54363 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts Why ANti-CorruptioN AgENCiEs NEEd to CommuNiCAtE ANd hoW By Elaine Byrne, Anne-Katrin Arnold and Fumiko Nagano THE WORLD BANK Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts Why ANti-CorruptioN AgENCiEs NEEd to CommuNiCAtE ANd hoW By Elaine Byrne, Anne-Katrin Arnold and Fumiko Nagano THE WORLD BANK ©2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP) External Affairs 1818 H Street NW, MSN U11-1102 Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-458-7955 Fax: 202-522-2654 Website: http:// www.worldbank.org/commgap Blog: http://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere E-mail: commgap@worldbank.org All rights reserved The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessar- ily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. 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Table of Contents Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................................................................v Preface............................................................................................................................................................................................... vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................1 The Media as Communicators...................................................................................................................................................5 The Media's Agenda vs. an Anti-corruption Agency's Agenda ............................................................................................................................................5 Direct and Indirect Media Effects ...................................................................................................................................................................................................5 Understanding Public Opinion ................................................................................................................................................8 Understanding Journalism .....................................................................................................................................................10 The Media Cycle and the "Feeding Frenzy".............................................................................................................................................................................. 10 The Trouble with Money: Asset Recovery and Communication ............................................................................12 Definition and Types of Corruption ....................................................................................................................................14 Legal and Moral Corruption .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Petty and Grand Corruption .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Mediated Corruption ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 The Perception of Corruption Indexes...............................................................................................................................18 The Impact of Perception-Based Indexes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 19 Examples of Inconsistent Perception ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Anti-corruption Agencies as Victims of Their Own Success ............................................................................................................................................... 21 Media Framing ..............................................................................................................................................................................23 Building Coalitions ......................................................................................................................................................................25 What Are Coalitions? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25 How Are Coalitions Formed?......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 The Communication Dimensions of Coalition Building ...................................................................................................................................................... 27 Issues That Must Be Addressed .............................................................................................................................................29 Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Press ................................................................................................................................................................ 29 Access to Information ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Changing Media Landscape .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Outreach ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Competition ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31 Motivation............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32 Promoting Professionalism and Credibility: Influencing Media Bias .............................................................................................................................. 32 Pragmatic Media Actions for Anti-corruption Agencies ...........................................................................................34 Pathways to Achieving Positive Communication Impact ................................................................................................................................................... 34 Suggested Actions ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 35 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................40 Tools ...................................................................................................................................................................................................42 Notes ..................................................................................................................................................................................................60 References .......................................................................................................................................................................................61 Acronyms CPIB Corrupt Practices Investigation HRDC Human Resources Development Bureau [Singapore] Canada CPI Corruption Perception Index KACC Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction PEA political-economy analysis and Development SMS Short Message Service EFCC Economic and Financial Crimes TAG Transparent Accountable Commission [Nigeria] Governance GDP Gross Domestic Product TI Transparency International HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome All amounts are presented in U.S. dollars, unless otherwise indicated. Preface A re we losing the fight against corruption? all sides. As a result, anti-corruption efforts become Not necessarily, and certainly not for lack of less effective, and the agencies are thrown into an effort or effectiveness. However, we notice increasingly negative light. cases where the more successful an anti-corruption There is a global recognition that something body is, the more likely it is to fail. At first blush, that must be done about corruption--but far less agree- correlation seems illogical; but successes encour- ment about how to correct the situation most effec- age counterattacks by powerful and well-funded tively. Although there was early acknowledgment individuals or groups. In addition, the media hold that independent anti-corruption agencies might anti-corruption agencies to standards of success that hold the key, many in the international community often are impossible to achieve. Success in a series now are questioning such agencies' value because of of small cases will be met by accusations that "you the high-profile destruction of successful agencies in let the big fish get away." Civil society organizations both developing and developed countries. always seem dissatisfied and always want you to do What is to be done? Primarily, leaders in anti- more, even if one could argue that this is what those corruption bodies must understand that success organizations are supposed to do! always occurs on two fronts: getting the "bad guys" Fighting corruption is not easy. Unlike many and being able to explain why the agency's work is criminals, dishonest public officials often continue to both effective and important. With its emphasis on have power and influence. Political interference, even establishing effective media strategies and taking in cases involving low-level officials, frequently can proactive measures to get the anti-corruption mes- derail a prosecution. Civil society organizations may sage to the public, this practical guide is designed help uncover fraudulent activities, but they also may to help leaders in anti-corruption agencies position undermine effective prosecution by inadvertently themselves well on the second of those fronts. tampering with evidence or tipping off the crooked The paper is purposely short. It is intended as a politicians. Worse, they can go "public" with exag- "how-to guide" to help agencies understand how to gerated claims that make the final conviction and control the way they present themselves to the public, restitution look comparatively puny and suspicious. how to frame their agencies' work, and how to develop The media may release stories prematurely, allow- allies in the press and the community at large. ing corrupt parties to hide or destroy evidence and No one reading this needs to be lectured on the move illicit proceeds to safe havens, often in other importance of controlling corruption and countering parts of the world. its devastating impact on individuals, communities, Months of work can be wasted because other and nations. Because of the United Nations Con- parties have undermined an agency's efforts. Devel- vention against Corruption, everyone in the global oping evidence in corruption cases is not easy, espe- community has an opportunity to change the reality cially because most corruption is "consensual"--that of corruption. But it is those anti-corruption profes- is, both sides benefit from the exchange. sionals, frequently little appreciated and too often Unfortunately, this explains why many people in demeaned, who can have real impact. It is their ef- anti-corruption agencies do not see civil society and forts that will win or lose the battle. And I commend the media as friends. This perceived adversarial rela- and celebrate them with these words from someone tionship leads to a spiral of distrust and suspicion on who was noted for giving a good fight: viii Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How It is not the critic who counts: not the My hope is that this practical guide will be use- man who points out how the strong ful. In the international community, we need to find man stumbles or where the doer of more and better ways to support those people who deeds could have done better. The credit work in the field of anti-corruption. We need to use belongs to the man who is actually more realistic standards for measuring their success in the arena, whose face is marred by and we must spend more time developing tools to dust and sweat and blood, who strives make their very difficult jobs a bit easier. Having valiantly, who errs and comes up short worked in the field of anti-corruption for more than again and again, because there is no a quarter of a century, I know how important the job effort without error or shortcoming, but is, and I recognize that the work of these profession- who knows the great enthusiasms, the als often can endanger their careers and their lives. great devotions, who spends himself for For the commitment, integrity, and perseverance of a worthy cause; who, at the best, knows, people in the anti-corruption field, all of us should in the end, the triumph of high achieve- be grateful. ment, and who, at the worst, if he fails, at least he fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those Dr. Stuart C. Gilman cold and timid souls who knew neither United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime victory nor defeat. (Theodore Roosevelt, "Citizenship in a Republic" speech, April Washington, DC 23, 1910) Fall 2009 Introduction T he rise of corruption as an issue on the inter- ing civil society organizations (see case study A). The national agenda is recent; and, in a relatively media and the public pass judgment on the work of short period of time, it has achieved significant the agencies, and they play an active role in fighting importance. Initially a marginalized element in inter- corruption. The media largely determine where both national aid programs, corruption is now regarded as forces stand: with or against the agency. If the forces a dynamic feature on the development agenda. As a stand against, an agency's work may turn out to be consequence, a heightened sense of accountability simply futile. If the forces stand in favor, an agency is among politicians, public bodies, and institutions more likely to be successful. Furthermore, when the has emerged, as has a consequent demand for anti- media supports the anti-corruption agency's work, corruption agencies. it is possible to turn the culture of an entire country These agencies are created with great optimism toward openness and accountability. and fanfare. They often are the major initiative by Communication determines where the media a new party or government swept into office on a stand in this struggle. And anti-corruption agencies reform platform. In most cases, the initial publicity themselves determine how much and how well they around these agencies and the officials appointed communicate with the media and with citizens. To to run them is positive and supportive. their immense cost, many agencies underestimate However, it seems to take little time for that "hon- the critical challenges and negative effects of weak eymoon period" to end. In South Africa, for example, and inadequate communication. This failure is one the Directorate of Special Operations (an elite unit of of the reasons why we are losing the fight against investigators known as the Scorpions), established in corruption. 1999, officially was abolished by Parliament in 2009. When a media storm occurs, the absence of an The Scorpions were responsible for prosecutions agency's response to the alleged corruption under against then-President of the African National Congress investigation can facilitate an adverse perception Jacob Zuma and his financial adviser Schabir Shaik. in the public mind. Unchecked, such a perception Jackie Selebi, the national police chief and an ally of may develop into assumptions about an agency's former President Thabo Mbeki, also was arrested. The legitimacy. In those circumstances, an agency can police force's Directorate of Priority Crime Investiga- promote public trust in its operations by acting on tion, which has less statutory protection from political an agreed media strategy. Providing basic informa- interference, has taken over the Scorpions' mandate. tion does not have to incorporate an acceptance or Anti-corruption agencies often are under ex- denial of the allegations. Instead, the public appetite traordinary scrutiny from many different quarters. can be satisfied with basic background information Their lack of quick action to address corruption is on why the allegation arose, what measures are in interpreted often as incompetence or political favor- place, and what steps are to be taken. itism. The perceptions of the media and public can This paper provides a practical overview of how overwhelm an agency and force it into a defensive an agency may work with the media to win the sup- position. From there, it cannot actively honor its man- port of the public in the fight against corruption. date and fight corruption; rather, it can only react. The first part explains why anti-corruption agencies Anti-corruption agencies face two closely inter- need to take the media particularly seriously, how connected forces: the media and the public, includ- the media communicate, and what effects they 2 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Case Study A Public Opinion and Corruption The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission of Nigeria When anti-corruption agencies work in isolation, Under Ribadu's administration, the EFCC without broader public support, they become vul- charged prominent bankers, high-profile busi- nerable to unpredictable political will. If they are nessmen, former ministers, eight former state to take on the powerful interests in their societies, governors, senators, high-ranking political party they cannot do it alone. members, and advance-fee conmen (known as As Nuhu Ribadu, the former executive chair- "419ers"). Most prominent among the 275 convic- man of Nigeria's Economic and Financial Crimes tions were those of banker Emmanuel Nwude and Commission (EFCC), testified before the U.S. House the former inspector-general of Nigeria's police of Representatives Financial Services Committee in service, Tafa Balogum, for allegedly stealing $144 2009, "When you fight corruption, it fights back. It million. will likely have greater resources than you and it Critics suggested that Ribadu was selective in is led by those who operate outside the law and whom he prosecuted, and that former President view the fight as life and death for their survival." Obasanjo was using the agency to target his en- Ribadu headed the government commission emies. Ribadu may have been a victim of his own tasked with countering corruption and fraud. Ap- success. The agency became a political "football," pointed by President Olusegun Obasanjo in 2003, and its legitimacy was undermined politically by Ribadu was reappointed in 2007 and promoted to accusations of favoritism. assistant inspector-general of police. In December The EFCC has been weakened in the period 2007, the inspector-general of police announced since Ribadu's removal. Its top investigators, trained that Ribadu temporarily would be removed as by a variety of agencies in the United States, were EFCC chair to accommodate a mandatory one-year transferred out of the EFCC. Hard-earned reform training course. has been undone, and trust between different in- During Ribadu's four-year tenure, Nigeria stitutions has been weakened. As a consequence, recovered more than $5 billion in stolen assets. In Ribadu believes that "many of the law enforcement his U.S. House committee testimony, Ribadu said agencies that used to work hand in hand with the that more than $440 billion either has been stolen EFCC are no longer willing to partner with the EFCC or has been wasted by Nigerian governments or the Nigerian Justice Department." since independence in 1960. He estimated that this amount is six times the total of the Marshall Note Plan, the full sum needed to rebuild a devastated 1. A billion is 1,000 millions. Europe in the aftermath of World War II. Sources: Pomfret 2009; Nuhu Ribadu's testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Financial Services Committee, May 19, 2009, http://www.house.gov/apps/list/hearing/financialsvcs_dem/ribadu_testimony.pdf. have on the public. Case studies illustrate all of these by providing sufficient and clear information, and points--showing, for instance, how the media can by working closely with the media to ensure the distort the reality of corruption by following their message is accurate. own preformed perceptions of a corruption case. The second part of the paper focuses on the role Government agencies can set things straight only of public opinion in the fight against corruption. Introduction 3 Public opinion can be a powerful tool in promoting the actual level of corruption in a country. The an agency's work--or in bringing about its downfall. fourth part of the paper addresses communication If citizens misunderstand the issue, they are unlikely in this context. The media may overemphasize the to support the fight against corruption. But if public opinion is in favor of an anti-corruption agency, the people are able to change their country's culture. The media can shape public opinion and, most Box 1 Definition of Corruption and a List of of all, change norms about corruption. Here is an ex- Offenses ample: Communication campaigns can show that it Transparency International's Definition not only is illegal to pay bribes to public officials, but also is immoral and does real harm to the community. Transparency International (TI) has chosen a clear and This message can encourage the public to change focused definition of the term: Corruption is operationally the expectation of bribes and to resist demands for defined as the misuse of entrusted power for private gain. them--one more step in the fight against corruption. TI further differentiates between "according to rule" cor- In India, for instance, anti-corruption efforts led to ruption and "against the rule" corruption. Facilitation pay- the printing of the "zero-rupee" note with a picture ments, where a bribe is paid to receive preferential treat- of Gandhi on its face. These notes were given to bribe ment for something that the bribe receiver is required to seekers to shame them. do by law, constitute the former. The latter, on the other In the context of public opinion, it also is impor- hand, is a bribe paid to obtain services the bribe receiver tant that anti-corruption agencies understand the is prohibited from providing (http://www.transparency. role of journalism and the conditions under which org/news_room/faq/corruption_faq). journalists work. Their reporting directly influences United Nations Convention against Corruption's List of the perceptions and opinions of the public. Because Offenses of economic and other pressures, journalists often tend to simplify or dramatize stories--and that can In Articles 15­28 of Chapter III, "Criminalization