Agriculture and Rural Development Report 1 Reclaiming Drainage Toward an Integrated Approach Safwat Abdel-Dayam, Jan Hoevenaars, Peter P. Mollinga, Waltina Scheumann, Roel Slootweg, Frank van Steenbergen February 2004 First Web posting/printing: February 2004 ©The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Agriculture & Rural Development Department 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 Agriculture and Rural Development Reports is an informal series produced by the Agriculture and Rural Development Department of the World Bank. These papers present findings from research and development practice undertaken or sponsored by the World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are the author's own and should not be attributed to the World Bank, its management, its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Some of the numbers quoted are estimates or approximations and may be revised at a later stage. About the Authors Safwat Abdel-Dayam is the drainage adviser for the Agriculture and Rural Development Family of the World Bank. Jan Hoevenaars is Independent Consultant , Hoevenaars Advice & Assistance, Driehoek 15, 5126 NX Gilze, The Netherlands, hoevenaars.ana@wxs.nl. Peter Mollinga is an Associate Professor at the Irrigation and Water Engineering group at Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands, pmollinga@hotmail.com. Waltina Scheumann is an Associate Professor at the Institute of Landscape architecture and Environmental Planning, Berlin, Germany, Scheumann@imup.tu-berlin.de. Roel Slootweg is Independent Consultant, The Netherlands, SevS@SevS.nl. Frank van Steenbergen is a Senior Advisor Water Management, Arcadis Euroconsult, Arnhem, the Netherlands, fvansteenbergen@compuserve.com. Cover art The discharge of irrigation drainage water through a natural depression in North Cameroon, has created a breeding site for schistosomiasis snails. In close consultation with local groups, the depression was reconstructed. The villagers welcome the possibility of growing dry-season horticulture, and the production of fish provides a cheap additional source of protein. Snail populations have dramatically decreased by water level fluctuations, showing that an integrated approach to drainage problems can result in increased production while reducing health risks. In: R. Slootweg & R. Keyzer (1983): Reducing schistosomiasis infection risks through improved drainage. Irrigation & Drainage Systems. Irrigation and Drainage Systems 7: 99-112. Contents Preface __________________________________________________________________________________ vii Acknowledgments ________________________________________________________________________viii Acronyms and Abbreviations________________________________________________________________ix Executive Summary ________________________________________________________________________xi 1. Introduction _____________________________________________________________________________ 1 The Drainage Paradox 1 Main Message 3 Structure of the Report 3 Process and Method 4 The Country Case Studies 5 2. Agricultural Drainage: Toward an Integrated Perspective _____________________________________ 7 The Many Impacts Of Drainage 7 Diversity in Drainage Situations 8 Drivers of Change 9 Redefining Drainage: Toward an Integrated Perspective 10 3. Functions, Values, and Participatory Planning at Landscape Level____________________________ 13 Functions and Values Analysis and Assessment 13 The Process Dimension of DRAINFRAME: Participatory Planning 19 The Issue of Scale for Analysis and Planning 22 What's New? 27 4. Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage ________________________________________ 29 Governance in Drainage 29 Management of Drainage at Higher Levels 31 Polycentric Governance and Multistakeholder Management 34 Broadening the Financial Basis 36 Challenges 39 5. Drainage Infrastructure and Operation for Multifunctionality _________________________________ 41 Multipurpose Drainage Systems 41 Compartmentalization 44 Planning, Design, and Evaluation Technologies 45 Knowledge Management 46 6. Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage ____________________________________________ 49 Policy: Constraint or Drive? 49 World Bank Policy Statements 49 A Pragmatic Approach to Policy for Sector Reform 54 Logical Steps toward Change 54 Concluding Messages 56 Appendixes Appendix A Selected Primary and Secondary Function Changes due to Agricultural Drainage 59 Appendix B The Multiple Impacts of Drainage 61 Appendix C Diversity in Drainage Situations 66 Appendix D Landscapes, Functions , Values, and Drainage Activities: Two Examples from Country Case Studies 75 iii Appendix E The Ecosystem Approach--Convention on Biological Diversity 79 Appendix F Traditional Planning and Participatory Planning 81 Appendix G Comanagement 82 Appendix H Governance and Institutions in the Country Case Studies 83 Appendix I Water Table Management and Controlled Drainage in the Country Case Studies 85 Appendix J Drainage Water Quality and Reuse in the Case Studies 86 Glossary of Terms_________________________________________________________________________87 References _______________________________________________________________________________89 Tables Table 3.1 Four scale levels for analysis and planning of drainage 23 Table 4.1 River basin organizations: different priorities 34 Table 4.2 Drainage development trajectories and institutional challenges: some examples 40 Table 5.1 Instruments in the multipurpose management of drainage 42 Boxes Box 2.1 Examples of drainage impacts 8 Box 2.2 The long - term perspective of drainage planning 9 Box 3.1 Environmental functions -- the supply of goods and services 14 Box 3.2 Values -- the demand for goods and services 15 Box 3 .3 Dealing with alternatives 20 Box 3.4 Participation 21 Box 3.5 Participatory planning in the water sector 22 Box 3.6 Hydroecological regions in the country case studies: Bangladesh and the Netherlands 25 Box 4.1 Government-initiated drainage development 30 Box 4.2 "Benefit- p a y-say" in Dutch water boards 37 Box 4.3 Funding drainage services in Europe 38 Box 5.1 New technology needed for integrated water resources management 41 Box 5.2 Benefits of controlled drainage 42 Box 5.3 Local compartmentalization i n Bangladesh 45 Box 5.4 Drainage impact on agricultural nutrients 46 Box 6.1 World Bank principles for water management 50 Box 6.2 Constitutional Amendment Seventy- three in India 52 Box 6.3 Example of friction between policy and management 55 Figures Figure 1.1 Cost of World Bank ­supported drainage projects (5 - year moving average) 2 Figure 3.1 Linkages and interactions of the three subsystems of the socioecological system 16 Figure 3.2 Stepwise, iterative analysis of (proposed) drainage interventions 18 Figure 6.1 Vertical and horizontal distribution of power 51 Photos Photo 5.1 Controlled drainage 43 Appendix boxes Box G.1 Comanagement of natural resources 82 Appendix figures Figure B1 Relative yield and groundwater depth: an example 62 iv Preface T his report is the concluding document of a · The production of six country case studies by study called Agricultural Drainage: Toward an teams of international and national consultants, Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approach. The who thoroughly examined and analyzed each study is an initiative of the Agricultural and Rural country's experience in drainage under its own Department (ARD) of the World Bank within the specific conditions framework of the Bank­Netherlands Partnership Program--Environment/Water Resources Manage- · A workshop attended by national and ment Window. The study was undertaken to improve international experts and decisionmakers, as well the way agricultural drainage is looked at and acted as Bank staff, to review and discuss the findings upon in line with new World Bank Water, Agricultural of the case studies and Rural Development, and Environment strategies. · The writing of the final report of the study by a It is a step toward implementing many of the six-member team that provides the contours of an principles advocated in those strategies, when future approach to integration for analyzing and lending for drainage is sought, balancing productivity planning future drainage interventions. and sustainable development. The case studies (listed in the References section of The study was an intensive, exciting, and highly this report) will be published on the World Bank enjoyable effort in three steps: website (www.worldbank.org/irrigation-drainage). v Acknowledgments M any people contributed to this study in its content remains that of the authors. For editorial, different phases. For their inputs during the technical financial-administrative and other practical writing phase of the final report, on behalf assistance we would like to thank, respectively, of the authors, I would like to thank Shawki Kathleen A. Lynch, Cora Solomon, K.S. Vijayasekhar, Barghouti, Evan Christen, Kevin Cleaver, Salah and Melissa Williams. Darghouth, Richard Davis, Geert Diemer, Ariel Dinar, Eric Fernandes, Sushma Ganguly, Rafik Hirji, We would also like to acknowledge the funding Arend Kolhoff, Nwanze Okidgbe, Lambert K. provided by the Bank­Netherlands Partnership Program-Environment/Water resources Management Smedema, Ashok Subramaniam, the organizers, facilitators, and participants of the Ninth International Window and to thank all who facilitated such funding. Drainage Workshop for hosting a special session to We sincerely hope that the integrated approach to present the findings of this study (Utrecht, the drainage outlined in this report will find widespread Netherlands, September 2003), and the participants of application. the International Commission on Irrigation and Safwat Abdel-Dayem, Washington D.C., Drainage 54th International Executive Council United States Meeting and 24th European Regional Conference, Montpellier, France, for their interest expressed February, 2004 during two presentations. The responsibility for the vi Acronyms and Abbreviations ADA Association of Drainage Authorities ADB Asian Development Bank BCM Billion cubic meters BNPPEW Bank­Netherlands Partnership Program --Environment/Water Resources Management Window BR Bureau of Reclamation CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CWP Collaborative Work Program DfID Department for International Development, United Kingdom DRAINFRAME Drainage Integrated Analytical Framework DRI Drainage Research Institute EPADP Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change FCD Flood control and drainage GWP Global Water Partnership GWSA Water and soil association, Germany HIA Health Impact Assessment ICID International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage ILRI International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement IPTRID International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage IUCN World Conservation Union IWASRI International Waterlogging and Salinity Institute IWMI International Water Management Institute IWRM Integrated water resources management NDP National Drainage Program NGO Nongovernmental organization NWMP National Water Management Plan, Bangladesh O&M Operation and maintenance PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PRODERITH Program for Integrated Rural Development in the Tropical Wetlands RAPID Research and Policy in Development Program RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal SCARP Salinity Control and Reclamation projects UNESCO­ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization--World Water Assessment Program WWAP US$ U.S. dollar WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority WGA Western Governors' Association WHO World Health Organization WM Water management WWAR World Water Action Report WWDR World Water Development Report WWV World Water Vision vii Executive Summary This report is the concluding document of the study, from the big picture of integrated management of Agricultural Drainage: Toward an Interdisciplinary and land and water. The increasing complexity of water Integrated Approach, under the Bank­Netherlands control systems, the conflicts of interest in many Partnership Program--Environment/Water Re- water management systems, the way the different sources Management Window. The study spanned impacts are weighted, and the need to rethink the role more than two years of literature reviews, field and perspective of drainage in the international water investigations, and analysis. Work included case debate all are drivers to place drainage at the center of studies in six countries representing a cross-section of integrated management of natural resources. Integration drainage situations in different climatic zones. The last in the context of this report means developing phase focused on formulating the approach presented alliances with compatible interests in water resources in this document. management and creating negotiating space for Drainage as a human intervention in the hydrological conflicting areas. cycle affects many different functions of natural The drainage paradox is this. Improvement of resources systems and thereby has multiple impacts drainage, on the face of it, could be an important on society. Global experience provides an overview of instrument for achieving sustainable human some of these effects, positive and negative. The development, while in reality it has almost disappeared impact of drainage on agricultural production and from international water discourse as a theme and a productivity can be substantial, and drainage concern. Also, investment in drainage by governments investments may have a short payback period. and in the lending portfolios of financial institutions is Drainage has a favorable impact on public health and decreasing. To resolve this paradox, drainage has to enhances sanitation in rural areas. Improved drainage reclaim its rightful position as an indispensable increases the value of land and buildings and protects component of the management of land and water, not roads and other rural infrastructure. On the negative from an agricultural sector perspective, but from an side, drainage has often done much less well in integrated perspective. safeguarding vital ecosystems, key environmental processes, and other resources such as fisheries. The policy statements of the World Bank in its new strategies on water resources management, rural Drainage situations exhibit substantial diversity in development, and the environment strongly support terms of the multiple crops and soils served, the many the idea of an "integrated drainage" perspective. An resources system functions affected, the scale of the integrated approach to drainage is a way to put the systems, the development environment, the social and principles promoted by these strategies into action: economic circumstances, and the ecological factors through integrated water resources management involved. The wide diversity encountered in drainage (IWRM) and sustainable development. The art will be situations across the world and the variety of factors to translate general strategic principles into practical causing it show that "drainage" is a container concept. "how-to" approaches to drainage. Talking about drainage in general is therefore almost Drainage, as defined in this study, is land and water meaningless--at both the analytical and intervention levels. A context-specific approach is required for management through the processes of removing both analysis and intervention. excess surface water and managing shallow water tables--by retaining and removing water--to achieve Despite the great diversity in drainage situations and an optimal mix of economic and social benefits while its many impacts, drainage used to be considered from safeguarding key ecological functions. Drainage is an a narrow sector angle, focusing solely on agricultural inherent part of the hydrological cycle, a natural productivity. The sector approach isolates drainage process that human beings adapt for their own ix purposes by redirecting water in space and time and Country- and site-specific polycentric and manipulating water levels. multistakeholder governance and management This report presents a tool for analysis and structures for drainage offer the promise of planning--DRAINFRAME, the Drainage Integrated combining the potential of the public sector, local and Analytical Framework. DRAINFRAME is a user groups, and the private sector. The challenges are procedure for analyzing and assessing the functions manifold. Organizational structures and procedures and values embedded in a participatory planning are needed in which drainage is not separated from process. The analytical component of the tool consists other forms of land and water management and where of systematic mapping of the functions (in nine related objectives are coordinated--irrigation, flood iterative steps) of (the goods and services provided control, public health, and the conservation of natural by) natural resources systems and the values attributed areas and water bodies (wetlands). This also applies to to these functions by people, and the exploration of residential and agricultural land use and to the implications (effects and impacts) of particular infrastructure planning. River basin organizations may drainage interventions. DRAINFRAME also provides provide a forum for coordination and planning, but a framework for discussing and negotiating tradeoffs other organizational forms may better fit national related to the different functions and values directly political and administrative systems. related to and influenced by drainage. This is the In such a structure, there is no single, ultimate center communication, planning, and decisionmaking of authority, and therefore functions and support component of the tool. responsibilities have to be clearly assigned, The report distinguishes four different levels at which circumscribed by rules for establishing cooperation the multifunctionality of resources systems can be and coordination procedures and for structuring explored: the large basin, the hydroecological region, decisionmaking. This integration has a financial the landscape, and the drainage system. The meso dimension in that the introduction of the benefit-pay level of the landscape is the most appropriate level for (-say) principle would bring all stakeholders into the integrated planning of drainage interventions. A fold. landscape is a unit of land with homogeneous natural Drainage is best looked at not merely as a service that resources (soil, water, climate, vegetation) that needs to be reproduced but as a central component of performs a homogeneous set of functions. Groups in a resources management system that requires inputs society value these functions (goods and services) and and produces goods and services with certain values. become stakeholders. Drainage interventions attempt Part of this increased value may be captured to pay to enhance certain functions for the benefit of these for investment, operation, or maintenance costs. stakeholders. Institutional arrangements are created to Better use of the drainage infrastructure may also manage these interventions. create economic value, which can be used to pay for The idea that different stakeholders are involved essential maintenance services. implies that interaction, communication, and A shift toward an integrated approach to drainage negotiation are required when interventions are provides a major technical and professional challenge. proposed to deal with a drainage problem or The physical design and operation of many drainage opportunity. This is a case of "participatory planning" systems has a long-standing bias toward agricultural that allows stakeholder involvement in productivity. The challenge is to include topics like decisionmaking for natural resources development controlled drainage, flood management, management and management. Central to this approach from an of effluent quality, drainage water reuse, vector institutional or planning perspective is the negotiation of control, and compartmentalization in the design and options and strategies preferred by the concerned operation of multipurpose drainage. This has stakeholders. The basic conditions under which implications for new investments and rehabilitation of comanagement can work, and by implication existing systems. To address the challenges of moving participatory planning, include, full access to toward integration, innovative research and pilot information on relevant issues and topics, freedom projects should be mainstreamed in operation. The and capacity to organize, freedom to express needs knowledge system must be reformed, and long-term and concerns, a nondiscriminatory social investment must be made in capacity building. environment, the will of partners to negotiate, and confidence that agreements will be respected. x This report sends five messages to the broad audience third message mirrors the World Bank's water sector of professionals in the drainage and water strategy when it calls for moving toward an integrated management sector, planners, decisionmakers, approach with pragmatism and vision. The fourth governments, and the international community. The message emphasizes the value of learning by doing. first message is an invitation to dare to look at all the The fifth and last message is sent to governments and costs and benefits of drainage. The second message the donor community to exercise their leadership to calls for attention to the potential for poverty promote an integrated approach to drainage. reduction offered by the integrated approach. The xi 1. Introduction D rainage is an inherent part of the WWAP 2003). So far, drainage has not been hydrological cycle--a necessary function of addressed in the global Dialogue on Water, Food and a river basin or other hydrological units. Environment. It receives scant mention in the largest Drainage is a natural process that human beings adapt water-related research program in the offing, the for their own purposes by redirecting water in space Challenge Program of Water and Food under the and time and manipulating water levels. In this Consultative Group on International Agricultural process, they make use of the natural properties of Research (CGIAR). topography, soil, and hydrogeology and of This neglect reflects what is happening on the technologies and other physical and management interventions. investment front. Only a few countries such as Egypt and Pakistan have formal programs for land drainage. The World Bank drainage portfolio began to run low The Drainage Paradox at the beginning of the 1990s (figure 1.1). The cost of World Bank­supported drainage projects dropped Improved drainage can contribute to large increases in from US$1,485.3 million in 1985 to only US$88 crop production in different parts of the world. million in 2001. 1 Investment would be cost-effective and have the Some central themes in the current water debate additional benefit of avoiding exploitation of new land eclipse drainage as an inherent element of the and water resources. An estimated 50 percent of the hydrological cycle. One such theme is water scarcity. world's irrigated land suffers from drainage problems. Water scarcity is the most dramatic manifestation of Twenty-five million hectares of prime agricultural land the water crisis--large rivers no longer reaching the have become unproductive due to irrigation-induced sea, wells gone dry, and a world map marked by a waterlogging and salinity (Smedema 2000). Two growing number of water-stressed countries. With this hundred fifty million ha of rainfed cropland need in mind, the idea comes almost naturally that the need improved drainage (Smedema et al. 2000). Improved to manage water arises only when it is scarce-- drainage can also produce substantial benefits in the involving reallocation from low- to high-value uses sphere of health, reduction of damage to roads and and improvement in water productivity. This buildings, and flood control. Improvement of inference misses the point that water management is drainage could be an important instrument in equally important in water-rich environments--and achieving sustainable human development. that drainage may play a key role in the timely removal Paradoxically, drainage has almost disappeared from and retention of water and in making it available for international water discourse as a theme and a reuse.2 concern. It does not appear in the glossaries of prominent water documents such as the World Water Vision (Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000), the Framework for Action (GWP 2000), the World Water Action Report (Guerguin et al. 2003), or the U.N. World Water Development Report (UNESCO­ 1Real cost of drainage components in year 2002 dollar value, including downstream flood control measures. 2This report is not the appropriate place to discuss the concept of scarcity. In a physical sense, it relates to both quantity and quality of water, but in addition to physical scarcity there is economic, managerial, institutional and political scarcity (Molle and Mollinga 2003). 1 Reclaiming Drainage Figure 1.1 Cost of World Bank­supported drainage projects (5-year moving average) 1600 1400 Loan Amount Total Drainage Cost 1200 1000 800 millions 600 US$ 400 200 0 1973 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Source: World Bank 2000. Second, the water resources reallocation discussion Drainage has become a "forgotten factor" (and with it mechanisms such as water pricing, (Scheumann and Freisem 2001). It is somewhat demand management, and water markets) equally risks isolated from mainstream water management and is narrowing water management down to a zero-sum preoccupied almost exclusively with agricultural game--with water being used either here or there. production. The thrust of drainage programs has been Instead, it is often far more useful to look at water tilted toward improving farm productivity or opening management as a chain of uses and consider the up land for agriculture--be they the flood control- overall social, economic, and environmental cum-drainage projects in Bangladesh, the national productivity of the entire water control system, of drainage programs in Egypt and Pakistan, polder which drainage is an inherent part. management in the Netherlands, or swamp A third theme at odds with the concept of drainage is development in Indonesia. the notion of water productivity, succinctly For both conceptual and practical reasons, drainage summarized in the phrase "more crop per drop." has to be seen differently--by drainage professionals Water productivity is an inspiring concept, but it begs and by others involved in the policy, planning, and the question "which drop?" A better water control practice of natural resources management for system--with effective drainage management--will sustainable human development--of which drainage create the drops that can give much more crop than a is an inherent and necessary element. The target system where waterlogging, acidification, salinization, audience of this report is drainage professionals, or overdrainage are the order of the day. "Water researchers, and other specialists involved in natural productivity" moreover should not be narrowed down resources planning and management. The intensity of to crop yields but encompass the other functions of problematic issues related to drainage that societies water resources, too. need to address is only increasing, and with it the A fourth example is the debate on participatory potential for livelihood enhancement, poverty irrigation management and irrigation reform more reduction, and sustainable resources management. broadly. The emphasis is often on revamping the governance, management, and financing of water supply. Drainage is conspicuous by its absence.3 Broadview Water District in the U.S. state of California provides an example in which the anticipation of environmental restrictions on drainage water quality and quantity was an important factor for introducing institutional innovations in irrigation management--a tiered volumetric water pricing system in this case (Wichelns 1991, 3For discussion of some exceptions to this blanket statement, see Wichelns and Dennis 2003; see also chapter 4). the country case studies and chapter 4 in this report. The 2 Introduction The low profile of drainage is unwarranted. Drainage Integrated Analytical Framework. DRAINFRAME is must reclaim its rightful position as an indispensable a procedure for analyzing and assessing the functions component of land and water management, not from and values embedded in a participatory planning a sectoral perspective but from an integrated process. perspective. Herein lies the resolution of the paradox. Schematic presentations of tools for decisionmaking and planning processes carry the danger of suggesting Main Message that reality can be easily engineered.4 The travails of water sector reform of the last decades testify to the The main message of this report is that drainage must contrary. The strategic approach advocated in this be viewed and handled from an integrated document is much more modest than any strong form perspective. This has four implications: of social engineering. It suggests a "pragmatic but principled" approach that starts from good § Acknowledging the diversity of drainage understanding of present situations and identifies situations and the need for regionally and locally opportunities for "context-specific, prioritized, specific planning and intervention methods for sequenced, realistic and patient" movement in the drainage institutions and technology "integrated" direction. These formulations are taken § Mapping the multifunctionality of landscapes from the World Bank's Water Resources Sector influenced by drainage and the plurality of values Strategy paper (World Bank 2003: v­vii), and the that stakeholders attribute to these functions present document on drainage can be regarded as an operationalization of this strategy paper and the § Evolving institutions for governance, World Bank's rural development and environment management, and financing of agricultural strategies (World Bank 2003b, 2001a).5 drainage as well as (re)designing physical interventions and technical infrastructure from The drainage sector can perhaps turn its the perspective of multifunctionality and plurality predominantly technical and agricultural orientation of values and its lack of status in water sector policy and practice to advantage by leapfrogging toward an § Drafting policies that create environments integrated perspective. It may not be hindered to the conducive to change and which empower actors same extent as perhaps the irrigation sector is by the to make the necessary changes. existence of powerful sector hydrocracies oriented An integrated approach to drainage can be developed mainly toward their own organizational survival and by means of systematic mapping of the functions of by more than two decades of debate and pilot projects natural resources systems and the values attributed to regarding farmer participation and management these functions by people. "Functions" is a concept turnover. The authors of this report hope to show the summarizing the goods and services that natural direction of that leap forward. resources systems provide and perform. These functions include production functions, processing and regulation functions, carrying functions, and Structure of the Report significance functions. "Values" is the concept through which societal preferences, perceptions, and The objectives of the study, Agricultural Drainage: interests with regard to functions of resources are Toward an Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approach, summarized. These values include social, economic, were to and (temporal and spatial) environmental values. § Improve understanding of drainage systems as This mapping allows the exploration of the sociotechnical and environmental systems by implications of particular drainage interventions. It provides an analytical tool for understanding a drainage situation. It also provides a framework for 4On the limitations of sociolegal engineering in the context of irrigation and drainage development in Luwu, Indonesia, see Roth discussing and negotiating tradeoffs related to the (2003). different functions and values associated with 5For discussion, see chapter 6. The World Bank's Social drainage. In that sense, it is a communication, Development Strategy Paper has not yet been published. Our planning, and decisionmaking tool. We have called the discussion of participatory planning in chapter 3 provides the link tool DRAINFRAME, which stands for the Drainage to that thematic area. 3 Reclaiming Drainage developing, at the macro level, a typology of The first phase of the study was a set of six country drainage situations including both technical- case studies covering different drainage situations. physical and social-managerial criteria, and, at the The country studies are based on a review of the micro level, a strategy to understand and deal with literature and a field research component. The cases local diversity in the nature, function, and were Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Mexico, the organization of drainage. Netherlands, and Pakistan. Teams of international and § Document and evaluate different institutional national consultants conducted the country case models used in the drainage sector at both user studies. The process included a planning meeting in and agency levels, including an evaluation of the February 2002, a meeting of international experts to appropriateness of user organization approaches discuss the literature review and field study plan in developed in the irrigation sector, by studying May 2002, and a workshop in which draft country cases of the application of "irrigation models" in case studies were discussed in October 2002, all held drainage projects. in Wageningen, the Netherlands. Also invited to the workshop were representatives of the governments of § By generating this knowledge, contribute to the countries studied and of the World Bank, the improved design and implementation of Food and Agriculture Organization, the International interventions in the drainage sector, to meet Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation users', "managers', and funding agencies' and Drainage, Wageningen University, and the objectives to produce integrated and sustainable International Institute for Land Reclamation and drainage development. Improvement. After this introductory chapter, chapter 2 provides a After the workshop on the country case studies, a detailed problem analysis of the sector and the current writing team was composed to produce the final approach to drainage. For readers less familiar with report of the study, this report. The final report is drainage, it gives an introduction to the diverse based on the country case studies but is not a functions of drainage. Chapter 3 describes the summary of them. It sets the next step in the process: DRAINFRAME tool for functions and values what are the contours of an integrated approach to assessment and evaluation embedded in a drainage? The writing team had an intermediate participatory planning approach. The issue of meeting in April 2003 in Wageningen, the appropriate scale level for integrated drainage Netherlands, to review the early drafts of chapters and planning is also discussed. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 discuss consolidate the central concepts and approach of the drainage institutions, drainage technology, and the report. The last phase of the writing involved policy framework to see how an integrated approach streamlining the different chapters, work done mostly to drainage might be initiated from these different at the World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C., angles. Chapter 4 looks at the governance, in July 2003. After internal and external reviewers' management, and financing of drainage. Chapter 5 comments and a presentation at the Ninth International discusses how drainage technology can be reoriented Drainage Workshop, in Utrecht, the Netherlands, in toward design for multifunctionality. Chapter 6 September 2003, the report was finalized in October summarizes the policy recommendations for practical 2003. steps toward an integrated approach to drainage. The teams in all the phases of the study consisted of people with different and combined backgrounds and Process and Method disciplines: academics, consultants and policy actors; engineers, ecologists, and social scientists. The study The origins of this study lie in an inventory of was a truly interdisciplinary effort--in which there drainage institutions in developed and developing was considerable learning for the individuals involved countries undertaken as part of the Collaborative and for the teams through the intense interaction that Work Program between the World Bank's Agriculture was part of the study design. The learning process is and Rural Development Department and the ongoing. Much additional learning will occur when Irrigation and Water Engineering group at the approach proposed in this document is put into Wageningen University, the Netherlands (Pant 2000; practice. Knegt 2000). The inventory provided the base for the design of the study as described above. 4 Introduction The Country Case Studies avoids excessive referencing to the country case studies. The case studies (listed in the References Throughout this report, the source of examples and section of this report) will be published on the World other material on Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Bank website (www.worldbank.org/irrigation- Mexico, the Netherlands, and Pakistan are the country drainage). case studies unless a different reference is given. This 5 2. Agricultural Drainage: Toward an Integrated Perspective T his chapter contains the problem analysis of vector control, and flood mitigation. But it has often the report. Its main thrust is an argument for done much less well in safeguarding vital ecosystems, an integrated approach to drainage. That key environmental processes, and other resources argument proceeds in four steps: such as fisheries. Drainage has many impacts: on § Impacts and multifunctionality. The many impacts of agriculture, on public health, on the protection of drainage (agricultural, public health, protection of buildings and other rural infrastructure, and on buildings, environmental) establish the environmental services (box 2.1). Some of these importance of the notion of the multifunctionality effects are intended, but others often appear to have of natural resources systems. happened by accident. Appendix A provides an overview of some of these positive and negative § Diversity and specificity. The great diversity of effects, based on field observations drawn from the drainage situations implies that understanding country case studies that inform this report. drainage requires contextualization, and intervention demands locally and regionally The following main conclusions can be drawn from a specific approaches. review of the multiple impacts of drainage. § Drivers of change. The drivers of change toward an § Drainage can have a substantial impact on integrated approach to drainage are: the increasing agricultural production and productivity. Agricultural complexity and interdependence of water control drainage investments may have short payback systems; the intensifying clash of interests of periods, but drainage planning needs a relatively different stakeholders in such systems; changing long planning horizon and flexibility because value systems in societies; and the self-interest of drainage needs may change over time (box 2.2). the professional drainage community in § Drainage can make substantial contributions to rethinking its own position and approach. public health, drinking water supply, and sanitation. This § Anewdefinitionofdrainage.Adefinitionofdrainage potential is not generally acknowledged and that transcends the current narrow focus on depends on the quality of operation and removal of excess water for optimal crop growth maintenance of the drainage system. is presented as the starting point for an integrated § Damage to buildings and other rural infrastructurewill approach to drainage. be less when shallow water tables are under control. Improved drainage can lead to substantial property-value increases, which are usually not The Many Impacts Of Drainage taxed. