-    ment for a well-managed site where
sponsible for all waste management.    either manual spreading or mechani-
cal waste placement and compaction
is undertaken.
c MY                   If machines are used, the minimum
The operation of a better managed    staffing is:
landfill site will, in almost all circum-    * a landfill manager based at the site
stances, cost more than open dump-    *a gate man/office clerk
ing.
It will, however, avoid money being    * a security guard or night watch-
man
spent at a later date to remediate harm
caused by the open dump.               * a traffic controller, for organising
vehicles at large busy sites
It may be possible to meet some of
these costs with savings resulting     * landfill equipment drivers
from improved efficiency within the           . me
within te waste * a maintenance fitter (iF equipment
municipality or within the waste         is maintained at the site)
management organisation.
* manual labourers
Costs can also be met by charging
commercial waste producers, such as  It is crucial that sufficient funds are
shops, hotels and industry, for provid-  identified to enable the site operation
ing them with a waste disposal ser-  to be correctly managed
vice, and indirectly by charging resi-
dents through property taxes or util-  A well-managed landfill site can
ity charges.                         minimise operational problems.
*  Who should operate the new landfill site?
Are there enough suitably skilled personnel within the
municipality, in the waste or other sections? Alternatively,
should the operation be contracted out to the private sector?
* Is there enough money allocated to the project for it to be
done properly?
Funds can be raised by cost-cutting elsewhere, or by charging
waste producers for the waste service.



7f?-  [I      r    K>
Many kinds of industrial wastes can                   FU%£L
be safely landfilled. There are advan-
tages to the landfilling of industrial  Planned mixing of hazardous indus-
waste in middle- and lower-income  trial wastes with municipal wastes
countries, since landfill represents a  relies on the processes which the mu-
widely available, long term disposal  nicipal waste undergoes to stabilise
method which offers a low cost dis-
posal route.
INA  Fml §
Disposing of hazardous industrial
wastes in landfill sites can also be    * Landfill is a widely available
done in some circumstances, but it      disposal method and a safe
requires special procedures to be un-   disposal option for many industrial
dertaken, and careful management        wastes
and operation. Where sanitary land-    * Separation from other wastes, or
fill site management principles are in  some form of pre-treatment, may
use, disposal of hazardous, or special,  be necessary for the hazardous
wastes can usually be undertaken.       components
Where such principles are not yet be-
ing applied, hazardous industrial  the industrial waste. It is important
waste should not be landfilled.     that co-disposal is carefully managed
to ensure that the rate of input of haz-
There are three basic apprroaches to  adu   nutilwsede   o
landfilling haz rdosidsrr    ardous industrial waste does not
landfilling hazardous industrial  oewemtemncplwse
wastes: separate disposal in a site  overwhelm the municipal waste.
which takes only this type of waste (a  Direct disposal of liquid industrial
mono-fill); disposal together with  hazardous wastes is sometimes
municipal wastes in a co-disposal site;e
or pre-treatment of wastes before ei-  provi   ing thest ieant agd
ther mono- or co-disposal landfill.    providing the site iS well-managed.
At a co-disposal site it is inevitable
that different types of hazardous in-
MO.111112551 0-41      dustrial wastes will come into con-
tact. It is therefore important to ensure
Wastes which have the same overall  that incompatible wastes are not dis-
physical and chemical characteristics  posed of together, to avoid unwanted
and which are stable can be disposed  chemical reactions.
of together, but separately from other
wastes.
21