and Law produce the wrong perceptions among their audi- Enforcement," the United Nations Convention against ences. Again, this paper provides real-world stories Corruption details a list of offenses. The list includes the that show the impact of journalism on public opinion. following acts: Anti-corruption agencies have another large problem to overcome: they must communicate and > bribery of national public officials clarify the differences between types and degrees of > bribery of foreign public officials and officials of corruption. Moral corruption is not necessarily legal public international organizations corruption, and petty corruption is not the same as > embezzlement, misappropriation, or other diver- grand corruption. A common definition of corruption sion of property by a public official has been suggested by Transparency International > trading in influence (box 1). Another helpful source for understanding > abuse of function the actual meaning of corruption is the list of of- > illicit enrichment fenses presented by the United Nations Convention > bribery in the private sector against Corruption (box 1). The third part of this > embezzlement of property in the private sector paper addresses the difficulty of communicating > laundering of proceeds of crime these complex issues, including the specific case of > concealment asset recovery. > obstruction of justice The citizenry as well as government officials > liability of legal persons may misjudge the success of an agency's work > participation and attempt entirely if they measure it only through the sim- > knowledge, intent, and purpose as elements of an plified corruption indexes that some civil society offense (http://www.unodc.org/documents/trea- organizations regularly publish. These indexes are ties/UNCAC/Publications/Convention/08-50026_E. perception based, and can over--or underreport pdf) 4 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How problem of corruption by honing in on a specific In addition to its discussion of the role of the number from a corruption index. People reading or media, this paper also provides several tools and hearing that message may believe that corruption checklists for agencies. These tools either have is a greater problem than it actually is and that the proved helpful to practitioners in other contexts or corruption-countering agencies are not doing their have been assembled directly by anti-corruption jobs. If people are helped to understand how various agency officials. The first toolkit comprises tools that indexes are structured, they are more likely to apply list real-world challenges that anti-corruption agen- them correctly. Clear and comprehensive informa- cies face in their daily work and activities designed tion is needed to explain the role of such indexes to to help meet those challenges. The second tool is a the media and their audiences. road map for designing a communication strategy The fifth part of this paper gives practical, hands- with steps that easily can be followed to realize a on advice for dealing with the media and for building desired outcome. The last tool sketches the phases corruption-fighting coalitions with the media and civil of a coalition-building strategy, from building trust society. Anti-corruption agencies need to use very to achieving sustainable transformation. specific communication techniques such as fram- Overall, this paper is designed to help anti-cor- ing--to make their messages interesting to and easily ruption agencies become more effective in fighting understood by the media and the public. There are corruption. Communication is crucial for enlisting particular problems that must be addressed and over- the media and civil society as partners in the fight. come when planning a communication campaign. Agencies do not necessarily have to fear the media For instance, the lack of freedom of information and and civil society organizations. Instead, those groups speech can hinder any good work done by the media. can become strong supporters of anti-corruption Journalists need to be motivated to investigate cor- efforts if agencies know how to work with them. ruption cases, so media bias has to be overcome. The This paper provides the guidance and tools to equip paper concludes with pragmatic media actions that agencies to counter corruption with a new weapon: can be taken by anti-corruption agencies. communication. The Media as Communicators T he potential of the media as communication can be partners with anti-corruption agencies in partners in promoting good governance is disseminating information on the legal mechanisms enormous. The World Development Report 2002: to combat corruption, instructing the public on how Building Institutions for Markets (World Bank 2001) to report corruption, and raising public awareness acknowledges the role of the fourth estate in the of the complexities of different types of corruption democratization process: (see case study B). Personalities and images, rather than deeply The media can play an important role in entrenched political philosophy, have become the development by affecting the incentives basis for political decision making. In this ideologi- of market participants--businesses, cal vacuum, the media exert significant pressure on individuals, or politicians--and by in- the policy agenda--pressure that is not always fluencing the demand for institutional acknowledged candidly. Where communication is change. Information flows through ambiguous, the media easily can manipulate the the media can affect people's ideas, power of language to produce a good headline. For monitor people's actions, and thereby example, an incident involving four corrupt officials create constituencies for change and may be described as "Weak Anti-corruption Agency institutional reform.... And the media Finally Nets Four Low-Level Crooks." Such value-laden can empower people, including the depictions occur often at the expense of the integrity poor, by giving them a platform for voic- of the intended message. ing diverse opinions, participating in governance, and engaging in markets. Direct and Indirect Media Effects (pp. 192­93) The media have a dual role. First, they investigate If the question is, Why should anti-corruption agen- and expose incidents of corruption. Second, they cies cooperate with the media? the answer is simple: can prevent corruption in the first place by publiciz- the media profoundly influence how people think ing information about the nature, occurrence, and about the world around them.1 seriousness of corrupt behavior. This distinction A country's media may be considered a mirror between exposure and prevention of corruption that reflects the integrity of the government. The is described as tangible or direct (exposure) and effectiveness of a country's anti-corruption strategy intangible or indirect (prevention) media effects increasingly depends on the media to communicate (Stapenhurst 2000). These effects are important in key messages to the public. fostering public accountability. (See case study C concerning Bangladesh Sanglap.) The Media's Agenda vs. an Tangible outcomes are clearly visible and identi- Anti-corruption Agency's Agenda fiable consequences of particular news stories. Here are some examples: the launching of investigations The ability to communicate a message to an audi- by parliamentary or other authorities into allegations ence is an exceptional power. Words not only inform, of corruption; the censure, impeachment, or forced but also persuade, compel, and inspire. The media resignation of corrupt politicians; the firing of public 6 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Case Study B Media's Agenda vs. Anti-corruption Agency's Agenda The Human Resources Development Scandal, Canada Unless anti-corruption agencies work with the Moreover, staff members were exhausted and media, the media can work against anti-corrup- demoralized by the situation. tion agencies. In turn, excessive and outlandish To complicate the matter, the media devel- reporting focusing on people-oriented rather oped their own version of the story with their own than policy-oriented coverage can generate preformed storylines. In addition to preformed public cynicism (Cappella and Jamieson 1997). storylines, the media simplified, dramatized, and Such a context can pose serious challenges to personalized the story and cast unexpected events an anti-corruption agency that must work within as part of the initial storyline so that first impres- the constraints of often lengthy investigations sions became lasting impressions. that require due process and demand media Anti-corruption agencies should beware of coverage. such methods that the media may employ. Errors These issues were evident in the case of Hu- by the media must be followed up and corrected man Resources Development Canada (HRDC) immediately by the agency. The ability to respond in 2000. David Good was the assistant deputy quickly and accurately to media questions is minister of HRDC during a period when the particularly necessary in a crisis because it can department came under intense national public prevent the audience from taking first impres- scrutiny. He subsequently chronicled his experi- sions as facts. Public opinion is influenced quickly; ences in his book The Politics of Public Manage- once perceptions are formed it is hard to get the ment: The HRDC Audit of Grants and Contributions facts straight. (Good 2003). The HRDC scandal was the result Everyone makes mistakes, including the media of a series of factors that turned a correctable and anti-corruption agencies. What is important administrative matter into media headlines sug- is the ability to acknowledge and accept that mis- gesting that the government had lost one billion takes have been made. An adversarial relationship dollars. The factors included the inability of the between the media and anti-corruption agencies department to access the most basic informa- can lead to mistakes being blown out of propor- tion from its internal auditors for the purpose of tion--and that can destroy the fragile layer of pub- responding to media queries, which weakened lic trust, on which the success of anti-corruption the department's ability to handle the crisis. agencies depend. officers; the start of judicial proceedings; the issuance of the role of whistleblowers in a society. Media re- of public recommendations by a watchdog body; porting on corruption can curb corruption directly by and the scrapping of a law or policy that creates eliciting preemptive responses from people keen to an environment conducive or even contributing to protect their reputations. It also may have long-term corruption. preventive effects by publicly identifying previously Results of tangible or direct effects may include unknown vested interests or vulnerabilities within an increase in the cost of corrupt behavior among power structures. public officials. They also may boost the legitimacy Intangible outcomes are indirect and implicit of those people who are charged with checking such within the context of the wider role that media play behavior and, in turn, may prompt public acceptance in society. For example, the role of the media as The Media as Communicators 7 Case Study C Direct and Indirect Effects Bangladesh Sanglap BBC World Service Trust, BBC Bangla Service, and indicated Bangladeshi respondents did not iden- television stations in Bangladesh have worked in tify unemployment and transportation issues as partnership since 2005 to produce a weekly po- consequences of corruption. litical debate program called Bangladesh Sanglap. A measure of Sanglap's success are indicators Filmed in front of a studio audience and with a demonstrating that as the number of political dis- weekly viewership of 7 million people, Sanglap cussion programs on air each week grew between has offered the first opportunity for voters to ques- July 2005 and July 2008, Bangladesh's Transpar- tion and interact with politicians on television and ency International Corruption Perception Index radio. The groundbreaking program has facilitated rating dropped by 32 ranks. A focus on systemic a more accountable and responsive government problems within public debate also helped estab- by making it perfectly normal for ordinary citizens lish in the public's mind the link between corrup- to ask questions of elected officials and for officials tion and individually perceived problems such as to explain their policies and decisions in an open unemployment and poor transportation. forum. This program has succeeded in encourag- This media project illustrates the importance ing active citizen participation and mobilizing of integrating a media strategy into anti-corruption civil society. campaigns, and suggests the significant long- At the beginning of the Sanglap initiative, term advantages of building capacity among the BBC World Service Trust conducted a "Pulse anti-corruption officials to work with the media. of Bangladesh" survey in 2005. When asked what In particular, Sanglap has proved how a long- the major problems facing Bangladesh were, 45 term media campaign can profoundly influence percent of respondents cited unemployment, and public opinion on the links between individual 37 percent pointed to transportation issues. It is and systemic corruption and on its consequences. significant that only 12 percent of respondents Its legacy has been to engage citizens in publicly considered corruption important--a rate that demanding government accountability. Sources: Anam 2002; BBC World Service Trust video, About Bangladesh Sanglap, http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/ trust/whatwedo/where/asia/bangladesh/2008/04/080412_bangladesh_sanglap_video.shtml. effective watchdogs on corruption is not always im- the public about the causes and consequences of mediately obvious. However, the media can foster a corruption and its potential cures. By being a beacon democratic culture by exposing an administration's of transparency, the media can generate public op- activities, thereby raising public awareness about position to corruption. corrupt behavior and practices, and by educating Understanding Public Opinion "P ublic opinion" refers to the opinion that seems to be the most dominant, widespread, or popular among a plurality of existing opinions. It is pro- duced jointly by three main factors: elite opinion lead- Petty corruption is furthered by people's perception that it is absolutely normal to pay an official for some service that should be provided free of charge by the state. If people assume that everyone pays bribes ers, statistical records, and people's perceptions. Elite and that most people just put up with the abuse, opinion leaders express and publish opinions, have then petty corruption will become part of everyday access to media outlets and technologies, and have life. The smaller the number of people who protest high degrees of social influence or institutional power. the practice, the smaller the number of people who Statistical records represent and measure opinions will oppose it or voice their opinions against it. But if collected through polls and surveys. Finally, people's people rally together and speak up against corruption, perceptions of which opinions prevail in their social they create a climate of opinion against it. And if they and media environments, and how their own opinions speak up loud enough, more and more people will match those of others, also affect public opinion. join them because they won't want to be isolated as The people's sense of what is the dominant opin- outsiders who support bribery. Eventually, the climate ion is influenced by the so-called spiral of silence. of opinion will become the dominant stance--open The essence of the spiral of silence is the assumption opposition to corruption will become public opinion. that people are afraid of being isolated, and so they Only by mobilizing public opinion can anti- adjust their opinions to what they perceive to be corruption agencies create the conditions necessary the opinion of the majority. Therefore, people will for systemic change. Defined as the rethinking and express their opinions confidently only when they restructuring of systems in an interconnected way, believe that those opinions are shared by most other systemic change involves four different stages: self- people in the relevant area; otherwise, they remain preservation, development of awareness, active silent. If many people speak up against corruption, reflection, and acceptance of risk. they will draw many more people to do likewise. In the first stage, focus is directed to maintain- The same effect is achieved when a small group of ing the existing system. (See how the Transparency people speaks very loudly, and the majority is silent. Accountability Coalition in the Philippines did this If anti-corruption agencies manage to draw the successfully, as described in case study D.) Those who media to their side, and the media speak up against are invested politically, economically, and socially in corruption, people will perceive this stance to be a the status quo do not wish to recognize that structures widely accepted position. As a result, they will speak are fundamentally out of sync with present realities. In against corruption themselves. the second stage, nonelite decision makers begin to Consider this example: A local newspaper prints develop an awareness that things as they stand simply several reports and opinion pieces pointing to the are not working. In the absence of vision and direction, successful work of the anti-corruption agency. If no a period of reflection, reassessment, and exploration other media outlet says very negative things about ensues in the third stage. Finally, to accomplish the the agency, people will believe that it is commonly transition to a new normal system, a critical number accepted that the agency does good work. of opinion leaders openly must commit to change and Another example that shows the importance of must be prepared to confront and accept the risks of working with the media involves the issue of norms. the unknown that this change entails. Understanding Public Opinion 9 Case Study D Mobilizing Public Opinion Transparency and Accountability Coalition in the Philippines In the Philippines, the Transparent Account- ering citizens and motivating them to participate able Governance (TAG) initiative is a good example by making their contributions visible in a publicly of successful pro-reform coalition building. TAG accessible space. effectively mobilized public opinion to create the Unlike traditional one-way communication, conditions necessary for systemic change. which keeps repeating the same simple message In the late-1990s, the Asia Foundation was through the same channel, coalition building able to build a coalition for curbing corruption. involves building trust. This requires engaging This coalition, in turn, fostered an improved envi- people with credible messages, backed by research ronment for economic growth. Initially partnering and evidence and delivered by credible messen- with academic institutions to carry out research gers. Vested interests are at a disadvantage in this activities examining the problem of corruption in new landscape. the Philippines, the coalition was joined over time TAG has had significant achievements, such by such other groups as the League of Cities of the as textbook monitoring with the Department of Philippines, credible nongovernmental organiza- Education, development of a feedback mechanism tions, and private sector partners. for procurement monitoring with the Office of the These additional coalition members increased Ombudsman, and development of deployment the influence and ensured sustainable support for software for civil society observers of the Bids and the initiative. In addition, the TAG Web site (http:// Awards Committee. www.tag.org.ph) proved instrumental in empow- Source: de Quelen 2008. Understanding Journalism W The Media Cycle and the hen it comes to public opinion, journalists are among the most influential groups. As "Feeding Frenzy" we know it today, journalism is oriented largely toward the ideal of investigative report- In the modern media environment, the media are ing--both uncovering wrongdoing and creating more vigorous, inquisitive, and commercial than scandals. Modern investigative journalism started ever before. They are more diverse and competi- with the Watergate scandal, involving U.S. President tive; journalists do not always have time to check Richard Nixon and the Committee to Reelect the facts before publishing. The 24/7 news cycle makes President. Nixon resigned from the White House as analyses more shallow, information more simple, and a result of press reports on his involvement in spy- complexities dispensable. Short sound bites are iso- ing on his political adversaries. Watergate was the lated and passed along out of context, increasing the biggest story in American politics between 1972 and likelihood of mistakes (however unintended). In the 1976. Journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein haste to meet deadlines, the media may sacrifice the of the Washington Post uncovered a system of po- finer points concerning corruption to the demands litical "dirty tricks" and crimes that eventually led to of generalization. indictments of 40 White House and administration In addition, conflict between profit and journal- officials, and ultimately to the president's resigna- ism creates tension between the bottom line and tion. Watergate made the public aware of political journalistic integrity. A greater emphasis on revenue corruption and turned corruption into a mainstream margins and bottom lines requires that media organi- media story. zations emphasize those aspects of their operations Since the time of the Watergate scandal, the that directly produce positive revenue results. Also, public has developed an appetite for corruption