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) has been § Environmental functions have often been negatively defined as "a process which promotes the coordinated affected by agricultural drainage, and drainage has development and management of water, land and also acted as a conduit for the spread of related resources, in order to maximize the resultant wastewater and other pollutants. There are some economic and social welfare in an equitable manner examples of drainage-enhancing environmental without compromising the sustainability of vital functions, but much more emphasis should be ecosystems" (GWP 2000: 22). Drainage has often put on mitigating the negative effects of drainage done well on the economic and social front. It has had and balancing its impact on production functions considerable positive effects on farm productivity, against its impact on environmental functions. 7 Reclaiming Drainage Box 2.1 Examples of drainage impacts Agricultural production. In Egypt, the annual net farm income of the traditional farm increased by US$375/ha to US$200/ha, depending on the initial level of salinity before providing subsurface drainage. With total construction costs of US$750/ha and maintenance costs of US$10/ha/year, the payback period is only three to four years. In Pakistan, crop yields increased between 27 percent and 150 percent in the Mardan project area. In Mexico, economic rates of return of the subprojects in the Program for Integrated Rural Development in the Tropical Wetlands (PRODERITH), based only on the changes in agricultural yields, varied between 14.7 percent and 21.5 percent. Public health, drinking water supply, and sanitation. Improved drainage conditions in the Netherlands helped control endemic rheumatism in rural areas. Drainage in rural areas in Egypt and Pakistan brought down the incidence of killer diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis (bilharzias). A low water table is necessary for low-cost latrines in rural settlements. Lowering water tables in the Drainage IV project area near Faisalabad, Pakistan, allowed a thin lens of fresh water to develop for domestic water supply on top of the saline groundwater. Buildings and rural infrastructure. A high water table is responsible for short service life and damage to buildings, particularly low-income housing in large parts of rural Pakistan, India, Egypt, and Mexico. Conversely, improved drainage increases the value of land, as in the humid part of Mexico under the PRODERITH program from US$7,000 to US$200,000/ha. Floods and flood control. A sufficiently lowered water table before the rainy season reduces runoff and moderates the peak flood wave. However, uncontrolled deep drainage canals may quickly transport flooding to areas downstream. Construction of embankments along main rivers in Bangladesh has had mixed impacts on soil productivity, living conditions, fish production, sediment deposition, soil fertility, water storage, and navigation. Environmental functions. On the negative side, drainage mobilizes salts and agricultural chemicals and spreads pollution caused by untreated domestic and industrial wastewater dumped into open drains in many countries. In the humid tropic lowlands of Indonesia, drainage of acid sulphate soils has caused serious damage to the valuable coastal aquatic life. In other cases, drainage has created wildlife refuge areas of great biodiversity value such as around Lake Sarykamysh near the Aral Sea. Source: Case studies. For details, see appendix B. Detailed discussion and examples are provided in some detail in appendix C, which also contains a appendix B. The overall implication is that drainage, summary table of diversity in the six country case as a human intervention in the hydrological cycle, studies. They are: affects many different functions of natural resources systems, and thereby has multiple impacts on society. § Drainage for agriculture has to serve many Exclusive focus on the impact of drainage on different users. agricultural productivity is unwarranted.6 § Drainage systems affect many functions of resources systems and multiple sectors in society. Diversity in Drainage Situations § Thescaleofdrainagesystemsvarieswidely. § Historical development leads to diverse drainage To what kind of situations does the term "drainage" solutions. refer? Study of drainage practices around the world reveals an overwhelming diversity in drainage § The main environmental factors that lead to situations, reaching far beyond the conventional image diversity are climate and seasonality, slope and of drainage as an add-on to irrigation in semi-arid altitude, soil characteristics, groundwater regions. Six main diversifying factors are described in characteristics, biological diversity, and ecological processes. § Diversity in social and economic circumstances 6The concepts of effects and impacts, functions and values, and (prosperity and values, distribution of power and resources systems and society, are central to the framework cultural background, sociopolitical structure) leads developed in chapter 3 and are discussed there in detail. to diversity in drainage systems. 8 Agricultural Drainage: Toward an Integrated Perspective Box 2.2 The long-term perspective of drainage planning Assessing drainage benefits often requires a long-term perspective. The government lowland development program in Indonesia is an example. In the first stage of this program, swampland was opened, particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, as part of the transmigration program. This program settled poor farmers from densely populated Java in the outer islands. Minimal drainage was provided, and the emphasis was on land clearing and land settlement. After soils had ripened and a considerable change in land levels had occurred, permanent structures for controlled drainage could be installed. In the second stage of swamp development, crop yields at least doubled, and anecdotal evidence suggests further increases over time. The usual five-year planning scale associated with projects does not work in this case. The control of waterlogging in fresh groundwater areas in Pakistan is another example of the need for long planning horizons. High water tables were combated with investment in vertical drainage wells under a series of Salinity Control and Reclamation projects (SCARPs). When the worst was over and water tables had dropped, a new equilibrium set in, with farmers in the formerly waterlogged areas pumping fresh groundwater to supplem ent canal water supplies. This kept the water table in check and allowed closure of public vertical wells (which operated at a very high cost to the exchequer) in most of the fresh groundwater zones. Source: Indonesia and Pakistan case studies. The overall conclusion that can be drawn from the residential areas put ever-larger demands on an review is that drainage situations exhibit very underfunded drainage system. substantial diversity in terms of the elements listed A second force pulling drainage into an integrated above. The wide diversity in drainage situations encountered across the world and the variety of water management perspective is the conflict of interests factors causing it, show that "drainage" is a container in many water management systems where drainage plays a central role. As water resources systems concept. Talking about drainage in general is therefore pointless--both at an analytical level and at an become integrated and competition for resources intervention level. A context-specific approach is increases, these clashes intensify. The flood control and drainage systems in Bangladesh are an example. required for both analysis and intervention. What one group considers inadequate drainage, another group considers water storage. An irrigation Drivers of Change reservoir for farmers is another group's fishing ground. The development of flood control-cum- What are the likely factors that will help drainage drainage infrastructure affected these relations in a move toward an integrated approach? A number of complex manner. drivers are pushing drainage to the center of A third driver has triggered a different, nonsectoral integrated land and water resources management. The perspective on drainage: the change in the weighting of first driver is the increasing complexity of water control different drainage impacts. As economies develop, values systems. The interlinkage and interdependence are assigned different priorities. Food self-sufficiency between different water uses increases rapidly when and agricultural development become less important. water use intensifies. The policy and practice of reuse With urbanization, different demands are put on the in Egypt is an example. With an extensive drainage water control systems. In West European countries, network in place, drains are increasingly used to flood protection, recreation, and ecology have gained convey municipal and industrial effluents. The same the upper hand. water is pumped back into irrigation canals, where it is used for irrigation. In some places, the same canal is A last (but not least) driver toward integrated also a source of drinking water. Another example of resources management derives from drainage's loss of growing complexity is Java, Indonesia. As land use luster in recent years (chapter 1). As a result, the condenses and uplands continue to suffer from professional drainage community has to rethink its position and degradation, increased surface runoff, land perspective and stage a rescue operation. In spite of subsidence, and conversion of flood plains into increases in agricultural productivity and circumstantial improvements in public health, 9 Reclaiming Drainage drainage has been associated mostly with departments), in education curriculums (typically part environmental fallout. Its bad reputation was further of agricultural engineering faculties), and research tarnished by several ill-conceived mega-interventions orientation (emphasis on perfecting agricultural such as the problematic Left Bank Outfall Drain in drainage technology). Sindh, Pakistan, the megalomaniacal One Million- Current definitions of drainage also proclaim this Hectare project in Kalimantan, Indonesia, and the drying of the coastal marshlands in Iraq for single objective. The closest thing to an official counterinsurgency. Unlike some other water sectors, definition is in the Constitution of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID). It drainage has no sympathetic lobby to argue for balanced drainage development and no reads: nongovernmental organization or civil society Land drainage is the removal of excess organization positively engaged in drainage. Drainage surface and subsurface water from the land professionals out-competed irrigation professionals in including the removal of soluble salts, to a narrow view of their métier, and there has been no enhance crop growth. path-breaking research. Agricultural drainage as it was This definition, in different wordings, is often practiced reached the end of the tether, and funding repeated (e.g., Pearce and Denecke 2001). It may suit for drainage projects has nearly dried up. There is an the description of "agricultural" drainage, but it does urgent professional and political need for drainage to injustice to the other objectives and effects of reconstruct itself by moving away from exclusive drainage in rural areas as described above.7 Many of association with a single sector into a central position these objectives and effects are not marginal, and their in the context of integrated land and water resources impact may sometimes be similar in magnitude to the management. improvement of agricultural productivity. Moreover, In short, the drivers of change toward an integrated by its nature, the "agricultural" definition is limited to approach to drainage are: the increasing complexity of the evacuation of excess water. But drainage also water control systems; the conflicts of interest in serves to maintain water tables and store and retain many water management systems; new priorities in soil water. We propose the following alternative land and water management shaped by changing definition of drainage in rural areas: societal values; and the need for the professional Drainage is land and water management drainage community to rethink its position and through the processes of removing excess perspective. surface water and managing shallow water tables--by retaining and removing water--to Redefining Drainage: Toward an achieve an optimal mix of economic and Integrated Perspective social benefits while safeguarding key ecological functions. We have seen that a broader, integrated perspective This broad definition allows an integrated perspective on agricultural drainage is a necessity because drainage on drainage to be developed. Integration, as is relevant for many functions of land and water understood in this report, is not the development of a resources systems. Due to the great diversity of fully articulated model of "ideal water resources drainage situations--in space, time, and otherwise--a management" without any loose ends. Instead, context-specific approach is needed in both analysis integration is meant as a move toward developing and interventions. alliances with compatible interests in water resources Drainage in rural areas, however, has long focused on management and creating bargaining space for a single sector--agriculture--and drainage programs conflicting interests. Drainage has to break out of its have been undertaken with a single objective--to improve agricultural productivity. Debate on opening up drainage within the professional drainage 7In urban drainage, the prevailing narrow focus on managing community has been lively, but many long-standing flooding and pollution is also being questioned. Urban drainage liaisons are still manifest. They show up in investment also serves several other objectives--enhancing the urban environment, aquaculture, safeguarding the natural environment, priorities (agricultural areas), in institutional settings recreation, malaria control, water supply for multiple uses, (usually linked with irrigation or agricultural groundwater management, and defense (Reed, Parkinson, and Nalubega 2001). 10 Agricultural Drainage: Toward an Integrated Perspective isolation caused by narrow agricultural perspectives § Improving the scientific knowledge base through and make itself instrumental in meeting many a major shift in the focus of the scientific different objectives and interests. community toward the fields of sustainability, Integration will mean different things in different multifunctionality, and stakeholder representation contexts, but in every context drainage would benefit in governance and decisionmaking. from being looked at from an integrated perspective. A basic implication of such an integrated rather than a Integrated management of drainage would mean: sector perspective is that drainage is also seen as part § Acknowledging the multiple objectives served by of the entire natural resources management system. the management of shallow water tables and the Drainage should no longer be assessed only as a disposal of excess surface water, and the need to single-purpose instrument with positive and negative maintain the resources system over time impacts on other functions, as was common in (resources sustainability) agricultural drainage. It should be assessed in terms of optimization of the multiple functions and values § Adapting drainage interventions to the natural produced by the natural resources system. With this resources system, taking into account the diversity change in perspective, the unit of analysis needs to be of drainage situations and trying to optimize the enlarged, too, to the "agricultural production system," goods and services produced by the natural beyond the conventional focus on singular "drainage resources system (planning and managing systems" as in irrigation systems or polders. This diversity and multifunctionality) larger unit should be coextensive with the area § Instituting inclusive forms of (drainage) affected by the various functions of drainage. This can governance and decisionmaking with be a river basin, subbasin, landscape unit, command representation of the different stakeholders area, or a combination of these. A framework for an (democratization) integrated approach to drainage is the subject of the next chapter. 11 3. Functions, Values, and Participatory Planning at Landscape Level A new definition of drainage was proposed in approaches for natural resources management chapter 2 as the basis for an integrated and sustainable human development.9 perspective on drainage. This integrated While the first component (effect and impact analysis approach to drainage requires new tools for analysis and planning. This chapter describes the contours of of an intervention) provides the substance for the an integrated approach to drainage, which we have second, the second component (participatory planning) is required to allow effective application of called DRAINFRAME (Drainage Integrated Analytical Framework).8 DRAINFRAME is a the first. The two components thus have to go procedure for analyzing and assessing functions and together. The elaboration of DRAINFRAME as a tool therefore requires answers to two questions: values embedded in a participatory planning process. The systematic mapping of the functions of (the § How can a functions and values analysis and goods and services provided by) natural resources assessment be done in the context of drainage? systems and the values attributed to these functions § How can this exercise be incorporated in a by people, and the exploration of the implications of particular drainage interventions, are the analytical participatory planning process? component of the tool. DRAINFRAME also § A third question arises from the answers to the provides a framework for discussing and negotiating first two: At which scale or level can or should tradeoffs related to the different functions and values DRAINFRAME be applied? directly related to and influenced by drainage. This is the communication, planning, and decisionmaking support component of the tool. Functions and Values Analysis and Assessment DRAINFRAME combines and applies to drainage two sets of theory and practice: This section describes an analytical tool that provides § Recent work on environmental and social impact guidance in identifying the multiple functions of assessment that allows systematic and natural resources, helps with assessing the way in comprehensive analysis of the effects and impacts which drainage interventions affect these functions, of interventions in natural resources systems shows which economic, social, and ecological values these functions represent, and identifies which § Recent work on the process dimensions of stakeholders are involved. The latter element provides participatory planning, adaptive management, the bridge to the second dimension of the comanagement, and other participatory DRAINFRAME tool, participatory planning, discussed in the next section. 8The best acronym would be DRAIN-IN-A-FRAME, which 9Our shorthand "participatory planning" thus refers to the whole conveys the gist of the approach nicely but is somewhat unwieldy. policy and intervention process, not just to one phase of it, as We shortened it to DRAINFRAME. "planning" would suggest to some. 13 Reclaiming Drainage Box 3.1 Environmental functions--the supply of goods and services Nature provides many functions, representing goods and services that humans can exploit. Four categories of environmental functions can be distinguished. Processing and regulation functions. These functions relate to the maintenance of life support systems on Earth. These functions are often not recognized until they are disturbed. Some examples linked to drainage are: buffering of flood peaks in wetland systems, recharge of groundwater reservoirs by infiltration, recycling of organic matter and pollutants as a natural water-cleaning mechanism, maintenance of migration and nursery habitats for fish, maintenance of biological diversity, trapping of sediments in floodplains, regulation of fresh and saltwater balance in estuaries, river mouths, and coastal aquifers, and regulation of biological control mechanisms. Carrying functions. The availability of space together with a particular set of environmental conditions associated with that space make an area suitable for performing certain functions for nature or for humans. Examples include: suitability of an area for human habitation and settlement, waterways for navigation, sites for energy conversion (e.g., hydropower reservoirs), sites for recreational activities. Production functions. These functions are goods generated by nature, which, by investing time and energy, man can harvest (natural production functions), or biological products (animal or plant) produced in ways that involve active management and inputs by people (nature-based human production functions). Examples include: soil productivity for cultivation of crops, water as a harvestable resource, fisheries, animal husbandry, aquaculture, timber, and firewood. Significance functions. Nature provides opportunities for spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, and recreation. Examples include: esthetic information (scenery, landscape), spiritual and religious information (religious sites, emotional attachment), historic information (historic and archaeological elements), cultural and artistic information (inspiration for folklore, music, dance, art), educational and scientific information (natural science classes, research, environmental indicators). Source: Adapted from de Groot 1991. Functions and values resources and social relations are concretely managed. The interaction among the three subsystems is Functions is a concept that summarizes what the goods graphically represented in figure 3.1. and services are that natural resources systems provide and perform. These functions include production § The resources subsystem performs functions that functions, processing and regulation functions, provide multiple goods and services used by carrying functions, and significance functions (box society. In river valleys, for example, nature 3.1). Values is the concept through which societal provides appreciated functions such as productive preferences, perceptions, and interests with regard to soils and water for farming but may also provide functions provided by natural resources are less appreciated functions such as floodwater summarized. These values are social, economic, and storage when it leads to flood-related damage. (temporal and spatial) ecological values (box 3.2). Agricultural drainage is intended to enhance the productivity functions, while flood control and Detailed examples, based on the country case studies, open drainage channels may counteract flood of the effects of drainage interventions on functions damage. Natural resources systems are thus of the water resources system, and of the respective multifunctional. impacts on values for different stakeholders are included in appendix D. § Inthe societal subsystem,groupsofpeoplevaluethe goods and services provided by the natural A systemic perspective resources subsystem and thus become A systemic perspective is necessary for analysis and stakeholders10 in natural resources management. assessment of functions and values pertinent to drainage. Functions and values are properties and attributes of combined natural resources and social 10Stakeholders are direct beneficiaries of functions such as farmers systems. Drainage is a distinct activity, a specific land (soil productivity) or fisherfolk (productivity of aquatic resources), and water control subsystem through which natural but also include distant beneficiaries (e.g., foreign tourists or urban inhabitants dependent on water supply from elsewhere or 14 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level Box 3.2 Values--the demand for goods and services Social values refer to the quality of life in its broadest sense and can be expressed in many different terms such as health and safety, housing and living conditions, and the value of the environment as a source of in-kind income, religious, and cultural values. Economic values are related to both the direct values (such as the monetary value of agricultural produce) and the inputs in the production of other goods and services (such as water for irrigation; water storage in floodplains reducing downstream flood damage). Environmental values refer to the value that society places on or derives from the maintenance of the Earth's life support systems. They come in two forms. Temporal environmental values refer to the potential future benefits that can be derived from biological diversity and key ecological processes that maintain the world's life support systems for future generations. Spatial environmental values refer to the interactions of ecosystems with other systems, performing functions for their maintenance. Examples of spatial values include: coastal lagoons and mangroves that serve as breeding grounds for marine fish, thus supporting an economic activity elsewhere; wintering areas for migratory birds; flood plains that recharge groundwater aquifers for neighboring dry lands or act as a silt trap, preventing downstream siltation of rivers and reservoirs. Source: Adapted from Slootweg et al. 2001. A function of a landscape is not recognized (i.e., equilibrium in supply and demand, now and in the valued) by society as long as it does not have future. Perceived imbalances in this equilibrium stakeholders. The value these goods and services prompt individuals and organizations to act by represent for society can be expressed in managing either the supply from nature or the economic, sociocultural, or ecological terms. demand from society.11 § The specific land and water control subsystem, Threats and opportunities for including drainage, consists of: institutional development arrangements (laws and regulations; policy instruments--like permits, subsidies, and quotas; Figure 3.1 depicts how the need for institutional financial and administrative arrangements; and arrangements, technology, and infrastructure and for functional organizations); technology and knowledge and human resources capacity is triggered infrastructure (like dikes, drainage canals, and by a perceived disequilibrium in the relation between pipes); and knowledge and human resources supply and demand. The demand for goods and capacity (scientific and local). services from nature may surpass the available supply, leading to a present or expected future problem (e.g., Figure 3.1 Linkages and interactions of the overexploitation or degradation of resources or three subsystems of the socioecological system insufficient supply), or the potential supply may be Figure 3.1 shows, in economic terminology, that larger than what is actually being used, constituting a society constitutes the demand side, and the resources development potential. Perceived imbalances thus constitute the supply side. Sustainability refers to an include both threats and opportunities for development. discharge effluent to go somewhere), or indirect beneficiaries such 11We are aware that both equilibrium and sustainability are as nature conservation nongovernmental organizations. We do not contested concepts. However, for our purposes, the exact enter into the nomenclature of stakeholders and interest groups in meaning is not crucial. The central point is the dynamics: action this report. For this, see the literature on "participation." triggered by perceived imbalances and unsustainability. 15 Reclaiming Drainage Figure 3.1 Linkages and interactions of the three subsystems of the socioecological system Resources subsystem Perceived Societal subsystem · Water resources imbalances in · Agriculture · Land resources supply and · Public water supply · Climate Functions demand Values · Fisheries · Biological resources Supply require Demand · Nature conservation intervention trigger Land and water control subsystem ­ functions and responds through Supply Institutions Demand management · Legal arrangements management · Financial arrangements · Functional organizations Technology · Physical Infrastructure Knowledge and human capacity · Information and communication · Scientific and local knowledge Source: Adapted from Slootweg, Vanclay and van Schooten 2001. An example of a threat is that waterlogging and salinity Other demand management interventions include in irrigated systems in semi-arid regions like Egypt water pricing, policies and regulations for pollution and Pakistan can reduce soil productivity and the control, and tax measures. Management organizations supply of agricultural products. Decreasing the supply can be national, regional, or local authorities using of agricultural products can trigger responses by their formal instruments and regulations, or they can individual producers, policymakers, and line agencies. be traditional chieftains or village elders using Drainage interventions in the resources subsystem can traditional techniques and customary laws. In a enhance soil productivity to increase agricultural globalized world, international agencies that exert output. An example of an opportunity is the lack of effective control over human activities could also be exploitation of some functions of the natural included such as the Framework Convention on environment, as is the case with the agricultural Climate Change or the Convention on Biological potential of the humid tropical regions of Mexico and Diversity. (See chapter 4 for further discussion of the the outer islands of Indonesia. Agricultural drainage institutional dimensions of drainage.) interventions can enhance soil productivity by reducing flood damage in Mexico and by soil ripening Multifunctionality and optimization in Indonesia. of drainage interventions In both examples, agricultural drainage is a Planning drainage interventions requires awareness of management intervention in the resources subsystem. the diversity of functions of the intervention area and As depicted in figure 3.1, the land and water control the multiple stakeholders who may directly or subsystem can also intervene in the societal subsystem indirectly, positively or negatively, be affected by the by managing the demand for goods and services. For intervention, "on-site" and "off-site." The example, the creation of water user organizations can methodology proposed is systematic mapping of the further effective water distribution, thus reducing the effects and impacts of drainage interventions. risk of overirrigation, waterlogging, and excess salinity. 16 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level The conceptual difference between "effect" and § Which measures are taken to prevent, mitigate, or "impact" is that an effect can be predicted, modeled, compensate negative consequences and enhance and measured and does not depend on society's potential positive impacts? recognition or appreciation. Biophysical effects (resulting from changes in the biophysical resources Figure 3.2 presents a series of analytical steps that provides relevant information to answer the first four induced by human intervention or otherwise) affect functions of a resources system, thus changing the questions (steps 1 to 6). quantity and quality of goods and services provided by Step 1. Each analysis starts with a description of a that system. If stakeholders benefit from these goods (proposed) drainage intervention, a physical and services, the impact that is "felt" (recognized and intervention in a landscape, to remedy a problem valued). Impacts, in contrast to effects, depend on the or capture an opportunity. context. The impact cannot be determined without Two examples from case studies are given in appendix identifying and consulting stakeholders. This D: subsurface drainage for waterlogging and salinity differentiation in the meaning of the terms "effect" control, and conveyance of drainage water in Egypt and "impact" is not widely used, but it is important (example 1), and embankments for flood protection in for functions and values assessment. Bangladesh (example 2). This report focuses on the assessment of effects and Step 2. Drainage intervention results in physical impacts of physical drainage interventions. The method or biological changes in the natural resources of derives from environmental impact assessment. an area. These biophysical changes may Slootweg, Vanclay, and van Schooten (2001 and 2003) influence soils, water, air, flora, and fauna (first describe the underlying theoretical framework. question). Slootweg, van Schooten, and Vanclay (2003) describe the methodology for assessing potential change For example, subsurface drainage leads to a lowering processes and impacts that may result from of the groundwater table; embankments reduce or (proposed) social or institutional interventions. However, eliminate floods in the embanked area. this potential of the tool still needs to be fully Step 3. Each (biophysical) change can lead to elaborated to allow practical use in drainage contexts. secondary and higher order biophysical changes For the assessment of the effects and impacts of (second question). drainage interventions, some questions, derived from Lowering of groundwater tables can lead to reduced environmental impact assessment methodology, must salinity, improved aeration and soil fertility, and better be answered. accessibility of soils for heavy equipment. Increased § Which chain of events leads from the proposed moisture capacity in the soil profile can dampen flood drainage activity to positive or negative, intended peaks. Reduced flooding in an embanked area can or unintended, biophysical effects and societal lead to increased flooding downstream of the impacts? Can these be predicted? embanked area. § Cansecondandhigherordereffectsbeidentified? Step 4. Biophysical effects have a geographical range in which their influence is noticeable. The § Apart from on-site effects in the drainage effects may extend beyond the boundaries of the intervention area, may off-site effects outside the drained area (third question). area also be expected? Many effects can be noticed only in the area where § Which stakeholders are affected and how? What drainage is carried out (on-site effects; for example role do they play in the analysis (participation) and soil quality improvement). Effects related to water how are their preferences and interests taken into flows often go beyond the boundaries of a system account? ("off-site effects"). Examples of off-site changes are § Withintheobjectivesofthedrainageintervention, lowering of groundwater tables in agricultural land can alternative solutions be identified that result that leads to lowering of water tables in neighboring in reduction of negative impacts or enhancement settlement areas; discharge of saline drainage effluent of positive impacts? that affects areas at the outfall of the drainage system; and transport and disposal of agrochemicals into water-receiving bodies. Biophysical changes and 17 Reclaiming Drainage Figure 3.2 Stepwise, iterative analysis of (proposed) drainage interventions Drainage situation-- problem or opportunity 1. Describe drainage intervention 2. Describe changes in the natural resource system: air, water, soil, flora, fauna 3. Describe secondary and higher order changes 4. Determine geographical and time range of changes 5. Identify affected landscape(s) 6. Identify affected functions and their respective stakeholders; assess impacts on economic, social, and ecological values 8. Define possible 9. Define mitigation alternative No Yes measures for solutions. 