22                                                          HAZARDOUS WASTES
Pre-treatment of hazardous industrial
a  well-designed anld managed
waste reduces the bulk or the hazards
associated with handling, transport-
ing and landfilling the waste.          * a continuing supply of municipal
waste properly placed
Some industrial hazardous wastes      * a trained landfill manager and
are completely unacceptable in a co-     operational staff
disposal landfill because of their    * snfficient mobile eqniipment to
highly reactive chemical nature or
thi souilt.                            prepare the site
their solublity.
* no scavenging directly on the landfill
if hazardous waste is accepted
The costs of treatment technologies    * no burning of waste directly on the
may be too high in many middle- and        landfill
lower-income countries, and co-dis-
posal may be the compromise neces-    * a means of ensuring that only
sary to improve crude dumping or           suitable types of industrial wastes
stockpiling of hazardous industrial        are deposited
wastes. There may also be too few in-    * regular inspection to check that
dustrial operations to justify invest-    industrial wastes are not leaching
ment in treatment technologies.
Providing there is already a good
standard of design and operation, a    In addition, a check must be made at
decision must be made on which    the landfill entrance of the composi-
types of waste will be allowed in the    tion of industrial waste being re-
landfill, and how  they are to be    ceived, and a record kept of that
handled. Deciding which wastes are    waste and its location in the site.
handled. Deciding which wastes are
acceptable must be done on a site-by-
site basis, as landfills vary in their
suitability for co-disposal.
Some wastes should definitely be
landfilled, as no other option exists.
An example of this is asbestos.
Other wastes which are readily bio-
degradable without pretreatment
could be accepted, such as food pro-
cessing wastes and oily sludges.



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS                  23
* Landfill may be the only or best disposal option in a locality for
industrial wastes
* In this case, which wastes will be accepted?
* How will they be handled?



MuE COS$URE _11TjA AUUTRCARE
Once the filling of a landfill is com-  mise - to a greater or lesser extenit -
plete, the waste is covered with a  the environmental protection systems
thicker layer of soil, and other surface  incorporated in the design. Inspection
capping systems are installed, in  and nonitoring programmes can help
readiness for the site's after-use. On  identify any necessary maintenance
large sites, the final cover may be  or repair of systems.
placed in stages, with areas of land
restored for use while other areas con-
tinue to be filled with waste. This
helps to reduce the amount of rain-
fall entering the site, and reduces
leachate.                              * Correct covering of completed
Although the site may be filled and      site is vital
capped, there may still be many de-    * Acceptable uses for a former
cades before all of the waste has de-    landfill can be found, once restored
composed and stabilised. Monitoring    *Need for continued environmental
and control systems should be main-
tained during this aftercare period.     protection
* Settlement will disrupt the final
The final cover of the waste has sev-    cover and repairs will be necessary
eral functions to perform while the
waste completes its decomposition      * Need to check if closure plan still
and settlement processes:                applicable
*   reducing rainfall infiltration
*   reducing surface erosion         Leachate will continue to be gener-
ated, so in sites where leachate is con-
*   providing surface drainage  tained it will continue to be necessary
systems                         to collect and treat it as long as it poses
a threat to the ground and surface
*    controlling migration of gas and  water.
leachate
Although a site closure plan will have
*   preparing the site for its planned  been part of the original design, it will
after-use                       be necessary to check its continued
relevance, after so many years. In the
Unfortunately, landfills cannot be re-  .reevance,oaf  ter o m ears n
lied upon to behave exactly as they intervening period, stricter environ-
wier deintobed.Upedixacted as ette   mental legislation may be in place,
ment, weaknesesi d  inpsruction andtle  land use plans may have changed and
ment weaknesses in construction an   the intended after-use of the site may
nature itself will inevitably compro-  no longer be appropriate.
24