a smaller number of journalists are expected to use scandals. Investigative journalism now is regarded fewer resources and produce greater amounts of as profitable. Editors and newspaper owners en- information for broadcast or print. courage journalists to find their own Watergates. The orientation toward the preferences of The discovery of a corruption scandal can solidify advertisers has redefined the market and the audi- a newspaper's place in history, boost the prestige ence, with a consequent emphasis on stories that of a crusading journalist, and dramatically increase are inexpensive and easy to cover and that focus on commercial success. the individual (for example, pieces on celebrity life- The Watergate scandal demonstrates how styles and high-profile court cases). Media also focus the media are able to motivate public intolerance on sensational and personal accounts because it is of behavior that generally has been ignored or easier to sell the game of politics than it is to convey perceived as acceptable and normal. By probing the content of public issues. The substance is not as the public consciousness about the individual and attractive to sell as is the sensational, the negative, societal consequences of corruption, the media and the scandalous. contribute to eliciting stronger public demand for In his seminal book, Feeding Frenzy: How Attack institutional change and for new moral standards Journalism Has Transformed American Politics, Larry in public life. J. Sabato (1991) defines a media feeding frenzy as Understanding Journalism 11 where "a critical mass of journalists leap to cover Figure A the same embarrassing or scandalous subject and pursue it intensely, often excessively, and sometimes uncontrollably" (p. 6). He believes that the media "prefers to employ titillation rather than scrutiny; as a result, its political coverage produces trivialization rather than enlightenment" (p. 6). Media bias may be reflected in under- or over- reporting incidents of corruption. The quality of the news--including bias, inaccuracy, and deliberate sensationalism--is something that is not always ob- vious immediately. The newspaper reader or televi- sion viewer cannot tell if a report has been confirmed by multiple sources, cannot evaluate the reliability of unnamed sources, and cannot know what stories have not been reported. An electorate's perceptions can be irreversibly affected in the media's attempts to feed the insatiable Source: Joseph Farris, http://www.cartoonstock.com. appetite for news. Reputation integrity that takes years to build can be lost in seconds. The public's general perception of corruption may not match the actual occurrence of corruption. Given that the media affect public opinion, anti- choice to cover certain types of news and ignore corruption agencies need to develop media relations others. The media can play a key role in helping raise strategies that take into account the extreme time the public's general awareness about corruption constraints and pressures under which the media scandals and, more important, about corruption as operate, and the incentives that media have in their a phenomenon. The Trouble with Money: Asset Recovery and Communication S ome of the most difficult communication money to buy property that subsequently has lost challenges for anti-corruption agencies in- value. And some monies are untraceable. The person volve recovering money or property from may have invested in a scheme run by others who corrupt officials. Normally, one would expect such also were criminally corrupt and who either stole recovery to result in an avalanche of compliments the money or went bankrupt. There are dozens of from the public and the media. Without an active reasons why money is not recovered, but they all communication strategy, however, agencies find sound like excuses after the fact. Suddenly, expecta- themselves on the defensive. Rather than kudos, tions of 100 million have diminished to 5 million. they receive the most severe criticisms. Why does It does not take a vivid imagination to suggest the that happen? resulting media stories. One of the primary reasons for that outcome is Finally, agencies get into real difficulty because that estimates of what has been stolen usually are they fail to manage captured nonmonetary resources exaggerated greatly when the case first becomes effectively. It is fine to release the fact that the agency public. An arrest is made and a university professor or has taken possession of a corrupt politician's ranch, the head of a nonprofit organization is interviewed. 1,000 head of cattle, and 200 hectares of wheat. But He or she gives an "expert" opinion as to what the without effective management of that property corrupt official either embezzled or received as and a well-conceived media strategy to document bribes. The gap between that estimate and what the management successes, results can be disastrous. evidence actually supports is often quite large. So Flash forward two months, when the media pub- a front-page headline announcing that the former lishes front-page headlines because the cattle have minister of finance took 100 million turns into a starved and the unharvested wheat has rotted in the criticism of the anti-corruption agency because the field. Agencies often are not prepared to deal with agency has evidence to support only a 10 million nonmonetary property. Perhaps the most famous claim. Without an effective communication strategy, case involved the U.S. Department of Justice. After such erroneous information can lead to accusations freezing the assets of the Mustang Ranch in Nevada of conspiracy: the anti-corruption agency stole the in 1999 because of a criminal probe, the department rest for itself, the culpable individual is being pro- discovered it was running the ranch's business--that tected, or forces outside of the country are hiding of a brothel! the balance of the money. A well-conceived media strategy can help agen- A secondary reason for criticizing the asset cies deal with all of those issues. By deciding ahead of recovery work of an anti-corruption agency is that time which person in the agency will be responsible it is hardly ever able to recover the full amount. For for briefing the public and how that person should example, tracking the 10 million corruption losses approach the issue of asset recovery, an agency can might result in finding only 5 million that can be manage public expectations. Furthermore, agencies frozen. Although most media and citizens expect can be proactive in understanding how the public the agency to recover the full amount, experience may perceive conspiracies around asset recovery. The reveals that this happens quite rarely. There are inability to get "all of the stolen funds back" can be a various reasons why recovered funds seldom equal way for the agency to speak about the importance stolen funds. Perhaps the guilty individual used the of prevention. It can be used as an opportunity to The Trouble with Money: Asset Recovery and Communication 13 educate the wider public about how important it is to but also need to understand how their management stop corruption before it occurs. And, finally, agencies will be perceived by the public and to manage the not only need to manage nonmonetary resources, message as part of an overall media strategy. Definition and Types of Corruption T he definition of "corruption" itself has be- domestic actors is novel. The clandestine nature of come corrupted--and that has complicated corruption has prevented the evolution of a uni- the problem of how corruption is perceived. versally satisfactory description and explanation of Actual corruption and perceived corruption often corruption. As a result, defining it is as difficult as are regarded as the same thing--but they are measuring it. not. The perception of corruption influences the The task of anti-corruption agencies is made reality of corruption, and it can undermine pub- all the more challenging by the contested defini- lic confidence in the moral authority of political tion of corruption that has confused the public's leadership. perception. Complex philosophical and economic When one is able to define what something is, considerations have dominated academic discourse one can understand how to prevent it. However, on the different theoretical approaches to corrup- public debate about corruption often is reduced to tion, but such discourse has been lost on a public blandly labeling an unethical act as corrupt. Such more concerned about the practical implications of labeling is meaningless. Media commentary often corrupt behavior. focuses on individual descriptions of scandal, at Failure to explain the distinct types of corruption the expense of a wider, systemic analysis of rules has prevented the wider public from recognizing the and institutions. It is easier to ignore systemic importance of systemic and institutional corruption. bankruptcy by condemning the failings of indi- As a result, we have a flawed focus on sensational and viduals than it is to present an analysis of the social, personality-driven accounts of unethical behavior. political, and economic background of corruption. In these scenarios, perspective is duly lost to the We allow ourselves to become distracted by the game of short-term politics. It is easier to sell who is personalities of those who commit the crime, and winning and who is losing than to communicate the we fail to consider the underlying reasons why the substantive detail of public issues. crime occurred in the first place. The focus shifts to those who made the allegations, and away from Legal and Moral Corruption the allegations themselves. As a consequence, the pattern of incidents repeats itself in different ways, Legal obligations are not the same as moral expec- without appropriate analysis or comment. The tations. A corrupt gain is not the exclusive province smallest suspicion of wrongdoing becomes the of financial reward, and may fall instead into the seed of scandal--a scandal that then feeds on itself. category of mediated corruption. However, distinc- Rumors become allegations, and allegations make tions such as these often are difficult for an outraged front-page stories. Old charges are recounted until public and an impatient media to appreciate fully. new ones emerge. In this way, we become normal- Preserving the public trust is not simply a question ized to a distorted perspective of what constitutes of discerning legal rights from wrongs; rather, it information. The systemic reasons for the corruption involves upholding the very spirit of the law. (See are lost among the flurry of calls for resignations case studies E and F.) and investigations. Legal definitions of corruption treat it as fixed, Corruption is not a new phenomenon, but the as behavior that clearly breaks legal statutes. That intense spotlight aimed at it by international and definition assumes that all laws are stated precisely, Definition and Types of Corruption 15 Case Study E The Legal and Moral Definitions of Corruption Flood Corruption Tribunal of Inquiry, Ireland The Flood Corruption Tribunal of Inquiry (originally Inquiry, established to investigate corruption named for chair Fergus Flood, but now known within the planning process, concluded that the as the Mahon Tribunal) was a watershed for Irish former minister had received corrupt payments political life. It was the first time that the distinc- of £160,000 ($242,000). These payments were tion between the legal and moral definitions of made by property developers and deposited in corruption received wide-ranging political and Burke's offshore bank accounts. Burke was found public attention. to have assisted in the rezoning of land from Ray Burke, the Irish minister for foreign affairs, agricultural to development purposes, making made an unprecedented personal statement to the land extremely valuable for the property the Irish House of Parliament in September 1997, developers. in response to media allegations that he was the Burke defended the solicitation and accep- recipient of large payments from property devel- tance of contributions on the basis that those opers. He said, actions were entirely permitted within the legal parameters of the time. If there were no law, then As all Members of this House will be no law was broken. This justification neglected aware, the last 25 years have seen a to take into account that the existing legislation fundamental change in the operation was plainly inadequate. The nature of politics had of politics.... Soliciting or accepting changed by that time, but the legislation govern- such contributions was not outlawed ing politics had not. or discouraged through legislation or Burke failed to acknowledge that his respon- the Standing Orders or rules of this sibilities to public office included duties to public House.... I am being judged under trust, which bore moral expectations outside of the rules of 1997 ... although the con- legal obligations. The former minister did not tribution was received in 1989 when distinguish between his public and private lives, there were no rules in place ... [it] has which made it difficult to distinguish a conflict of been the tradition of this House in interest. The Burke case signaled a transformation relation to confidentiality regarding of Irish political culture. The sharp separation be- contributions and I do not intend to tween the public and private lives of politicians was comment further on the matter. no longer held sacred, and the distinction between legal and moral definitions of corruption became Burke resigned from his post as minister one more prominent. month later. The subsequent Flood Tribunal of Source: Flood Tribunal of Inquiry, http://www.flood-tribunal.ie. leaving no doubts about their meaning and no dis- society (and so be an ethical or moral affront to the cretion to the public officials operating under them. citizenry). Merely being technically "legal" does not But that is too rigid a description. Although an act mean a specific action is not corruption or a specific is committed within legal boundaries (and so is not actor is not corrupt. Corruption is organic, as is how legally actionable), the act may lie outside norms of people perceive it. 16 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Case Study F Marion Barry, Councilmember, Washington, DC The ongoing difficulties that the former mayor ing good work and meets the requirements. Tell of Washington, DC, Marion Barry, finds himself in me where in the rules it says that can't happen" demonstrate the intricacies between the legal and (DeBonis and Cherkis 2009). Barry's spokesperson moral definitions of corruption. Barry, a colorful also said in an interview, "Councilmember Barry and controversial figure who dominated Wash- resents the insinuation from some members of the ington politics, served four terms as mayor. He re- press, anti-Barry political opponents, when they signed from office in 1991, following a high-profile suggest that something is wrong or illegal when conviction for drug possession. After finishing his it is not" (Stephens and Steward 2009). jail sentence, Barry continued his political career There are no provisions in the council rules as a Washington city council representative; he or District of Columbia laws to prohibit a council- continues to serve as a councilmember for one of member from appropriating earmarked money for Washington's local wards. nonprofit entities created by his staff and operating In July 2009, federal law enforcement officials under its oversight. Neither are there any laws to opened a preliminary investigation of Barry over prevent nonprofits from being staffed predomi- suspicions that he misappropriated as much as $1 nantly by friends and allies of the councilmember. million. It is alleged that he funneled government It also emerged that Barry awarded a city grant funding to local community development contract to his former girlfriend. "You all think it groups in his area. According to the Washington is inappropriate to hire a girlfriend. I don't think it CityPaper, "Virtually every person who has drawn a is. In fact, there is no law against it.... As long as it significant paycheck from the six groups was either is not illegal, citizens ought to allow people to do a paid staffer or volunteer with Barry's reelection what they want," Barry told the Washington Post campaign last year" (DeBonis and Cherkis 2009). (Craig 2009). Under existing laws, councilmembers There is a potential conflict of interest, given are not prohibited from putting family members that the nonprofit organizations appear to be run or people with whom they have personal relation- by members of Barry's staff and that the leaders of ships on the payroll, if those people are qualified those organizations also are his personal friends. for the job. Barry has defended his actions, noting that, The legal and moral definitions of corrup- "There's nothing illegal about me or any other tion continue to pose difficulties in democracies councilmember supporting an organization that across the world, including the United States' they have established if that organization is do- capital city. Legislating to control behavior focuses on the le- Modern governance has grown increasingly gality of an action, but not on its morality. Such a legal complex. In turn, anti-corruption legislation has distinction has opened space for the defense of "I have become more intricate. All of these complexities broken no law; therefore, I have done no wrong." In a have consequences for anti-corruption agencies. If legalistic environment, where there is no acknowledg- agencies wish to be successful in their mandate to ment of personal ethical responsibility, the law always discourage corrupt behavior, they must adapt to this plays catch-up. Criminal laws must be supplemented ever-more-challenging climate. with administrative rules and ethical guidance. Definition and Types of Corruption 17 Figure B Inevitable Intersection on the Road Mediated Corruption of Life The media struggle with the definition of "mediated corruption" as much as they do with the distinction between the legal and moral definitions of corrup- tion. As a complex, systemic, and global phenom- enon, corruption continues to be redefined. As con- temporary political and cultural practices transform themselves, so does the conventional definition of corruption, which often has been cited as the abuse of public office for private gain (recall the definition presented in box 1). "Mediated corruption" expands the traditional assumption of private gain as an essential aspect of corruption. Mediated corruption not only involves a financial benefit; it also takes into consideration other types of gain, such as power, prestige, authority, and symbolic capital through illicit means. Mediated cor- ruption can be explained in these terms: (1) [T]he gain that the politician receives Non Sequitur (c) 2002 Wiley Miller. Used by permission of is political, not personal and is not il- Universal Press Syndicate. All rights reserved. legitimate in itself, as in conventional Source: Universal Press Syndicate, in Lewis and Gilman (2005, p. 57). corruption; (2) how the public official provides the benefit is improper, not necessarily the benefit itself, or the fact Petty and Grand Corruption that the particular citizen receives the benefit; (3) the connection between Petty corruption, including bribery (by which offi- the gain and the benefit is improper cials deviate from rules in minor ways for the benefit because it damages the democratic of themselves or their friends), often is overlooked process, not because the public official by the media. Instead, attention is focused on grand provides the benefit with a corrupt mo- corruption--which differs from petty corruption tive. (Thompson 1993, p. 369) because of the standing and influence of individuals involved and the volume of money being moved. From that perspective, corruption is the use of Grand corruption is extensive unethical behavior by public office for private gain, without any direct link public officials that is tolerated by politicians. to a particular favor but in anticipation of future ben- The challenge for anti-corruption agencies is to efits. Mediated corruption may be discovered in the explain to the public the distinctions between petty formulation of policy and legislation that is tailored and grand corruption, with the help of the media. to benefit political actors through popular and politi- Doing so requires facilitating a more nuanced and cal support. That support is the benefit the political coherent communication strategy over the long actor may receive through the favorable outcome term--a strategy that can counteract misunder- of an election or the secure promotion within the standings that may undermine the message of an ranks of the political party or government structures. anti-corruption communication campaign. Tailor- Or, the benefit that the politician gets may be the ing communication campaigns to address specific preservation of existing political support because issues can help educate the media on the different of a decision not to be forthright during the process manifestations of corruption. of implementing an unpopular policy or legislation. The Perception of Corruption Indexes I s the perception of corruption driven by the me- tion phenomenon on an internationally represen- dia? Perception-based corruption indexes may tative scale. The CPI has been credited widely with influence the actual perception of corruption putting the issue of corruption on the global policy because of the media attention they receive, thus agenda and raising international awareness about raising the possibilities that the indexes influence the phenomenon. Nonetheless, the CPI has been the the very same perceptions on which they are based. focus of much criticism regarding its methodology This circularity reinforces perceptions of corruption, (Arndt