7. Appraise impacts-- acceptable? residual impacts. Discuss and negotiate tradeoffs. Implement Source: Authors. effects can be predicted and modeled by experts like becomes heavily polluted from drainage water hydrologists, soil scientists, ecologists, and others pumped in upstream. (chapter 5). Biophysical effects take a long time to build up and develop impacts. Groundwater rise Step 6. after identifying the areas and resources under irrigation schemes may proceed for many years systems that may be affected, their functions can be identified. Subsequently, stakeholders of these before it affects crop yields and farmers' livelihoods. These time-bound processes also have to be analyzed. functions can be identified, and positive and negative impacts for society at large can be Step 5. Afer assessing the biophysical changes assessed (fourth question). and their range of influence, the areas and systems influenced and shaped by these effects In Egypt, the improved soil fertility through drainage can be identified (third question). that resulted in increased agricultural productivity (function) and higher incomes for producers (value), In Egypt the saline drainage water reused for has farmers as direct stakeholders, but also perhaps, irrigation affects agricultural areas outside the drained indirectly, urban food consumers when productivity area. The quality of drainage water conveyed to increases reduce unit prices. A lower groundwater coastal lagoons affects their functions. In Bangladesh, table in neighboring settlement areas that resulted in floodwater affects downstream areas. In Pakistan, better living conditions and reduced transmission of seepage from evaporation ponds affects underlying diseases (both functions), leading to reduced damage groundwater reservoirs. Water in the downstream to properties (economic value) and better health for reaches of the Amu Darya River (Uzbekistan) people (social and economic value), has rural inhabitants in general or particular segments as main 18 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level stakeholders, depending on how the effects are these are the carriers of the different values, and to distributed spatially and socially. In Bangladesh, the the iterative character of the process. The latter reduction of local floods that leads to higher implies that the process requires interaction, productivity (function) and higher farmer income communication, and negotiation by the different (value) but which also results in lower fisheries stakeholders regarding the planned interventions. The potential (function) and a consequent loss of fisheries idea of participatory planning is thus implicit in the income (value) has farmers and fisherfolk as main methodology. stakeholders with conflicting interests. Downstream the stakeholder antagonism is reversed, as the Participation and planning opposite impact occurs where increased floods lead to We have chosen the term "participatory planning" to agricultural damage and reduced farmer income, but refer to a series of approaches that emphasize increases in fisheries income. stakeholder involvement in decisionmaking for natural This assessment of functions and values by resources development and management. Without stakeholders requires an institutional framework and advocating any particular approach, we focus on the process. (This is discussed below under participatory central features of participatory planning processes. planning). The results of this analysis help to answer The precise features of a process are context specific the fifth and sixth questions on the development of and need to be designed on site. Implicit, and often alternative solutions and the design of mitigation explicit, in many participatory planning approaches is measures (steps 7 to 9). the adoption of the subsidiarity principle, that governance and management of natural resources Step 7. After the assessment of steps 1 to 6, a should be done at the lowest appropriate level. The decision has to be reached through discussion two--stakeholder participation and subsidiarity-- and negotiation among stakeholders. come together in Dublin Principle No. 2.12 Box 3.4 Stakeholders will agree on which positive impacts are briefly discusses the evolution of the concept of desirable and may need further enhancement, which participation as a background to what follows. negative impacts are acceptable, and which impacts To describe its features, participatory planning can need to be avoided or mitigated. usefully be contrasted with traditional planning Step 8. In case of severe or unacceptable approaches. Some of the main characteristics of outcomes or impacts, alternative solutions can be participatory planning are decentralization, sought. inclusiveness, situation specificity, and dialogue-based negotiation, while traditional planning is characterized This implies that an iterative process will start in by centralization, exclusion, standardization, and which the analytical steps above are repeated as expert-controlled decisonmaking (appendix F). Such depicted in figure 3.2, for alternative intervention dichotomous descriptions tend toward caricature and designs, trying to find an alternative with impacts bad vs. good positions, but nevertheless the contrast more acceptable to the stakeholders. adequately suggests the overall features of Step 9. In a careful project design, many negative participatory planning. In the context of impacts may be avoided or reduced. DRAINFRAME, the main point is the involvement However, in actuality, drainage interventions usually of multiple stakeholders in an iterative learning and have some unavoidable negative impacts. If their decisionmaking process. consequences are unacceptable, they have to be mitigated or compensated (box 3.3). The Process Dimension of DRAINFRAME: Participatory Planning The description above of the functions and values analysis and assessment methodology makes reference 12 to the need to involve the different stakeholders, as The Dublin Principles can be found on the Global Water Partnership website (www.gwp.org). 19 Reclaiming Drainage Box 3.3 Dealing with alternatives The first step after problem definition is usually the best place to develop alternatives--thinking in terms of solving the problem. In practice, however, a ministry usually defines a solution, and proposes a plan with a set of activities, in line with its sector mandate (such as increase in agricultural output formulated by the ministry of irrigation). At best, a few alternatives to the project are proposed. More commonly, only one project alternative is proposed, whose assessment can only suggest alternative activities or mitigating measures. The figure below shows levels at which alternatives can be defined, with examples in parentheses. Problem (food security) (increasedSolution 1 (income generating activities) Solution 2 agricultural output) ...... Solution alternatives Alternative 1 (intensification through Alternative 2 drainage measures) (irrigation expansion) ........................ Project alternatives Activity 1 .................................. Alternative activities (vertical drainage) Activity 2 (horizontal drainage) (with additional mitigation measures) The following levels of options can be distinguished: § Problemsolutions.Anintersectoralapproachisneeded. § Projectalternatives.Withinthesamesolution(sector)differentprojectscanbeenvisaged. § Alternative activities. Different activities can be envisaged to obtain the same results, for example, an alternative location or technology. § Mitigation measures. Activities cannot be changed, but remedial measures can be taken to counteract negative impacts of these activities. Thinking in terms of alternative problem solutions is rare in practice. Source: Authors. A good starting point for designing a methodology for assumes a "level playing field," in which all groups participatory drainage planning is to follow the and individuals within a territory understand that detailed procedure for achieving comanagement of cooperation is in the interest of all, needs to be natural resources (appendix G) as described by achieved, and may require great effort. However, it Borrini-Feyerabend and others (2000).13 Central to the may not always be possible. Participatory planning is comanagement approach, from an institutional or not just a methodology but a political process in planning perspective, is the negotiation of options and which different interests have to be balanced. This strategies by the stakeholders.14 This approach requires a repertoire of conflict-resolution methods and strategies for empowering excluded and underprivileged stakeholder groups.15 13The document can be downloaded from www.ecoregen.com/com/share_ex/uploaded/man_Nat.pdf . 14The theoretical basis for the centrality of negotiation lies in the fact that the resources and people systems under discussion are 15 Borrini-Feyerabend and others (2000:13) specify the basic inherently open systems. "In open systems, the lack of a sovereign conditions under which comanagement can work and, by arbiter means that questions of due process must be solved by implication, participatory planning generally. These conditions negotiation, rules and procedures, case precedent, etc." (Star include "full access to information on relevant issues and topics, 1989:43, referring to Hewitt 1988). freedom and capacity to organize, freedom to express needs and concerns, a nondiscriminatory social environment, the will of 20 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level Box 3.4 Participation countries, the irrigation and drainage sector hardly has a practice of "change management"16 at the level of The "participation" debate and practice has come a water resources agencies and ministries through long way since the 1970s, when Rapid Rural Appraisal designed social and institutional learning processes.17 (RRA) marked the beginning of the participatory Most attempts at institutional transformation have development paradigm. (RRA approaches were preceded taken linear approaches to planning, particularly by community development approaches in the 1960s through the instrument of conditions attached to (Esman and Uphoff 1984). RRA was mainly a consultative loans, and have focused more on outcomes than on data-collection exercise, focusing on expert-driven process. An example is the considerable energy changes in the physical environment. It was overtaken by invested in the development of (normative) models of the concept of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) which river basin organizations but the limited attention sought to develop practical ways to support decentralized given to the process of how to move toward such planning and democratic decisionmaking, to value social organizations, given the sector's institutional setup. diversity, to work toward sustainability, and to enhance Nevertheless, the interest in basin-level organization community participation and empowerment. This evolved and initiatives for multistakeholder dialogues, into emphasis on collaborative learning and platforms, and institutions for governance and empowerment and became critical of the "project mode." management of water resources may signal an It was also realized that totally "bottom-up" approaches increasing focus on participatory forms of water have limitations. Still, Allen (2001: chapter 2) states "in the resources planning. After all, participatory planning main, application of contemporary approaches to improve fits seamlessly into the notion of integrated water participation still fails to grasp the nature of the rapidly resources management (box 3.5). evolving social forces that are driving natural resources management systems today." In recent years fundamental To design participatory planning approaches for the questions have been asked about the participation DRAINFRAME tool, the following questions have to paradigm (for a short overview, see Cornwall 2002; Cooke be answered: and Kothari 2000; and Mosse, Farrington, and Rew 2001). § Which methodology (phases, steps, techniques) This particularly means that the issues of power, politics, will be adopted for participatory planning of and rights take center stage. In a recent strategy paper, drainage interventions? the U.K. development agency (DfID), for example, recasts development as "a process of political struggle over § Howwillcivicengagementinthedifferentphases priorities and access to resources" (Cornwall 2002: 7). of the planning and management cycle be Thus, embarking on a participatory planning trajectory enhanced and how will excluded and cannot responsibly be done without an awareness of the underprivileged groups be empowered or many ambiguities of the "formulaic approaches" to "invited empower themselves for participation on participation." reasonable terms?18 Source: Authors § Which locations and situations would allow experimentation with such an approach with a Participatory planning for drainage reasonable chance of success (i.e., are there situations with a favorable or enabling The irrigation and drainage sector has produced environment for participatory drainage planning)? methodologies for participatory approaches at the local level, particularly regarding water user associations. These focus mostly on irrigation. 16On change management, see de Caluwé and Vermaak (2002). Examples looking specifically at drainage are rare, but For the example of a Change Management Forum for sustainable some are discussed in chapter 4. In developing urban water and sanitation in India, see www.silsoe.cranfield.ac.uk/iwe/projects/cmf/. 17For examples of contested irrigation reform, policy formulation and implementation, and the associated institutional partners to negotiate, and confidence in the respect of transformations, see Mollinga and Bolding (forthcoming). On the agreements." In few situations, if any, are these conditions effort in Egypt by the International Water Management Institute, completely fulfilled. Acknowledging that many societies have large see Merrey (1998). power disparities, the authors therefore also suggest, "Whether an above-board dialogue and confrontation is the best strategy to 18The case of participatory budgeting is an interesting one to protect the interests of the less privileged groups can be assessed illustrate the importance of organized civic engagement (Wagle only within a specific context" (ibid.:14). and Shah 2002). 21 Reclaiming Drainage Box 3.5 Participatory planning in the water sector In many industrial countries, "change management" in the water sector is a rare and new phenomenon but does exist. Examples of tools for participatory planning and decisionmaking developed in the United States are the Decision Process Guidebook: How to Get Things Done on the web site of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (www.usbr.gov/pmts/guide) and the 200-page "how-to" guide of the Army Corps of Engineers, Institute for Water Resources, for "shared vision planning" applied to "Managing Water for Drought" (www.drought.unl.edu/plan/handbook/nds8.pdf). From a developing-country perspective, these guides may read like highly idealized and unrealistic proposals for planning processes, but they do contain useful material for designing locally specific approaches. § Such methodologies are not necessarily implemented unproblematically, however, in the countries where they are designed. The U.S. Decision Process Guidebook puts politics at the center of the decision process, and the emergence of such guidebooks is at least partially the product of a conflict-ridden water resources history. There are also examples of highly institutionalized and regulated forms of consultative and participatory approaches, like land and water resources planning in the Netherlands, which local stakeholder groups find too constrictive, inflexible, and needing more room for local initiative. The Overdiep polder (Netherlands) provides such a case. Anticipating the implications of new national water management policies but years ahead of the formal procedures, farmers collectively and on their own initiative designed a plan for flood retention in their polder in an attempt to bypass years of bureaucratic deadlock. "Official" participation has become too bureaucratized in the perception of the direct stakeholders. § Theelementsorphasesoftheparticipatorydrainageplanningandmanagementcyclecould,forexample, be modeled after Scheumann's work on waterlogging and salinization (Scheumann 1997). She distinguishes five "action arenas" (ibid.:214­20): planning and design; investment decisions; executing investments; operation and maintenance; and groundwater and salinization control at farm level. This is specific to situations with irrigation-induced waterlogging and salinity and would have to be adapted for cases where drainage serves other purposes. For each of these "arenas," participatory planning and civic engagement methodologies could be developed. Performance monitoring should be part of each of them. Source: Authors. These three questions require locally specific answers. Large river basins A more general, fourth, question is "At which scale level should participatory planning for drainage be River basins are delineated by hydrological pitched?" or "What is the logical unit for participatory boundaries. Water is the dominant resource, and planning of integrated drainage interventions?" water-related functions are the subject of national and Although the DRAINFRAME tool can theoretically international negotiations and treaties. In the context be applied at any level, we suggest that the landscape of a basin or similar hydrological units, interrelated level is the most appropriate one. issues can be addressed of both quantity and quality of surface water and groundwater, its extraction and use, and the disposal and reuse of drainage effluents. The Issue of Scale for Analysis and The basin might be the appropriate planning level for Planning the highly interconnected tasks of land drainage (main The analysis of the country case studies suggests that drainage situations can be defined at four different scale levels: the basin, the hydroecological region, the in the large diversity of drainage situations (chapter 2). The development of typologies of drainage situations was a stated landscape, and the drainage system (table 3.1).19 objective in the terms of reference for this study. However, to avoid overcomplicating the main text, we do not elaborate here. We wanted to arrive at combined, sociotechnical typologies of drainage situations that would allow identification of the basic dynamics of different situations. On this analytical part of the 19At each of these levels, typologies of drainage situations can be study more research needs to be done. developed, identifying the different types of situations that occur 22 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level Table 3.1 Four scale levels for analysis and planning of drainage Resources system Composition/unit Dominant functions Management focus Large river basin Several hydroecological Water functions Allocation issues; quantity and regionsa quality monitoring; database management; sharing costs and benefits Hydroecological Family of landscapes A few functions giving Policymaking on these issues region belonging together, but with rise to particular issues different characteristics Landscape "Homogeneous" resources Typical set of functions Planning of optimal mix of benefits base Drainage system Parts of landscapes Few target functions Interventions; daily operation and maintenance a. Given the enormous diversity of water resources situations, there are bound to be exceptions to this neat formula where "a river basin consists of several hydroecological regions." Several small or very small river basins may form a single hydroecological region (e.g., parts of the Kerala coast in India and the island of Bali). In very flat areas where several rivers form and occupy a delta or plain, and where the basin concept loses some of its applicability, a hydroecological region may cover parts of several large river basins (e.g., Bangladesh and the Indo-Gangetic plain). As emphasized below, the determination of useful units is part of the participatory planning process. Source: Authors. drainage systems and regional outlets), drainage and natural or exploited ecosystems, and completely flood control, and for its coordination with relevant manmade natural resources systems, depending on the sectors for water quality control or infrastructure level of human intervention. Over the centuries, planning. The great appeal of river basin management agricultural activities have resulted in agroecological has been the focus on either a hydrologically or zones, which often follow the boundaries of the hydraulically coherent area encompassing all actors original ecosystem. Where water and drainage play a physically dependent on each other through the water prominent role in the creation of an agroecological system (Alaerts and Le Moigne 2003). A basin zone, the boundaries of the zones can be drawn typically covers a large area, and drainage units do not around a hydroecological region. Under natural always fit neatly into a river basin unit. For example, conditions, these regions usually coincide with natural lowland drainage in Indonesia occurs in a long belt flow patterns of water such as river basins. However, along the coast crossing several basins. In Bangladesh, drainage interventions can be of such magnitude that Pakistan, and the Netherlands, the landscape is completely manmade drainage basins are created with manmade to the point where a basin perspective is totally artificial boundaries (e.g., coastal polder not always relevant. (see also chapter 4). systems in Bangladesh and the Netherlands). Similarly, a hydroecological region can coincide with a Hydroecological region: macro manmade water management system such as irrigation level for policy formulation schemes (e.g., irrigation systems in Pakistan and Egypt The hydroecological region is a macro-scale covering large parts of these countries). characterization focused on a region's physical Box 3.6 shows that, in Bangladesh, water resources characteristics. Hydroecological regions, a specific and portfolio planning at macro level is done on the case of the broader concept of agroecological zones, basis of eight hydrological regions, each representing a are defined by the combination of human intervention specific catchment area with typical drainage and in the water resources system and natural or created hydrological boundaries. The natural resources system can be divided (on a evolution). It comprises a community of organisms and their continuous scale) into natural ecosystems,20 semi- physical environment that interact as a unit. Systems cannot be defined precisely and can be described at various levels of detail. Ecosystems are open systems in the sense that they are characterized by an exchange of both mass and energy with their 20An ecosystem is an ensemble of components (soil, water, air, surroundings (water). plants, and animals) and processes (such as photosynthesis and 23 Reclaiming Drainage environmental issues. In the Netherlands case study, accompanying this exchange, for example, the six hydroecological regions are distinguished. Their limitation of pollutants. different dominant resources characteristics have determined agricultural development, and they Bangladesh needs a much finer characterization of typically have different drainage issues to be drainage situations than the hydroecological region concept provides for planning physical improvements addressed. The characteristics of the hydroecological region thus broadly define the kind of drainage issues and development of institutions at the local or that can be expected and the type of drainage subregional levels. The diversity of drainage conditions, the multipurpose nature of flood control interventions that may be appropriate. Descriptions at the level of the hydroecological zone serve overall and drainage (FCD) systems, and the variety in water resources policy development. Such policy technologies, are among the reasons a hydroecological region­based classification is bound to overlook local usually focuses on the (problematic features of) water in the region, that is, tends to be hydrocentric. and subregional differences. A classification is needed, combining the physical and engineering features of In summary, a hydroecological region has the FCD systems and those of the landforms they are part following characteristics. of. Landforms are the product of human § It is delimited by natural hydrological boundaries interventions in the natural environment through both or by manmade water management measures, or informal adaptations by resources users and formal by a combination of both. "rehabilitation" or "remodeling" exercises for drainage, irrigation, navigation, flood control, and § Itbroadlydefinesthedrainageissuestobesolved other purposes. A landform-FCD system typology is and the types of technical drainage interventions the way in which the landscape concept can be made that may be needed. operational in Bangladesh. From the case studies, the hydroecological region This lower level of aggregation we call the appears to be the best level for policy formulation and "landscape" provides a coherent set of functions that implementation for natural resources­based deliver goods and services for society (e.g., agricultural development. production, water supply and sanitation, tourism, navigation, fisheries). Groups in society value these Landscape level: meso level for good and services and become stakeholders. Drainage planning of drainage strategies interventions are intended to enhance certain A landscape is a unit of land with homogeneous natural functions for the benefit of these stakeholders. resources (soil, water, climate, vegetation) that Institutional arrangements are created to manage performs a homogenous set of functions. these interventions. Thus, a landscape provides the The concept of hydroecological region is too broad consistent set of functions that form the basis of for concrete planning of drainage interventions, as it concrete planning. It provides the proper level of analysis for understanding the dynamics of a drainage combines different natural resources systems with different combinations of functions. For example, the situation and for assessing the potential environmental hydroecological region of the sandy uplands of the and social consequences of an intervention. Within the landscape, the main planning and management Netherlands can be subdivided into three landscapes: uplands, slopes, and valley bottoms. Valley bottoms challenge is the (in-)compatibility of function have the designated functions of floodwater development. Because functions of a landscape are interconnected, the whole unit has to be considered regulation, nature conservation, recreation, and agriculture. Because these functions cannot be when preparing strategies for interventions (strategies developed in isolation for obvious reasons, a coherent are coherent packages of measures). Landscape-level strategy has to be devised, taking the whole landscape unit into consideration. In the adjacent sloping lands, the emphasis is more on dairy faming and water retention, whereas the uplands provide better conditions for settlements and arable cropping. The three landscapes of the sandy upland also have (bio-) physical relations, for example, the exchange of water. Policies are needed to address the problems 24 Box 3.6 Hydroecological regions in the country case studies: Bangladesh and the Netherlands In Bangladesh, water resources and portfolio planning at macro level is based on eight hydrological regions, each representing a specific area with typical drainage and environmental issues. Average Gross area rainfall Region (km2) (mm) Southwest (SW) 26,226 1,655 South Central (SC) 15,436 2,307 Northwest (NW) 31,606 1,739 North Central (NC) 15,949 1,956 Northeast (NE) 20,061 3,194 Southeast (SE) 10,284 2,271 Eastern Hills (EH) 19,956 2,445 Rivers and Estuaries (RE) 8,607 2,318 Total 148,125 2,360 The hydrological regions are characterized by the occurrence of different combinations of eight different kinds of flood control, drainage, and irrigation systems (irrigation drainage only; combined irrigation and drainage; flood control and drainage schemes excluding coastal systems; flood control, drainage schemes with measures for the supply of irrigation water; coastal flood control and drainage schemes; coastal flood control, drainage schemes with measures for the supply of irrigation water; and shrimp culture polders In the Netherlands case study, six different hydro-ecological regions were identified. These hydroecological regions have dominant resources characteristics that require specific water management measures: § South Limburg hills.Hillyaeolineloamuplands,naturaldrainagebygravitylargelyoverland,anddeep groundwater. Water management issues: peakflow management, surface drainage, and erosion control § Sandy upland.Sandysoilswithlocalimperviouslayers;slowinfiltration,shallowtodeepfluctuatinggroundwater, and drainage through natural streams and manmade ditches by gravity. Management issues: peak flow management, ground and surface water quality, agricultural drainage, and public water supply § Majorriverplains.Flat,heavyclays,slowinfiltration,shallowgroundwater,temporaryfloodingofvalleys, imperfect gravity drainage, and lateral seepage. Managem ent issues: flood protection, agricultural drainage and water supply, and nature restoration § Coastalpolders.Flat,marineclaysororganicpeatsoils,shallowtoveryshallowgroundwater,eutrophic freshwater overlying saline water, and manmade pumped drainage. Management issues: pumped drainage, sea flooding, salt water intrusion, and peak discharge control § Dunes.Sandy,rollingdunesanddeepgroundwater.Managementissues:natureconservation,recreation,coastal protection, and public water supply § Glacialformations.Undulatingsandysoils,deepgroundwater,andnosurfacewaters.Managementissues: water conservation and public water supply Source: Bangladesh and the Netherlands case studies. 25 characterizations serve the planning of such drainage the relevant levels of aggregation in any given strategies. situation and to define the appropriate level for The features of a landscape are thus the following: application of the tool. This decision is part of the analysis. § It combines a uniform set of natural resources and functions. This elaboration of the landscape concept for analysis of drainage situations, and the description of drainage § Itprovidesgoodsandservicesforsociety. types, closely resembles the ecosystem approach § It represents values for societal groups adopted by 187 parties to the Convention on (stakeholders) that are not necessarily confined Biological Diversity. The present document is an early geographically to the landscape. attempt to make operational the generic principles of the ecosystem approach adopted by the biodiversity § It is the logical level at which drainage strategies convention. In this sense, this report is on the cutting are planned. edge of evolving ideas on sustainable and equitable § In large-scale landscapes, subdivision may be use of natural resources (appendix E). required for practical institutional and management reasons. Drainage system level: micro level for implementation of drainage The physical size of landscapes can vary enormously. interventions at field level Tidal drainage systems will be small (if not, they are A drainage system­level characterization provides likely to be failures, as shown by several resettlement detailed and locally specific descriptions of drainage schemes in Indonesia), while the interconnected systems. Characterizations at this level serve field-level drainage system of the Nile Valley and Delta has design and implementation of drainage interventions, become country-sized. The irrigation system of in particular land and water resources control systems, Pakistan, the size of a country, is an interesting case. for a limited number of precisely defined functions. The question is whether this system, from a drainage perspective, is one landscape where similar drainage The system level is the level of concrete drainage technologies can be applied. Indeed, vertical drainage interventions, where technical and operational design has been applied nationwide. However, from the has to take place within the framework set by policies multifunctional perspective, the system contains at hydroecological level and planning at landscape different landscapes needing different drainage level. For example, in a landscape, a number of farmer technologies. In fresh groundwater areas, vertical groups may share a collector drain that ends in a drainage has created an extra supply of water that is natural drainage channel. These small drainage inevitably used for various purposes (functions), systems may be independently constructed and irrigation the most important. In saline groundwater managed. There may be additional separate systems areas, however, this function is perverse, for it for wastewater treatment and for urban drainage, a contributes to secondary salinity. program for main drain maintenance for flood control, and so forth. Our focus on the landscape does not imply that planning a drainage intervention requires only the The Mexico country case study provides a concrete study of the landscape in which the drainage example. For an irrigation system in the arid zone of intervention is located. Landscapes are usually Mexico, a micro-level typology of drainage situations interconnected by flows of mass, energy, and was created to establish the drainage needs of three organisms. The key message is that a landscape, as a irrigation districts covering 10,000 ha. Excessively geographical stretch of land with a homogenous set of saline zones were characterized, and reclamation resources and functions, is the preferred unit of alternatives with subsurface drainage were identified. analysis, but one that includes its relations with other This typology was created for the practical purpose of landscapes. The DRAINFRAME tool is not scale- identifying drainage needs and possible solutions. Yet, specific and could be applied at any level. However, microtypologies in Mexico are considered a function we suggest that it is most usefully applied at the of a wide range of variables: geographical and landscape level, because this is where the climatological conditions, flood control infrastructure, configuration of functions and values defines systemic soil and water quality, agricultural development properties. The approach invites its users to identify (present and future), users' long-term objectives, user 26 Functions, Values, Participatory Planning at Landscape Level organization relations with other sectors, and available management become communicable and negotiable equipment and materials. across the boundaries of disciplines, perspectives, and The Mexico example shows that distinctness of interests.21 Although a lot of science goes into this systems does not necessarily represent fragmentation process as an input, the tool suggests that this or lack of integration, as system-level characterizations "optimization" is not a straightforward calculating can also take into consideration a broad range of procedure but a social process in which meanings and factors. Projects are implemented in small, interests are negotiated. manageable subdivisions of a large landscape to The concept of "landscape" further adds to this facilitate construction contracting and supervision. property of DRAINFRAME as a boundary object. They may be convenient units for day-to-day "Landscape" is a typical example of what has been operation and maintenance and may enable workable called a "loose concept." Loose concepts are group sizes of local organizations. They are limited in imprecisely defined ideas that can play an important scope but should be designed from a broader, role in disciplinary integration.22 Their imprecision integrated perspective. invites different groups and individuals involved in a particular problem area to negotiate their meaning, while simultaneously allowing space for adopting What's New? specific meanings in each particular domain. Loose concepts can thus be strong tools for integration.23 The major feature of this chapter is the introduction of the functions and values analysis and assessment at This chapter has also made clear that making the landscape level by means of the DRAINFRAME DRAINFRAME operational requires further work, tool. The tool is specifically designed as a framework preferably set in the context of actual drainage for assessing the multifunctionality of natural intervention through integrated and participatory resources at landscape level and the effects of any planning. Application of DRAINFRAME in real drainage intervention on the water resources system contexts and proposing and implementing feasible and for identifying impacts in the social context, all institutional and technological innovations requires an embedded in a participatory planning process. DRAINFRAME brings together in one conceptual 21"Boundary objects are objects that are both plastic enough to framework elements of a variety of scientific adapt to local needs and constraints of the several parties disciplines and development intervention approaches. employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common identity across sites. They are weakly structured in common use, Through the concept of "functions," it mobilizes the and become strongly structured in individual-site use" (Star 1989: knowledge of physical and ecological science 46; Star and Griesemer 1989). The individual site is a particular disciplines to understand the behavior of natural discipline, professional domain, or other community of practice. resources systems and approaches for physical and There is a broad literature on the issues of both boundary setting and guarding and boundary crossing within science, at the technological interventions in these systems. Through interface of science and society, and within societal domains such the concept of "values," it mobilizes knowledge from as, for example, factories or development projects. The term the social sciences and humanities to understand the "community of practice" also derives from this literature. It means that knowledge communities, like disciplines or professional dynamics of society and the way individuals and fields, share not only a knowledge base but also a culture, groups relate to and engage with the natural resources worldview, and set of institutional interests. systems. Through the notion of "participatory 22On "loose concepts," see Löwy (1992). planning," DRAINFRAME mobilizes knowledge and 23 methodologies for social transformation and learning One interesting addition to the definition of landscapes as the units for planning drainage strategies would be to combine it with from a perspective of democratic, equitable, and the notion of "problemshed," as used in discussions of "virtual sustainable governance and management of natural water" and in participatory decisionmaking approaches in resources. None of this knowledge and methodologies environmental and water resources planning in the United States (Allan n.d; Earle n.d.; Viessman 1998; Western Governors' are new in themselves. What is innovative is the Association 2001). The notion of "problemshed" invites attempt to incorporate them in a single framework. researchers and practitioners to be less resources-centric (water- centric in our case) and to realize that both causes and solutions of DRAINFRAME is a typical example of a boundary water problems may lie outside the physical boundaries of the object: it is a device through which the differences basin or landscape and outside the domain of water resources between different "communities of development management. Defining the "boundaries" of a problem is complex but necessary and involves negotiation of perspectives, interests, practice" involved in drainage and water resources inclusion and exclusion, and the practicalities of intervention. 27 Reclaiming Drainage understanding of the existing institutional and technical situation and approaches and some guidance on the direction of more integrated interventions. This is discussed in chapters 4 and 5. Chapter 6 then describes the kind of initiatives required at the policy level to facilitate the emergence of more integrated approaches to drainage. 28 4. Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage I n this chapter we explore, on the basis of the (appendix H). Other governments have done the country case studies, the implications of an same (box 4.1). The engagement and coordination of integrated perspective for the governance, the public sector made sure that a critical mass of management, and financing of drainage systems. activities was reached and that drainage problems could be tackled on a large scale. A typical outcome of this trajectory is monocentric governance in the shape Governance in Drainage of strong central government organizations as a part of either Ministries of Public Works or Agriculture, Governance is increasingly presented as a key theme implementing large drainage development programs. and solution area in natural resources management. Another feature is that the scale of these programs The summary reasoning is that "the water crisis is has often resulted in standardization of designs and often a crisis of governance" (Global Water implementation procedures with little sensitivity to Partnership 2003: 2). The centrality of governance is local issues. The case studies undertaken as part of not difficult to see in drainage, where agricultural this study, however, suggest large differences between interests have prevailed and foreclosed opportunities countries in the effectiveness of local planning and for integrated management. In the DRAINFRAME consultation procedures, quality control in approach presented in chapter 3, governance is about implementation, or land compensation, for instance. who responds to perceived imbalances between Post-construction care and water management also societal values and functions of the resources systems received less attention in several of the large and who assigns values to the functions of these programs. Examples are the Salinity Control and different resources. Governance systems define Reclamation projects (SCARPs) in Pakistan using drainage institutions, and financial arrangements deep tubewells and transmigration-related lowland follow. development in Indonesia. The salient point is that In all countries, the governance system in drainage is the transfer of operational responsibilities after closely linked to the overall political-administrative construction from central bodies to local system in that country and to the particular route that organizations has often been problematic. drainage development has taken. Broadly speaking, In this trajectory of government-initiated drainage drainage development follows three trajectories: development, the role of the private sector, civil government-initiated drainage development, user- society groups, and other players has been defined by initiated drainage development, and the absence of how much public sector organizations do in-house drainage development. Each trajectory translates into and how much they contract out. In Egypt, design different roles for the major players and different and maintenance of pipe field systems are done in- challenges and possibilities for improved governance. house by the Egyptian Public Authority for Land Drainage Projects (EPADP). This made possible great Government-initiated drainage headway in implementing the national drainage development program. The downside was that no private sector In several of the country case studies (Egypt, Pakistan, developed that could service private clients with Bangladesh, and Indonesia), governments have taken designs or field system maintenance. In contrast, the lead in drainage development, motivated usually construction in general and main open drains by concerns over national food security and social maintenance are implemented through contracts, and development objectives of national importance 29 Reclaiming Drainage Box 4.1 Government-initiated drainage development The Malaysian government was firmly committed to developing agriculture to provide fiber and food. From 1951 to 1995, large allocations were made to integrated agricultural development projects that included drainage, and the Drainage Division under the Ministry of Agriculture installed facilities to mitigate flood damage and enable cultivation of commercial crops like oil palm and rubber. Meanwhile, 600,000 hectares have been reclaimed, largely to the benefit of smallholdings. Not even the declining relevance of the agricultural sector has negatively affected drainage development because of its positive effects on poverty eradication (Keizrul 2000). A different event triggered the large-scale land reclamation program in Latvia. Prior to 1940, small family farms characterized the traditional rural landscape in Latvia. They used simple drainage technology and had introduced independent "melioration" systems. When the country came under the rule of the Soviet Union, it was decided that Latvia would be the dairy production center of supply for Moscow and nearby regional cities. Family farms were liquidated and collective dairy farms established, which allowed large-scale, standardized land reclamation (1.5 million ha). The land-privatization process started in 1990 resulted in new land ownership patterns. Because there is no authoritative body to induce joint maintenance, drainage systems deteriorated. Due to this and the collapse of agricultural markets, about 19 percent of the formerly cultivated agricultural lands have been abandoned (Busmanis et al. 2002). Source a strong private sector has sprung up to provide these (Dolfing and Snellen 1999), the English internal services. drainage boards,24 and the German water and soil associations (Monsees 2002). Right from the User-initiated drainage beginning, they were membership organizations with development internal autonomy and financial independence, but, In several hydroecological regions, considerable unlike local initiatives in most developing countries, drainage development has occurred spontaneously, local organizations in the European countries have but it is often not well documented because of ts i become an integral part of the national institutional informal nature. In arid regions, user-developed framework for water management. They are statutory drainage tends to be limited to on-farm drainage, but bodies under public law, and their formation, tasks, countless examples of user-initiated drainage come membership, governing boards, and finances are from low-lying areas in temperate and humid zones. regulated by law. Historically, agricultural interests Pioneer groups, for instance, have driven most of the dominated their programs, but recently other conversion of lowland swamps into agricultural land groups--including civil society organizations with an in Indonesia's outer islands. The most recent estimate environmental agenda--have acquired a voice and of the extent of spontaneous lowland development is seats on the governing bodies. A process of water 2.6 million ha. Similarly in coastal Kerala (India) and board mergers is underway in Northern Europe, in Northeast Bangladesh, user groups manage low- impelled by the need to cut overhead and the lying areas (Duyne 1998). In Sub-Saharan Africa, little intention to manage the different water functions in a drainage development by governments has taken more integrated way. This scaling up is making the place, but farmers in some places are known to have water boards more "governmental." Because of the constructed open ditches to drain valley bottoms and, size of the farms, a relatively mature private drainage in West Africa's coastal mangrove swamps, to have services sector has developed in Northern Europe, built and managed polders (Beltran and Kielen 2000). with private companies providing services in on-field Most of these local organizations are independent of drainage development, larger scale construction, formal government, and their work is organized as a maintenance, design, and water management. collective effort or with the help of small-scale local contractors. Similarly, in Northern Europe, much of the land reclamation was initiated by groups of local land users and private investors. This gave rise to local 24 organizations such as the Dutch water boards Web site of the Association of Drainage Authorities at http://www.ada.org.uk/ 30 Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage None or limited drainage A second theme is that, in many countries, a strong development drainage sector has not developed. This also applies to A third trajectory--a nondevelopment trajectory--is countries that have had considerable drainage represented by many countries where drainage investment, either public or private. In countries development has received scant attention. The dearth where the government has taken the lead, much has of development may not derive from limited drainage been done in-house, and no service sector has needs in the area. As the new Rural Development emerged outside the public sector. In several countries Strategy of the World Bank states, "The declining in Asia and Africa where users have developed investments in drainage can hardly be justified while drainage systems, the public sector has neither many countries (e.g., India, Central; Asia, East Asia's regulated nor supported user-initiated drainage. humid tropics and some countries in Latin America) Private service activities or the role that civil society have a great potential to enhance their productivity plays are often weak. through improved drainage" (World Bank 2003b: A final theme is that--with the exception of a few 144). India is a major example, with an estimated counties--managing drainage through improved 2,464,000 ha of waterlogged land in irrigation overall water resources management is anything but commands and 3,302,000 ha of salt-affected areas. Yet mainstreamed. Similarly, drainage finance has received the drainage program in India is negligible--neither little attention. This neglect is most obvious in the central nor state governments have given it budget countries where the management of shallow water priority. As a result, there is no service industry, no tables and removal of surface water has not gotten off easy access to know-how, and systems for developing the ground at all. Even where substantial development or managing drainage hardly exist--either through of drainage infrastructure has occurred, the low government or private initiative. The magnitude of the budget priority given to operation and maintenance of drainage problem may explain this--it requires a drainage systems has undone many of the positive coordinated government response to solve main effects and created environmental or health hazards system problems and create a drainage program with a instead. minimum critical mass. In the absence of this in several areas, local interventions--either in Handing over responsibilities to local governments in construction or water resources management--will the post-construction phase often complicates things. not work. In Pakistan, for instance, the Provincial Irrigation Departments complained that they inherited badly Governance themes designed and executed projects, with a technology that was costly to manage. In Indonesia, lowland Different as these three trajectories are, a number of schemes once constructed fell into a kind of no man's recurrent themes characterize governance in drainage. land. The schemes were transferred to the provinces, The first theme is that, in many countries, the which in turn considered the districts responsible. agricultural community has been the main Virtually no financial resources and manpower were constituency. Other constituencies, be they dedicated to manage the systems. In fact, nobody has environment, health, or the protection of buildings taken over management. and roads, have been less articulate. In user-initiated drainage, land developers have generally taken the lead. Government-initiated programs have often Management of Drainage at Higher strongly identified with agricultural objectives--food Levels security or agricultural land settlement. The nonagricultural functions of drainage have received Chapter 3 argued that drainage should be planned at little institutional attention, and the know-how to landscape level rather than at system level only, the serve other functions is poorly developed. The common practice today. This point is consistent with emphasis has been on system development rather the emphasis in current policy discourse on water than water resources management. Governance has resources management at higher levels than the been monocentric rather than polycentric with limited individual water control system, that is, at the roles for other players from other sectors, local subbasin or basin level. In this section, we explore government, or civil society. drainage management above the system level (landscape, hydroecological region, basin) and the 31 Reclaiming Drainage institutions involved. Chapter 5 looks at drainage Drainage And Irrigation. A second relation management at system level and the technologies between drainage and water resources management at required. With attention historically focused on landscape or basin level concerns irrigation. In arid construction and development rather than areas such as Pakistan and India, drainage problems management, management structures have often are often stereotyped as "irrigation-induced." Yet, for revolved around a single strong organization--the all the attention to water scarcity in recent years, little construction agency. The roles of other players in systematic effort has been devoted to improving management, like local government, private players, or irrigation efficiency at command area or landscape user groups, has been disjointed or weak. This section level. In the irrigation commands of South Asia, explores the scope for plurality in drainage irrigation allowances can be too high or distribution management. skewed, causing waterlogging and low yields. Landscape or basin level drainage One example of the effect of improved command- management level water management is the introduction of rotational water supplies in Layyah District in Pakistan In the case of drainage, it is easy to see the value- (van Steenbergen and Oliemans 2002). Layyah was added of natural resources management at landscape, generously supplied from the Thal Canal until 1980. hydroecological region, subbasin, or basin level-- Waterlogging was widespread. After upstream whatever unit is appropriate in a given situation. irrigation developed, volumes supplied to Layyah were Several processes can be managed only at these higher reduced, and a rotation was introduced whereby the levels. The following are situations in which drainage area was provided with irrigation for two weeks out of linkages with other components of the water three. This caused a sharp increase in private shallow resources management require management at higher tubewell development, and, by and large, waterlogging levels. disappeared from the area. The prolonged drought of Drainage and Flood Management. Flood 2000­02 in India and Pakistan brought main system management is an example of water resources water management back into the limelight. In management that requires a higher level. Drainage and Pakistan, canal diversions fell from 128 billion cubic flood management are strongly linked at basin level. meters (BCM) in 1975­2000 to 97 BCM in 2000­01 Drainage congestion is a major cause of local and 88 BCM in 2001­02. Yet agricultural production, flooding, stagnating water, and high water tables. The instead of falling, increased slightly, because there was impact on drainage patterns of the construction of less waterlogging in previously oversupplied roads, residential areas, polder embankments, and command areas. Similar reports come from Andhra other infrastructure is often underestimated and not Pradesh (India). During the recent drought, irrigation addressed. In Pakistan, insufficient cross-drainage allowances were reduced by 35 percent in the Krishna during the construction of the motorway between Delta, but agricultural production remained stable. Lahore and Islamabad caused widespread flooding in Main canal water management allows much scope to Punjab in 1997. In Mexico, the development of develop improved water supply strategies at command aquaculture in the coastal lagoons has distorted area level by avoiding overirrigation and waterlogging natural drainage paths, causing upstream flooding. On in times of scarcity but also by promoting recharge in Java, river sedimentation made it more difficult for times of excess flows. main drains to discharge into rivers and for smaller Drainage and Ecology. A third interaction at drains to discharge into main drains. River basin level is the role of drainage in managing key sedimentation is a natural phenomenon, but as rivers ecological processes. Drainage can provide lose floodplains that once trapped these sediments, opportunities for maintenance or restoration of the narrow river courses collect these loads, leading to essential processes for the functioning of certain drainage congestion. Upland deforestation and soil landscapes when it is considered a tool for shallow erosion worsen the problem. Far wider integration is water table management and removal of excess needed between the different types of land use surface water (the new definition of drainage in planning--be it municipal planning, road chapter 1). Restoration of the hydrological dynamics development, or upland protection--and basin water of former floodplain depressions in Northern management, including drainage planning. Cameroon provides an example. In 1982 the Benue River was dammed for hydroelectricity and irrigated 32 Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage agriculture. Large parts of the downstream floodplains Asia and Africa, the focus has been on local could no longer be used. However, after a long rainy organizations that are not connected with resources season, the dam had to release water. Former management at landscape or basin level. floodplain depressions were reconnected with the river and in several weeks were packed with fish. The River basin management or river restoration of fisheries potential was so impressive basin organizations that experiments began with management of River basins have been promoted as an appropriate floodplain depressions, now being filled with drainage level for planning and managing water resources in an water from the irrigation scheme. An additional integrated water resources management framework. element was that, at the end of the dry season, fish Some of the main issues in the governance and were taken out and the entire depression was drained management of river basins, particularly the larger and left to dry until the next rains as an effective ones (like the Nile, Rhine, Indus, and many others), means of vector control (schistosomiasis snails). are: the allocation of water among different Drainage and Water Quality. Finally, drainage geopolitical units (be they countries, states within management at landscape, hydroecological region, countries, provinces, districts, valleys and hill areas, subbasin, or basin level has a heavy bearing on water upstream and downstream parts, or combinations of quality. The cleansing capacities of wetlands may be these) and among sectors and use(r)s; the monitoring undermined or protected, depending on the way and adjudication of water quantity and water quality; shallow water tables are managed. A study of the and keeping a basin-level hydrological database, basin- wetlands around Lake Victoria established their level natural resources planning for ecological importance in removing phosphorus and sediment. sustainability and other purposes and for cost and High phosphorus and sediment loads contributed to investment sharing. River basins are rarely governed low visibility in the lake, the exponential growth of and managed by single organizations. More typically, a water hyacinth, decline in fish stock, and decreased plurality of organizations carries out responsibility for accessibility of ports. The Kolkata (Calcutta) wetlands different elements (polycentrism). However, as stated in India are another example. These have been in chapter 3, a basin typically covers a large area. Many characterized as the kidneys of the mega-city, basins comprise several local and regional although their function is under duress as the quantity administrations and multiple actors who are often of effluent channeled to the wetlands exceeds their weakly connected to each other. In several countries, cleansing capacity. Maintaining, protecting, and even the call for river basin management has translated into constructing wetlands in some locations can a call for river basin organizations. Prominent contribute to overall water quality. Taking due notice examples of river basin- or catchment-related of the potentially negative effects and impacts of organizations are the Australian interstate Murray- drainage, through its transport of salt and effluent- Darling Basin Ministerial Council, the regional and loaded water to wetlands, might have repercussions local flood defense committees in England, and the on land and irrigation management at landscape, if not river basin agencies in France and Spain. Despite at basin level. differences in their organizational structure and competencies, they combine irrigation and drainage The main point, however, is not so much what is (Langford, Forster, and Malcolm 1999) and integrate possible but why so little of what is possible is drainage and flood control (Correira and happening. The development trajectories discussed Kraemer1997a, 1997b; Mody 2001). In several above are part of the explanation. In the case of provinces in Indonesia, provincial basin management government-initiated drainage programs in, for units and river basin management units are being instance, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Egypt, the emphasis established. has been on construction and on the maintenance of drainage infrastructure (though to a lesser degree in However, caution is required in equating the need for Indonesia and Pakistan). Central government bodies integrated water resources management at the basin have played the main role, strongly identified with level with a recommendation to establish river basin agricultural agendas. Integrated natural resources organizations. Equal caution is required in management at landscape level has remained a blind recommending "leapfrogging" to river basin spot--institutionally, politically, and cognitively. management organizations in the contexts prevailing Similarly, in the user-initiated trajectory as found in in many developing countries. As Shah and others (2002) show, there are limits to jumpstarting river 33 Reclaiming Drainage basin management. The river basin organizations as Polycentric Governance and they exist in rich economies address different Multistakeholder Management problems, priorities, and values from those prevalent in most developing countries (table 4.1). A polycentric governance structure generally offers great promise for drainage development and Indonesia's early experience with drainage suggests management. Instead of a sole, ultimate center of that river basin organizations may in theory create a authority, players with clearly differentiated functions framework for managing the many functions of and roles would each exercise authority circumscribed drainage. Yet precisely because of the broad mandate by rules (Ostrom, Schroeder, and Wynne 1993). of river basin organizations drainage may still take a Groups that spontaneously developed drainage backseat, not because it is not relevant but because schemes require recognition to play their part. In the nobody specifically identifies with it. In Java, for countries covered by the case studies, a process instance, where river basin organizations have been toward decentralization, both in the general established, no evidence suggests that drainage and administration and in the water sector, is unfolding. flood management is handled any differently now Reform of drainage governance and management than in the past. should be linked to this. While moving from drainage Instead of opting routinely for management at the development to integrated natural resources river basin level, every country will have to follow its management, the role of public sector organizations own route to improve resources management at the would need to be revisited. middle level. River basin agencies may be appropriate Governments or public organizations may be organizations in some circumstances, but they are not involved at different levels of services provision the only form. A process that promotes (national, provincial, district, municipality). communication and negotiation among sectors and Arrangements should allow room to support water interests will eventually lead to appropriate users planning and implementing their own schemes. organizational structures. For instance, some observers maintain that the public Table 4.1 River basin organizations: different priorities Current priorities in Focus and performance of river basin management institutions in developed developing-country water countries management Problems addressed effectively § Wetlandpreservation Low § Waterpollution Low § Waterquality Low § Scenicbeauty Low § Financialviabilityofwatersector High § Farmermanagementofirrigation High § Urbanwatersupply High Problems unresolved or irrelevant § Regulatinggroundwateroverdraft Low § Using water to createlivelihoodsforpoorpeople High § Safeguardingwaterandfoodsupplies High § Protectingagainstdrought High § Providingdomesticwatersupplytopoorruralpeopledispersedoveravast region High § Regulatinggroundwater High Source: Adapted from Shah, Molden, and Sakthivadivel (n.d.). 34 Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage sector should provide the main drainage infrastructure maintenance of the tertiary part of the drainage in arid areas and that diverse local units (e.g., water system. The results have generally been disappointing boards, irrigation associations, farmer organizations, (appendix H). They suggest that the area of associations for flood control, drainage, and irrigation) jurisdiction for user organizations should be of a size may develop and manage drainage basins or that covers a manageable and cost-efficient unit, be it subbasins, polders, main or secondary canal a drainage basin, subbasin, canal command, or any commands, and artificially created or natural other convenient unit. Establishing local organizations landscapes. Which tier of government or which on a scale similar to water user associations in organizations provide what kind of service would participatory irrigation management programs25 is have to be decided after consideration of revenue pitching too small an organizational unit. Logic seems sources, the need to redistribute revenues due to to suggest a medium-size organization. The service unequally spread income, strategies for developing area must be large enough to generate revenues, and technical and administrative capacities, and ways of the management tasks must legitimize the cost of preventing elite groups from capturing local running an organization. At this level, irrigation with institutions. drainage or flood control with drainage could be Polycentric governance and multistakeholder managed by the same organization. management require an enabling strategy at national Private sector involvement level. The current discussion on enabling frameworks strongly emphasizes legislation and regulatory Many governments wanting to allow, facilitate, and agencies, but the enforcement power of these strengthen private sector involvement transfer or mechanisms is sometimes limited. There is a case for subcontract services provision. The private sector may developing a much broader repertoire of enabling furnish construction and maintenance services under strategies. In strengthening the role of local the supervision of the respective governing governments, the private sector, and user organizations; it may provide consultancy services for organizations in natural resources management, a surveys and design, bid preparation, implementation close look at operational processes may be supervision, materials production, and machinery worthwhile: how planning and budgeting processes leasing as well as other services under management work, how public investment programs in the water and performance contracts. At present, the private sector are set up, how procurement is being done, sector is involved in only some of these aspects in the how mechanisms that support private and local drainage sector. A more diversified governance and investment function, and how local governments, user management structure might benefit from diverse organizations, and private service providers build private sector services delivery. capacity. Jurisdiction and coordination Establishing user organizations in Assigning responsibility for management requires the drainage definition, and the legal recognition, of the jurisdiction Strengthening user organizations is a recurrent theme over which units exercise authority. The jurisdiction in water resources management, particularly in should ensure that all beneficiaries of the services pay, countries where drainage programs were initiated or that binding commitments, including financial primarily by governments. As discussed above, the transfers, are made if benefits spill over boundaries. new user organizations are expected to bundle the Such user organizations should coincide or at least interests of the drainage users and take over relate to efforts at drainage management at basin or operational tasks. Following in the footsteps of the landscape level. This also raises the question of the move to irrigation-management transfer, efforts have relation of these organizations to local governments. been made to transfer responsibilities to drainage user In South Africa, district councils--the third groups. This section explores this experience, government level--are responsible for developing and particularly with regard to the scale and organization implementing infrastructure projects in local appropriate to an integrated approach. communities, including irrigation and drainage. In Several initiatives to establish drainage user groups were undertaken in Egypt, Indonesia, and Pakistan. 25From which the organizational models for local drainage These focused on the transfer of operation and organization are sometimes derived. 35 Reclaiming Drainage Bangladesh, discussion is ongoing whether the union Better cost recovery parishads, the lowest politically elected level, should In the light of governance discussions, a fresh look manage small and medium-size flood control, should be taken at financing drainage. Acknowledging drainage, and irrigation schemes. It is expected that the role of many different players in many different both can play a role in realizing social and economic drainage sectors allows the identification of a number objectives through infrastructure development by of new financing strategies. In recent years, discussion using resources allocated by the central governments of financing water services--including drainage--has and generated by themselves. Coordination with other been dominated by the debate on cost recovery. This functions assigned to local governments (roads, debate is typically part of discussions about the future sewerage collection and disposal) could improve as of government-initiated programs. well, but coordination with neighboring jurisdictions may be needed if administrative and hydrological The thrust of this debate is that a substantial part of boundaries do not match. Local government the capital charges and running costs should be institutions may also lack the skills for water recovered from primary users of irrigation and management, and closer links are needed between drainage services. Cost recovery received further service providers and clients than those provided by impetus by the argument that realistic water prices the political process. There is no uniform answer as to would also encourage water users to use water what role local governments can play, but decisions judiciously. This last argument cannot always be would also have to come to terms with the issue of upheld. Water charges are generally a small part of weak mechanisms of political accountability, the need total farm production costs, and farmers often pay for improving the technical and administrative high transaction costs to acquire the volume of water capacity, and for financial transactions from the they consume. central government to local institutions (Bardhan In some areas, however, economic incentives have 2002; Calvo 1998). made water use more efficient and sustainable. The best documented example is the San Joaquin Valley, Broadening the Financial Basis the southern part of the Central Valley of California. When farmers in this area were no longer allowed to Financing is a major issue in drainage, as in other discharge excess water into the Kesterson Reservoir water sectors. The development and maintenance of because of its high salt and selenium loads, drastic drainage systems is often underfunded, and measures were in the cards, and subsurface drains conventional funding mechanisms prevail, particularly were sealed. The district water board imposed a two- central budget allocations. In Indonesia, for instance, tier tariff with a substantially higher tariff for the allocations to maintain lowland flood control and water consumed in excess of crop water requirements. drainage schemes have dropped close to zero. Earlier, Farmers responded by adjusting cropping patterns, when the provincial governments in Indonesia inventing water-saving technology, and improving provided block grants for maintenance, irrigation irrigation-system management. Drainage outflows systems typically got the major share to the detriment from the area fell dramatically. San Joaquin is a good of drainage infrastructure. Even in the economic example of the use of pricing as an economic heydays of the 1970s and 1980s, the operation and instrument in drainage management, but the case was maintenance budget was only half of what was helped by a strong regulatory environment, the reasonably needed for flood management and existence of water districts capable of taking measures, drainage. Similarly, in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the presence of large farmers (making it numerically Egypt, most of the expenditure for maintenance easier to manage), and the fact that, to survive, the comes from tight provincial or central government San Joaquin farming system had no alternative. All of budgets. In Egypt, the public sector is still able to these factors make the case unique (Wichelns 1991, furnish these costs, but in Pakistan and Bangladesh it 2003). is not. For instance, the maintenance of the Left Bank Elsewhere the record of cost recovery in drainage is Outfall Drain in Pakistan, draining more than 600,000 mixed. In Pakistan a special drainage cess is levied in ha, has been financed from international loans since some but not all areas served by public drainage its completion. systems. The cess has never been at par with operation and maintenance costs. Collection 36 Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage increasingly suffers from problematic assessment and large part the charges were fictive or unnecessary, but revenue collection. In Indonesia, an attempt to the bills were enormous and amounted to 50 percent introduce a drainage service fee was short lived, of the overall budget for irrigation and drainage in because settlers in newly developed lowland schemes both provinces. could not spare the cash. One of the more encouraging examples of cost recovery comes from Box 4.2 "Benefit-pay-say" in Dutch water boards Egypt. The Egyptian Law 12/1984 requires full The Dutch water boards are autonomous and self- recovery of the tile drainage investment costs without financing. The boards plan and budget for a year and, in interest over a period of 20 years, which comes down the case of shortages, levies are increased the next to an effective contribution of close to 50 percent. year. The boards define the level of services within the The capital costs are collected as a surcharge on the margins set by the national and provincial policies. land tax. As a result, the transaction costs of collection are almost nil, and recovery rates are high. In the The costs are charged to different categories of South African irrigation board schemes, farmers beneficiaries (landowners, property owners, residents) finance two thirds of the capital costs. In the national and are differentiated according to the benefit derived. irrigation systems in the Philippines, farmers The value of land and assets (residents, building contribute labor and material, donate land, and cover owners, industry) and land size (farmers) are taken into 10 percent of the costs of constructing drainage account. In the governing council of the water board the works. different categories of interests are represented, each according to its financial contribution. This is the There is room for reviving efforts at cost recovery, "benefit-pay-say" system. particularly by working on willingness to pay. Low recovery is often related to users' disillusionment with Charge collection is delegated to the Central Tax the quality of service. Elements of a strategy to Collection Office (which means low administration improve cost recovery are improved service, low costs). If dues are not paid, the water boards, via the administrative costs for levying the fee (making bailiff, have the right of confiscation to generate the dues from the proceeds of an auction. assessments and billings), low collection and enforcement costs, rewards for prompt payments, Source: The Netherlands case study. enforcement of fines for nonpayment, and transparent procedures. With respect to transparency, New financing mechanisms users' approval of budgets is one option, as in the benefit-pay-say system of the Dutch water boards. In Several other strategies exist to broaden the financial this system, every party with an interest in water basis for drainage investment and management in management contributes to and is represented on the addition to improving water charge collection. Three governing board (box 4.2). There may also be room of these are worth exploring further: charging against for innovative collection mechanisms. An example nonagricultural functions, making use of increased comes from some of the regulators in Bangladesh. land values, and promoting private investments. These regulators maintain or increase water levels for Charging against Nonagricultural Functions. irrigation, fisheries, and domestic purposes. Intricate As argued throughout this report, drainage serves management arrangements operate these structures. both agricultural and nonagricultural functions. The Services are auctioned or tendered to small private many groups of beneficiaries may include shrimp contractors (often farmers from the area), who take farmers, rice growers, other agriculturalists, fisherfolk, care of the inlet of irrigation water from outside the urban and rural residents, industry, and municipalities. embankment, distribute water, and collect fees. A case can be made for charging part of the cost of Which costs to recover and how to avoid inefficiency drainage management against these nonagricultural are other elements of the cost-recovery debate that functions, but it is not always done. In some cases, deserve more prominence. Particularly in centrally charging nonagricultural users directly may be funded drainage development programs, insufficient possible. To generate revenue in the flood control and consideration has been given to keeping running costs drainage schemes of Bangladesh, maintenance service within reasonable limits. The main example in this fees are levied per hectare and fishing rights are regard is probably the electricity bill charged to the leased. The challenge is to find acceptable formulas drainage tubewells in Punjab and Sindh provinces. A for dividing costs among different interests. Ideally, this is done in negotiations with the different parties, 37 Reclaiming Drainage but a negotiation process requires a workable Capturing Added Value. The DRAINFRAME mechanism to conclude the bargaining and a relatively approach suggests that drainage is best looked at not "level playing field." The method followed in the land merely as a service that has to be reproduced but as a consolidation programs in the Netherlands is an central component of a resources management system example of such controlled negotiation. In these that requires inputs and produces value. Part of this programs, landowners contribute in proportion to the increased value may be captured to pay for estimated increase in the value of their land. The investment, operation, or water management costs. increase depends on improvements in access to land Annual land lease values in Nawabshah, Pakistan, for and in water management. A standard, well-described instance, increased by US$120/ha after the Left Bank categorization exists, classifying improvements in Outfall Drain infrastructure became operational. This different categories. A board of users is asked to apply increase in land values justifies capital cost this classification and fill in the necessary blanks. contributions. Similar increases in land value followed Some effects and impacts of drainage on the functions drainage improvement in Mexico. of the natural resources system are of general interest Improved use of drainage infrastructure may also by nature. Ecological functions are in the interest of create economic value, which can be used to pay for living people but even more in the interest of future essential maintenance services. An example is the generations. The same applies to public health, flood Dampara Water Management project in Northeast control, and protection against dampness. On this Bangladesh. The planting of vetiver grass was basis, it can be argued that governments should encouraged as an income-generating activity, thus contribute to the (incremental) cost of drainage or, giving the inhabitants an incentive to maintain their alternatively, charge all residents or landowners embankments. Similarly, some water boards in the equally (box 4.3). Netherlands raise a substantial part of their revenue from long-term land leases on the dikes. The use of Box 4.3 Funding drainage services in Europe such financing mechanisms to pay for operating costs appears to be rare. In cost recovery for capital In drainage organizations in the Netherlands, Germany, investment, they are even less common. During the and the United Kingdom, a mix of specific and general reform of the irrigation and drainage sector in Sindh, interest funding is in practice. Drainage service charges Pakistan, several alternatives were discussed to raise relate either to the size of the area drained (owners' revenue--leasing or selling land on lake banks, leasing rate, occupants' rate), or to property value. The English canal and drain banks for forestry, auctioning fishing internal drainage boards, for instance, raise income rights--but so far they have not been put into through the direct rating of agricultural land and practice. buildings in their jurisdiction (drainage district) and recover income through a special levy on constituent Promoting Private Investment. A third district councils in recognition of the benefit to all mechanism requiring more attention is the promotion nonagricultural land and property from their work. of private investment. Due to the disjointed nature of Funding sources are diverse, however, and budget lines governance in drainage, the public and private sectors exist for performing public functions, which is subject to are often worlds apart. Yet some regions have seen political definition. Large-scale infrastructure that substantial spontaneous investment in local drainage. protects residential and commercial land use is A prime example is the (often unregulated) land user­ supported by property-related taxes, general local taxes, driven development of lowlands, the development of and central government subsidies. The German water farm-level pipe drainage in the Netherlands, and the and soil associations receive, in addition, high subsidies reclamation of sodic soils in Uttar Pradesh, India. for maintenance from the European Union and the There is room to rethink drainage development federal state. Grants for maintenance from the Ministry strategies in this case and to look at the development of Agriculture to the English internal drainage boards of local private capacity to serve individual farmers may be as high as 50 percent. and to concentrate public investments on main systems. Source: Correira, and Kraemer 1997. 