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS            25
It may also be necessary to examine  also at risk of damage from settlement
the cost implications of the closure  of the waste.
since the preparation of the replace-
ment sanitary landfill should be well  Final cover from natural materials is
under way by this time, which may  often better at self-sealing if disrupted
be competing for financial resources.  by waste settlement,
Budgetary constraints may force the  Whatever the intended after-use, the
waste manager to choose between, for  early establishment of grass or other
example, maintaining the integrity of  vegetation will help protect the cap
the cap or doing groundwater moni-  from erosion.
toring. Should priority be given to fill-
ing low spots or to repairing storm
drainage?                                        AMR u$Es
A primary aim of the final cap is to  Recreation may, in many cases, be a
minimise leachate generation by ex-  beneficial after-use of a completed
cluding rainwater and other surface  landfill. Only small, light construc-
water.                              tions, such as equipment storage
sheds, are needed.
The best caps are constructed from
around one metre of natural soil ma-  If the site's after-use is grassland, then
terials, such as clay. A cap is usually  a light topsoil dressing over the cap
domed or contoured into a slope to  will promote the rapid growth of
further encourage the run-off of sur-  grass. If it is planned for arable uses,
face water.                         a total soil depth of up to Im over the
clay cap may be needed to prevent
A well-compacted and drained clay  ploughing from damaging the cap.
cap that is protected from soil ero-
sion by vegetation will inhibit sur-  The use of completed sites for con-
face water entering the waste.      struction or urban development
should be discouraged because of a
Synthetic materials, similar to those  number of constraints including:
which can be used as liners for land-
fill sites, can be used in the final cap,  *   low load-bearing capacity
but these are more expensive and are
extensive and uneven settling
Amenity: open space, buffer zones, airport runways
Recreation: parks, playing fields, tracks and golf courses
Agriculture: arable land, grazing
Forestation: woodland, tree screens, nature reserves
Habitation: gardens, play areas
Industry: open storage areas, parking, open fabrication areas, open air markets



26                                                SITE CLOSURE AND AFTERCARE
*   presence of combustible and  Gas venting trenches in and around
potentially explosive gases    the final cover can allow landfill gas
migration to atmosphere if there is no
*   corrosive character of waste  pumped gas flaring or utilisation on
decomposition products and of  site. Where there is a pumped gas
the internal landfill environ-  management system in place, it will
ment in general                need to be maintained, and probably
continuously staffed, during the after-
care period. Failure of a pumped sys-
These constraints continue long after  ternw ill lead to gas migration off-site.
the filling has been completed.
However, there is a growing land
shortage in some cities, especially in           -       -
lower- and middle- income countries  To maintain the effectiveness of the
where rural to urban migration has  environmental protection measures
exacerbated the situation.          built into the landfill after closure,
If pressures on land availability force  regular checking of the site is neces-
sarv. This is termed 'after-care' and
the use of a completed site for build-
involves erosion control, observation
ng development, extensiveprecau    -settlement, groundwater monitor-
tionary measures must be included to  of                        010
control associated hazards.         ing, leachate and gas control, obser-
vation of the condition of vegetation
and presence of vermin and odours.
Funds should be set aside for these
zc,! rurrLlal,procedures.
Leachate will continue to be gener-  There may still be several decades
ated after closure, although in de-  before all of the waste has decom-
creasing quantities providing the fi-  posed. As a result, even though the
nal cap remains effective. Leachate  site has been capped, settlement will
collection and treatment systems will  continue. To maintain the domed cap
need to be maintained after closure,   profile, it may be necessary to back-
fill areas of settlement (which appear
Landfill gas will also continue to be  as depressions in the top surface) with
generated. Landfill gas could have  cap material and soil. Settlement will
disastrous consequences for local resi-  be less at a site which has been oper-
dents or squatter communities if al-  ated as a sanitary landfill, since the
lowed to migrate off-site. Even if the  waste will have been well compacted
gas is contained within the bound-  when originally deposited.
aries of the site, there are still signifi-
cant risks and environmental impacts.



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS              27
"j7 7          L - 7 ' j . I
* Is the closure plan, which was written some years ago, still
appropriate?
*  For how long should an aftercare programme be maintained?
* A regular programme of monitoring will continue to be
necessary for some time