and Oman 2006; Galtung 2006). For instance, creating a vicious cycle between perception and fact. the CPI incorporates surveys that do not contain Therefore, the perception of corruption does not explicit definitions of the aspects of governance and always reflect the reality or complexity of the actual corruption they intend to measure. Indicators such as level or experience of corruption within a country. "corruption,""conflicts of interest,""diversion of funds," Because corruption is clandestine in nature, it is also and "anti-corruption efforts and achievements" are difficult to measure. People who engage in corrupt difficult to interpret universally; and divergent in- activities, whether as bribe suppliers or bribe takers, terpretations clearly have a subsequent impact on have reasons not to admit to their actions. country-to-country comparability. Perception matters, however, and its unintended Transparency International itself recommends consequences may be devastating to a country's that negative rankings not incite punishment for a reputation and to its attractiveness to potential country that is "believed to be corrupt, but is will- foreign investors. For example, the perception that ing to reform"; instead, the organization states that a country has corrupt leadership is likely to make such rankings "should serve as a signal to donors international companies reluctant to allocate foreign that investment is needed in systemic approaches direct investment there, and it is likely to discourage to fight corruption" (TI 2004). Such warnings often donor countries from making loans and grants to are ignored. Reliance on the indexes also does not support development projects. Both of those situa- reward genuine reformers because the rankings do tions have enormous consequences for a country's not provide an indication of political intent or success economic growth potential and for its ability to fight in the fight against corruption. poverty. Changes in methodology and sample base have There is growing concern among anti-corruption complicated year-to-year comparisons. Survey re- agencies that perception-based indexes are not ac- spondents in different countries describe corruption curate measures. The best perception-based surveys in different terms. Even when countries have similar do not always account for indirect effects of sub- rankings, their experiences of corruption may be jective factors, and their margins of error are large vastly divergent. As the sources used for a country when compared with actual corruption (Bertrand change from year to year, the implicit definitions and Mullainathan 2001). And these indexes may be change; and that complicates same-year compari- used for political purposes that run counter to the sons between and among countries (Knack 2006). objectives of anti-corruption campaigns. One element contributing to the perception Transparency International's annual Corruption of corruption in a country is its ranking in previous Perception Index (CPI), first released in 1995, was the perception indexes (Arndt and Oman 2006). There initial attempt to measure and compare the corrup- are two main problems: (1) previous survey results The Perception of Corruption Indexes 19 have an impact on the new survey results; and (2) aid an international aid agency will give to a specific because indexes combine several measurements, country or to identify potential risks for international it is difficult to set one number that accurately re- investors. flects a country's level of corruption. In addition, perception-based corruption indexes often are The Impact of Perception-Based founded on experts' evaluations of a country's situ- Indexes ation. Those experts' perceptions, however, may be influenced by other experts' reports on corruption in Perceptions of corruption have real consequences. a particular country; and those other reports again Foreign investors and international donors use may be founded on the perception-based indexes perception-based composite governance indicators from the last year. In such cases, we have a cycle of to make decisions on vital investment and aid. As a reports based on other reports, which were based on consequence, countries are discriminated against the first reports! For example, in 2009, an organiza- because of perceived trends in their commitments tion asks a panel of experts to rate the prevalence to good governance. There is a bona fide risk that of petty corruption among policemen. The experts important decisions are being made on the basis of base their judgment on perception-based indexes inaccurate measures. of corruption published by another organization in Research has shown that perceptions of corrup- 2008. Again, the 2010 installment of the index may tion discourage private and foreign direct investment be based on the 2009 experts' assessment ... and and limit economic growth. It is estimated that a so on (Knack 2006; Andvig 2005; Lambsdorff, Taube, one-standard-deviation increase (improvement) in and Schramm 2005). a perception-based corruption index increases in- A single score gives no in-depth information vestment rates by 3 percent of a country's GDP and about where corruption occurs or what types of increases the annual growth rate of GDP per capita corruption are predominant in a country. The CPI by one percentage point (Mauro 1995, pp. 695­701). does not measure how much corruption costs either Subjective observations of corruption largely in real terms or in terms of its impact on economic determine business and political operations ev- growth. As one prominent academic states, the CPI ery day. Foreign investment executives rely on "can legitimize the case for reform, but it cannot perception-based indicators used by commercial genuinely point reformers in any meaningful direc- firms that assess political risk (such as Standard tion" (Galtung 2006, p. 123). and Poor's and Political Risk Services) and on the Although the World Bank Institute (which pub- International Country Risk Guide. The Economist lishes Worldwide Governance Indicators) and Trans- Intelligence Unit, which assesses risk and business parency International both acknowledge in their attractiveness for more than 180 nations, also uses annual reports that their indicators are not suited subjective estimates. for comparing countries with similar scores and for Aid agencies and other stakeholders rely on making comparisons over time, many organizations perception indexes rather than on fact-based as- continue to use these indicators to make exactly such sessments to decide their amounts of aid and their comparisons (Arndt and Oman 2006). areas of investment. A negative CPI ranking may have The measuring instruments used by Transpar- profoundly negative consequences (Andvig 2005). ency International and the World Bank Institute fre- Indeed, Transparency International acknowledged quently are referred to as "composite indexes." They that a fall in foreign direct investment in Bangladesh are based on a number of individual data sources may be linked to the country's position at the bottom intended to measure various aspects of corruption. of its table since 2001 (Williamson 2004). The sources are aggregated and make use of percep- A 2006 report from the Organisation for Eco- tion data.1 This overemphasis on aggregate measures nomic Co-operation and Development notes that at and composite indexes can be counterproductive. least one donor stopped funding a country because Moreover, it is used increasingly for inappropriate of its standing in the CPI (Arndt and Oman 2006, p. purposes--for example, to determine the level of 48). That same report also notes that the dominance 20 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How of perception indexes may be contributing to the services; utilities services; and tax revenue offices. It emergence of a "corruption trap." As development is significant that this survey distinguishes between aid is increasingly made conditional on the imple- the perception and the experience of corruption, and mentation of reforms, those countries with the least may be more reflective of the "echo-chamber" effect resources to implement "good governance" stand in which perceptions of corruption can be shaped by to suffer most from the withdrawal of precisely the entrenched historical stereotypes or media reports support they need to stand any realistic chance of regarded as fact by the population surveyed. tackling corruption. In this way, perception-based When the CPI and the Global Corruption Barom- indexes can become entirely counterproductive. eter are compared with one another, it is obvious that perception and experience of corruption are Examples of Inconsistent Perception not the same things. Studies have shown that "the `distance' between opinions and experiences var- With all the inconsistencies already cited, the media ies haphazardly from country to country" (Abramo are faced with the tremendous challenge of deci- 2008, p. 6). Table 1 illustrates this point by showing phering these indexes. That is the principal reason the scores on perceived corruption (CPI column) why anti-corruption agencies should have a strong and experienced corruption (Global Corruption media relations strategy in place. Indeed, the po- Barometer column) for Turkey and the United King- tentially far-reaching impact of perception-based dom. The United Kingdom is rated number 11 in indexes should be a genuine source of concern for the 2006 perception-based CPI, and Turkey is rated anti-corruption agencies. Such indexes do not reveal number 60. Apparently, there is a huge gap in the the real context of a situation, and may even be perception of corruption in the two countries, with counterproductive to a nation's efforts to develop its Turkey being perceived as significantly more corrupt economy and improve its citizens' standards of living. than the United Kingdom. However, when it comes An inverse effect may occur under which countries to the experience-based questions on the Global are discouraged from undertaking serious anti-cor- Corruption Barometer, there is little reason to dis- ruption measures because their attempts at reform tinguish between the two countries. In both states, are neither revealed nor regarded as successful by 98 percent of the respondents stated that they had an improved score in the CPI. Perception indexes can not paid any bribe in the past 12 months. In terms punish rather than reward solid reform. The complex- of corruption actually experienced, Turkey and the ity of understanding how to interpret these indexes United Kingdom appear to have equally low levels of places the responsibility on anti-corruption agencies corruption. The incompatibility of corruption percep- to explain index ratings to the media. tion with the experience of corruption points to the Some people have argued that the gap between shortcomings of the perception methodology used. the perception of corruption and the personal experi- The disparity between the perception and the ence of corruption can exceed expectations. When experience of corruption is also relevant in the case perception-based and experience-based surveys of Ireland. From 1995 to 2002, Ireland's ranking on the have been compared, vast discrepancies have been CPI dropped from 11 to 23, a decrease of 12 places. found between people's perceptions and people's During that same period, extensive legislative reform actual experience of the extent of corruption in a occurred in Ireland. An independent anti-corruption given country (Donchev and Ujhelyi 2007; Miller, agency was established to monitor implementa- Grodeland, and Koshechkina 2001). tion of the newly introduced legislative framework. Since 2002, Transparency International has Moreover, three tribunals of inquiry were created to supplemented the CPI with the Global Corruption investigate Irish political corruption dating back as Barometer, a series of individual-level, national prob- far as the 1970s and 1980s. Perhaps the Irish public ability surveys assessing general public attitudes assumed that there was more corruption because toward and experience of corruption in personal, they were hearing more about corruption in those business, and political life; educational and legal years--and that prompted the significant drop in systems; medical services; police, registry, and permit Ireland's CPI number. But the correlation between The Perception of Corruption Indexes 21 actual levels and the people's perceptions of cor- the degree of citizen perception that corruption ruption was not necessarily accurate because the has become a major problem in society. That is, the corruption tribunals were investigating incidents more cases an agency exposes, the more people from an entirely different time period. think that corruption is rampant. This inaccurate All of these examples point to the need for assumption is a growing challenge for agencies anti-corruption agencies to learn to communicate because the political cost may inhibit, not stimu- effectively with the media, and, through the media, late, support for anti-corruption campaigns (see with the public. case study G). The irony is that, although implementing a high- Anti-corruption Agencies as Victims of profile anti-corruption campaign may reduce the Their Own Success level of actual corruption, it simultaneously increases public awareness and perceptions of corruption. The Anti-corruption agencies often are victims of their frequency with which citizens are exposed to corrupt own success. There often is a correlation between acts and reports about the occurrence of corruption the quantity of corruption cases uncovered and has a bearing on public perception. Table 1 Inconsistent Perception between Two Indexes Corruption Perception Index, 2006 Global Corruption Barometer, 2006 In the past 12 months, have you or anyone living in your household paid a bribe in any form? Percent Country Ranking Score (out of 10.0) Answering Yes Percent Answering No Turkey 60 3.8 2 98 United 11 8.6 2 98 Kingdom 22 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Case Study G Anti-corruption Agencies as Victims of Their Own Success and the Power of Perception The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development The European Bank for Reconstruction and De- of increasing, rather than reducing, the perception velopment (EBRD) analyzed the anti-corruption of entrenched unethical behavior. activities of 24 postcommunist transition countries Why is there a relatively strong and significant in Eastern and Central Europe and the Caucasus positive correlation between anti-corruption ac- between 1999 and 2002. The bank researched tivities and higher perceptions of corruption? The three types of anti-corruption programs to identify EBRD research proposes that omnibus programs, their effectiveness in addressing the perception in particular, tend to raise the profile and visibility of corruption: omnibus anti-corruption initia- of corruption, without necessarily providing any tives, specific legislative reform aimed at tackling immediate or "deep" changes in the levels of cor- corruption, and adherence to international anti- ruption within a country. corruption conventions. The research stresses the importance of draft- The expectation was that the public's percep- ing and implementing effective laws regulating tion of corruption decreases as the intensity of an the civil service, public procurement, financial anti-corruption campaign increases because of the disclosure, money laundering, and political belief that something is being done to reduce cor- party financing; and of promoting freedom of ruption. The EBRD research found, however, that information. It also indicates that merely sign- "higher profile anti-corruption programs may only ing international covenants and joining anti- serve to draw attention to the severity of the prob- corruption-related transnational organizations lem, driving perceptions in the opposite direction." are unlikely to have a direct impact on levels and Thus, perceptions of corruption--measured perceptions of corruption. Effective coordination in terms of the degree to which firms consider and coalition building and stronger incentives corruption to be an obstacle to the operation and for governments to comply with anti-corruption growth of their business--actually are "positively principles may be more productive. This is also the correlated with the intensity of anti-corruption case for stakeholder input and participation by programmes." This suggests that high-profile anti- civil society groups in formulating and monitoring corruption initiatives may have the inverse effect such initiatives. Source: Steves and Rousso 2003. Media Framing "F raming" is a term that means communicating in a way that leads audiences to see something in a certain light or from a particular perspective. Effective framing taps into preexisting beliefs, atti- were more likely to have received sympathy from those same people. Many different frames can be used in describing the work of anti-corruption agencies. Below, we will tudes, and opinions; it highlights certain aspects of consider three pairs of alternative frames: episodic an issue over other aspects. How an issue is framed is vs. thematic, issue vs. strategic, and gain vs. loss. crucial for anti-corruption work--in fact, it even may determine the success or failure of an anti-corruption Episodic vs. Thematic Framing campaign. By learning how to frame their messages most effectively, anti-corruption agencies can use When news is reported in the form of specific events the media as a vehicle to drive their campaigns. The or particular cases, the framing is episodic. Citizens media can become tools for focusing public atten- receiving episodic reports are less likely to consider tion on the real issues and consequences of integrity society responsible for the events, and more likely lapses rather than on ancillary matters. What is said to think that individuals are responsible. In contrast, and how it is said can shape how people perceive when political issues and events are presented in a the facts of a news story. general or collective context, the framing is thematic. The topic of climate change is a great example Citizens receiving thematic reports are less likely of how message framing can alter public opinion. to hold individuals accountable, and more likely to For instance, replacing the term "global warming" believe that society is responsible. with the broader term "climate change" expanded Research has shown that when citizens viewed the topic and enabled people to consider different media stories about poverty featuring homeless or aspects of the issue. Because different aspects call unemployed people (episodic framing), they were for different solutions, opportunities were opened more likely to blame poverty on individual failings, to address a range of relevant factors. such as laziness or low levels of education. Those Framing helps us make sense of our circum- people who viewed media stories about high na- stances. When an event or issue is described, the tional rates of unemployment or poverty (thematic speaker can emphasize certain considerations and framing), however, were less likely to place blame on ignore others. People hearing that speaker then will individual failings; instead, they attributed respon- focus on the aspects that the speaker emphasized. A sibility to governmental policies and other factors study undertaken in Africa in 2002 revealed that the beyond the victims' control (Iyengar 1991). media often used negative and derogatory descrip- Journalists often employ episodic frames in their tions when reporting on diseases such as HIV/AIDS. work. Instead of providing information about back- In contrast, they used no negative terms or examples ground and long-term implications, they focus on and no derogatory language in reporting on diseases the most recent developments, frequently isolated such as tuberculosis (Pratt, Ha, and Pratt 2002). As a from one another. As a result, audiences develop consequence of the way in which the media framed domain-specific knowledge rather than general the topic in a negative light, it is likely that people knowledge. Agencies working with the media to with HIV/AIDS were seen in a negative way by people get their information out will find that messages who heard or read the reports. Tuberculosis patients with episodic frames may be more appealing to the 24 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Figure C Gain vs. Loss Framing A topic presented in describing good things that will happen when something specific is done has a gain frame. In the health sector, for example, authorities trying to motivate people to be screened for cancer as a means of early detection show a happy family secure in the knowledge that all its members are healthy or that the disease was detected when it was still curable. Gain frames often prompt audiences to be hopeful and feel good, and motivate them to act in a certain way to realize some benefit. A loss frame, by contrast, is a more urgent call to action, pointing out specific dangers or risks when certain actions are Source: Leonski, Flickr Creative Commons, http://www.flickr.com/ not taken. In a loss frame, the health message about photos/leonski/537513221. cancer screening would portray a family grieving for a loved one lost because cancer was not detected in time to treat it. Loss frames generate negative feel- ings in their audiences, but they also point out the media. But those messages will not place the infor- urgency of a topic or action. mation in any context. There are many other frames that may be used Issue vs. Strategic Framing when communicating about corruption. For instance, anti-corruption agencies may communicate ethical A news story that focuses on describing a specific aspects (corruption is wrong) or material aspects problem or policy has an issue frame. A strategic (corruption makes your family poorer). The