38 Governance, Management, and Finance in Drainage Challenges circumscribed by rules, and procedures established for cooperation, coordination, and structured Country- and site-specific polycentric and decisionmaking. This integration has a financial multistakeholder governance and management dimension in that the introduction of the benefit-pay structures for drainage offer the promise of (-say) principle would bring all stakeholders into the combining the potential of the public sector, local and fold. user groups, and the private sector. The challenges are manifold. Organizational structures, procedures, or This is a tall order for a sector in which discussion of both are needed in which drainage is not separated institutions is in its infancy. A prudent approach from other forms of land and water management and might be to start with existing situations and identify related objectives are coordinated--such as flood small, possible steps toward change (chapter 6). control, public health, and the conservation of natural Returning to the introduction of this chapter, areas and water bodies (wetlands). This also applies to governance challenges could be mapped on a matrix residential and agricultural land use and infrastructure with the three trajectories of institutional development planning. River basin organizations may provide a on one axis, and the governance, management, and forum for coordination and planning, but other finance issues on the other. Examples of issues that organizational forms may better fit the countries' would emerge from such an exercise are given in table political and administrative systems. Because such a 4.2. The mapping is not exhaustive but illustrates the structure has no single, ultimate center of authority, kind of opportunities ahead. functions have to be clearly assigned, responsibilities 39 Reclaiming Drainage Table 4.2 Drainage development trajectories and institutional challenges: some examples Trajectories Government-initiated Limited or no Issues drainage User-initiated development development Governance Transform highly centralized Create an appropriate Define the institutional drainage/irrigation agencies into regulatory structure within space(s) for drainage less centralized ones which local organizations can governance. (implement principle of operate with sufficient subsidiarity). autonomy. Redefine the "ownership" of Develop constitutional and Align different drainage across sectors and collective choice rules for constituencies to magnify include other constituencies local organizations attention to drainage. besides farmers in the planning (representation of different and decisionmaking process. stakeholder groups and charter). Management Transform upwardly Professionalize management Support and mainstream accountable public officials and and consider appropriate local initiatives and poor maintenance into scale level of different practices for drainage managers responsive to local activities. management. needs with incentives for better performance. Create workable modes of Define and create support collaboration between services for local agriculture and other relevant organizations. departments for addressing multifunctionality. Finance Change centralized, highly Define cofinancing To mobilize resources, subsidized into cost-sharing arrangements between lobby for allocations in between government and government and local government budgets; multiple drainage beneficiaries. organizations for different attract private investment aspects of drainage capital and res ources from investment and maintenance. beneficiaries. Include other constituencies Promote private sector besides farmers in revenue capacity to support local generation. investment Source: Authors. 40 5. Drainage Infrastructure and Operation for Multifunctionality T his chapter explores the implications of an operation practices (table 5.1). It may also involve integrated perspective on drainage for the retrofitting drainage infrastructure, for example, to (re)design of drainage infrastructure. The improve water-retention capacity and water-level premise of this chapter is that an integrated control, environmental management of disease perspective has implications for the drainage vectors, and management of drainage effluent quality. technology that should be deployed and the operational procedures that should be adopted to use Box 5.1 New technology needed for integrated water resources management it. The skill of farmers and the available technology for on-farm water management in the Netherlands are one- Multipurpose Drainage Systems sidedly developed in the direction of optimum agricultural drainage. Pipe drainage systems, equipment The physical design and operation of many drainage to clean them, open field ditches and the mowers used systems has a long-standing bias toward agricultural for maintenance, timing of maintenance farming productivity--for example, improving soil aeration activities; selection of varieties, application of fertilizers and land practicability and converting lowland into and manure, and so on are unilaterally fine-tuned to farmland. Drainage techniques have also been geared optimum agricultural drainage. Under a new, integrated to this purpose. Multipurpose design and operation is water regime, completely new farming systems and new the exception rather than the rule in drainage, nor is it farming skills have to be developed to make a new mainstreamed in the operation of other water optimum possible. A simple example is a farmer who infrastructure--be it irrigation, water supply, or wants to take a first step by integrating field drainage sewerage. Yet if drainage systems are to serve a variety with field irrigation and groundwater conservation--s/he of objectives, from improving land productivity and cannot draw on reliable scientific trials and economic water quality to protecting buildings and safeguarding evaluations. There are no devices on the market for public health, technology design and operation have automated closing of pipe drains. Mowing ditches full of to be handled differently. Often such technology and water requires different machines, and few contractors operating procedures are unavailable, even in a have them. country generally considered advanced in drainage Source: Netherlands country case study. technology like the Netherlands (box 5.1). A "technological lock-in" has occurred in many Our discussion of "technology for multifunctionality" countries. Equipment supplies, spare parts availability, is tentative and exploratory. We report a number of design schools, research capacity, and financing examples of rethinking technological designs and mechanisms are all geared to a certain way of doing technical operation procedures from the perspective things, in this case for optimum agricultural of multifunctionality. The main point the chapter productivity. Changing institutions to improve water seeks to establish is that further work in this domain is resources management is gaining attention, but the urgently needed. The question of matching extent of the effort required to change the prevailing technologies with institutions and vice versa is an technologies should not be underestimated. issue we only raise without discussing. No debate has yet developed on, for instance, design-management In several countries, openings exist to make drainage relations in the field of drainage technology. Again, serve multiple objectives and also address flood this is an issue that requires further work. management, public health, and environmental sustainability. This requires different designs and 41 Reclaiming Drainage Table 5.1 Instruments in the multipurpose management of drainage Water table Stormwater removal and Effluent quality and management retention reuse Public health Controlled subsurface Pumping and removal Depth of water removal Adequate maintenance drainage strategies Mixing strategies (vegetation clearing) Control gates on open System capacity Protection against inflow of Intermittent flow, flushing and drains Retention structures contaminants drying strategies Lining, coverage, subsurface drains Distance from settlements to drainage infrastructure Source: Authors. Water retention, water table interventions (photo 5.1). It is particularly sensitive management, and controlled under arid climate conditions and requires careful drainage management. The challenge is to develop appropriate low-cost, easily manageable water conservation If the prime meaning of drainage is redefined as technology. However, in many drainage systems and comprising the management of shallow water tables infrastructure, this ability to control water tables is (chapter 2), the ability to control water table depth missing. Areas where controlled drainage should be and drainage canal water levels becomes very more widely applied include Algeria, Egypt, Israel, important. It allows regulation of soil moisture for Syria, Iraq, Bahrain, India, Pakistan, Northern China, both irrigated and rainfed crops and enables and Central Asian states (Abbott et al. 2002). maintenance of water levels for fisheries and other uses. A control structure is provided at the drainage Flood management outlet to reduce drainage intensity. The concept of controlled drainage has several advantages over free The capacity of the drainage infrastructure to retain flow in a variety of drainage conditions (appendix I). water is closely related to its function in flood It has been applied on both field and watershed scale management. Drainage and flood management should to conserve water and increase crop yield. It has also be brought closer together at the level of (sub)basin been found an effective method for reducing losses of management (chapter 4), but also at the level of plant nutrients and other surface water pollutants drainage infrastructure design and operation. The (box 5.2). capacity to store excess rainfall in a shallow aquifer is an important asset in flood management. A lowered Key to the development of controlled drainage is the water table before the main rainy season will help understanding of hydrological regimes, as this will absorb peak rainfall. Drainage design and operation allow the best balance to be struck between water may be harmonized to provide such flood buffers. In removal and water retention and identification of many cases, investment in drainage infrastructure will suitable locations and times for drainage outflow complement flood mitigation strategies. Box 5.2 Benefits of controlled drainage Yield response to controlled drainage varies with the drainage intensity and the variability of rainfall. In the case of the Conetoe Creek project, raising the water table increased corn yields by 25 percent in nonirrigated fields and by 15 percent in irrigated fields. Data from 125 site-years with controlled drainage in North Carolina, United States, showed an average decrease of 30 percent in drainage outflows as compared to uncontrolled drainage systems. Average reduction of nitrogen and phosphate losses to surface water were 55 percent and 35 percent, respectively. Source: Skaggs 1999. 42 Drainage Infrastructure and Operation for Multifunctionality Photo 5.1 Controlled drainage A weir with movable crest to remove excess water in winter (left) and retain water in summer (right) at Chaam, province North Brabant, the Netherlands (Pictures courtesy of Jan Hoevenaar) In some cases, drainage infrastructure has aggravated by drainage systems can be an important additional floods. This happens when the network of drainage source of water, yet it can equally be a major liability if pipes and canals without a facility to store or slow the water is of poor quality. Examples are the cases of down the runoff quickly transports stormwater to irrigation-induced river salinity in the Colorado Basin watercourses and rivers. This has been the downside and the Murray-Darling Basin, where fossil salts of widespread farmer-driven private investment in mobilized by irrigation impaired river water quality. subsurface drainage in the Netherlands and North When water is reused, for example in homes, America. This largely unregulated phenomenon has irrigation, or fisheries, a minimum quality is required. resulted in rainfall events that quickly lead to peak It makes sense to base this assessment of desired discharges, increasing the risk of flooding and water quality on the local water management system forgoing opportunities for recharge. Something and uses. Local operational norms may be more roughly similar happened in the Left Bank Outfall useful than a national standard that is not sensitive to Drain in Pakistan. During the rare event of severe the specific local interplay of supply and demand. rainfall, unauthorized "cuts" were made by landowners to drain excess water from fields into The quality of drainage water may be impaired by high surface drains. Disposals exceeded the capacity of the salinity, acidity, sodicity, or chemical or bacteriological contamination (appendix J). In the design or drains, and downstream flooding occurred. In the original design of the system, this dual function of operation of drainage facilities, the quality of the conveying drainage effluent and removing stormwater effluent and the possibility of mixing it or neutralizing it should be given a prominent place. Often this has was not considered. In a redesign of the system, the dilemma of whether to accommodate such unusual been neglected. Proper investigations into the quality but potentially damaging events was looked at. of the drainage effluent are essential. In some cases, irrigation and drainage will mobilize and transport Options considered were increasing capacity and creating spill areas. For various reasons, none of this trace elements from the soil to the point where they materialized. However, the case is strong for taking become hazardous to wildlife and possibly to public health.26 Water quality is thus crucial and often into account, right from the beginning, stormwater functions and the effect of unregulated cuts of private problematic in drainage. There are several possibilities drainage facilities. for improving water quality and reducing the damage caused by low-quality effluents by better design and Reuse and the management of operation of infrastructure for flexibility in managing effluent quality The design of drainage infrastructure affects the 26The most infamous case is the Kesterson Reservoir in San quality of the drainage effluent. The water produced Joaquin Valley in California (chapter 4). 43 Reclaiming Drainage the water table. In many cases, alternatives have been this respect, especially if maintenance is neglected, discovered by trial and error, and knowledge about consequently reducing flow velocities and impeding managing drainage water quality has developed along the regular drying of canals. Contact with snail- the way. These lessons should be systematically infested water infects people. The simplest measures incorporated in designs for new drainage to reduce transmission risk are public water supply infrastructure and retrofitting of existing systems. and provision of latrines so that people do not need to use infested waters for domestic purposes, and Vector control reinfection of water by urine and stool is interrupted Drainage infrastructure can have significant effects on (Slootweg and Keyzer1993; Slootweg et al.1993). As vector organisms and improve local sanitary shown in Egypt, subsurface tile drainage is most conditions. Yet poorly maintained drainage has only effective in preventing snails from breeding as well as added to health problems, with stagnant water a main reducing people's contact with water. source of disease transmission. Over the years, Some general drainage principles reduce both snail guidelines and good practices have been formulated and mosquito breeding: that improve the positive impact of drainage on public health, but it is testimony to the isolated position of § Subsurface tile drainage prevents breeding of drainage that these have not been mainstreamed. The snails and mosquitoes and avoids human contact environmental management approach to disease with water. prevention was developed before World War II. It § Periodic drying of canals kills most vector regained popularity in the mid-1980s, when the limits organisms (although a few snail species are known on the use of DDT for vector control were to survive long periods of drought). increasingly recognized. Substantial work was done by the World Health Organization and others.27 Despite § A sudden drop in water level leaves mosquito these efforts, uptake within the drainage community is larvae behind on dry stream banks but is less limited. The increasing resistance of, for example, effective for snails, as many will manage to crawl malaria vectors to pesticides and malaria parasites to back into the water. conventional treatment, the continuous high incidence § Flushing with high water velocities (0.6 m/s) of malaria particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and the reduces vector breeding. persistence of other vector-borne diseases warrant a second look at the impacts of both drainage and § Lining drains leads to higher flow velocities that irrigation management on public health. will reduce vector populations. Despite the complexity of the matter, some generally § Removingvegetationdeprivesvectorsofbreeding applicable rules can be identified in relation to places. drainage. Mosquitoes breed in water--clean or Apart from the above-mentioned drainage measures, a polluted. Many anopheline, malaria-transmitting vigilant primary health care system (addressing mosquitoes breed in clean water in rainwater pools, prevention as well as treatment) and a safe public seepage pools, and recently submerged irrigation water supply and sanitation system are of fields. Many culicine mosquitoes, transmitting yellow overwhelming importance in the control of vector- fever, dengue, encephalitis, and filaria, breed in borne diseases. Recently, health impact assessment is stagnant polluted (urban) waters. Effective drainage of getting increased attention as a tool for gauging the stormwater and the timely removal of waterlogging potential health effects of proposed projects, has been an effective measure for controlling the programs, and policies. A rapidly developing suite of breeding of these mosquito species, as it reduces the tools and procedures are also relevant to the drainage number of breeding habitats. Standing water has to be sector. removed before mosquito larvae have time to mature. Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails breed in semi- Compartmentalization permanent waters. Drainage canals are notorious in Multipurpose drainage management raises the question of the appropriate unit size (see chapters 2 27Good examples are ADB (1992); Birley (1991); Oomen, de and 4). Compartmentalization into smaller units Wolf, and Jobin (1990); Pike (1987); and Rozendaal (1997). allows more or less tailormade solutions to local water 44 Drainage Infrastructure and Operation for Multifunctionality Box 5.3 Local compartmentalization in Bangladesh An interesting example of local flood control with drainage is found in a 3,000-hectare, farmer-operated mini- polder in one corner of a larger polder in Bangladesh. By raising the height of a road embankment, the local community has made its mini-polder independent of the main polder. Each of four local committees looks after its own oxbow lake (beel) and stretch of embankment. These committees work closely together when necessary. The one drainage regulator is operated for drainage or irrigation storage, as desired. Maintenance is funded by a US$3/ha farmers' contribution, a five-year fishing lease for US$4,000, and emergency contributions by big landowners when needed. The mini-polder escaped damage in the 1998 flood. The mini-polder farmers have essentially adopted a "living with floods" approach, with a form of controlled flooding. Instead of attempting to replace the original deep-water rice with high yielding varieties, they have reduced flood depths, which are maintained at levels not much below those outside the polder. This adds to embankment safety. The traditional rainfed paddy remains the dominant monsoon crop, but fish production is maintained. Source: Bangladesh country case study. issues. This is particularly useful in localities with large hydrological and environmental processes as well as differences in drainage conditions and drainage social processes and responses. interests. An example of spontaneous The problem of data shortage grows with increasing compartmentalization comes from Bangladesh (box 5.3). Compartmentalization has been used in the scale. For large catchments and river basins such as Netherlands to create buffers around nature areas. the Indus System, Aral Sea Basin, Nile Delta, collecting all data through field surveys is a big job. However, the downside is that, as management becomes more tailormade and fragmented, Remote sensing techniques can be used to infer some management costs increase. This touches upon a key data related to planning and operating irrigation and drainage schemes. Information related to water larger discussion--whether the public sector should provide only the main drainage infrastructure or a management including drainage can nowadays be complete package. In the first option, landowners remotely obtained at a spatial range of 5 meters to 5,000 m and with temporal resolutions from 0.5 to 24 themselves would undertake downstream drainage development. The challenge in this option is to ensure days. Remote sensing has been able to provide a minimum level of organization for local drainage information with varying degrees of success and accuracy on irrigated area, crop type, biomass initiatives to come about while avoiding the threat of overdrainage. development, crop yield, crop water requirements, crop evapotranspiration, soil moisture, soil salinity, and water logging (World Bank 2001). Planning, Design, and Evaluation Remote sensing is receiving increased attention as a Technologies reliable and cost-effective technology applicable to the needs of integrated water resources management. Integrated water resources management attempts to When combined with geographical information link land and water resources within the regional and systems, remote sensing is a powerful tool for river basin context and deal with the planning, monitoring, and managing water resources multifunctionality of the resources system (crop systems, including drainage. The technology has been production, fisheries, water quality, landscape, used in recent World Bank­related water resources environment), as well as conflicting interests of user management studies in Pakistan, Egypt, China, and groups (farmers, fisherfolk, industries, and Karnataka, India. municipalities). These concepts are novel, and their implementation is not straightforward. Data to help System analysis, information systems, and simulation make these concepts operational are not always models are useful tools in this situation. Several water available, and the number of variables and interactions management simulation models with drainage and would be far too great to capture by conventional drainage water management focus have been methods and simple analysis. New tools are needed to extensively developed over the past few decades for capture enough information and simulate complex multifunctional purposes (Feddes and van Wijk 1977; Skaggs 1978). 45 Reclaiming Drainage The introduction of an integrated perspective narrowed the focus of knowledge development. This illustrates the many remaining unknowns about helps explain why most of the advances in drainage developing and operating drainage infrastructure. technology has been in materials and methods for Some knowns have also been around for some time constructing pipe drainage systems (e.g., plastic drain but have not yet made it into the standard repertoire pipes, trenching and trenchless machines, synthetic of drainage design or system operation. An example is envelope materials). Less research has gone into open the relation between drainage investment and soil and drains, even though they are more common. World water chemistry with subsurface and surface systems Bank lending for drainage, for instance, shows that 92 (box 5.4). Although much is on record about the percent of the drainage projects supported between effects of surface and subsurface systems on the 1973 and 2000 included open drainage, while only 15 availability of nutrients, this knowledge is rarely percent included pipe drains, and less than 5 percent incorporated in drainage design. tubewells (Abdel-Dayem 2000). Even less research has been devoted to the practical management of Box 5.4 Drainage impact on agricultural drainage systems or to supporting the spontaneous nutrients development of drainage systems. This bias in Increased subsurface drainage intensity generally research programs toward public investment rather reduces loss of phosphorus and organic nitrogen and than overall relevance is also common in other natural increases the loss of nitrate-nitrogen and soluble salts. resources research programs. Conversely, increasing surface drainage intensity Thus, a fresh look at research agendas is necessary, increases phosphorus loss and reduces nitrate-nitrogen with far closer attention to technologies and water outflows. Although exceptions for nearly all cases have management strategies that serve multifunctional been reported in the literature, most investigations have resources use. The emphasis is also changing in water supported these general conclusions. governance, incorporating more sectors, shifting from Source: Skaggs, Breve, and Gillam 1994. construction to water management, capitalizing on decentralization, engaging a far larger range of players, including local government, user organizations, and Knowledge Management the private sector. In research and knowledge development, this means that clients should also Far greater sophistication is needed in the change. In water management research programs, development of drainage infrastructure and the clear definitions are needed for who will be the natural management of drainage systems. The question is, recipients of the knowledge (a specification now often how to bring it about? As described in chapter 4, missing) and how to disseminate it effectively. At the several countries that developed ambitious drainage same time, more could be learned from ongoing programs also developed capacity in system design practices, and more practitioners could be allowed to and the physical implementation--EPADP in Egypt, innovate and upgrade their knowledge. In practice, WAPDA in Pakistan, and the Directorate of Swamps this means making room for experimentation in water in Indonesia. This created a core of practitioners. In investment programs and forging a much stronger Egypt and Pakistan, specialized in-house research link between research organizations and training institutes grew up.28 This has had the effect of institutes. In developing new drainage technology, creating an environment where knowledge was there seems to be little place for the classic field developed, based on practical questions and feedback, experiments used in agricultural drainage and other and much of it was incorporated in mainstream types of single-purpose water management. operations. Research programs in large-scale investments paid off, particularly when the Partnerships between research and development technologies used were sensitive to improvements and organizations within the same country and between gains in cost-effectiveness achieved. Meanwhile, it different countries have great potential for making a change toward a more interdisciplinary approach. The legendary Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel that has been functioning since the 1970s has had a great 28 International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement impact on drainage and water management in Egypt. (ILRI) in the Netherlands, the Drainage Research Institute (DRI) It brings policymakers and practitioners from both in Egypt, and the International Waterlogging and Salinity Institute (IWASRI) in Pakistan. countries together to trade experiences and advise the 46 Drainage Infrastructure and Operation for Multifunctionality government of Egypt on its development plans. The controlled drainage, flood management, management evolution of the panel's mandate is striking--from a of effluent quality, vector control, and purely drainage technology focus in the 1970s to compartmentalization. To address these challenges, policy and planning of integrated water resources innovative research should be mainstreamed in management in the 1990s. operations. Reform of the knowledge system is To conclude, a shift toward an integrated approach to required, and long-term investment in capacity drainage offers a major technical and professional building is necessary. challenge. This challenge includes topics like 47 6. Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage T he lessons and ideas generated by this study traced back to the one-sidedness of these policies, but have to be translated into policies and actions in most countries to the absence of drainage policies. that promote an integrated approach to Efforts to reform water policies are usually ambiguous drainage. This chapter discusses the opportunities and requirements for that translation. It describes what when it comes to drainage. A main constraint is the would make a good drainage policy and how to move lack of vision or awareness regarding the opportunities and challenges involved in sustainable toward it. Specifically, the chapter discusses how to move from a conceptual to an operational framework. drainage development. This report and the country case studies on which it rests show that increasing crop productivity, though important, is today too Policy: Constraint or Drive? narrow an objective to convince people outside the drainage sector to support drainage development. As we have seen in chapters 1 through 5, a new This report takes an integrated approach, as outlined approach is needed to reclaim the position of drainage in DRAINFRAME, that incorporates all effects and in integrated resources management and sustainable impacts of drainage (cost and benefit) and involves all development. DRAINFRAME is presented in this stakeholders who could make a difference in report as a framework for thinking through and acting decisionmaking and planning. The forces driving upon drainage from an integrated perspective (chapter policy transformation are based in the vested interests 3). The main message is that drainage should be of a wider group of stakeholders who want balance perceived as an intervention in a physical resources between productivity, resources conservation, system, and that it changes this system not only for environmental protection, and improved livelihoods. the benefit of one economic sector--agriculture--but also the functioning of the physical system for other World Bank Policy Statements use(r)s. The notion that biophysical resources form integrated and finite systems leads to the conclusion Three recent World Bank strategy papers reflect a new that proper management of these resources should follow an integrated route. For water resources in way of thinking about the development of land and general, this conclusion was already drawn at the water resources: Dublin Conference in 1992. For drainage, it remains § Water Resources Sector Strategy: Strategic to be systematically implemented. Directions for World Bank Engagement (2003) Agricultural drainage is an independent water § Reaching the Rural Poor I: Strategy and Business management sector in only a few countries (chapter Plan (2002a) 4). In most cases, the public works, irrigation, or agriculture department looks after agricultural § Making Sustainable Commitments: An Environment Strategy for the World Bank drainage. The policies of these sector institutions (2001a). therefore determine the way agricultural drainage is shaped and used. Usually, however, the ambitions of All three strategies recognize the holistic nature of our these sector institutions do not represent the natural resources and draw lessons on their use for the ambitions of society as a whole. They use drainage to benefit of all. promote the particular objectives of their sectors. The disadvantageous effects of agricultural drainage can be 49 Reclaiming Drainage Sector strategy for water resources Rural development strategy The World Bank's Water Resources Sector Strategy paper In its strategic objectives for rural development, the (2003a) is a strategic elaboration of its Water Resources World Bank chooses to accelerate broad-based rural Management Policy paper (1993). The policy paper in growth by enhancing agricultural productivity and turn was the World Bank's answer to the competitiveness and enhancing sustainability of recommendations of the 1992 Rio and Dublin natural resources management (World Bank 2003b: conferences on sustainable development. The strategy 39). This study shows that agricultural drainage is one stresses that it is time for a pragmatic but principled of the important instruments for enhancing approach (efficient, equitable, and sustainable). This agricultural productivity and improving health and intention is founded on the finding by the Bank's livelihoods but that it could also be a disadvantageous Operations Evaluation Department that "while it is practice for other water use sectors if poorly planned essential to plan comprehensively, greater success can and managed. Throughout, principles of integrated be achieved through discrete, manageable sequenced natural resources management are stressed to development," that is, by following an "unbalanced safeguard sustainable use of resources. In Re-Visioning approach" (World Bank 2002). Such an approach Irrigation, the rural strategy set the priority issues for would include a strong "learning by doing" sustainable irrigation (and drainage) as waterlogging component. The water management principles and salinity control, managing the disposal of drainage adopted in the 2003 strategy are summarized in water, managing sufficient river base-flow, regulating box 6.1. reuse of water, anticipating climate change, and The major challenge is to develop context-specific, adopting environmental planning for new and prioritized, sequenced, realistic, and patient approaches for modernizing projects (ibid:141). The need is obvious implementation. Meanwhile, any involvement of the for a consistent analytical framework that leads to an World Bank in water management development integrated resources management model to address should adhere to the two main Millennium these issues. Development Goals: poverty reduction and sustainable Environment strategy growth. This study shows the important role drainage can play in achieving these goals, when it is planned The World Bank's environment strategy (2001a) sets a and managed to deal with the multifunctional direction for the Bank's long-term activities in that resources system and the values attributed to these area and specific actions for the next five years. The functions by society, particularly the poor, the most strategy recognizes the diversity of the environment as vulnerable group. well as the differences in institutional development Box 6.1 World Bank principles for water management The World Bank's 1993 policy paper reflected the broad global consensus that modern water resources management should be based on ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE § Independentsector-basedwatermanagementisnotappropriate. § Theriverbasinistheunitofanalysis. § Landandwatershouldbemanagedtogether. § Muchmoreattentionisneededfortheenvironment. INSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLE § Allstakeholdersparticipateinwatermanagement. § Womenmustbeincluded. § Theprincipleofsubsidiarityshouldbeadheredto. INSTRUMENT PRINCIPLE § Recognizewaterasascarceresource. § Makeuseofeconomicprinciplesforwaterallocationandqualitycontrol. Source: World Bank 2003a: v. 50 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage and environmental management capacity in client Critical Issues for Integrated Drainage countries and calls for an assistance approach tailored This section briefly analyzes the issues that need to be to these diversities. Environmental management is not addressed when new policy and actions are considered seen as a separate sector but as a particular dimension to promote integrated agricultural drainage: of development management, which covers all governance and power, policy and legislation, critical sectors. At several points, the importance of "learning issues for integrated drainage, functional before doing" is stressed. The environment strategy organizations, financial and funding arrangements, does not deal with individual sectors in detail. education and knowledge systems, and drainage Nevertheless, it is not difficult to situate drainage technology within it, because drainage is both a cause of and a solution for environmental problems of land and Governance and power water and of poverty. The opportunities for policy transformation will, to a large extent, be determined by the distribution of These general policy statements by the World Bank decisionmaking power. This power has to be on water resources management, rural development, distributed in two directions: vertically and and the environment strongly support the idea of an horizontally (figure 6.1). Vertically, higher level "integrated drainage" perspective. Conversely, an authorities exert power over lower echelon integrated approach to drainage is a way to implement authorities. The subsidiarity principle is the key to the principles promoted by these strategies. The art vertical devolution of power by moving decionmaking will be to translate such general strategic principles to the lowest appropriate level. Horizontally, or in into practical "how-to" approaches for drainage parallel, the users of different functions of the same situations. water (and land) have different power positions in the management of drainage. Sharing power between agriculture, often the predominant user sector, and other user sectors is the condition for balanced Figure 6.1 Vertical and horizontal distribution of power Higher level authorities (national) levels sanitation and Middle level authorities Health Subsidiarity Agriculture FisheriesFisheries.Fisheries. Nature Navigation (provincial or state) supply Management Lower level Water (user organizations) Land and/or water use sectors Source: Authors. 