In order to abandon the practice of  It is important to ensure that illegal
open dumping, the municipality may  dumping does not continue at any
either close its open dumps when a  closed dump site. A public awareness
replacement upgraded landfill site is  programme should be initiated to en-
ready to accept wastes, or alterna-  courage the use of the new landfill.
tivelv it may convert its open dumps
to operate as upgraded landfills.  It is assumed that, in deciding to de-
This latter option will only be possible
if: .                                          L    PR  j L
*   the dump is in an area where    * Dumps should only be converted
groundwater pollution is not      if environmenital protection needs
critical                          can be met
*   there is sufficient remaining    * There is no point in costly
void space to justify the cost and  conversions for dumps with only
effort of conversion              a little space left
If the dump is to be converted to a    * Closing a dump does not end the
landfill, operational practices should  responsibility for it
be the same as those for a new sani-
tary landfill site. However, the ability
to protect the groundwater beneath  velop an upgraded landfill, the mu-
the site will be limited.          nicipality will be committing itself to
moving away from the practice of
open dumping.
L  C) '> '  D D K 170    The municipality must decide whether
the dump will be closed or converted,
Standards  to  be  adopted  in  and if it is to be closed, whether it is
remediating a closed site should be  to be remediated in any way.
comparable to those for completion of  The decision to move towards sani-
a sanitary landfill. One option for the
remediation of a closed site is to re-  t  d       w
move all dumped material to a re-  on a recognition that open dumping
placement sanitary landfill. This is  was having an unacceptable impact
on the environment and on human
likely to be an expensive approach un-  heath     and    onse uelt
less only a small volume of waste is  simly abndo sth dumwold no
involved. It will also use space m the  sp  a
address the local hazards associated
new landfill. It may also be possible to  with the dump. Something needs to
use bio-remediation techniques.    be done to improve its condition.
28



SUMMARY: DECISION-MAKER'S GUIDE TO SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS             29
Where an open dump does, or might,  Extinguishing fires, eliminating ver-
contaminate a useful groundwater  min and reducing groundwater and
resource, it is not recommended to  surface water pollution will achieve
attempt to convert it to an upgraded  this objective.
landfill.
At those open dumps in ravines, where
It would be better to limit the im-  waste has been tipped over a steep cliff
pact on the groundwater by control-  into a valley below, the main problem
ling the infiltration through the site  may be to stabilise the loose and dan-
by means of a low-permeability cap.  gerously steep slopes of waste.
The Guide suggests the minimum
standards that should be applied         COUlNITERING ILLEGAL DUMPING
when undertaking a dump conver-
sion to an upgraded landfill.        The open dump was probably located
where it is because of convenience
and proximity to urban areas. Conse-
REMEDIATION'             quently, closing this convenient site
may require that access to the dump
The objective of remediating an open  be restricted. Otherwise, unwanted
dump is to minimise the environmen-  dumping will continue.
tal health and safety problems created
by the dump.
SURVEYING THE DUMP
The first step towards rehabilitating an open dump is to assess the condition of
the site and its geographical setting.
A desk study can gather a wide range of information about the site, including
maps and photographs, and information about the geology of the site. Any kno wn
pollution or contamination of soil, water and air at or near the site, and details of
the waste types and amounts dumped can also be obtained.
The site investigation survey will, where physically and safely possible, confirm
the depths of dumped wastes. Boreholes will detect any pollution by leachate.
A topographical survey will provide a 1:500 scale map of the site on which to
prepare remediation plans.
Extreme care should be taken in carrying out these surveys since open dumps can
present a range of health and safety hazards to humans. These include unstable
slopes, hidden voids, sharp objects, hazardous chemicals, attack from rodents or
mosquitoes, hidden bodies of water and risk of injury from falling waste.
These investigations will need to be undertaken before the choice
can be made on whether to close or convert a site, since the findings
will guide the decision.



30                                       CLOSURE AND CONVERSION OF OPEN DUMPS
To counter this, the municipality can  associated costs. Such facilities are
either take steps to prevent illegal  commonly provided on a permanent
dumping at the same time as inform-  basis in some countries as a free ser-
ing the public about the new facility,  vice to the local community, where
or provide a waste reception area at  other disposal facilities are remote.
the closed site for a short period, with  The service is not made available to
transfer of the wastes to the new land-  commercial and industrial waste gen-
fill undertaken by the municipality  erators who should pay transport
itself.                              costs of their wastes.
The first option requires public co-  The municipality's aim should be to
operation as well as enforcement mea-  provide waste transfer facilities for a
sures such as fencing and a watch-  short period after closure, at the same
man.                                 time conducting a public awareness
campaign to encourage direct use of
The second option requires the pro-  the new landfill site.
vision of a waste transfer facility, with
*  Should the dump be closed or converted?
*  If closed, is the site to be remediated?
* What standards are achievable at the dump site?
*  Should a waste transfer facility be offered permanently
or temporarily?



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31



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