choice of frame, however, emphasizes the process by which frame depends on an agency's goal in spreading the something happens. For instance, putting an is- word. Corruption surely is an ethical issue, but people sue frame on the topic of corruption would entail may be more motivated to stand against it when they explaining how much corrupt behavior occurs in a see that it affects their own material well-being. specific country and sector, who the typical culprits In general, agencies should first choose the are, and so forth. Putting the topic in a strategic aspects of corruption they want to emphasize, and frame would require looking at how corruption is then decide whether to evoke negative or positive discovered, what sanctions can be imposed, and emotions in the audience. Positive frames inspire what the anti-corruption agency is doing to fight hope, and negative frames are better suited to ex- the problem. Because framing determines where the pressing the urgency of anti-corruption measures. audience puts its attention, a strategic frame will be Negative emotions also limit the audience's memory more effective when the goal is to promote the work because people experiencing them will remember of anti-corruption agencies. fewer facts from a message (see Lerner and Tiedens In some research studies, strategic framing [2006]). However, negative frames also are more likely prompted cynicism among the audience. News re- to grab people's attention. ports that showed "the game of politics"--strategic Here is an important caveat: Don't mix opposing discussions and arguments between politicians and frames in one message. Don't put both an episodic and experts rather than real issues--made the audience a thematic frame in one message, or both a gain and a more weary of both politics and politicians (Cappella loss frame. The effects of opposing frames will cancel and Jamieson 1997). each other. Two similar frames in one message, how- ever, will enhance the effect that each frame produces. Building Coalitions W hy should anti-corruption agencies engage information, influence, and material resources. They in building coalitions? Agencies are not may include individuals, groups, and organizations merely public organizations working in that arrange joint activities and collaborate in set- isolation. Instead, they should see themselves as in- ting up some entity to further shared objectives. stitutions active in the public sphere where building Coalitions recognize that collective action is more coalitions and shaping public opinion are part and powerful than disparate efforts carried out by parcel of their own survival and effectiveness (Lewis lone champions and loosely affiliated groups. Key and Gilman 2005). considerations in coalition-building efforts include Long-term systemic change in an institution research, networking, lobbying, and mass outreach where corrupt behavior has been the norm re- activities. quires a coalition of reform-minded supporters. Anti-corruption agencies can motivate potential Institutional failings are either the consequence stakeholders to join a broad coalition by crafting or the cause of a bankrupt political culture. When messages that resonate with the belief in collec- severe underlying problems go unnoticed over tive efficacy--the belief that, united as a group, it a period of time, it is often because citizens have is possible to make a real difference. Stimulating a become normalized to entrenched behavior that is sense of collective solidarity and affirming a sense assumed to be beyond reproach. Efforts to counter of shared purpose can be a powerful inspiration in such deep-seated reluctance to recognize or sup- coalition building. port the need for bona fide systemic change are The identification of key political stakeholders strengthened when coalitions work together to is critical to a strong anti-corruption coalition. The manage and sustain reform. first challenge in building anti-corruption alliances Building coalitions is an effective way to guard is to identify individuals, groups, and organizations against the threat of counterreform by vested inter- whose goals and values are similar to those of the ests. Successful and sustainable reform is vulnerable agency. (See case study H concerning the Boy Scouts to capture by such interests. Coalitions are able to in the Philippines for a noteworthy example.) Core mitigate these challenges by: providing a shared stakeholders are people essential to the organiza- platform for like-minded, pro-change individuals tion or process. If coalitions include sympathetic and groups; leveraging the collective force of their government ministers, these "internal champions" members and influential allies; focusing the public can work toward consensus within the government, spotlight on advocacy issues in the public arena; and and consensus can act as a counterbalance to op- applying pressure for effective implementation of position from public officials, other ministers, and reform among leadership circles, within bureaucratic middle-managers. Internal hostility toward proposed environments, and in the larger public sphere. reform very often is underestimated (Marsh 1998), and having a countering force in place when hostility What Are Coalitions? arises is helpful. An effective anti-corruption coalition helps Coalitions are structures of formal collaboration build and maintain momentum by promoting a motivated by a common vision, seeking to attain participatory approach that relies on dialogue common goals. Coalitions work together to share among stakeholders. Such dialogue should rest 26 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Case Study H Defining Coalitions The Boy Scouts in the Philippines One challenge for an anti-corruption agency is to school district and to send an SMS with the infor- identify organizations whose goals, values, and mation about the number of books that actually development philosophies are similar to its own. were received and when they were received. The Highly effective networks and coalitions can be Boy Scouts were motivated to take part in this created with unexpected partners. exercise because they were affected directly by At the 2008 anti-corruption learning event in the provision of textbooks and would have to Vienna, Austria, José Edgardo Campos, lead public bear the negative consequences of not receiv- sector specialist at the World Bank, outlined a case ing them. in the Philippines where the Boy Scouts orga- The participation costs were low and the pro- nization was recruited to ensure that textbooks cess was straightforward, but the consequences reached school districts. were profound. This strategy provided an ef- Boy Scouts were informed through an SMS fective check on corruption within the school (short message service) communication that they administration sector, and made clear the direct should receive a certain number of textbooks. consequences of corruption among the wider They then were encouraged to check with their public. Source: Presentation at the anti-corruption learning event, "Using Communication Approaches and Techniques to Sup- port Anti-Corruption Efforts," convened by the World Bank's Communication for Governance and Accountability Program and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in Vienna, Austria, in November 2008. on the principles of inclusion, openness, tolerance, How Are Coalitions Formed? empowerment, and transparency (Pederson 2006). Building a coalition requires strong foundations of There is no one right way to build strong coalitions. trust among the different stakeholders. The need for However, experiences from around the world sug- time and hard work in developing this trust should gest that successful and sustained reform is increased not be understated. if anti-corruption agencies consider the following A coalition that wishes to sustain the reform stages in the process of coalition building and func- process must: understand the underlying political tioning (CommGAP 2009): landscape; build ownership within government (including by recruiting champions in the legisla- 1. Issue identification and specification: At this ture); address the collective action problem among initial point, the overall problem and the reform key stakeholders by making a special effort to unite objective are articulated and broken down for and motivate all parties; and, finally, solidify core detailed analysis; policy options are defined advocacy groups and generate broad public sup- along a continuum from minimum to maximum port through a robust media campaign. This is why reform positions; and particular stakeholders a good relationship with the media is crucial to the either may support these options or may find success of any anti-corruption agency's agenda. A them unpalatable. good relationship sustains momentum, mobilizes 2. Relationship/stakeholder mapping: Signifi- public consensus in favor of reform, and anticipates cant actors are identified, and positions on key potential opposition to that agenda. and related issues are plotted, especially regard- Building Coalitions 27 ing the policy options identified in the previous with initiatives on many fronts, drawing strength stage. from many sources (pp. 395­96). 3. Core membership formation: The core of a coalition is convinced about and becomes self- An example of these stages can be found in case aware of the benefits of change; core actors study I, concerning the Corrupt Practices Investiga- are organized; early leaders and champions are tion Bureau of Singapore. identified; and the joint agenda takes shape. 4. Demonstration of credibility: The coalition The Communication Dimensions of demonstrates that it is knowledgeable about Coalition Building relevant issues, can act effectively, and is worthy of support from stakeholders. Building a coalition requires effective communica- 5. Purposeful expansion: At this critical point, a tion. This communication may include facilitating small organization builds a broader social and networks among like-minded political elites; fos- resource base while retaining coherence and tering deliberation, dialogue, and debate among effectiveness. multiple stakeholders; measuring and informing 6. Sustainable transformation: By this stage, the public opinion; and building support among diverse coalition has grown and become polycentric, interest publics and the general citizenry. Case Study I How Are Coalitions Formed? The Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau of Singapore The stages of coalition building outlined in this prac- fully led to a review of work procedures in gov- tical guide were recognized by the Singapore Min- ernment departments. The CPIB also enlisted the istry of Home Affairs. Singapore's anti-corruption public to participate actively in the anti-corruption agency, the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau campaign by inviting feedback on Internet-based (CPIB; http://www.cpib.gov.sg), is an independent campaigns. government body with a mandate to prevent cor- Sharing successes allows anti-corruption coali- ruption in both the public and private spheres. The tions to learn from each other. Networks fail when Political and Economic Risk Consultancy and Trans- cooperation is withheld and supremacy among parency International consistently have ranked the different institutions becomes a priority. A Singapore as one of the least corrupt city-states in multistakeholder approach is most advantageous Asia and the world. when it is proactive. Part of this success is attributed to regular local In 1987, the "Home Team" approach was adopt- partnership forums with agencies that the CPIB ed. It vastly improved cooperation and minimized has identified as particularly prone to corruption. competition among a variety of agencies, includ- Public awareness of corruption has led to respon- ing the Singapore police force, the civil defense siveness to stakeholder demand for action and force, the Immigration Checkpoints Authority, the transparency in the reform process. A broad-based Central Narcotics Bureau, the Singapore Prison consensus and stakeholder mobilization success- Service, and the ministry headquarters. Source: Presentation at the anti-corruption learning event, "Using Communication Approaches and Techniques to Sup- port Anti-Corruption Efforts," convened by the World Bank's Communication for Governance and Accountability Program and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in Vienna, Austria, in November 2008. 28 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Effective communication in support of coalition 3. Core membership formation: Communication building helps secure, strengthen, and sustain politi- efforts should focus on lobbying and persuading cal will at various bureaucratic levels. Firm political influential individuals and key targets, and on will becomes particularly important when unpopular gaining a deeper understanding of their posi- decisions must be made in the public interest. The tions and trade-offs. Use lobbying and persuasion leveraging of shared resources enables coalitions techniques. to inform and cultivate support among various 4. Demonstration of credibility: Communication/ publics more effectively. Inclusive and participatory messages should focus on the successes to date approaches made possible by coalitions create a (even small ones), but the messages should be consensus for reform; and that consensus, in turn, framed as much as possible in terms of the in- increases the likelihood that change efforts will be terests and incentives of the core membership successful and sustainable. and key stakeholders; the coalition also should Effective communication is an essential com- demonstrate mastery of the issues surrounding ponent that must be deployed judiciously in dif- the reform. Use issue framing and media relations ferent combinations and sequences, depending on techniques. particular coalitions' needs and stages of formation. 5. Purposeful expansion: Communication efforts Each of the coalition-building stages implies certain should shift toward addressing the interests of communication activities: relevant but broader issue and policy networks. Use framing for collective action and networking 1. Issue identification and specification: Commu- approaches. nication efforts should focus on gauging public 6. Sustainable transformation: Communication opinion and consulting with policy experts to efforts should broaden to include appeals to identify the national mood (Rosner 2008), pub- the general public, especially addressing social lic discourse, and policy options surrounding norms. Use framing for collective action and media the reform initiative. Use public opinion research relations techniques. methods and key informant interviews. 2. Relationship/stakeholder mapping: Commu- These communication initiatives create the nication efforts should focus on listening to ac- conditions necessary to build trust, especially dur- tors and key informants and using and analyzing ing formative stages of coalition building, and they public opinion data to determine the positions of leverage diversity to make the most of a coalition's the general public as well as its subgroups. Use broad membership (see tool 3). public opinion research methods, key informant interviews, and network analysis. Issues That Must Be Addressed T he quality and effectiveness of media perfor- vice Trust's African Media Development Initiative mance regarding corruption are affected by found that the government exerts undue control the political, economic, and legal contexts in and regulation through the National Broadcasting which the media operate. Critical factors include Commission, the Nigerian Press Council, the National media freedom to access, verify, and publish accurate Communications Commission, and various laws and information; independent media ownership and the edicts. The absence of media freedom there under- ability to access nonpartisan sources of financing; mines journalists' ability to investigate and report in- competition; credibility; and outreach. cidences of corruption (Okwori and Adeyanju 2006). Several problems make working with the media The perception of government interference and difficult. For instance, media operating in a country a lack of a truly independent judiciary in Nigeria where there is no freedom of expression may not may encourage a culture of self-censorship within a be able to report on government corruption. The profession that already is in crisis because of short- availability and breadth of media channels also may falls in equipment and training. The research report present challenges. Communication strategies must also found an increasing intolerance of divergent consider which media reach the largest audience, the opinions among ruling politicians. Despite the 1999 rural audience, or whatever specific demographic the advent of a more democratic era under civilian rule, anti-corruption coalition wishes to inform. Journal- instances of harassment and intimidation of journal- ists' ability to get necessary information to substan- ists are common. When journalists and media outlets tiate or further explain an anti-corruption message are faced with threats of imprisonment, censure, poses another problem where access is limited. sedition, defamation, expensive libel laws, license Furthermore, there are issues inherent in the jour- revocation, or loss of government-controlled adver- nalism profession that could hamper cooperation tising revenue, the incentive to expose and report between anti-corruption agencies and media outlets. corruption is diminished. Similar problems have been For example, journalists work under acute pressures identified in Uganda, where the continued existence of time and market--they need to meet deadlines of criminal sanctions for alleged media offenses and attract as large an audience as possible. Agencies remains repressive (Khamalwa 2006). intending to mount successful media campaigns to The widespread existence and use of "insult laws" counter corrupt behavior need to be aware of these have resulted in the imprisonment of journalists un- potential problems, address them when possible, der dubious circumstances in a variety of countries. and find solutions to circumvent them if immediate In Uruguay, for example, the desacato law was used change is not possible. by the state to vindicate the honor of a foreign head of state. The editor-in-chief of the Montevideo daily Freedom of Expression and newspaper La República and his brother, the manag- Freedom of the Press ing editor, were charged with insulting Paraguay's President Juan Carlos Wasmosy in a 1996 article In Nigeria, political, economic, legislative, and pro- that alleged Wasmosy's involvement in corruption fessional factors undermine future development of in the construction of the Itaipu hydroelectric power the television, radio, and print sectors. The research plant on the border between Paraguay and Brazil. report on Nigeria produced by the BBC World Ser- The brothers were convicted and sentenced to two 30 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How years in prison, but were acquitted in a subsequent tion problems, such as access to information and retrial (Walden 2002). outreach. The state has multiple methods of exerting In July 2007, TRACE International (TRACE) discreet control over the media landscape. It closely launched the website www.bribeline.org, which can monitor the activities of nongovernmental takes advantage of the accessibility and anonymity organizations or drag its feet on introducing legisla- of the Internet to aid the global fight against cor- tion to protect freedom of expression and access to ruption. The site, named the Business Registry for information. Another barrier to press freedom is a International Bribery and Extortion line (BRIBEline), weak independent regulatory system. provides a space where organizations and their members can safely and anonymously report cases Access to Information of bribery against the government officials they had dealt with. Users are asked to fill in an online survey Access to information is another basic civil right that with information about the kind of bribe that was re- affects the success of the media investigating and quested, the kind of favor that was asked for in return reporting on corruption issues. Journalists need reli- for the bribe, and the kind of official who solicited the able and verifiable information to make substantiat- bribe. Only a month after its launch, BRIBEline had al- ed claims about corrupt behavior. In many countries, ready received more than 1,000 bribery reports from however, governments uphold a culture of secrecy almost 100 countries. The success of the portal shows where little information is released to journalists or that an appropriate forum--that is easy to access to the public at large. and comes with little danger of repercussions--will In Thailand, there has been some success in get- indeed motivate people to share information about ting access to needed information. Using the Thailand their experiences of corruption. BRIBEline publishes Official Information Act, advocacy groups and jour- an annual report that spotlights corruption and nalists were able to obtain records of the National also encourages governments to reduce corruption Counter Corruption Commission's investigations of among public officials. Deputy Public Health Minister Rakkiart Sukthana and The Brazilian government hosts an online portal, two senior officials. The 1999 Ministry of Public Health Portal da Transparência, which accounts for all money scandal involved the procurement of medical sup- transfers initiated by the government, including plies worth $35 million. Since the media intervened in a list of all people receiving government benefits. the case, public awareness of the potential efficacy of The portal has a wide reach with about 720,000,000 the information act has had a significant effect on the