51 Reclaiming Drainage decisionmaking and management in the horizontal necessary changes in the water law are being direction. To be effective, changes for reform of the discussed. decisionmaking structure have to be made simultaneously in both directions. If policy change from a monofunctional agricultural drainage model to a multifunctional one is considered, Any hydrocracies that claim responsibility for drainage basic changes have to be made in legislation. usually want to retain their power and thus pose an Sometimes even constitutions may have to be revised important hurdle for reformers to negotiate. to create space for devolution and decentralization of Worldwide, the engineers' fortresses are well known. authority. The reverse may also be true. Changes in Authority over policymaking, planning, the law or the constitution may have serious decisionmaking, implementation, and operation of consequences for agricultural drainage policy and take agricultural drainage often resides in these time to accomplish (box 6.2). governmental institutions. Strong formal (legally sanctioned) and informal alliances sometimes exist Box 6.2 Constitutional Amendment Seventy- between these departmental organizations and the three in India predominant drainage user sector. This has long been The Constitution of India was changed in 1992 the pattern in the Netherlands. There are few through the Seventy-third Amendment Act to devolve examples available to suggest that monopolists will powers from state governments to panchayats (elected share power of their own free will. Any change in this bodies) at three levels. This created the legal kind of monopolist management situation will be environment for devolution of water management impelled by broad societal and bureaucratic powers to the lowest appropriate level (subsidiarity developments. Such developments may be a gradual principle). It took until 2001 to incorporate these change of values regarding functions of the principles in a new National Water Policy for India. The environment in society as a whole, resulting in policy states, "Management of the water resources for reduced leverage for agricultural stakeholders or diverse uses should be done by adopting a participatory triggered by a government financial or budget crisis. approach; by involving not only the various Thus, there are three important entry points for governmental agencies but also the users and other reforming decisionmaking in the agricultural drainage stakeholders in an effective and decisive way in various sector: aspects .... of the water resources schemes....Water Users' Associations and the local bodies such as § Workontheprincipleofsubsidiarity. municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly § Create platforms for stakeholder representation be involved ...." (Statement 12). and empowerment of user groups. There is a dilemma regarding existing legislation on § Reduce the influence of state departmental one hand and new approaches and initiatives to organizations on decisionmaking. reform agricultural drainage on the other. The important effects and impacts of drainage on health Policy and legislation and environment (both positive and negative) make Relevant legislation has to be changed to create legal the formulation and enforcement of regulatory security in the right to use natural resources and to frameworks and operational standards essential. give disadvantaged groups access to these resources. Experimentation and piloting are often needed to find By Law 35/1949 the Egyptian state, for example, the best modalities for a new drainage concept, but unambiguously established that the provision of existing legislation does not always allow it.29 The drainage is a public responsibility and that drainage legislation therefore has to be reviewed and changed projects would be undertaken on all agricultural lands. to make room for experimentation. The law also established that farmers would be charged with the capital costs (though on soft terms). This was the start of a large-scale drainage construction program in the Nile Delta and the Valley. With the recent introduction of elected water 29In the Netherlands, experimentation with water levels in polders is necessary to find new optimums between agricultural and boards to manage the water control systems (irrigation ecological requirements. However, in the past, water levels were and drainage) at district or branch canal level, the set by law, and the water boards were obliged to maintain them or incur penalties. 52 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage Functional organizations proportion to their interest. However, if agriculture is Egypt is the only country that has a semi-autonomous to relinquish part of its production potential because drainage organization. Elsewhere, drainage is drainage is operated suboptimally from an agricultural institutionalized through irrigation, flood control, or perspective to enhance other functions, the sector will agriculture departments. The urgency of water supply, insist on spreading around the cost of lost benefits. irrigation, and protection of life and property from An equitable cost-sharing model has to be found-- floods pushes drainage to the lowest institutional fair and acceptable to everybody--but the financial priority in terms of both management and funding quantification of intangible goods and services (chapter 4). This situation is a disadvantage now but provided by water is difficult and somewhat arbitrary. can be turned into an opportunity for policy Financially balancing an area's increase in biodiversity development and transformation. The germs for against a loss of X tons of wheat is problematic, even integrating more than one water function are already disregarding the question of who exactly benefits present institutionally in most countries. This raises from biodiversity and therefore has to be charged. the important question of whether the management Recognition of the multifunctionality of drainage organizations for the water sector should be provides a strong impetus for cost sharing by dismantled and replaced by a new organization governments. They may contribute in the interest of encompassing all land and water management so as to future generations and for public goods and services achieve integrated water management. Chapter 4 such as maintenance of ecosystems, public health, and suggested caution with regard to the establishment of flood protection. However, it will take time for local river basin organizations and argued for the value and norm systems to absorb the guiding appropriate structures for polycentric and principles for cost sharing in drainage. At the same multistakeholder governance and management time, there is also considerable scope to look at the structures. cost-efficiency of drainage operations. In several When an organization in charge of agricultural drainage systems, cost saving measures are possible drainage starts to follow integration principles, it will that would bring drainage within spending capacity of impinge on other organizations' areas of competency. public sector and individual users. In these cases, good procedures have to be available to arrange for: Education and knowledge systems Education in agricultural drainage at universities and § Final competency (which organization is in the polytechnics is often purely technical and focused on lead position) agricultural production. Leading researchers, whose § Budgetprovisionsandallocation careers have been shaped by monodisciplinary § Leadingandsubordinateroles thinking, have great influence over decisionmakers, including those who determine research programs. As § Modalitiesofcoordination advisers to politicians and senior administrators, § Sanctionsfornoncooperation researchers, too, can substantially influence policymaking. § Accountabilitytousers. A new policy for drainage, based on an integrated Financial and funding arrangements water resources management approach, should therefore also aim at a long-term but consistent Cost recovery for drainage development and transformation of the educational and research and management expenditure in general is notoriously low development institutions. This would involve (chapter 4). It presents both a challenge and an adaptations in student curriculums, teaching by open- opportunity when drainage is managed in a way that minded instructors, and research programs oriented to recognizes the multiple functions of the water integrated water resources management. Existing resources system with a cost-recovery mechanism, innovative approaches in drainage teaching and negotiated among the different stakeholders, to research should be identified and supported. allocate costs and benefits among them. At the international level, several organizations could Because integrated drainage has to address more than play a role in the expansion and transformation of the one function, the beneficiaries of each function drainage knowledge system. Among these are the should logically contribute to cost recovery in 53 Reclaiming Drainage International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Because drainage policies at different levels are nested, the International Program for Technology and one might believe that new policy has to come from Research in Irrigation and Drainage, the International the top to be legitimate. However, the problems Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, caused by agricultural drainage, as well as most and the network of institutions under the Consultative opportunities for improvement, occur at grassroots. Group on International Agricultural Research. These problems and opportunities provide important Training and capacity-building institutions at the ingredients for a responsive policy (box 6.3). The national level can play an equally important role. They drivers of policy transformation are often located at help professionals who work in drainage planning and the practical level and in specific situations. A management and can therefore provide context- balanced approach would be to adopt an enabling specific solutions and training. policy at the top, one that enables and promotes initiatives, experiments, and pilot projects for Drainage technology integrated forms of drainage. More clear-cut policies Part of the resistance to an integrated approach to can be developed at the lower, practical levels and in drainage, emphasizing multifunctionality of resources particular situations. systems, could stem from the lack of mature Policies are nested in a variety of ways. There are technological solutions and adequate management different levels of legislation and governance, and capacity for "integration." Some of the country case different hydro(-ecological) levels (chapters 3 and 4). studies show that initial resistance disappears once a Also, policies from different domains are interrelated, new drainage technology situation is established and and their ownership may be located in different proper ways are found to deal with it (chapter 5). groups and organizations. Policies cannot, therefore, If agricultural drainage is to become receptive to other be conceived in isolation. Designing a new drainage functions of the environment, a series of techniques policy for all times is neither wise nor possible. and technological solutions has to be developed to Policies, including drainage policy, should be facilitate the shift to multifunctionality. Most drainage continuously "under reconstruction."30 technology in use was developed for the agricultural production function. It is therefore not automatically Logical Steps toward Change suitable for more integrated forms of drainage. Chapter 5 provides more discussion on technological options and opportunities for integrated drainage This report advocates a careful, multilevel approach to management. Research is needed to find technology (interim) policy changes to promote an integrated and management options that help optimize the approach to drainage. The main steps in a logical diversity of the system's functions. sequence are the following. Policies are needed to stimulate the development of Step 1. Understanding is the basis for a new drainage new technical drainage solutions that facilitate policy. multifunctional drainage management. The role of The first step toward a new policy is a thorough government and private parties in promoting research analysis of the existing situation, for which and technology for integrated management needs DRAINFRAME has been developed (chapter 3). This rethinking. A Pragmatic Approach to Policy for 30The underlying theoretical framework is a "policy as process" Sector Reform perspective, instead of a "policy as prescription" perspective (Mackintosh 1992). This approach shows that policy formulation and implementation are social processes in which different interest Policies tend to be generic and prescriptive, but they groups struggle, negotiate, compromise, or otherwise interact to should be enabling and give guidance. When drainage shape policy and "what it does" (e.g., Grindle 1977; Lipsky 1980; is to address the multiple functions of resources Keeley and Scoones 1999). Alignment of interests is the core systems in a highly diverse environment, sound policy process in making policies work. Understanding and intervening in alignment processes requires understanding the way social should allow the change agents to find out how the power works in policy processes. (Mollinga and Bolding, transformation should be done instead of telling them forthcoming). Strategic behavior involving incremental social and from the beginning exactly what should be changed. institutional transformation and decisionmaking in multistakeholder institutions also fits this perspective. 54 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage Box 6.3 Example of friction between policy and management Somewhere in the Netherlands, a group of six farmers, with contiguous tracts of land in the head reaches of a drainage system, wanted to improve the productivity of their land through water conservation. Part of their policy was to act together and pay for the investments themselves. Their strategy was to build small movable weirs in the main drain to raise the groundwater level and to operate and maintain the weirs themselves so they could respond as quickly as possible to changing weather conditions and changing requirements for land cultivation. Initially, a third element of their strategy was to get permission from the local water board that owns and operates the main drain. Although it was national, provincial, and water board policy to conserve water (not only for agriculture, but also for the restoration of nature), this kind of public-private cooperation was not anticipated in the respective policies and management strategies. Therefore, permission was not given. So, the farmers changed their strategy and built the weirs without the board's permission. After the first year, while cleaning the drain, the board removed the weirs. The next year, discussions started between the group of farmers and the water board. It turned out that it was within the board`s power to decide who would operate the weirs (within certain water-level boundaries indicated by the provincial government). However, as a matter of legal principle, the ownership of any structure in the drain would have to stay with the board, and so the board also had to pay for the construction. This simple example shows that understanding a particular local drainage situation resulted in a particular solution that satisfied a declared policy--that bottom-up action can change things. However, it also shows a case of conflict between policies and lower management levels driven by institutional and legal factors. Time and effort would have been saved if different levels of management had worked together in harmony and with better understanding. Source: Personal communication Jan Hoevenaars (2003). includes understanding all functions of the resources § Which external and internal drivers of change system (land and water), their stakeholders, and the exist (increasing complexity; serious conflicts of values stakeholders attribute to these functions. interest; changing values regarding drainage Lowland development in Indonesia shows that, when impacts; loss of luster, chapter 2)? policy is not based on an understanding of the diversity of the resources system, development Step 3. Get a common ambition for a new policy. opportunities are missed (Indonesia country case Four strategic issues are central for a new drainage study). policy: Step 2. Identify ambitions, problems, and § Differencesininterestbetweensocietalgroups opportunities for policy reform. § Differences in decisionmaking power between The second step toward a new drainage policy would interest groups be an iterative process of formulating ambitions, § Limitedavailabilityofresources identifying problems, and searching for opportunities to realize the ambitions. If integrated drainage is one § Resistance by established organizations and ambition, this iterative process requires bureaucracies. multistakeholder involvement, participatory planning In such an environment, reform ambitions should be (chapter 3). modest. The World Bank Water Resources Sector Strategy Problems and opportunities for change are identified paper states, "The major challenge is developing by answering three main questions: context-specific, prioritized, sequenced, realistic and patient approaches to implementation." (World Bank § What are the inconsistencies or gaps in the 2003a: v). And on pricing and water rights, the present drainage policies with regard to the strategy promotes the approach of: "Principled sustainability of the different functions of the pragmatism because economic principles are very water resources system? important and solutions need to be tailored to § What are the main weaknesses of the governance specific, widely varying natural, cultural, economic and and management system (internally and in political circumstances, in which the art of reform is dealing with multifunctional resource system)? the art of the possible" (ibid.: 22). To overcome built- 55 Reclaiming Drainage in resistance, considering the complexity of the § Changing resources affect all functions: subject, it seems wise to be pragmatic, but this understand the effects. pragmatism should be guided by a vision based on the principles of integrated resources management. § Functions have stakeholders: identify and involve them. Developing a vision entails identifying feasible shared ambitions or objectives and enrolling as many § Stakeholders assign values to functions: assess stakeholders as possible through an adequate those values. communication and information process. Apart from § Stakeholders have different says in contextual drivers (chapter 2), this requires political decisionmaking: analyze and reform it. entrepreneurship of the main agents of policy transformation. § Policies and institutions lag behind requirements for needed services: make an audit and put Guidelines for action pressure on policymakers and practitioners. The DRAINFRAME formulation derives from a set of conceptual frameworks and a limited amount of Concluding Messages practical experience (chapter 3). However, DRAINFRAME still needs to move from concepts to Five main messages emerge from the analysis action. Methodologies, scientific research, and field- presented in this report. Some of these messages level how-to's are available only in a fragmented and target the broad audience of professionals in the incomplete way within current practices. A phase of drainage and water management sector, planners, experimentation and learning is needed to collect decisionmakers, governments, and the international evidence, gain experience, and develop a practical set development community at large. Some are specific to of instruments. This would require an enabling policy a particular group. These messages may help in that allows experimentation in the context of actual rethinking drainage policy and induce these different drainage intervention situations. groups to take up their responsibilities in the drive to integration. The following recommended actions could lead to the required policy changes. They could be taken one or Message 1. Dare to Look at All Costs and Benefits. more at a time. A general lesson from the case studies behind this § Conductexperimentsorpilotsprojects. report is that there is a dire need for effective approaches that acknowledge all positive and negative § Concentrate first on quickly rewarding activities: effects of drainage and ensure multifunctional (re-) "pick the lowest hanging fruit." design and operation of systems, apply fair cost § Build awareness and information; enhance allocation, and offer mitigation or compensation for transparency; start public debates on the all parties who experience negative impacts from multifunctionality of the resources system. drainage. § Underlinegains. Expanding and balancing the assessment of drainage, and the management of water resources generally, to § Recognize, mobilize, and empower other include both positive and negative effects would stakeholders besides agricultural producers. provide incentives for mobilization of resources for § Make financial resources available for dedicated investment in "integrated" drainage--drainage activities systems that consciously address the Learning about and assessing the need for multifunctionality of the resources system and the implementing an integrated approach include plurality of stakeholders and their values. improving knowledge in the following areas: Message 2. Emphasize the Potential for Poverty § Nature provides many functions: detect those Reduction in the Integrated Approach. functions. Ignorance about many functions of water and land, § Agricultural drainage has an impact on natural and the interests at stake, are among the root causes resources: know the changes. of unsustainable drainage and a cause of poverty for many people. Increased costs because of the loss of 56 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage functions of the natural resources system reflect the Message 5. Governments and the international potentially poverty-deepening effects of having or not development community must play an important role having drainage. The two-sided effects of agricultural in promoting an integrated approach to drainage. drainage on poverty make it imperative that planning simultaneously address both sides of drainage. The Part of governments' mandate is to promote development and change and to provide the proposed integrated approach fosters the poverty- reducing effects of agricultural drainage. instruments and enabling environment to make it happen. The international community comprises Message 3. Move Toward an Integrated Approach important players in the fields of water management, with Pragmatism and Vision. agriculture and rural development, water supply and Change is difficult and slow everywhere, including the sanitation, social development, and environment. transformation of policies that govern drainage They manage strong knowledge bases and many management and development. Moreover, vested research centers. They could open many doors to interests may resist changes that affect the economic promote the proposed changes in drainage. As change position of agriculture. There is little experience with agents, governments and the international community the implementation of drainage based on can push policy development and innovation multifunctionality, especially in developing countries. processes in drainage. Specifically, they could This makes it difficult to make big steps toward a § Promote a long-term vision of integrated significant paradigm shift. As stated, a steady, step-by- drainage. step approach to change is preferred as a pragmatic way for achieving change. Nevertheless, a paradigm § Promote, and make resources available for, the shift toward integrated drainage is required and offers learning processes necessary to help along the an opportunity not only to address the well-known transformation process in drainage. side effects of the technology but also to overcome § Work to develop a portfolio of projects and major problems of classic agricultural drainage. programs that encompass the features of the Pragmatism should be pursued within a visionary proposed changes. framework that fosters the main direction of § Introduce the principle of full understanding of transformation. drainage situations as a part of new projects for Message 4. Learn before Doing. restructuring the water resources sector. Change should start by improving knowledge. For the § Recognizetheeffectsofdrainageonpoverty,and first critical steps toward new policy, in a scene of the distribution of poverty, over different societal diversity in all respects and little experience with new groups. approaches, understanding each drainage situation and And finally, all individuals, organizations, and agencies its specific needs is indispensable and must come with the power to act, should act now--no need to before action. Experimentation and piloting the wait. The challenge is clear, but the rewards can be integrated approach such as the one presented by enormous. DRAINFRAME in the context of local diversity is a crucial first step toward formulating policies and guidelines and for planning drainage interventions. 57 Appendix A Selected Primary and Secondary Function Changes due to Agricultural Drainage Main agricultural Primary drainage Primary physical change in Affected interventions changes function Secondary changes landscape Other affected functions Prevent or reduce Lowering of soil Improved soil Lowering of water table in Adjacent Improved living conditions due to less damage to buildings waterlogging water table productivity and adjacent lands inhabited land and public infrastructure (Pakistan, Egypt, workability Mexico) (mechanization) Adjacent Maintenance of biodiversity threatened, including natural productive resources (fish) wetlands 59 Reduce or prevent soil Leaching and Reduction in snail and On site Improved living conditions due to improved public health salinization lowering of soil mosquito breeding (Pakistan, Egypt, water table Mexico) Increased flood buffer On site and Reduced risks of prolonged inundation downstream Flood control Hydrological Prevention of Reduced high-level On site Less flood damage to built-up property, but also diminished (Bangladesh, Java) changes in flood crop damage, inundation fish production (in coastal areas diminished shrimp or salt regime prolongation of production) growing season Reduced field On site Reduced soil fertility sedimentation Increased downstream Downstream Downstream flood risks and drainage congestion inundation and waterways, sedimentation in water unprotected ways areas Increased ability to retain On site Increased ability to balance water use for different water on site purposes in command areas Conveyance and Transportation of Disposal of Reuse Downstream Additional water supply for agriculture and aquaculture discharge of drainage water elsewhere excess water provided quality is acceptable Main agricultural Primary drainage Primary physical change in Affected interventions changes function Secondary changes landscape Other affected functions waters (Egypt) Disposal of liquid waste Canals and When uncontrolled, contributing to pollution problems of from urban and industrial waterways large water systems sources Ecosystems receiving Wetlands Affects and possible threatens natural productivity (fish, drainage waters shellfish) by pollution or changing system hydrology Natural water purification processes and biological diversity affected by inflow of contaminated water ­ on other hand also new wetlands created by excess flows Reclamation of Clearing of natural Turn into Loss of local biodiversity Local Reduced biotic pressure on surrounding areas --particularly waterlogged organic, ecosystems agricultural if new areas fully developed. Risk of opening pristine areas. acid-sulphate soils in lands Local loss of regulation, carrier, and significance functions natural lowland areas of ecosystems (Indonesia) Lowering of water Increased Land subsidence Local If areas inadequately selected or developed, abandoning of table and regular agricultural land 60 flushing productivity Changes in soil and water Local and Wrong practices may lead to degradation and domestic quality downstream water problems Importance of second-stage lowland lands (natural development and agricultural) Source: Country case study reports. Appendix B The Multiple Impacts of Drainage Agricultural Impacts Drainage theoretically results in better root aeration Drainage interventions were often undertaken and changes the environment for soil chemical primarily to improve agricultural production. processes and the development of soil bacteria. For Agricultural benefits of drainage in selected areas example, water table control enhances have been considerable and on a similar magnitude denitrification.31 Drainage also has other effects that to irrigation investments. The impact of well- support farm operations and create opportunities planned drainage investments on farm productivity for crop diversification. Drainage improves land can be large. Moreover, drainage investments usually access, allowing farm mechanization for timely soil do not require scarce water. preparation and early sowing. In temperate climates it can advance and prolong the farming season. It Drainage development depends on the stage of also enables double or triple cropping. Such gains agricultural development (Smedema, Abdel-Dayem, have triggered spontaneous farmer-managed and Ochs 2000). In subsistence agriculture and drainage development in areas as diverse as the initial stages of agricultural development, basic types coastal mangrove swamps in West Africa, the of drainage are economically justified. When lowlands of Indonesia, and coastal Kerala, India. agricultural development takes off and yield, Drainage increases soil temperatures during spring, intensity, and diversity of crops become important which improves germination and inhibits plant issues, investment in more intensive drainage diseases. In lowlands in the humid tropics such as systems becomes justified. Indonesia, drainage plays a complex role in ripening The impacts of drainage improvements have been acid sulphate soils through the oxidization of pyrite less systematically reviewed than the impacts of and the flushing of acidity. irrigation projects. One reason is related to the Most drainage development has been based on free difficulty of establishing drainage impacts per se, flow that lowered the water table to the drain level, because of the large sensitivity of drainage programs rather than managing it for moisture content in the to external variables such as the occurrence or root zone. An important factor in managing shallow nonoccurrence of rainfall in a number of years, groundwater is the impact of capillary supply. When sufficient irrigation supply, soil fertility, plant water tables are relatively shallow, capillary supply protection, or the state of operation and replenishes soil moisture, which is of particular maintenance of drainage works. importance during dry spells or peak growing Crop yields and water table depth are strongly periods. Active capillary supply is an example of the related. In the Netherlands, considerable research management of "green water," the water stored in has been done on this. The relation is influenced by the soil (Falkenmark 1995). Drainage systems that soil type, crop (particularly its rooting depth), and have no facility to control the depth of water tables rainfall distribution during growing season. An (systems with free gravity outlets) may lose the example of different responses to groundwater depth of two crops on different soils is shown in figure B1. 31Denitrification is the process whereby NO3-N is broken down to N and NOx , making the nitrates retained in the soils available for plant use. 61 Reclaiming Drainage Figure B1 Relative yield and groundwater depth: an example hyacinth on coarse sand grassland on heavy clay 100 80 (%) 60 yield 40 relative 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Groundwater depth (cm) Source: Adapted from Van der Molen 1968. subirrigation effect, resulting in overdrainage and Another comprehensive assessment of the impact undoing gains in farm productivity. of drainage improvement in arid areas was done in Economic impact studies on drainage are few and the Mardan Salinity Control and Reclamation far between (Umali 1993; Datta, de Jong and Singh project (SCARP) in Pakistan (Freedman and Akram- 2002). Where undertaken, such studies have usually Lodhi 2001). It compares the before and after looked at agricultural impacts. One of the most project situation in both impact and control areas. recent and elaborate efforts was undertaken in the In the 10 years in which the project was completed, National Drainage Program in Egypt. An intensive crop yields increased between 27 percent and 150 network of subsurface pipe drains and surface percent in the project area. Real household income drains has been constructed in the "old lands" in increased by a mere 5 percent (corrected for Egypt to reduce salinity and overcome waterlogging inflation). However, this was still a boon compared in this arid environment. A multiyear evaluation to the 32 percent drop in real income in the control based on 15 large sample areas established that the area. In both areas, the importance of farm income gross agricultural production value typically declined, but the drop was pronounced outside the improved by about US$500 to US$550/hectare. The project area. This showed a steep increase in the annual net farm income of the traditional farm importance of wage income. The study ascribes the increased by US$375/ha in nonsaline areas and by stagnating incomes in the project area to the about US$200/ha in saline areas. The overall cost of worsening terms of trade for agriculture, the installation of drainage (construction of subsurface persistence of subsistence farming, and inequity in network, remodeling of open drains, planning, access to resources--related to a tenure system design and supervision) was estimated at US$750/ha dominated by large landowners. and US$550/ha for rehabilitation. Maintenance Mexico reports short payback periods, particularly costs were about US$10/ha/year. Assuming that for drainage investment that enabled water table two-thirds of the incremental income could be management in the humid parts of the country. This attributed to drainage, the pay-back period of the allowed the introduction of sustainable soil and drainage investments in Egypt is short--i.e. less water conservation practices, including the than 4 years (Ali et al. 2001). expansion of tropical fruit cultivation and 62 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage improvement of field crops (doubled corn yields) Public Health, Drinking Water and pastureland. In the different subprojects in the Supply and Sanitati on Program for Integrated Rural Development in the Drainage plays a crucial but often underexposed role Tropical Wetlands (PRODERITH), the economic in public health. Excessive moisture and stagnant rates of return, calculated only on the basis of water are breeding places for vectors (e.g., changes in agricultural yields, were decent, varying mosquitoes, flies, and snails) of parasitical and viral between 14.7 percent in Zanapa Tonala in Tabasco diseases. An important side effect of drainage has state to 21.5 percent in Centro de Veracruz. been the reduction of the incidence of killer diseases Comparable analysis of flood control with drainage such as malaria, schistosomiasis (bilharzias), projects in Bangladesh shows a large variation. The Japanese encephalitis (brain fever), yellow fever, and impact of investments in coastal regions was various forms of filariasis, but all depends on the generally higher than inland investments. Saline quality and continuity of the drainage services. flooding is far more damaging than freshwater Combating malaria is explicitly mentioned in the flooding, especially for agriculture. Economic Millennium Development Goals, and the analysis of flood control and drainage benefits importance of vector control therefore needs undertaken in Flood Action Program 12, a emphasis. component of the larger Flood Action Program, Other positive health impacts include reduction in concluded that, out of 17 inland flood control and dankness. Rheumatism was endemic in many farm drainage projects, 9 projects were, in retrospect, areas in the Netherlands, but lower water tables economically viable, with economic internal rates of improved living conditions. What applies to human return between 22 percent and 96 percent (median health also applies to animal health. Kamal et al. 54 percent). The performance of 8 other projects (1999) found a remarkable reduction in animal was marginal. In two cases, the economic returns diseases after the completion of drainage projects in were negative. Smaller projects did somewhat better Sindh, Pakistan. Diseases such as lungworms and than larger projects, while pumped drainage West Nile virus are positively correlated with humid appeared to be uneconomic (Government of subsoil and standing water. However, the effective Bangladesh 2001: annex B-34). contribution to public health depends on proper Finally, drainage investments in Europe and the design, operation, and maintenance of the drainage United States show a mixed picture. There were systems. Malfunctioning drains can easily turn into substantial farmer investments, often aided by major problem spots and become a public health public subsidies, but interest declined once the risk. subsidies were phased out and agriculture had Drainage has a major impact on diarrhea and become less profitable. gastroenteric disorders. A lowered water table is The agricultural impacts of drainage investment often a precondition for a minimum sanitation have thus been mixed, but in several instances they environment. It is impossible to construct have equaled or surpassed productivity gains inexpensive latrines in waterlogged areas--often the through investment in irrigation infrastructure. most convenient and cost-effective technology Drainage is sometimes regarded as the necessary evil cannot be used. The provision of such facilities is accompanying irrigation investments, but the studies standard practice in drainage programs in Japan. referred to above suggest that drainage investments Rain washes contaminants into shallow wells, often are justified on their own merits. The impact of the major source of drinking water. Reducing the drainage is, however, very much dependent on the number of persons without access to adequate state and maintenance of the system. This may state sanitation (by 50 percent of an estimated 2.6 billion the obvious, but maintenance of drainage people by 2015) received new impetus in the targets infrastructure, particularly open drains and pumping set at the World Summit on Sustainable facilities, has often been neglected. Development in Johannesburg in 2003. Unfortunately, agricultural drainage projects have often ignored these public health effects and have 63 Reclaiming Drainage neglected to extend drainage networks to local damage occurs from excessive moisture. This is settlements. There are few examples of joint particularly important when houses are made of programs between agricultural and public health adobe, as in large parts of rural Pakistan, India, and departments. Mexico. Low-income mud houses are badly Drainage may affect domestic water supply. In some damaged by humid soil conditions and have to be saline groundwater zones in Pakistan, where rebuilt frequently, as do earth roads. In the waterlogging is most widespread, lowering water Netherlands, for instance, many roads in badly tables allowed a thin lens of freshwater to develop drained areas used to be little more than mud tracks, on top of the saline groundwater, recharged by rain difficult to travel on, isolating communities from and canal seepage. An example is the Drainage IV markets and civic amenities. Power and area near Faisalabad. Freshwater lenses under farm communication lines also collapse under wet ponds are also widely used for drinking water supply conditions in rural areas. Leaning or fallen telephone in coastal Bangladesh. Though far from excellent, and power lines are a common sight in waterlogged these thin layers are often the best locally available areas. Maintaining a balance in the control of source of drinking water. In the lowlands in shallow water tables is also important to avoid land Indonesia, domestic water supply is equally subsidence. Overuse of groundwater and problematic. At the end of the dry season, water overdrainage can result in a lowering of land levels quality in lowland areas usually deteriorates to the with dramatic effects on buildings. Better water point that it becomes unfit for human consumption retention can mitigate these effects. due to high suspended-solid and high sulphate Up-to-the-mark drainage management has translated content and bacteriological contamination. A range into increased property and land prices ni several of measures is used to provide drinking water of cases. For instance, some scenic land in areas near reasonable quality: filtration, sedimentation, addition the rivers close to the Port of Veracruz was no of coagulant and disinfectant, boiling, and roof-top longer waterlogged and threatened by floods after rainfall harvesting. Controlled drainage, in particular the construction of drainage systems in the humid flushing the system with river water to remove part of Mexico under the PRODERITH program. acidity and organic pollutants, ensures that the water Values increased from US$7,000 to US$200,000/ha. in canals will remain suitable for other domestic uses Such impacts are usually forgotten in the calculation such as bathing and washing. of returns on investment. Moreover, they are typically not recovered and become a windfall for Reduced Damage to Buildings and landowners. In urban development, investment in Roads public infrastructure is usually recouped directly Less damage will be done to buildings and other from new landowners. But it is uncommon in rural rural infrastructure when shallow water tables are water management projects, where capital cost under control. First, lower water tables can reduce recovery, if any, is usually tried through the painful the possibility of uncontrolled flooding because they route of recurrent charges. The appreciation of land act as a buffer to excess rainfall. Drainage also value and the introduction of "sites-and-services" ensures the removal of stormwater. The deteriorated approaches might be considered in drainage condition of the drainage system in the Mahanadi evaluation and planning. Delta in Orissa state, India, was responsible for the persistent flooding after the 1999 cyclone-- Effects on Environmental multiplying the woes of a society already devastated Functions by the storm surges. The balance is delicate, because Drainage development has several effects on the an overdeveloped drainage system can also lead to environmental functions of the natural resources sharp flood peaks, as rainfall very rapidly finds its system. Drainage development focused exclusively way to the rivers. on agricultural development often did damage. It Second, drainage reduces damage to buildings did not look at what was lost in the developed areas because, when water tables are managed, less or at the external consequences. Conversion of swamps into agricultural or residential land 64 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage inevitably leads to loss of wetlands. Although Punjab in Pakistan and India. In those areas, the wetlands have been a source of disease vectors, they interests of upstream and downstream areas--the may shelter unique species or valuable ecosystems, latter receiving the contaminated effluent--may be serve as water buffers or sediment traps, or have miles apart. important production functions such as fisheries or the collection of wetland products (e.g., reeds, sago, Contaminants may also originate elsewhere, and the drainage systems may accelerate their transport and and honey). spread. A prime example is Egypt where parts of the Wetlands may have cleaning properties and serve to drainage network serve as sewers and an integrated maintain water quality in the basins of which they perspective on water-quality management is needed. are part. One example is the Pripyat River between Drainage management may either cause or delay the Ukraine and Belarus. About 25 percent of the basin washing of agrochemicals into the groundwater used to be under peatland, but when a large part of table. In intensively cultivated parts of the it was cleared under the "amelioration" program of Netherlands, this has been a major problem. the Soviet era, water quality in the river declined. The conversion of wetlands into agricultural land The effects of drainage on the environment can be positive, too. Where soils are adequately drained, may also affect microclimates. In Indonesia, for instance, the presence of peat swamp forest and the there is less surface runoff and less erosion. This is large mass of freshwater acts as a windbreak and particularly important in uplands or areas with unstable soils. In plains, water retention by bunds absorbs heat. This causes more rain to fall on forested lowlands than in stripped areas, which have and gully plugs will reduce the force of sheet flow a higher albedo. Rainfall in Southern Florida has and prevent the development of erosion rills and deep gullies (Mahapatra 2003). seriously diminished due to drainage and drying of large portions of the wetland system (of which the Another example of a positive impact is the creation Everglades is the best known part). Florida is now of new wetlands supplied by drainage flows. Lake executing a multibillion dollar wetland restoration Sarykamysh near the Aral Sea is an example. The program. disposal of drainage water in evaporation ponds has The transport of contaminants and toxicants has created wildlife refuge areas of great biodiversity value. The Aral Sea and its adjoining deltas always also made drainage controversial. Toxicants may originate from the drained areas. Examples are the served as an important refuge area for migrating saline effluent from arid area drainage systems such bird life. The Aral Sea crises made its wetlands virtually disappear. Many birds have moved toward as in Egypt and Pakistan or acid releases from the decomposition of acid sulphate soils in the early Lake Sarykamysh, a large desert lake, permanently days of lowland development in Indonesia. filled by a constant supply of drainage water. In time, however, the lake is expected to become Adequate disposal and mixing with better quality water is required. This has been the lesson from hypersaline because of rapid salinization, similar to Indonesia, where controlled drainage now helps the what happened to the Aral Sea. In other cases, drainage development may lead to the loss of flushing of acid and toxic effluents by river water. This, however, is difficult when drainage basins are wetlands, but it may also promote the intensification closed, or no outfall to the sea is feasible, as in of agriculture, which can slow down the opening of pristine areas. 65 Appendix C Diversity in Drainage Situations Diversity in Agriculture Drainage infrastructure in Egypt, designed from a single-sector perspective, has contributed to a In many landscapes, the cropping pattern and significant increase in agricultural production. calendar are big hurdles for adequate agricultural Drainage intervention has also had positive impacts drainage. Different crops require different optimum on public health (reduction in schistosomiasis groundwater levels, which vary throughout the transmission), reduced damage to buildings, and season. Orchards need a stable, not too shallow created a highly suitable canal system for the groundwater level. Rice needs standing water for disposal of urban and industrial waste. Improper most of the growing season, but for ripening and disposal of these wastes causes serious harvest all water has to be drained and the soil has environmental problems. Drainage influences to dry. Drainage often has no answer to this variety several natural resources functions and serves the of needs. Therefore, there are few orchards in interests of multiple sectors. between rice fields. When a rice farmer is too late to join his neighbors' calendar, s/he risks falling dry Small, medium, and large scale well before the crop ripens. Strategies to cope with Drainage systems show immense variation in size. these inconveniences are compartmentalization and Tidal drainage systems in Sumatra measure several fine-tuning the system (establishing smaller hundreds of meters parallel to the coastline. hydrological control units) and segregation (splitting Boundaries are defined by the difference between land into high and low parts by raising one part and high and low tide. High tides raise the water level in excavating the other). Apart from this, acceptance rivers, allowing irrigation of fields along the rivers. of a compromise between optimums is what At low tide, the water level in the river drops, and remains. fields can be drained. The size of these drainage systems ranges between hundreds and thousands of Multiple functions, Multiple hectares. In the Kuttanad backwaters of Kerala, sectors India, pumping drains individual polders of similar Drainage can influence the many functions of land size directly into the backwaters. However, in polder and water resources systems. Which combination of landscapes in the Netherlands, draining one polder functions is influenced differs from place to place, always interferes with drainage of other polders. as seen in Bangladesh and Egypt. The exact set of More complex organizations are necessary to deal relevant functions for drainage development with the interests of all polders in one "drainage therefore has to be identified in each situation. basin." These polder landscapes measure from thousands to tens of thousand of hectares, as do In Bangladesh, interventions to maximize individual irrigation systems in, for example, agricultural production interfere with other Northern Mexico, or rainfed agriculture in functions. The construction of riverbanks to protect microcatchments in Southern Mexico and Java. The agricultural land from flooding has led to reduction irrigation and drainage systems of Egypt and in fisheries and increased sedimentation in Pakistan are the largest and most complex systems, waterways. Consequently, drainage flows are covering country-sized areas that run well into obstructed and problems with navigation occur. hundreds of thousands or millions of hectares. 66 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage Historical evolution of systems postponed and lag behind irrigation interventions. The layout and functioning of present day drainage In many cases, the interventions reflect prevailing systems is a result of historical development. Their views on a desired path of development at that features often represent development ideologies or point in time. A simple drainage typology in Egypt economic emphases at the time of planning and would distinguish three broad categories of drained design of a scheme. The Tungabhadra Irrigation lands: the old lands (Nile Valley and Delta, project (Karnataka, India) was constructed in the containing pipe and open drains and managed by 1950s to increase coarse grain and cotton one government body); the old new lands (fringes of production by supplementary irrigation and to the old lands and along the coast, with limited open irrigate a small area under rice. Natural streams and drains governed by mixed institutions); and the new small lateral surface drains were assumed to be lands (desert land, where drainage is absent or sufficient to drain the undulating landscape and underdeveloped, governed by private initiative). The send the effluent back into the Tungabhadra River. change in perspective from a highly centralized In the early years, production levels were organization to a liberalized market-oriented satisfactory, but fifty years later, the scene has approach can easily be traced in this categorization. completely changed. Economic problems, crop disease, and pests have heavily reduced cotton Diversity in Environmental Factors production, while rice cultivation has dramatically expanded in the head reaches, causing waterlogging Many different environmental factors influence and salinization problems in the lower parts. Natural drainage, including climate, typography, soil drains are silted up and overgrown. Villages located characteristics, groundwater characteristics, natural along these streams have more drinking water but drainage, and biological diversity and ecological experience health and accessibility problems due to processes. stagnating water. Climate. Important climate parameters that influence The Netherlands created a successful flood control a drainage situation are rainfall, evaporation surplus and agricultural drainage system that performed well or deficit, and seasonality. The objectives of any for all stakeholders: it improved soil quality for drainage intervention are to largely determined by farmers, gave protection from floods for all, and the amount of rainfall. In arid regions like Egypt, provided efficient waterways for shipping. But Pakistan, and Northern Mexico, drainage systems industrialization has created a wealthy, urban society are designed mainly to combat irrigation-induced in a densely populated country that is in desperate waterlogging and soil salinity. In wet regions like need of open rural space for housing, recreational Bangladesh, Southern Mexico, and Indonesia, activities, and maintenance of scarce biological drainage interventions are usually designed to diversity. Due to changing physical parameters (sea prevent flooding. Some drainage schemes in level rise, soil subsidence, river discharges) and Bangladesh have multiple objectives and uses, changes in the value society attaches to functions of varying with the seasons: crops need protection the natural resources system, the drainage system from premonsoon flash floods, water is stored for that worked so well for agriculture has been fish production during the monsoon rainy period, redirected into a costly operation to restore some of and crops need irrigation water during the post- the lost functions such as flood retention and monsoon dry period. In the Netherlands' temperate conservation of biological and landscape diversity. climate, rainfall is moderate, but low temperatures The Netherlands case provides a lesson about long- and a consequent lack of evaporation (and lack of term functional changes and shifts in the values of gradient) necessitate artificial drainage interventions. stakeholders that is rarely addressed in planning and Drainage systems in arid Mexico and Pakistan have design of drainage interventions. to deal with sporadic torrential rains and the Irrigation schemes in arid areas may develop resulting flash floods. waterlogging and salinity problems only after several Elevation. The land elevation has to be considered in decades. Drainage interventions are thus usually relation to the water body that receives its drainage 67 Reclaiming Drainage waters. Most of the Netherlands lies below river and drainage necessary, and the need for additional open seawater levels. Excess water has to be drained leaching and chemical amendments for reclamation by pumping. In Sumatra, tidal irrigation and (e.g., gypsum). drainage systems in coastal areas lie between the range of high and low tides. Seasonal differences in Groundwater characteristics. In dry climates, drainage range, frequency, and tide, caused by changes in the activities in conjunction with irrigation create permanently available water in areas where water direction of trade winds and fluctuating river discharges, create complex and highly localized used to be (seasonally) scarce. This creates new conditions for drainage (as well as irrigation). There water functions for man, nature, or both. Water quality largely determines whether these functions are no generalized operational rules for tidal drainage systems. The microrelief in each drainage can be exploited sustainably or whether they are situation creates widely diverse conditions. harmful. Naturally occurring concentrations of salts or harmful elements (arsenic, fluoride) in deep Slope. Flat terrain with small surface gradients, groundwater reservoirs are a cause of concern in combined with composite drainage systems (laterals, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Deep tubewells in collectors, secondary and main drains) as found in Pakistan have been used successfully for drainage in the Nile Delta, requires pumping at the outlet of the areas with naturally occurring saline groundwater. main drains. In the delta, pumping is necessary to By pumping up this water, new possibilities for maintain gravity flow in the field system, given the irrigation were created. However, this introduced elevated water levels in the receiving water bodies. large quantities of salt into the irrigation systems, In the Netherlands, the Southern Limburg hills, leading to secondary salinity of soils, which is now which consist of aeoline loams with low considered a major problem. In areas with good permeability, are characterized by a heavy overland quality, shallow groundwater, sustainable reuse of water runoff. Under such surface drainage drainage water is possible. conditions in hilly terrain, the removal of vegetation Natural drainage system. The characteristics of the cover for agriculture leads to local erosion and sedimentation downhill. Conservation of contour natural drainage system derive from the above strips of vegetation or construction of contour primary factors and natural vegetation. The natural drainage system determines the natural state of bunds are the drainage control measures. By catching eroded materials, bunds or contour strips dryness or waterlogging of landscapes. In water may develop into seminatural terraces. surplus areas, humans have invariably extended and intensified the natural drainage system. The drainage Soil characteristics. Heavy clay soils with low hydraulic situation is strongly determined by the original conductivity in the Nile Valley and Delta need natural hydrological system. In many arid regions, narrow drain spacing, leading to a 15 percent land irrigation schemes have been developed. The loss in the case of open drains and fragmentation of absence of a dense network of natural drains has properties into small units, thus hampering often led to the creation of a manmade drainage agricultural operations. Buried pipe drainage system. Another dimension of the natural drainage (horizontal drainage) provides an optimum solution system is the aquifer characteristics. The presence of under these circumstances. In large parts of India impervious layers, the depth of the aquifer below and Pakistan where clay content of the soils is much surface, the upward movement of groundwater in lower and permeability consequently higher, vertical certain zones, and the occurrence of springs are all drainage by tubewells is a good alternative in the related to the natural subsurface drainage system. case of fresh groundwater aquifers. Biological diversity and ecological processes. Coastal Mineral content of soils is an important swamplands in Indonesia have great potential as a characteristic for assessing the risk and type of source of food, cash crops, and livelihoods for primary salinity and alkalinity,32 the intensity of growing populations. However, these lowlands support rich productive swamp and mangrove forests, together with abundant and varied aquatic 32 Secondary salinity results when irrigation water deposits life, performing many functions for the larger area minerals in the soil. 68 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage (fish reproduction, wood production, coastal shallow peat layers can be successfully developed, protection, soil protection, water storage, especially when a staged process is followed. maintenance of biodiversity and genetic resources). Vegetation cover. In the Banaue Valley of Northern The validity of drainage development is called into question by the potential loss of unique and Luzon in the Philippines, a system of terraces has irreplaceable, multifunctional, natural ecosystems. been functioning for centuries. The necessary supply of water for paddy cultivation is guaranteed by To protect these systems, a detailed assessment of their many functions and the values attributed to maintaining uphill rainforests that absorb the heavy them and careful, well-documented experiments tropical rainfall and release it gradually to the lower terraces. Customary regulations prohibited the should be done to determine whether and how development for a growing population can be cutting of these forests. Nowadays, squatters from combined with protection of ecological processes densely populated central Luzon that have no knowledge of these regulations cut down forests, and biological diversity. leading to increased runoff (surface drainage), Agricultural development in the Netherlands has landslides, and water supply problems for the lower created a rich habitat for bird life over the centuries. terraces. Vegetation cover in this case is a Large proportions of the world population of management tool to control surface drainage as well several species of meadow bird depend on these as irrigation water supply. manmade land use types. Optimization of drainage Table C1 summarizes the diversity of drainage and subsequent intensification of agriculture over the last decades has dramatically reduced the situations in the six countries studied, based on number of birds. The Netherlands now has legal environmental characteristics and technical drainage solutions. This presentation, which does not take problems with respect to the European Union's directive for the protection of birds. In the most into account historical, institutional, and valuable areas, drainage interventions are being environmental aspects, already results in 17 broadly defined drainage situations. Every drainage situation reversed. is unique, because all these key parameters vary Key environmental processes have to be taken into from country to country and from place to place. account when drainage interventions are planned in The development of each drainage situation makes coastal swamplands. Vegetation cover develops them even more diverse over time. under the influence of physical (abiotic) conditions. Although vegetation on barren land (pioneer vegetation) is totally determined by these external Social and Economic Diversity variables (soil, hydrology, climate, tidal rhythms, and so forth), natural vegetation develops into more Apart from the spatial and time-related factors complex systems that increasingly create their own discussed above, diversity in the social and conditions for growth. Peat swamps provide a good economic environment also influences drainage example. Due to poor internal drainage, peat characteristics, as seen in the examples below. develops on poor, sandy soils. By retaining rainwater Prosperity and values. A comparison of the U.S. in layers of dead plant material, these systems create state of California and Haryana, India, shows that their own specific hydrological conditions. Due to drainage situations can develop in similar directions the anaerobic circumstances, plants hardly decay and but through totally different driving forces. In both develop into thick layers of peat. Drainage of the cases, drainage was introduced when irrigation- system will lead to aerobic soil conditions, thus induced salinization and waterlogging became starting the process of decay of organic materials problematic. In both cases, subsurface drainage (oxidation). This natural "burning" of peat layers systems were installed that improved agricultural leads to soil subsidence. Bad planning of drainage production. In both cases, drainage proved canals in deep layers of peat in Kalimantan (the unsustainable, but for completely different reasons, "peat domes") has caused deep depressions that stemming from socioeconomic differences. cannot be drained with gravity systems. However, 69 Reclaiming Drainage In California, drainage mobilized selenium, which have to be drained off. As a result, the tail end, accumulated in the Kesterton Reservoir, used as an largely local farmers get little irrigation water, and evaporation pond. After some years, the many birds the drainage water from the head reaches is attracted to this water body from a nearby bird polluted, has an unreliable flow, and causes sanctuary showed high death rates. The ecological flooding. In this case, three functions are influenced function of this distant landscape had been by agricultural drainage: rice production in the head negatively affected by the agricultural drainage. In reaches of the scheme, domestic water supply along the United States, ecological functions have the tail end canals, and flow regulation in the influential stakeholders, represented by downstream reaches of the natural streams in the environmentalist nongovernmental organizations, valleys. The rice farmers are stakeholders of rice and the legal system recognizes these functions. A production. The downstream end has different court decided that Kesterton Reservoir had to be categories of stakeholders. Farmers along the tail closed for evaporation of drainage water. Expensive end canals do not get water for cropping, and measures had to be taken to either safely dispose the households have to rely on poor quality drinking drainage water elsewhere or retire irrigation schemes water. Women have more work fetching good in the area and compensate the farmers. water, and children are more vulnerable to health In Haryana, drainage system effluent runs to the problems. In villages along natural drains, lowest point in the region. Water, salts, and inhabitants experience flood damage. Head reach pollutants are accumulating, and the disposal of farmers give low priority to the system's drinking saline drainage water is severely constrained. A water function because they have access to piped possible drainage outlet is provided by the Yamuna water systems, and the irrigation water is of good River, which also provides drinking water to New quality. Irrigation water quality is of great Delhi, the capital city. Transfer of saline drainage importance for the downstream people along the waters to this river pose a threat to the public water canals, because they rely entirely on it for their supply in a city with large groups of influential drinking water. The different socioeconomic status stakeholders. Legal restrictions apply to drainage on of the two groups, colonist rice farmers from this river. It is only a matter of time before some Andhra Pradesh and local farmers practicing rainfed rigorous measures, comparable to the California agriculture, has had a strong impact on the case, will have to be taken to improve the drainage development of the water management situation. situation in Haryana, but the costs are a major Sociopolitical structure. The transformation of constraint. Agriculture is he driving force behind the the Netherlands' political system in the 1960s and need for a rigorous drainage solution in Haryana. 1970s, from a democracy with corporatist features The most straightforward solution, however, is to a more open democracy based on increased opposed by a powerful urban interest in drinking citizen consultation and participation at different water quality. In this case, whether wildlife values levels, is one of four main developments that has are threatened is unknown. changed water management in the Netherlands over Distribution of power and cultural the past 40 years, and agricultural drainage in background. In the Tungabhadra Irrigation project particular. The more open political system allowed (Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, India) referred to the strongly organized and very influential above, farmers were a mix of colonists from the agricultural interest to be questioned. Several other Andhra coast experienced in irrigated rice culture processes facilitated this questioning. and local people who farmed rainfed coarse grains, § A large part of the population put higher value oilseeds, and cotton. Rice farmers have become the on a clean, biologically rich, and attractive economically dominant group that de facto rules the environment, as articulated by the emerging scheme by manipulating the irrigation and drainage environmental movement. authorities. Head reach farmers (with a high percentage of colonists) double-crop rice and have § An expanding and democratized higher enough influence to claim more water than they education system stimulated a critical attitude need. Due to overirrigation, large amounts of water among students and teachers and facilitated the 70 Toward Policy Changes for Integrated Drainage scientific development of new water characterized the process of change in the early management concepts. stages, and resistance of conservative powers and A paradigm shift in water management was the people, especially in the agricultural sector. After result of a combination of these factors. The vested new elements were institutionalized, the process executive organizations were forced to change by became less conflictual, and more cooperation parliamentary decisions, laid down in new acts between the new and the old interest groups concerning water boards, land consolidation, water emerged. Once the ideological fight was over, new quality management, and other issues. Fights ambitions had to be translated into plans. 71 Table C1 Drainage diversity in six countries, based on environmental characteristics and technical drainage solutions Altitude in relation to receiving Drainage solutions Region Climate Seasons Soil water body Gradient Groundwater Drainage objectives and techniques Remarks Egypt Irrigated old Arid Hot/cool Heavy clay; low Gravity Very slight Saline Water logging and Narrow spacing pipe Tubewells lands (Nile hydraulic drainage to groundwater salinity control, reuse field drains and open unsuitable due to Valley and conductivity secondaries; toward the main drains low soil Delta) pumped at north in the permeability outfall delta Irrigated old Arid Hot/cool Silt-clay; Gravity None n.a. Water logging and Limited open drains Seepage to old new lands medium drainage to salinity control progressively coming lands (fringes of old hydraulic secondaries; under subsurface lands) conductivity pumped at drainage. outfall Irrigated new Arid Hot/cool Light soils; high Gravity Little n.a. Water logging and None or under Water saving lands (desert hydraulic drainage salinity control development technologies 70 land) conductivity introduced; tubewells tested Pakistan Irrigated Arid Wet Light soils Gravity Little Fresh Flash flood, water Open Irrigation water areas (monsoon)/dry drainage and groundwater logging, and salinity collectors/shallow and also provided; pumped control; reuse deep tubewells; pipe groundwater drainage drains quality deteriorated due to overpumping Canal seepage Interceptor drains at n.a. capture and reuse interface saline and fresh groundwater Saline Water logging and Mostly shallow but No reuse of saline groundwater salinity control sometimes deep effluents intended tubewells (but not under control) Water loss prevention Lining of water courses The Netherlands South Temperate Water shortage Aeoline loam; 50m­300m Hilly Deep Erosion/sedimentation Surface drainage Seminatural Limburg hills wet in summer low control control by contour terraces created Table C1 Drainage diversity in six countries, based on environmental characteristics and technical drainage solutions Altitude in relation to receiving Drainage solutions Region Climate Seasons Soil water body Gradient Groundwater Drainage objectives and techniques Remarks permeability, strips over longer surface periods drainage Sandy Idem Idem Sandy 2m­50 m Gently Obstructed by Ground- and surface Open drains (ditches) Spring growing uplands sloping impervious water management and collector canals; season advanced layers Beds and furrows in by lower soil wet parts moisture Main river Idem Idem (Heavy) clay Below or at sea Flat Fresh Flood control; avoid Embankments; open Rising river plains level waterlogging in drains with pumped forelands created embanked lands drainage by embankments, leading to seepage and increased need for pumped drainage 71 Coastal Idem Idem Clay or peat Below sea Flat Brackish/saline Balance rainfall, Embankments, canals, Subsidence of 3 m polders level saline groundwater pumped drainage, from peat and land subsidence; artificial supply drainage; lower flood protection groundwater in clay polders Bangladesh Deltaic Humid Tidal and river n.a. Tidal Flat n.a. Water level control Embankments, canals, Three crops, coastal monsoon floods under tidal regime; regulators, flapgates, shrimp, fish and polder salinity control, sluices, pipes salt production balancing interests shrimp and rice Nondeltaic Idem Rainfall and n.a. Tidal surges Flat; n.a Salinity, tidal surges, Embankments, Up- and coastal flashfloods and cyclones surrounding flashfloods, and water parallel canals, downstream use of polder hills distribution control; flapgates and irrigation water balance interests regulators Beel Idem Rainfall and n.a. n.a. Flat n.a. Balance fisheries and One main Increased riverbed river floods irrigation; flood and embankment, sedimentation due drought (groundwater) regulators, closure, to creation of control; drainage and excavation of embankments, congestion canals. Beels obstructing connected. drainage and navigation Flood plain Idem River and n.a n.a. Flat n.a. River flood control, One or two main Loss of soil Table C1 Drainage diversity in six countries, based on environmental characteristics and technical drainage solutions Altitude in relation to receiving Drainage solutions Region Climate Seasons Soil water body Gradient Groundwater Drainage objectives and techniques Remarks rainfall floods maintenance of fish embankments in productivity due to migration routes, dry network of rivers, reduced season water bodies, many canals. sedimentation; and groundwater increased flooding in unprotected areas Haor Idem River, rainfall, n.a n.a Deep n.a. Premonsoon Submersible Deeply flooded for flashfloods depression flashflood control, embankments; haors, 6 to 8 months, balance fisheries and beels, and khals managed by agriculture cutting banks Mexico Northern Arid Hurricanes Clay and loam Above high tide Coastal Insufficient Water logging, Dams, surface and Aquaculture lowlands quality or salinity; and flashflood subsurface (limited) developing at tail quantity control drains; tubewells end of drains Subtropical Humid Dry spells Clay and loam Above high tide Coastal Fresh Flood control; surface Dams, land leveling, Drains used for 70 lowlands drainage surface drains subirrigation in dry spells Indonesia Inner islands Humid n.a. n.a. Tidal floods n.a. n.a. Flood control from Flood plains, fuse Degradation of caused by land rainfall, rivers, high plugs, spillways, and watersheds from subsidence in tide and flashfloods retarding basins increased some areas obsolete; dikes and population and (pumped) drainage development system needed pressures Class A ,B, Humid Seasonal Differentiation Elevation of coastal lowlands n.a. Maintenance of Delicate management Severe impacts on C, and D variations in between in relation to tidal water proper soil and water of microdiversity in local and lowlands tidal levels and mineral and levels in lowlands creeks and quality, flushing, tidal/ nontidal surrounding rainfall organic soils, rivers under influence of drainage, irrigation. irrigation, and forests, wetlands, acid sulphate seasonal water level Ripening of acid drainage, river regime, wildlife, and local layers, fluctuations sulphate soils. and seasonal floods communities. thickness of peat layers. n.a.