people registered as of 2008 and more than 110,000 government's culture of secrecy, prompting increased accesses per month in 2008. This website allows the government efficiency by allowing public scrutiny of public as well as the media to monitor government government agencies. Citizens were empowered with expenditure and thereby provides mechanisms to the knowledge that they had a right to information spot corrupt behavior within government. (Chongkittavorn 2002). ICTs, however, are only useful where citizens have access to them. Online communication is unlikely to Changing Media Landscape reach citizens in very poor and remote areas. When planning a communication strategy, anti-corruption In order to be successful, communicators must al- agencies must be aware which media are the most ways be aware of today's changing media landscape. likely to reach their target groups. In areas with wide The rapid spread of Information and Communication cell phone coverage, a text message service may Technologies (ICTs) has opened up entirely new be appropriate, whereas areas with high illiteracy avenues for communication to and from citizens. may be better served by communication through Online communication is relatively cheap and easily radio. Better educated segments of the population accessible if the necessary infrastructure is available. tend to read more newspapers, whereas television ICTs, in particular the Internet and mobile phones, is still the major medium for citizens in many cities. make it possible to overcome several communica- Before implementing any communication strategy, Issues That Must Be Addressed 31 therefore, it is important to identify the media that that led to a minister's resignation (Islam, Djankov, reach the largest part of the intended target group. and McLeish 2002, p. 16). Outreach Competition An anti-corruption media strategy must take into ac- Newsrooms of privately owned media enterprises are count the limitations of potential media outreach. In vulnerable to capture by commercial interests, and many African countries, independent media are lim- state-owned media are vulnerable to political inter- ited in their ability to inform the public, particularly ests. A research study has found strong correlations in rural areas. Instead, government-owned media between private media ownership and higher levels and commercially driven enterprises that focus on of government accountability and performance (Is- entertainment and religious content rather than lam, Djankov, and McLeish 2002). The study, carried news inhibit the ability of the media to act as an out in 98 countries, examined the effects of media instrument of public accountability. ownership on a variety of social and economic policy South Africa's print media has been financially outcomes, including government accountability and successful because of growing advertising revenues corruption. Corruption was found to be lower in that have promoted a profit-motivated media cul- countries with fewer state-owned newspapers. (No ture, particularly among tabloid newspapers. Sen- effect was found for television.) Government owner- sationalized gossip and scandal-focused content sell ship of media restricts the flow of information about newspapers at the expense of an editorial focus on corruption to the public because the government is public service obligations. The high costs of broad- likely to protect its own interests by not revealing any band connectivity have created a digital divide that information that could be used to criticize it. Private determines access by social class. The absence of competition stimulates alternative views and holds media infrastructure can prove challenging and may state-owned media to account for the information prevent even the most basic participation by the au- that those media impart to media consumers. dience. Nine million South Africans live in what Presi- Other empirical studies have found strong evi- dent Thabo Mbeki identified in 2001 as nodal points dence that competition in the media has a significant for rural development and urban regeneration. That impact on the reduction of corruption, and may even number includes the poorest of the poor: only three be a stronger determinant than freedom of expres- quarters of households have a radio, and only one sion (Suphachalasai 2005). Moreover, corruption may third have a television. In some areas, newspapers be correlated negatively with foreign ownership of are read by less than 20 percent of the population the media (Besley and Prat 2006). Foreign ownership (Milne and Taylor 2006, p. 54). South Africa shares may be correlated with factors that make the media similar characteristics with Uganda, where just 10­25 more effective at generating information. percent of the population reads newspapers (Nogara The success of media in advancing public 2009, p. 5). In Bangladesh--a country with a popula- accountability often depends on a positive and tion of some 130 million--the combined circulation constructive relationship with a country's political of all newspapers does not exceed 1 million (Anam leadership. In Uganda, for example, the media were 2002, p. 273). Apart from literacy barriers, newspaper particularly effective in combating corruption in the circulation predominantly is limited to urban areas 1980s and early 1990s, when their anti-corruption because of high publication and distribution costs drive was in line with the leadership's objectives (Nogara 2009). to carry out dramatic reforms in the public sector. However, countries with relatively low media This partnership approach initiated parliamentary penetration rates can achieve enormous success, investigations into blatant corruption among of- and such success has significant consequences for ficials and created support among the political a large number of people. In Kenya, despite a low elites for the government's far-reaching reforms. newspaper penetration rate of 9 per 1,000 people, The media provoked a public outcry that helped the local press instigated a corruption investigation build internal and international consensus around a 32 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How then-new leadership. The fact that the government Promoting Professionalism and subsequently exercised considerable discretion to Credibility: Influencing Media Bias block the prosecution of corruption cases (Nogara 2009) raises the question of whether anti-corruption The BBC World Service Trust's African Media Devel- rhetoric was used to advance political objectives opment Initiative points to the "generally low levels other than accountability. of professional, ethical, management and technical standards in the media sector in Africa" (AMDI 2006, Motivation p. 79). These basic needs must be met if countries are to establish a robust media landscape. In particular, Motivation is a key factor necessary for the suc- low levels of remuneration and status can inhibit cess of investigative journalism. In some cases, the one's motivation and ability to innovate. In Senegal, motivation is provided by recognition and reward. the average pay for journalists ($300 a month) is half The Danish International Development Agency, the that of state teachers (AMDI 2006, p. 135). This has Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, created a culture of "per diem-ization" and "brown the U.K. Department for International Develop- envelope" journalism, and a skills exodus (in which ment, and others have provided Uganda's Makerere nongovernmental organizations and donor agencies University with funding for annual investigative unwittingly diminish the journalism profession by journalism awards. Monica Chibita, senior lecturer poaching its best practitioners). at the university, believes the awards have "had the It may be naïve to assume that a poorly paid effect of giving journalists courage and recognizing journalist will act to expose those who became them for their efforts in exposing social ills, fighting wealthy through corruption. The establishment of corruption, and the promotion of good governance" professional standards and development of credible (Khamalwa 2006). Anti-corruption agencies also can accreditation systems for training initiatives would give awards to journalists to recognize coverage of offset poor-quality and biased reporting, which can corruption. Agencies can establish a regular compe- be counterproductive to corruption-fighting ef- tition, asking journalists to submit their stories on forts. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for corruption-related issues to a jury. The jury then picks instance, internal political strife has prompted news- the best reporting. Awards may be small financial papers to adopt particular political positions that are contributions or a nominal appreciation of the jour- apparent in their editorial tone (Mweze 2006). nalists' work (such as a certificate of achievement). The private media's priority on publishing and In these ways, journalists not only are encouraged to selling news can feed the public perception that report on corruption, but also come to perceive the there is a media bias against the government--a per- agency as beneficial for their careers. ception that sometimes is justified. Who watches the In Thailand, for more than four decades, the Thai watchdog? What are the challenges when press law Journalists Association has given prestigious awards does not provide for free and independent media? to journalists who have revealed corruption scandals. The best defense against being investigated and In 2000, a journalist exposed Prime Minister Thaksin charged is to attack anti-corruption efforts, so some Shinawatra's fraudulent asset declaration, which led corrupt leaders own big media corporations (televi- to the politician's indictment. Thaksin was found to sion, radio, press agencies, or newspapers). In con- have illegally hidden $53 million worth of shares in trast, the media may have their own covert agenda his telecommunications company through a false in uprooting particular leaders who are thought to stock transfer to his servants (Chongkittavorn 2002, be corrupt. Allegations reported by media with a p. 262). Rewarding investigative journalism moti- hidden objective may not be true. vates journalists to deal with difficult issues such as In Uganda, for example, private media fre- corruption and to risk the anger of leading politicians. quently have been associated with the political By giving awards, the professional association signals opposition to the ruling party. A growing number clearly that it stands behind investigative journalists of policy makers, officials, and media practitioners and encourages thorough journalistic effort. increasingly are concerned that commercial and Issues That Must Be Addressed 33 potentially corrupt media outlets in Africa might terparts in different countries. Such cross-fertilization become a source of sensationalist, inaccurate, and of experiences could provide access to new campaign even false reporting that can prompt sectarian or techniques and a better appreciation of different political tensions. In a 2004 Afrobarometer survey approaches to communication. It would particularly carried out in 15 African countries, 53 percent of benefit stakeholders in countries where knowledge of respondents expressed trust in the government communication techniques is weak because of an un- broadcasting service, whereas only 43 percent developed media environment, a relatively new anti- expressed trust in private FM radio or television corruption agency, or a developing civil society. The stations. Public and private newspapers scored objectives of these programs and forums would be to 37 percent and 36 percent, respectively (Bratton, create an enabling environment for anti-corruption Mattes, and Gyimah-Boadi 2004, pp. 208­10). stakeholders, to build capacity and increase quality Initiatives to consider when endeavoring to by enhancing knowledge, and to raise awareness of counter media bias and promote professionalism the variety of potential partners. One of the learning among journalists include establishing programs and outcomes would be that it is important to plan com- forums where anti-corruption and media stakehold- munication initiatives against corruption strategically ers can share practical experiences with their coun- and for the long term. Pragmatic Media Actions for Anti-corruption Agencies H ow can anti-corruption agencies respond to and "outcome line." Such a model serves many use- demands of the media without compromis- ful purposes: ing the integrity and confidentiality of their information? The best defense here is a good offense. > It illustrates the chain of events that must take A well-thought-out media strategy is proactive, place to achieve the desired change in public anticipating potential media queries and preparing support. Such change can be a greater aware- responses. Agencies can build solid relationships ness of the work of anti-corruption agencies, a with the media by continually demonstrating trans- change in people's attitudes toward that work parency, accountability, and openness in how they and toward corruption, or a change in people's communicate. behavior with regard to corruption. Given the complexity of corruption, com- > It makes explicit (and thus opens for discussion) munication strategies should not be restricted to the implicit assumptions about how communica- informing people and persuading them to change tion can affect people's awareness, attitudes, and their attitudes or behaviors. It also should be used behavior regarding corruption. to facilitate dialogue, build trust, and ensure mutual > It provides stakeholders with a vision of the differ- understanding. ent components within an anti-corruption project. The particular experience of the Kenya Anti- > It gives managers guidance about where to Corruption Commission (KACC) is an illustrative invest their resources, and helps them avoid example. At a November 2008 anti-corruption learn- squandering funds on communication activities ing event held in Vienna, Austria, a representative of that lead nowhere. the KACC described how the agency established a > It gives evaluators clear guidance about what media strategy in response to negative publicity. Ap- elements of the anti-corruption communication propriate media channels were identified, contacted, campaign they should track to determine if the and informed about the KACC's role and mandate. project achieves its objectives. As a result of this direct approach, a better working > It enables evaluators to test and document why relationship developed between the agency and the a given anti-corruption communication interven- media, the flow of accurate information to the public tion achieved its desired objectives; conversely, was increased, and citizens became better informed evaluators can identify where a given interven- about the KACC's activities. tion broke down if it fell short of achieving its objectives. Pathways to Achieving Positive Communication Impact A logic model provides a coherent framework for the different phases of planning a communica- To design and evaluate communication strategies tion strategy; it is similar (but not identical) to the that promote public support for the work of anti- road map for planning a communication strategy corruption agencies, it is essential to have a model depicted in the "Tools" section of this paper. In addi- of how such an intervention is expected to work. tion to these planning steps, the logic model helps Different terms for such a model include "logic in deriving specific communication objectives from model," "conceptual framework," "program model," broader objectives in the work of anti-corruption Pragmatic Media Actions for Anti-corruption Agencies 35 agencies. It also clarifies the challenges that need to It is very important not to stop a communica- be overcome to reach the overall goal, which may be tion strategy at the intervention stage. To know addressed through communication measures. whether the strategy has been effective, it is neces- The logic model in figure 1 begins with spell- sary to measure the outcomes of the intervention ing out the overall objectives of an anti-corruption (step 5 of the model) and to discuss the impact of project--for instance, "reducing corruption by the strategy. Table 2 suggests methods for measur- promoting transparency and accountability of ing outcomes. public institutions." (Figure 1 outlines the general Measures of outcomes might be (1) enactment framework of a logic model, whereas figure 2 applies of a Freedom of Information Act (if not in place be- the model to a possible objective of anti-corruption fore), (2) implementation of that act by government agencies.) The next step in the model addresses the departments, and (3) citizens' exercising their right challenges that may hinder reaching the project goal to know. The changes that communication has pro- and that are related to communication. Specifically duced should be measured through indicators such regarding anti-corruption efforts, we can identify as the existence of the Freedom of Information Act two challenges: (1) civil society and the media are itself, the number of government departments that not sufficiently educated and informed about their have adopted the law, the number of government rights and access to government information, and employees who know about the law, and the number (2) cultural and social dynamics keep people from of requests received from citizens and responded to demanding information to hold public institutions by government staff. To find out whether citizens accountable. Because this logic model is supposed to exercise their right to know, one can measure the be the basis of a communication strategy, the third citizenry's understanding of the act, the number of re- phase includes articulating specific communication quests made to government departments, and public objectives that support the overall project objectives. attitudes about demanding government information. Examples of such communication objectives include: The impact of the communication interventions usually cannot be measured; rather, they must be ar- > promote and increase citizens' right and access gued plausibly. In the case of anti-corruption efforts, to information the desired outcome would be "government institu- > enact Freedom of Information Act, if applicable tions are transparent and the level of corruption is > increase citizens' awareness of their right to reduced." It is necessary to argue (on the basis of the information so they may hold the government intervention outcomes) that communication indeed accountable. has contributed to achieving the desired changes expressed in the overall project objectives. To realize those specific communication objec- tives, your agency needs to design communication Suggested Actions interventions. In the case of our example, the inter- ventions could be: Engage with stakeholders: > advocacy and a campaign for promoting the > Form an advisory group and exchange informa- rights of civil society, the media, and the general tion with stakeholders. public to know and to demand information > exposure and training of relevant nongovern- Engage with the public: mental organizations, media, and government officials with regard to laws and regulations > Organize exhibitions in schools, colleges, and concerning access to information universities to highlight examples of corruption > consultation to formulate a Freedom of Informa- and its consequences. tion Act, if one is not already in place > Coordinate public forums and publish pam- > publication of government information as a way phlets, brochures, and newsletters for public to decrease corruption. distribution. Such methods of long-term aware- 36 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Figure 1 Logic Model for Designing Communication Interventions 1 2 3 4 5 6 Objectives Communication Communication Communication Outcomes: What Impact: of Main Challenges Objectives Intervention Change Has the Contribution of Project to Support Communication Communication to Main Project Produced? Overall Project's Objectives Desired Change(s) Project problems, What is required > Listen and For example, Other inputs--for needs of stakeholders develop change in: example: for intervention to messages succeed? > Disseminate > media Advice messages coverage + Likely stakeholders: > Work on > framing of the Money Policy makers, media issue + lawmakers, advocacy > priming of the Will of government media, civil > Build public on the society groups, coalitions issue communities, and > Enlist policy > positioning so forth makers and of the issue lawmakers on the public Likely spectrum of > Pursue other agenda requirements: actions > stakeholder/ needed for community > awareness/ effectiveness awareness of knowledge the issue > attitude/ > public opinion opinion > stakeholder/ change community > engagement/ engagement, support support, action > action > policy maker (sustained?) and lawmaker engagement, support, action Indicators must measure the changes produced at this point. Source: World Bank 2007, p. 4. Note: CommGAP believes, with respect to box 3, that the will of the partner government is not sufficient. It is our assertion that wider par- ticipation is crucial for both success and sustainability of a reform effort. a. Impact is argued, not measured. b. Advice + Money + Will = Change. Pragmatic Media Actions for Anti-corruption Agencies 37 Figure 2 Logic Model for Designing Communication Interventions for Anti-corruption Agencies 1 2 3 4 5 6 Objectives Communication Communication Communication Outcomes: What Impact: of Main Challenges Objectives Intervention Change Has the Contribution of Project to Support Communication Communication to Main Project Produced? Overall Project's Objectives Desired Change(s) Reduce cor- > Civil society > Promote > Advocacy for > A Freedom of Government ruption by and media