= information not available in the report. Source: Country case study reports;. Appendix D Landscapes, Functions, Values, and Drainage Activities: Two Examples from Country Case Studies This appendix presents two examples of the effects community, as the lagoons are recognized as and impacts of drainage interventions on natural important bird areas under the Ramsar wetland resources functions--Egypt and Bangladesh--with convention. Local fisherfolk and the international summary narrative accounts and tables (D1 and nature conservation community bear the negative D2). consequences of drainage, while completely different stakeholders receive the benefits. Egypt The conveyance canals created a number of new functions. The canals are well suited for the disposal In Egypt, agricultural subsurface drainage resulted in of urban and industrial liquid and solid waste, lower groundwater tables and soil salinity as well as providing a value (though in a perverse sense) for the disappearance of many open field drains. These industries and urban communities. The conveyance physical changes improved soil properties, soil of drainage water also provides opportunities for productivity, and accessibility for mechanized reuse in agriculture. In Egypt, this is carried out by equipment, which raised Egypt's food self- mixing drainage water with fresh irrigation water. sufficiency and farmer incomes. The productivity This form of drainage water reuse in agriculture function of the soil was greatly enhanced, and with causes local problems to spread over large areas, it, economic and social value for society at large and potentially impairing functions of the resources farmers in particular (income and food security). system far away from where the activity is carried out. Lower water tables also influenced adjacent areas. They improved the suitability of the area for housing (a carrying function) as water-related Bangladesh damage to buildings was reduced (an economic value). Disappearance of open drains eliminated Embankment construction for flood protection their function as a breeding place for disease- along large rivers enables increased agricultural transmitting freshwater snails. Consequently the productivity through double cropping and better prevalence of schistosomiasis (bilharzia) was housing conditions (two functions). These lead to reduced, and health conditions for domestic animals higher farmer income and better safety for and people improved (economic and social value for inhabitants (economic and social values). stakeholders). Simultaneously, the reduction in flood intensity or The conveyance of drainage water through open frequency leads to lower fish productivity (a canals to coastal lagoons negatively affected fisheries productivity function) and lower income for productivity and the capacity of the lagoons to fisherfolk (an economic value). By preventing support large numbers of migratory water birds. agricultural lands from flooding, large amounts of These functions represent not only a significant sediment carried by the river will no longer be economic value for local fishing communities, but deposited on the land but will instead be deposited also an ecological value for the international elsewhere in the river system, leading to drainage 75 Reclaiming Drainage congestion and obstruction of navigation. Because productivity, living conditions, fish productivity, rich sediment will no longer fertilize soils, fertilizers sediment deposition, soil fertility, water storage and may be needed. In the longer term, lack of sediment flood protection (for other areas) in the wet season, deposition and land subsidence creates and river navigability and drainage capacity. Multiple unsustainable conditions. Another effect of the values and stakeholders in a densely populated and embankment is the reduction of water storage intensively used land are affected. Each intervention capacity in the river system, which may result in in the resources system of Bangladesh will change increased floods in other parts of the river system. several functions and consequently affect multiple Functions of the resources system directly or stakeholders in different ways. indirectly affected by the embankments thus are soil 76 Table D1 Egypt: agricultural drainage activities, biophysical changes in landscape functions, and related social values Landscape under Drainage activity Biophysical change influence Functions of landscapes Values (stakeholders italicized) Subsurface drainage Lowering of soil water table Agricultural land Better soil properties lead to higher Food self-sufficiency of the country, higher combined with resulting productivity farmer income, poverty reduction reduction in soil salinity Improved soil structure Agricultural land Improved accessibility for Increased farmer income, poverty reduction mechanized equipment through agricultural modernization Lowering of soil water table Built-up area Reduced damage to buildings; Increased property value for house owners; (off-site) (settlements) surrounding healthier indoor environment; reduced disease (asthma patients); improved drained agricultural lands improved sanitation conditions for human settlement (rural development) Disappearance of open field Agricultural land Reduction in breeding grounds for Better health for humans and domestic animals drains disease-transmitting snails and (social and economicbenefits) mosquitoes Conveyance of drainage Off-site: transport of Open drains Breeding grounds for disease Continued health risks for humans and water through open drainage water (saline and transmitting snails and mosquitoes domestic animals drains and reuse by polluted by agricultural Fresh canal water Public water supply impaired by Health problem forpeople without access to 75 mixing in freshwater chemicals and untreated pollution and salinity safe drinking water canals municipal and industrial effluent) elsewhere Fresh canal water Agricultural water supply Irrigated agriculture (farmers), receives contaminated by salinity and supplemental supplies against potential risk of pollution sustainability Open drains Facility for disposal of liquid and solid Multiple values, but perverse due to reuse of waste from urban and industrial water re (see above) facilities Ecosystems receiving Threat to production functions related Fisheries communities marginalized; health drainage water (coastal to biodiversity (mainly fish) hazard for consumers of fish wetlands, Nile River, Stinking waters threat to landscape Threat to tourism industry, loss of leisure Mediterranean) quality (signification function) opportunities for urban inhabitants Threat to natural water purification Replacement costs for wastewater treatment processes due to overload of facilities to compensate loss of natural pollutants treatment capacity Coastal wetlands Threat to biological diversity Ecological value for future generations and for areas elsewhere (migratory birds and fish) Source: Egypt country case study report. Reclaiming Drainage Table D2 Bangladesh: impacts of embankment construction (illustrative, not exhaustive) Values (stakeholders Biophysical change Affected landscape Functions italicized) Reduced floods and Embanked area Increased agricultural Increased farmer income change in sediment productivity deposition Embanked area Improved living conditions Increased safety for inhabitants, cattle and homesteads. Embanked areas Reduced fish (re)production Reduced income of fisherfolk Embanked area No further deposition of Higher fertilizer input sediment reduces soil fertility needed by farmers Increased sediment Obstruction of navigation Shipping deposition in river Increased sediment Congested waterways for Farmers in embanked area; deposition in river drainage inhabitants of other areas affected by reduced drainage Embanked area Loss of other wetland functions Future generations, people (e.g., reproduction of migratory elsewhere aquatic species, groundwater recharge) Provision of elevated Embankments Transport over embankment, Improved communication space flood shelter; better housing between communities; conditions personal safety during floods; illegal housing for squatters Increased water level River Navigation Adjacent communities and in river (due to others; depends on local reduced storage characteristics capacity) Flood-prone areas Threat to existing land use due People downstream of downstream to increased flood risk embanked area (depends on local characteristics.) Keeping water inside Embanked area Increased possibilities for Fish farmers embankment (in fisheries khals) Increased possibilities for Farmers. Complex, relates irrigated agriculture and reduced to water levels, length of possibilities for rainfed inundation, physical agriculture? features of polder, and so on Source: Bangladesh country case study report. 78 Appendix E The Ecosystem Approach--Convention on Biological Diversity The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the adversely affect biological diversity, align integrated management of land, water, and living incentives to promote biodiversity conservation resources that promotes conservation and equitable and sustainable uses, and internalize costs and and sustainable use. An ecosystem approach is benefits in an ecosystem to the extent feasible. focused on levels of biological organization, encompassing the essential processes, functions, and § Akeyfeatureoftheecosystemapproachincludes interactions among organisms and their environment. conservation of ecosystem structure and It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, functioning. are an integral component of ecosystems. The scale of § Ecosystemsmustbemanagedwithinthelimitsof analysis and action should be determined by the their natural functions. problem being addressed. The ecosystem approach requires adaptive management to deal with the § The ecosystem approach should be undertaken on appropriate scales. complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems in the absence of complete knowledge or understanding of § Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag their functioning. Adaptive management must be able effects that characterize ecosystem processes, to respond to such uncertainties and contain elements objectives for ecosystem management should be of "learning by doing." As with the precautionary set for the long term. principle, measures may have to be taken even when § Management should recognize that change is some cause-effect relationships are not fully inevitable. established scientifically. § The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between conservation and Principles of the ecosystem use of biological diversity. approach § The ecosystem approach should consider all The ecosystem approach is governed by the following forms of relevant information, including principles. indigenous and local knowledge, innovations, and practices as well as scientific knowledge. § Theobjectivesofmanagementofland,waterand living resources are a matter of societal choice. § The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors of society and scientific § Management should be decentralized to the disciplines. lowest appropriate level (subsidiarity). Operational guidance for application of the ecosystem § Ecosystem managers should consider the effects approach: (actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent and other ecosystems. § Focus on the functions of (biodiversity in) ecosystems. § Recognizing potential gains from management, the ecosystem must be understood in an § Promote the fair and equitable sharing of the economic context. Any ecosystem-management benefits derived from the functions of (biological program should: reduce market distortions that diversity in) ecosystems. 79 Reclaiming Drainage § Useadaptivemanagementpractices. § Ensureinter-sectoralcooperation. § Carry out management practices on the scale Source: Convention on Biological Diversity 1999. appropriate for the issue being addressed, decentralizing to lowest feasible level. 80 Appendix F Traditional Planning and Participatory Planning The following table, taken from the website of The Communication Initiative, is No. 14 in a series of 87 (on October 9, 2003) planning models, which are all briefly presented with reference to the original source. Models for development communication are the focus. (See www.comminit.com/planning_models.html) Another interesting site is www.odi.org.uk/RAPID/Lessons/Theory/ Theories_index.html, which presents 30 theoretical models on how research-based evidence can influence policy, collected by the Research and Policy in Development (RAPID) programme. Table F1 Traditional vs. participatory planning Traditional planning Participatory planning · Centralized (from the center to the periphery) · Decentralized (from the periphery to the center) · Vertical and imposed (from the top to the bottom) · Horizontal and agreed upon (from the bottom to the · Technical (done by experts) top) · Done by sector or industry · Dialogue-based (promoting discussion of different · knowledges) Short-term (focused on annual budgets) · · Integral, considers whole picture Done to meet legal requirements (what matters is compliance) · Long term (focused on building a vision of the future) · Sets priorities for sector or industry investment · Is seen as a real necessity (what matters is the · content) Designates the parties responsible for each task but does not assume responsibility · Sets priorities for social investment · Homogenizing and unifying · Assigns responsibilities and social commitment · Exclusive · Recognizes diversity and respects differences · Authoritarian · Inclusive · Distances state and civil society · Democratic · Recognizes a certain population as an object that · Brings state and civil society closer together will benefit from the plan · Recognizes social actors as active subjects in their · Responds to an intervening and controlling state own development · Ignores conditions specific to each location · Encourages a facilitating state · Creates lack of confidence in institutions · Is based on knowledge of concrete and particular · conditions in a location Promotes confrontation and the imposition of power · · Builds relationships of confidence Decreases manageability · Promotes tolerance and living together peacefully · Recovers manageability Source: De la trocha al plan de desarrollo [From A Trail to A Plan for Development]--Consejo Nacional de Planeación (National Planning Council)--Colombia; www.comminit.com/pmodels/sld_708.html 81 Appendix G Comanagement Comanagement is "a situation in which two or more social actors negotiate, define and guarantee amongst themselves a fair sharing of the management functions, entitlements and responsibilities for a given territory, area, or set of natural resources" (Borrini-Feyerabend and others (2000:13). The approach has three phases, preceded by a point of departure, and steps within these (box G1). The steps are not necessarily sequential; iteration is an important characteristic of the approach, as are joint analysis, design, and evaluation of project interventions. Box G.1 Comanagement of natural resources Point of departure 1. Assessing the need for comanagement and the process feasibility 2. Assessing available human and financial resources 3. Establishing a start-up team Phase I: Preparing for the partnership 1. Gathering information and tools (such as maps) on the main ecological and social issues at stake 2. Identifying in a preliminary way the natural resources management unit(s) and institutional actors at stake 3. Launching and maintaining a social communication campaign on the need for, the objectives, and the expected process of comanagement 4. Contacting the institutional actors, facilitating appraisal exercises and continuing with them the ecological, social, and stakeholder analyses 5. Helping the institutional actors to organize and identify their own representatives, as necessary 6. Organizing the first meeting of institutional actors and proposing a set of rules and procedures for the negotiation phase, including explicit equity considerations Phase II: Negotiating plans and agreements 1. Agreeing on the negotiation rules and procedures 2. Developing a common vision of the desired future for the natural resources management unit(s) at stake 3. Ritualizing the agreed common vision 4. Reviewing the current socioecological situation and trends, and agreeing upon a strategy toward the common vision 5. Negotiating specific comanagement plans and agreements for each component of the strategy (this includes identifying what will be done by whom and with what means; mediating conflicts; clarifying zoning arrangements and the sharing of natural resources management functions, rights and responsibilities among stakeholders, agreeing on follow-up protocols) 6. Agreeing upon comanagement organizations and initiatives to institutionalize comanagement 7. Legitimizing and publicizing the comanagement plans, agreements and organizations Source: Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2000) The functions and values analysis and assessment procedure as described above would be part of steps I.1, I.2, I.4, II.2, II.3, II.4, II.5, III.3, and III.4 as indicated in box G1. It would thus be an integral part of the overall participatory planning approach. 82 Appendix H Governance and Institutions in the Country Case Studies Government-Initiated Drainage food self-sufficiency. These projects made cultivation Development of high-yield rice varieties possible, and rice production increased (Bangladesh country case study). Land reclamation was crucial for Indonesia's In Pakistan, the threat of water logging and salinity transmigration programs of the 1970s and 1980s. was recognized soon after the introduction of These government-sponsored projects should perennial irrigation in the Indus plain. However, improve the living standards of poor landless families central to in Pakistan's struggle to become from the inner islands, create employment economically independent were the development of opportunities, alleviate population pressure, promote new water resources, the expansion of irrigated lands, regional development, and increase agricultural and combating water logging and salinity. In 1959, production. To this end, a powerful Directorate for responsibility for planning, design, and Swamp Development came into being. It managed a implementation of all major water projects was substantial portfolio of lowland development, transferred from the provinces to the federal including planning, design, and construction. government. Subsequently, planning and However, with the economic and political crisis of the implementation of the Salinity Control and late 1990s, attention for lowland development Reclamation projects (SCARP) was under the gradually faded away. In 1994, the directorate was responsibility of the federal Water and Power abolished, and its responsibilities were absorbed Development Authority and financed out of within the organization for irrigation development, development budgets. Emphasis on SCARPs has leaving a vacuum in the ongoing lowland schemes. meant that no comprehensive surface drainage system When the once-powerful Ministry of Public Works and no regional outfalls are in place for some basins was later folded into the Ministry of Settlements and (Pakistan country case study). Regional Development, lowland development was further diluted (Indonesia country case study). In Egypt, the spectacular collapse of cotton, the major cash crop, in 1909 was of such magnitude that the Disastrous floods in the 1950s and 1960s triggered Ministry of Public Works took over drainage as a state flood control and drainage projects on a national affair. In 1949, the state unambiguously made scale. These projects, initiated by the Government of drainage a state responsibility. When Egypt adopted (East) Pakistan before Bangladesh achieved socialistic principles and enlarged the roles of the independence in 1971, marked the start of a large- public sector, it maintained its strong emphasis on scale program for embankment construction on the centrally planned and executed agricultural major rivers and flood plains. After the country's development projects. The completion of the Aswan independence, the Bangladesh Water Development High Dam in 1965 was the landmark for intensified Board was given responsibility for overall agricultural production. Since natural drainage could development and management of water sector not cope with the excess water of the perennial projects (flood, irrigation, drainage). In the 1970s and irrigation regime, drainage was given high priority. 1980s, the board administered 85 percent of all Since its establishment ni 1973, the Egyptian Public investments in the water sector, a quarter of them Authority for Drainage Projects (EPADP) has been designated for flood control and drainage, the key to implementing one of the world's largest drainage 83 Reclaiming Drainage development program. However, there is a substantial actively cleared the route for new open drains. In backlog of drainage improvements in the new lands, Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia, they collected a down where EPADP did not have a strong role in the past payment for the construction of a collector-with- (Egypt country case study; World Bank 2000). subsurface drainage system. However, an effort to transfer responsibility for drainage tubewells under the Left Bank Outfall Drain in Sindh completely Establishing User Organizations in failed, because of the high costs of running the saline Drainage groundwater tubewells and the difficulty of identifying the beneficiaries of the deep tubewells. Under the In Egypt, "collector-user associations" were National Drainage Program, the resources to support established on a voluntary basis. These associations, drainage beneficiary groups were never allocated, and organized in sections of 100 to 300 hectares of the the "local drainage improvement" component got gravity tile systems, were expected to concentrate on stuck as a result. During all these efforts, group preventive maintenance. More than 2,000 collector- members were mostly farmers that were most affected user associations were formed. No legal or by high water tables, even though drainage problems institutional framework was developed to support caused mainly by overirrigation or canal seepage their activities. They failed mainly because they had, elsewhere. The consensus now is that tertiary-level and were allowed, too little to do. Since 1995, some drainage beneficiary groups may be effective for fifty elected water boards have been established at supporting project financing and implementation but secondary canal command level (500 ha to 750 ha) on are less relevant for management. For this reason, and a pilot basis. This level was more useful than the to achieve economies of scale, it has been collector level. A point of discussion in Egypt now is recommended that drainage beneficiary groups should whether water boards should operate at district level, be part of farmer organizations with a broader which usually covers 10,000 ha to 15,000 ha. The mandate operating at the secondary canal command reasoning is that the secondary canal level is too small area level (covering 3,000 ha to 10,000 ha). and that district-level water boards could more effectively integrate irrigation, drainage, and other In Bangladesh, a policy has been put in place for water functions and take up integrated water establishing water management federations in larger resources management at the local level. systems (above 5,000 ha). These have to be built up from water management groups and water user Similarly in Indonesia, water user associations were associations, with membership open to all farmers, developed at tertiary units in the government- traders (small/big), craftsmen, boatmen, fisherfolk, developed lowland transmigration settlements. The and the landless and destitute within the subsystem or heterogeneity of the settler groups and the large subproject. This is akin to what has happened in turnover among them in the early years made it Mexico, where the administration created water user difficult for the new organizations to flourish. In associations and drainage user associations (WUAs addition, water management in the government- and DUAs) at secondary and main system level to sponsored tidal lowland systems turned out to be too deal with problems of deferred maintenance and complicated for these weak organizations. inefficient water delivery service. Practically all the In Pakistan, several drainage beneficiary groups were irrigation and drainage districts have been transferred developed, usually to implement cost-sharing to 440 WUAs, 11 societies (formed by WUAs to formulas in drainage development projects. These operate the main irrigation canals and drains), and 26 drainage beneficiary groups were established for DUAs. These associations collect water fees, operate construction and maintenance of tertiary open drains and maintain the systems, and keep water user and tile drainage schemes. The experience has had records. They handle water concessions, mixed results. Under the On-Farm Water infrastructure, machinery, and equipment and manage Management project in Punjab, a number of groups their own offices. 84 Appendix I Water Table Management and Controlled Drainage in the Country Case Studies None of the drainage systems developed in Pakistan In the Netherlands, the number of regulating over the past decades have controlled drainage. Water structures in drainage channels has been augmented to tables are set at a fixed depth, determined by the allow finer adjustment of ground water levels. The depth of subsurface and surface drains--irrespective structures allow the retention and release of of farmers' preferences throughout the year. stormwater, which serves ecological and agricultural Vandalism has often been their response. Several functions. drainage systems have reported that, during the rice- In Bangladesh, water table management is crucial to growing season, farmers routinely obstruct drainage pipes with jute bags, stones, and mud, afraid of losing balance the different interests--fisherfolk preferring the soil moisture that comes with subirrigation. higher water tables and later releases like farmers on working higher lands, while farmers on low-lying areas In response to similar problems, controlled drainage prefer deeper drainage. To accommodate the different was piloted in two rice-growing areas in Egypt. The preferences, the main drainage canals have been fitted idea was to give landowners the means of selecting with gates (also see chapter 2 and appendixes). groundwater levels that suited their farming priorities, Regulators allow rainwater collected in the major and and thus introduce demand management in drainage. minor drainage channels to drain into the river system To this end, gates were installed on collectors so that and controlled passage of river water through the farmers could close them in the rice season to raise system. Regulators are equipped with vertical lift water levels. But this experiment in controlled gates, flap gates, or both at riverside and fallboards at drainage was not a resounding success. In the absence both land and riverside. The lift gates and fallboards of a strong local organization, a main problem was permit maintenance of the gates and water retention how to coordinate the different priorities of different on the landside for fishing and agriculture. An farmers growing different crops. Recently established additional and essential function of regulators is to water boards to manage irrigation and drainage at maintain or raise water levels for irrigation, fisheries secondary canal level have shown interest in and domestic purposes. controlled drainage. In fact, they chose to participate in selection and design of the system.33 33Al-Fadly Water Board, Kafr-El-Sheikh, Egypt, personal communication. 85 Appendix J Drainage Water Quality and Reuse in the Case Studies In Egypt, the major problem with drainage water was not suitable in many areas. The "dead-ended" quality is not salinity but chemical and bacteriological canal systems constructed in the early transmigration pollution. Main surface drains passing through major sites hamper water circulation and do not allow urban and industrial areas turn into major carriers of flushing of the canals. The new consensus is that untreated wastewater. Ideally, most reuse of water controlled drainage (chapter 5) is the key to the should take place before flows reach major centers of reclamation and management of acid sulphate soils. contamination, which would mean that investment in Therefore, the drainage system must be designed to irrigation and drainage should be concentrated maintain a high water table while allowing the upstream of metropolitan areas or industrial estates. evacuation of acids and toxicants. Under the second Another set of operational measures concerns mixing stage swamp development program, the drainage strategies. This is a matter of debate in Egypt where systems were retrofitted. Drains were double- about 7 billion cubic meters of drainage water is connected to rivers and main canals. Where soils are reused for irrigation. The proposal is to shelve the sufficiently consolidated, water control structures are present centralized mixing strategy, in which a few big put in place. Crop yields of paddy increased to 2.5 mixing stations pump water from main drains back tons/ha and higher with increased soil ripening. A into main irrigation canals. The alternative is larger range of crops was grown, and access to the "intermediate reuse." In this strategy, mixing drainage areas improved. Excess drainage has to be avoided, water with fresh irrigation supplies takes place at a although this is not always easy, particularly during lower level, where a drainage catchment coincides unusually long dry seasons. secondary canals. Intermediate reuse allows isolation of poor quality water and reuse of relatively good Too little attention was paid to the quality of the drainage effluent in the Salinity Control and quality, low in salt and contaminants--but carefully integrated management of both freshwater and Reclamation project well fields in Pakistan. The deep drainage water would still be necessary. vertical drainage wells pumped water from great depths, where water is usually more saline. While this When the government of Indonesia embarked upon its was done to maximize well field operations, it also large-scale transmigration and swamp development brought extra salt to the surface. In some wells in the program in the 1970s and 1980s, a main objective was saline groundwater zones, the salinity of drainage to increase rice production. Only minimal drainage effluents exceeded marine concentrations. As many was provided. However, flooding for rice cultivation disposal facilities were insufficient, local landowners often left stagnant water conditions, and acidity and went to court to close down deep tubewell operations. toxicity accumulated due to acidification of acid In retrospect, the choice of deep vertical drainage sulphate soils. Rice yields under these circumstances over shallow drainage has been questioned and were generally low. It was realized that this strategy regretted. 86 Glossary of Terms T his glossary contains explanations of the Governance: the balance of power and the balance of concepts that are essential for the integrated actions at different levels of authority. Governance is approach to drainage developed in this report. about who sits at the table, who sets the priorities, and Biophysical Change who plays what role in making and implementing the rules of the game. Governance translates into Biophysical change: alteration in the authority; decides on laws, regulations, and characteristics of a natural resources--including institutions; creates financial mechanisms; and defines soil, water, air, flora, and fauna--resulting from a user rights. physical intervention. Hydroecological Region: a group of landscapes First order change: change that results directly with more or less similar natural resources and a from an intervention. coherent water management system. Second and higher order changes: changes Institutions: organized, established procedures, the that result from first order changes through a "rules of the game" in society. They include: written causal chain of events or processes. laws, rules and procedures set by different types of Effects and Impacts government, and "informally" established procedures, norms, practices, and patterns of behavior. Biophysical effect: change in the quality (or Institutions define and fashion the behavioral rules of quantity) of goods and services provided by the individuals and groups. biophysical environment, that is, a change affecting the functions of the biophysical Intervention environment. Physical intervention: planned human activity Human (social) impacts: the impacts resulting that physically intervenes in, and possibly alters from biophysical effects, as experienced (felt) by the biophysical environment. an individual, family or household, community or Social intervention: planned human activity society, whether in corporeal (physical) or that intervenes in, and possibly alters the social perceptual (psychological) terms. environment. On-site impacts: impacts resulting from a Landscape: a unit of land with homogeneous natural physical or social intervention that occur in the resources (soil, water, climate, vegetation) that area where the intervention is conducted. performs a homogenous set of functions. Off-site impacts: impacts caused by a physical Management: the activity of providing day-to-day or social intervention, but which occur away from drainage services. It involves evacuating and/or the location where the intervention is conducted, retaining water (e.g., by operating pumping stations), due to biophysical or social effects that influence maintaining, repairing, and improving the distant areas. infrastructure, measuring and monitoring water levels, Functions: the goods and services provided and collecting and spending drainage service fees, and performed by natural resources systems. They include drafting operation and maintenance plans and production functions, processing and regulation budgets. functions, carrying functions, and significance Organizations: recognized and accepted role functions. structures (often, confusingly, referred to as "institutions"). They are groups of individuals with defined roles and bound by some common purpose 87 Reclaiming Drainage and some rules and procedures to achieve set "interest groups" interchangeably. objectives. Systems Participatory planning: a series of approaches that emphasize stakeholder involvement in decisionmaking Socioecological system: the summary term for for natural resources development and management. the ensemble of material and social phenomena and relations that humans live in and are part of. Some of the main characteristics of participatory planning are decentralization, inclusiveness, situation- Resources (sub)system: the ensemble of specificity, and dialogue-based negotiation. biophysical objects, relations, and processes that provides functions (goods and services) for Policy: a set of ambitions or objectives and a set of directives or guidelines for action and dedicated human beings. Resources systems are organizations and resources to realize these ambitions multifunctional. or objectives. Policies often, but not necessarily, have Societal (sub)system: the ensemble of people, a base in law. Good policy has built-in learning social relations, and social processes that mechanisms and is able to incorporate change. We attributes values to the functions provided by normally think of policies that are (formally or resources systems. informally) "owned" by groups of people, rather than Land and water control (sub)system: the individuals. These groups may be institutionalized and sociotechnical configuration by means of which have formal powers or they may be informally bound human beings manage land and water resources by a common understanding of their group's policy. from day to day. It consists of institutional Stakeholders: direct beneficiaries of functions such arrangements, technology and infrastructure, and as farmers (soil productivity) or fishermen knowledge and human resources capacity. (productivity of aquatic resources), but also include Values: the societal preferences, perceptions, and distant beneficiaries (e.g., urban inhabitants dependent interests with regard to functions provided by natural on water supply from elsewhere), or indirect resources systems. They include social, economic, and beneficiaries such as nature conservation (temporal and spatial) ecological values. nongovernmental organizations. The stake that stakeholders have may or may not be recognized by other stakeholders. 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