are citizens' right promoting Information institutions are promoting not educated and access to the right to Act has been transparent, and the transpar- enough and information know among enacted level of corruption is ency and not informed > Enact civil society, > Government reduced accountabil- about their Freedom of media, and departments ity of public right and Information the general are implement- institutions access to Act, if not public ing the new government already > Exposure and law information established training of > Citizens are > There are > Increase relevant non- exercising their cultural citizens' governmental right to know and social awareness of organizations, dynamics their right to media, and of not information government demanding so they may officials information hold the regarding to hold public government access to institutions accountable information accountable > Increase > Consultation citizens' to formulate access to a Freedom of information Information Act > Publication of government information as a way of decreasing corruption Source: Authors' illustration. ness raising and public education sensitize public between rumors of corruption and the reality opinion to the distinctions between legal and of corruption. moral corruption, systemic and individual cor- > Conduct an annual survey of the public's percep- ruption, and petty and grand corruption; and tion of corruption in your country, determining enable citizens to understand the difference how citizens view and define corruption. Widely 38 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How publicize the survey findings and correct any Box 2 Principles of Communication public misunderstandings and misperceptions. Campaigns This approach also provides an opportunity for anti-corruption agencies to build support for > Know your audience. their programs by mobilizing public opinion. > Know your message. > Communicate directly to the public on your Web > Identify appropriate media channels through site. Interact with the public through alternative which to direct information. new media, such as blogs. Produce television > Create clear and simple messages to produce ef- dramas and documentaries to dramatize the ef- fective persuasion. fects of corruption. For example, show children > Share common ideas, understandings, and experi- who cannot go to school because their parents ence with your audience to create coalitions. have no money to bribe officials. > Build trust and credibility with your audience. > Use multiple communication techniques and chan- Engage with the media and with civil society: nels to present information in several ways. > Regularly brief journalists and editors. Hold pub- lic events focusing on corruption as a means to build coalitions. > Anticipate media inquiries about ongoing cor- > Design a communication strategy that effectively ruption cases that are being investigated. Provide engages the media and civil society organiza- accurate and timely information (such as facts/ tions in the work of the agency. evidence/data) that counteracts unjust allega- Table 2 Illustrative Indicators and Means of Measuring Outcomes Outcome Indicator Means of Measurement A Freedom of Information Act has been Existence of the act itself Legislative records enacted Government departments are imple- > Number of departments that have Stocktaking exercise menting the Freedom of Information adopted the law Surveys (within the relevant survey Act > Number of government employ- population) ees having knowledge about it > Number of requests from citizens received and responded to Citizens are exercising their right to > Level of citizens' understanding Surveys (within the relevant survey know about the Freedom of Informa- population) tion Act Stocktaking exercise > Number of requests made to Analysis of media content government departments > Public attitude about demanding government information Source: Authors' compilation. Pragmatic Media Actions for Anti-corruption Agencies 39 tions. Urge the media to get this information to media and to educate the media on the nuances the public. of corruption. > Design anti-corruption messages that take into > Consider the United Nations' International Anti- account the various criteria for newsworthiness. Corruption Day (December 9) as a focal point to > Seek redress from media councils who monitor distribute information on corruption. Use this the media when gross inaccuracies occur. focus to award those media networks and jour- > Compile a national, annual anti-corruption re- nalists who use innovative approaches to fight port that outlines the activities of the agency. corruption. Honor anti-corruption champions by When launching the report, use the occasion noting their contributions to promote integrity to enhance professional relationships with the in public service. Conclusion C ommunication is not the be-all and end-all is critical for the success of any effort to reveal cor- of anti-corruption work, but it is an essential ruption, recover losses, and hold government to a service for citizens and an obligation for higher standard of behavior. anti-corruption agencies. Currently, anti-corruption Insufficient communication--or a total lack of agencies are failing this important obligation too it--makes work harder for anti-corruption agen- frequently. Missed opportunities to communicate cies. A reputation built through hard work over a are missed opportunities to curb corruption. Those long stretch of time can be ruined by a 30-second missed opportunities may spiral out of control and media report of a scandal that catches the agency create such massive cynicism that the public's sup- unaware and not equipped to respond. A single port evaporates. Simply put, the support of society inaccurate news story can destroy a court case Figure D Disillusionment and low confidence in politics among young people are some of the effects of corruption, as shown in this photo taken after the 2009 Albanian elections. The graffiti "Korrupsion bashkiak" means "municipal corruption." Source: Elaine Byrne, 2009. Conclusion 41 carefully and laboriously prepared for prosecution either to them or through them. But there are practi- and seriously may damage the agency pursuing cal tools and checklists that will help agencies build the case. positive and successful relationships with the media By cooperating with the media and fully inform- and the public. The "Tools" section of this paper pro- ing the public, anti-corruption agencies can correct vides simple and effective guidance about practices the public perception of corruption, accurately rep- and actions that can build good relations with media resent their work and its success, educate citizens and civil society. about the negative effects of corruption on their Successful communication, however, demands everyday lives, and mobilize both citizens and the more than tools. Above all, it requires dedicated staff media to help the agency achieve its good gover- who take communication seriously. It takes trained nance objectives. The media and public opinion communication specialists and senior officials who are strong influencers of a country's cultural norms. are committed to working with the media and with Changing norms means changing behavior--includ- the public in pursuit of an agency's anti-corruption ing corrupt behavior. goals. Communication is not optional; rather, it is a Working with the media is not easy. Many factors primary obligation for anti-corruption agencies, and that affect how the various media function make everyone involved in such work must take responsi- it difficult to communicate clearly and effectively, bility for its effective implementation. Tools Useful Checklists for Anti-corruption Agencies for Communicating with the Media and the Public Tools Contents Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption .........................................44 Building Anti-corruption Networks and Coalitions within State Institutions.............................................................................................................. 44 Cultivating a Culture of Probity and Accountability within Public Authorities .......................................................................................................... 45 Raising Issues on the Public Agenda .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Supporting Media and Civil Society Campaigns to Remove Corrupt Leaders ........................................................................................................... 47 Getting Citizens to Differentiate between Real Corruption and Rumors of Corruption ......................................................................................... 48 Changing Norms about Everyday Corruption by Raising Awareness ............................................................................................................................ 49 Tackling Everyday Corruption....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50 Communicating around Investigations .................................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Tool 2: Planning a Communication Strategy for Anti-corruption Agencies ....................................................54 Perform a Political-Economy Analysis........................................................................................................................................................................................ 54 Clearly Identify Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 Identify the Stakeholders You Want to Address ..................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Select Communication Channels ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 57 Design Messages ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Implement Strategy ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Monitor Impact and Evaluate Strategy...................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Tool 3: Coalition Building .........................................................................................................................................................59 Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption T he lists of challenges and proposed activities in > Conduct political-economy analysis, mapping this tool are compressed, practical versions of stakeholders to take stock of the opposition and the rapporteur's report from the 2008 learning support base. event in Vienna. The themes correspond with the > Recruit reform champions in the legislature, mak- panel topics of the event. Challenges and activities ing sure not to overlook partners in unusual or were proposed by the panel presenters during the unexpected places. panel discussions and on the response cards that all > Conduct an internal communication campaign participants were asked to complete after each panel. within state institutions: Some of the suggestions are practical and hands-on > Build trust in reform and trust among state while others are broader and concern the political institutions. system. While no one person or agency can effect > Build integrity within state institutions. the systemic or institutional challenges on their > Harmonize activities of public institutions own, anti-corruption agencies need to work with a fighting corruption, and ensure that they wide range of stakeholders to bring about change. share information with each other. Successful governance reform efforts require effec- > Build a committee comprising relevant insti- tive coalitions. tutions at the national level. > Build cooperative ties among state institutions. Building Anti-corruption Networks and > Create integrity committees within state insti- Coalitions within State Institutions tutions, and develop national anti-corruption policies. Challenges > Conduct research on overlaps in mandates and laws to ensure the reform process is transparent > Vested interests and not vulnerable to corruption. > Middle-manager opposition > Foster political will through media and civil so- > Public apathy and cynicism ciety organization campaigns. > Lack of inter- and intragovernmental coopera- > Anticipate potential opposition. tion, and weak ties > Create a media unit within the anti-corruption > Lack of clarity in legislation agency. > Overlapping mandates > Train the media and nongovernmental organiza- > Turf battles among state institutions tions on anti-corruption methods and practices, and regularly inform them about your agency's Activities work. > Educate media professionals on the challenges > Set up a unique anti-corruption agency compris- of fighting corruption. ing the three branches of government (executive, > Build coalitions with the media; package and legislative, judiciary), and give it the power and present information to them in a user-friendly autonomy to take action. manner, while balancing the need for privacy > Adapt or tailor anti-corruption strategies to take and fairness. changes over time into account. > Conduct a media campaign: Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption 45 > Build awareness and consensus regarding framework to protect whistleblowers as a anti-corruption efforts. means to fight corruption. > Create awareness among the public about > Establish a witness protection program. what corruption is all about and intervention > Develop ways to make whistleblowing work means to fight it. in cultural contexts in which it is socially > Communicate the messages that the fight unacceptable. against corruption is a development issue, > Identify the motivation to engage in corrup- and that everyone gains from it. tion and the motivation to blow the whistle > Expand the use of diverse types of media and on it. communication channels. > Ensure that law enforcement agencies conform > Develop school programs on corruption to raise to high standards of integrity. public awareness. > Make sure that a code of conduct is legally bind- > Take a long-term view. Coalitions are not built in ing, and that it firmly is enforced by the judiciary. a day, and they have to last a long time if they are > Communicate clearly to staff the leadership's to work efficiently against corruption. commitment to a code of ethics and to whistle- blower protection: Cultivating a Culture of Probity > Adopt an enforceable code of ethics that and Accountability within Public espouses the core values and aspirations of Authorities the organization. > Communicate code of ethics as part of core Challenges values/mission statements of the institution. > At departmental functions, provide timely > Weak internal accountability system and regular information about internal ac- > Lack of leadership commitment to ethical stan- countability and the code of ethics. dards and to promoting ethical behavior as a > Communicate policy on corrupt behavior priority within public institutions and consequences. > Lack of a clear and enforceable code of ethics > Have zero tolerance for violations of ethics. > Lack of staff awareness regarding the code of > Back up words with deeds. ethics > Deliver sure, swift, and fair punishment to > Lack of whistleblower protection those responsible for ethical improprieties. > Low staff morale > Make ethical behavior and conduct part of the requirements for employment in public Activities service. > Make the code of ethics and protection for > Deliberately develop a whistleblower protec- whistleblowers part of the employee perfor- tion program, and enforce it to strengthen mance evaluation. credibility: > Enable a third-party institution to audit and > Provide an anonymous phone-in program. make adjustments to codes of conduct. > Devote time and resources to listening to > Ensure that salaries for public officials are whistleblowers. sufficient to motivate their adherence to the > Clarify what constitutes wrongdoing to en- code of conduct. sure no ambiguities exist. > Install an ethics officer in the organization. > Encourage staff to talk about what the agency > Develop employee confidence in the system. needs to know to (1) strengthen the organiza- > Develop staff pride in their jobs by providing rea- tion's well-being, (2) reinforce codes of ethics, sonable salaries and developing societal respect (3) reduce organizational waste and misman- for their positions. agement, and (4) improve staff morale. > Develop staff commitment and desire to abide > Develop laws and the legal/operational by ethical standards in their work. 46 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How > Conduct ethics training for staff: > it is a topic that government agencies have > Make familiarity with the public service code difficulty tackling for reasons of confiden- of conduct part of new staff training. tiality > Make training in the code of conduct man- datory for all staff at every career level every Activities few years. > Shift the focus of accountability from technical > Initiate social movement and social marketing to ethical issues. campaigns to boost public support for the work > Create public awareness to demand account- of anti-corruption agencies. ability from public officials: > Target specific groups to lobby for change (such > Educate the public about the role of public as legislators, members of the executive branch officials (as defined in the United Nations of government, and interest groups). Convention against Corruption, for example). > Develop a communication toolkit for politi- > Educate the public on the cost of corruption. cians. > Introduce the concept of ethics at home (that > Build multistakeholder coalitions with sym- is, in churches, through parents, and so forth) pathetic journalists, political leaders, and civil and in the education sector. society: > Change cultural norms to stop the population > Cultivate positive and reciprocal relation- from paying bribes to government officials. ships with key journalists. > Punish corrupt officials seriously. > On December 9 (United Nations' Interna- > Make asset declarations mandatory for public tional Anti-Corruption Day), hold public officials to introduce integrity in public life. hearings on corruption. > Keep a close watch on activities such as procure- > Train journalists to report on corruption and ment and hiring; use competitive recruitment of build capacity for practitioners in all media. staff, especially at higher levels. > Encourage sustainable investigative journalism and urge journalists to persevere in reporting Raising Issues on the Public Agenda about corruption. > Create incentives for the media to report on cor- Challenges ruption (for example, give awards for corruption coverage that is highly innovative and of high > Working with the media isn't always easy be- quality). cause: > Protect journalists by providing legal assistance > bad news sells if their reporting on corruption results in criminal > journalistic stories may lack a human ele- charges. ment and not link to real situations > Frame issues so that both journalists and their > increased media coverage can create a audience will be interested. misleading perception of corruption as a > Choose and use frames that are appropriate for widespread phenomenon your message--for example, gain or loss frames, > media may have to work under financial, negative or positive frames, thematic or episodic political, and deadline pressures frames: > journalists may not always be able to uphold > Frame the issue as new and important. ethical principles > Frame the issue in culturally resonant terms. > Corruption is a difficult issue to communicate > Use real events as evidence of the issue. because: > Dramatize the issue in symbolic and visual > it often is embedded in the culture, and is not terms. exclusively the fault of individuals > Show the incentives/reasons for taking ac- > it is multifaceted, and therefore, difficult to tion on the issue (economic, health, moral, package in a single message safety, and the like). Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption 47 > Show the human consequences of corrup- > Media must also be accountable and legiti- tion by putting a "human face" to the issue mate. and dramatizing its effects. > Media, government, and the public don't trust > Highlight positive role models; use positive each other: frames to communicate hope and the pos- > Mutual distrust can lead to hostile relation- sibility of change. ships between journalists and investigative > Use negative frames to raise the salience agencies. of the issue in people's minds and to evoke > The public may believe that media reports anger against corruption; however, pair are biased and tend to characterize the negative information with a message of government and related agencies as incom- hope. petent. > Show that corruption occurs not only at the > Agencies may believe that the media have a grand level, but also at the petty, everyday hidden agenda when covering corruption, level. and so may not trust their motives. > Transform data, facts, and statistics in ways > The media sometimes blame the wrong people, that make them more easily understandable. and, when covering corruption, they may report > Provide and gather good practice examples more on the procedures and mistakes of the for framing anti-corruption issues. investigative body than on the corruption cases > Communicate widely to audiences to build that have been solved. public pressure for change. > If government institutions do not give clear > Use nontraditional media outlets. information to the press, then the media likely > In addition to news shows and documenta- will draw their own conclusions (which may not ries, produce entertainment programs that be in the government's interest). show how corruption affects every-day life > It frequently is difficult to mobilize the media throughout society. and civil society when a corruption case should > Advertise regularly in diverse media to en- be made public. courage people to report corruption. > Broadcast short spots about ethical values. Activities > Present information on corruption issues in simple language. > Promote press freedom because there is an > Publicly correct all inaccurate information in a inverse correlation between press freedom and timely manner. the level of corruption in a country. > When public funds are unaccounted for, give > Promote collective action by building a partner- the public the most recent facts, figures, and ship among the media, the government, and survey results. civil society: > Create public forums that enable citizens to get > Make it clear that fighting against corruption involved in the fight against corruption. is a collective responsibility that requires > Provide educational corruption-fighting materi- everyone's effort. als for schools and universities. > Coordinate stakeholders and build their capacity. Supporting Media and Civil Society > Coordinate media work with the efforts of Campaigns to Remove Corrupt Leaders civil society organizations. > Build coalitions with civil society organizations to Challenges raise public and institutional awareness. > Plan long-term public education campaigns to > Who watches the watchdog? promote more transparency. > Media may be focused on sensations and > To ensure fair coverage, develop and maintain rela- bad news. tionships with media before any large story breaks: 48 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How > Do not be afraid of the media! Getting Citizens to Differentiate > Provide as much nonclassified information between Real Corruption and to the media as possible to ensure accurate Rumors of Corruption reporting. > Understand that the media act as a detect- Challenges ing and reporting mechanism, whereas an anti-corruption commission serves as an > What might be perceived as morally wrong is not accountability mechanism. always legally wrong. > Develop rules for sharing confidential infor- > A reputation of integrity takes years to build and mation that may lead to the conviction of seconds to lose. corrupt individuals. > Perception of corruption can be spawned by: > Understand that the media's role is to expose disagreement over policy; lack of transparency; corruption. When it is exposed, the relevant lack of ability, tools, and authority; and failure to state institutions should take over and deal deliver high-quality services. with the matter. > Rumors of corruption may be politically mo- > State institutions that fail to take action tivated and used to discredit anti-corruption should be made to account for their inac- agencies, rather than to fight corruption. tion. > If rumors about corruption abound, the media > Establish or develop a media relations strategy to increasingly will report on corruption and create manage journalists' access to relevant informa- the perception that corruption is a widespread tion and their expectations of what your agency national problem. can provide to support their work. > If media information is incomplete, the public > Create a memorandum of understanding with might not be able to differentiate between real press associations. An example of such a memo- corruption and rumors of corruption. randum would be the agreement between the > Anti-corruption agencies often are equated with European Anti-Fraud Office and the International individuals, so the focus is not on institutional Federation of Journalists.2 achievements but on individuals and their po- > Promote investigative journalism and train jour- tential shortcomings. nalists accordingly: > Media may be less interested in cooperating > Educate journalists about corruption. with anti-corruption agencies than in reporting > Encourage investigative journalism by giving sensationalist stories. The media "wants blood." awards for best corruption coverage. > The presumption of innocence can be eroded by > Build capacity of the journalistic commu- sensationalist reporting by the media. nity. > Promote professional ethics among jour- Activities nalists. > Engage the public/audience in mobilizing anti- > Because the best defense is a good offense, build corruption efforts. and maintain an ongoing relationship with the > Use alternative communication channels to media and civil society organizations to defend disseminate information and generate public the agency against damaging rumors of cor- support. ruption: > Package information in a simple, clear, and acces- > Build trust with the media through transpar- sible manner; target messages toward specific ency, accountability, and openness. audiences you want to reach. > Involve media in the fight against corruption. > Give international examples, reminding the me- > Be proactive in cooperating with the media dia (and general society, through the media) that to optimize the likelihood that the coverage corrupt leaders were removed from positions in of corruption-related stories will be fair, ac- neighboring countries. curate, and complete. Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption 49 > Form an advisory group and exchange informa- government agencies and of corruption laws tion with civil society: to help citizens distinguish between real and > Intensify the efforts of anti-corruption agen- perceived corruption. cies to develop programs with nongovern- > Publish a clear and simple definition of cor- mental organizations. ruption. > Work with the media and civil society orga- > Provide accurate information on corruption nizations to change the perception of cor- cases that are being investigated or tried, ruption by communicating achievements in so that the media may inform the public preventing corruption. accurately. > Create a national commission, including all anti- > Use new communication technologies and pro- corruption agencies. vide interactive platforms online: > Encourage transparency and asset declarations. > Develop an Internet-based interactive game > Hold regular public and media briefings to share that allows participants to test their knowl- information about your work. edge of what is real corruption. > Anticipate and manage public discourse by de- > Create a Web-based poll to determine the veloping and implementing a communication public's perception of corruption. strategy based on clear and concise communica- > Through a Web site, request information tion and transparent reporting of results: about personal experiences with corruption; > Keep messages simple and clear. be sure to guarantee anonymity for people > Use the word "corruption" judiciously. who submit information. > Refrain from overstating the problem. > Communicate in a timely manner the findings > Avoid promising unrealistic results. from investigations and trials. > Closely monitor the environment so you may > Use the media to explain or dispel inaccu- react quickly if a crisis emerges: rate public perceptions by setting the record > Be prepared to work with the media if a ma- straight. jor event occurs, to avoid rumors that might > Conduct an annual survey of public perception jeopardize your work. of corruption, and provide monthly updates to > Have your facts, evidence, and data in order the public: so you may respond to unjust allegations and > Include questions to reveal how respondents may inform the public accurately. define "corruption." > Inform and educate the public about the differ- > Widely publicize survey findings and correct ence between real corruption and rumors, us- misperceptions that were found through ing media publications about corruption under the survey. investigation: > Engage in long-term awareness-raising and > Understand that information is both an ob- public education activities; conduct training ligation and a service. courses and organize exhibitions around the > Raise public awareness about types of cor- country to highlight examples of corruption and ruption, as well as their risks and effects. its consequences. > Publish and distribute books in schools and universities to raise student awareness of Changing Norms about Everyday the risks of corruption and of its effects on Corruption by Raising Awareness economic and social development. > Educate the public about anti-corruption Challenges agencies. > Make people aware of the damage that > Lack of belief in oneself as able to do something rumors of corruption can do to the work of about an issue (the efficacy challenge) anti-corruption commissions. > Lack of an environment enabling citizens to be > Heighten public awareness of the work of open and willing to talk about an issue 50 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How > Established and deeply entrenched opinions of handbooks, and distance teaching and and norms coursework. > Lack of broad support for changing societal > In schools and universities, educate the norms public about integrity and the need to fight > Lack of political will and leadership corruption. > Lack of mass exposure > Raise awareness by distributing information, > Lack of citizen participation in fighting corrup- such as survey results, indexes, and studies. tion > Design awareness-raising programs. > Anti-corruption commissions' weak capacity to > that have long-term perspectives. work with the media > that are understood easily by the public. > Lack of long-term perspective when designing > that link individual and societal corruption. communication campaigns > Explain perception-based corruption indexes to the public to avoid confusion and misunder- Activities standing about what the ratings are intended to reveal. > Generate buy-in at all levels of government and > Develop more objective indexes to measure society. corruption. > Conduct an analysis of society's values, levels of > Build capacity among anti-corruption commis- public awareness, and government structures. sions to work with the media. > Advocate for institutional reforms. > Work with the media to explain anti-corruption > Create a clearinghouse of ideas, practices, measures carefully. campaigns, frames, and stories of successes in > Train and assist investigative journalists. countering corruption; widely disseminate les- > Use various types of media in public awareness- sons learned to enable a sharing of knowledge raising campaigns. across cities, countries, and continents. > Link anti-corruption to human suffering to > Enforce anti-corruption laws impartially, re- achieve a greater impact on audience. gardless of the position or status of the parties > Demonstrate to the public that corruption does involved. not pay. > Establish real partnerships with civil society. > Share successful media strategies to educate, > Build civil society capacity to assist and engage motivate, and inspire the public to participate in anti-corruption initiatives. in reporting and controlling the corruption > Empower citizens and encourage them to par- problem. ticipate in fighting corruption. > Invest in institutions that deal with anti-corrup- > Create an environment that encourages people tion, ethics, and integrity. to be open and willing to talk about an issue: > Provide a means for citizens to report cases of Tackling Everyday Corruption corruption confidentially (such as Transpar- ency International's Legal Advice Centers). Challenges > Provide legal advice to victims of corruption. > Inspire civic action by helping citizens under- > Changing norms and behavior requires broad stand what they can do to fight corruption. social support, political will, and leadership > Develop bottom-up approaches to fighting cor- > In today's information-based society, the amount ruption. of available information can be overwhelming > Build capacity for transparent use of public to the individual resources through education and access to > In any effort to change established opinions information: or norms, it is difficult to move from increasing > As part of education, include events, knowledge (awareness) to changing attitudes training for public officials, distribution (opinions) to changing behavior (practices): Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption 51 > Attitude change does not lead automati- > Inspire civic action by instructing citizens in what cally to behavior change, but when attitude they can do to fight corruption. Empower them change occurs, self-efficacy (belief that one to realize that they can do something about can do something about an issue) and in- corruption. terpersonal communication (openness and > Develop awareness-raising programs to educate, willingness to talk about an issue) have to motivate, and inspire the public to participate in come into play to initiate behavior change. reporting and controlling corruption problem. > One-size communication plans do not fit all > Create a confidential system for citizens to report contexts and situations cases of corruption and provide legal advice to > Corruption indexes will be counterproductive victims of corruption. to the work of anti-corruption agencies if they > Build the capacity of anti-corruption commission distort the public's perception of corruption and officials to work with the media. create a stigma of corruption for your country > Avoid one-size-fits-all communication strategies. > Perception-based indexes are very black-and- Instead, plan your communication with thought white indicators of progress--or the lack thereof-- to special circumstances and contexts. in combating corruption > Plan long-term communication efforts because the war on corruption is a long-term war. Activities > Carefully explain anti-corruption measures to the media and the public. > Consider different styles of advocacy, depending > Explain corruption indexes to the public. Con- on the local context: (1) soft diplomacy, (2) con- sider developing objective indexes to measure structive engagement, (3) a coalition approach, corruption. or (4) commentary that falls somewhere between > Train journalists and support their investigations. critical and very outspoken. Understanding the dif- > Make your advocacy and communication efforts ferent levels of communication will help with plan- contend for media and public attention by link- ning and executing communication strategies. ing corruption to human suffering for greater > Be transparent, and raise awareness about cor- impact and salience. Document successful efforts ruption. to make your messages memorable to intended > Seek cooperation with international organiza- audiences. tions working against corruption to get support > Use a wide range of media channels for anti- in developing and strengthening media and corruption campaigns, including different com- communication strategies. munication methods and new communication > Provide public education through distance technologies. teaching and learning courses; by distributing > Create simple and clear messages about cor- handbooks, organizing events, and training ruption. public agents; and by educate schoolchildren > Demonstrate to the public that corruption and university students about integrity and does not pay. corruption. > Plan your messages with local situations and > Create sustainable partnerships with civil society cultures in mind. because citizen participation is key in tackling corruption: Communicating around Investigations > Employ bottom-up approaches to fight cor- ruption. Challenges > Involve the population in improving social control and building capacity for transparent > The role of the media is ambiguous use of public resources through education > Journalists may be most interested in big stories and improved access to information and and less interested in the anti-corruption com- social mobilization. mission's work 52 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How > Political support and both financial and human > Build and use privileged relationships with resources for communication are lacking sympathetic journalists. > Confidentiality issues arise over what informa- > Train sympathetic journalists on the key con- tion can be revealed to the media cepts to enable them to report on complex > It may be unclear to what extent the media issues more accurately and in simple words. can be regulated without violating freedom of > Develop good working relationships with speech and of the press independent media to disseminate anti- > Sometimes lawyers leak information and use the corruption messages. media to undermine the credibility of the anti- > Always respond to media requests and docu- corruption agency ment your replies. > Motivate journalists to cover corruption by Activities establishing awards for best investigative re- porting. > Consider communication to be an essential > Be as transparent and fair as possible, and ask service for citizens. journalists to be equally transparent and fair. > Make transparency the key principle of your > Improve the flow of accurate information to the communication efforts. public. > Initiate and support cooperation and informa- > Commission a regular national survey of public tion sharing among states and their anti-cor- perceptions, awareness, attitudes, and evalu- ruption agencies. ations of the anti-corruption agency's perfor- > Install and impose sanctions against lawyers who mance. Publicize survey findings widely to edu- leak information. cate the public about the achievements of the > Build coalitions with politicians to foster political anti-corruption agency and about the challenges will and support. it faces in fighting corruption. > Include nongovernmental organizations in pub- > Encourage the public to own the fight against lic awareness campaigns. corruption. > Provide institutional support to nongovern- > Through the media, establish a continuous two- mental organizations that are fighting against way communication system between the anti- corruption. corruption commission and the public: > Raise awareness among children and youth in > Identify appropriate media channels. schools and universities. > Sensitize the media to the role and mandate > Develop clearly defined communication strate- of the anti-corruption commission. gies and messages. > Cultivate a better working relationship be- > Use existing communication networks, such tween the commission and the media. as the Anti-Fraud Communications Network > Identify and work with columnists. of the European Anti-Fraud Office, and create > Always be available for the media. new ones. > Implement communication campaigns using > Target corporate communication strategies at various tools, such as press releases, press confer- four levels: system, organization, practitioner, ences, newsletters, annual reports, and appear- and audience. ances on talk shows. > Cooperate with journalists' associations, the aca- > Prepare your own investigative stories and ma- demic world, and training institutions. terials that can be used by journalists. > Understand how certain media are aligned with > Link messages about corruption to human emo- certain political figures. tions: > Brief editors on anti-corruption work because > Make use of the full range of media technol- editorial policy determines media content. ogy to emphasize the emotional link. > Identify journalists who will advance the anti- > Include social-networking sites and blogs to corruption cause, rather than hamper it: reach citizens. Tool 1: Overcoming Real-World Challenges in the Struggle against Corruption 53 > Package and deliver information differently, > Share success stories at national and regional depending on the channel being used. levels. > Frame corruption issues to reach your intended > Follow up with journalists on developing stories. audience: > Immediately correct mistakes in your commu- > Frame your anti-corruption messages in nication. ways that resonate with the cultural values of the intended audience(s). Tool 2: Planning a Communication Strategy for Anti-corruption Agencies Perform a Political-Economy Analysis Rather than providing a broad overview, PEA should be problem driven. It should focus on specific Political-economy analysis (PEA) has a crucial part issues and challenges to generate useful findings to play in enhancing the effectiveness of campaigns and implications. If done properly, PEA can provide against corruption (figure 3). To bring about sus- insights about obstacles, options, and solutions that tainable change, it is necessary to understand the may be key to addressing corruption. environment in which corruption takes place. Only Corruption is a vast and complex problem. There then is it possible to choose stakeholders to involve are many aspects that could be addressed in a com- and to select the approaches with which to engage munication campaign, and there are many groups them. Politics and political economy--the subjects connected to corruption in some way. However, com- of PEA--influence whether and how reforms happen munication campaigns only work when they are well in any country with regard to any policy issue. targeted. That means the agencies should not attempt Figure 3 Road Map to Planning a Communication Strategy Analyze Situation Identify Objectives Identify Select What's the problem? What are the desired Stakeholders Communication What are the causes? outcomes? What is the Who are the key Channels Who are the stake- planned time frame? stakeholders? How Through which holders? What is the desired can we build coali- channels can What can be done? level of effect (aware- tions? Who is the key the majority of ness, attitude change, audience? target audience be behavior change)? reached? Design Messages Implement Strategy Monitor and Depending on What planned activities Evaluate the audience and will we employ (press What method of communication releases, press confer- evaluation will we channel(s), how ences, replies to media use to measure can our message be requests, websites, text the impact of our articulated clearly messaging services, communication and simply? and so forth)? strategy? Source: Authors' illustration. Tool 2: Planning a Communication Strategy for Anti-corruption Agencies 55 to solve the entire problem of corruption or to ad- implemented only partially, as well as reforms that dress all people in government, the private sector, are undertaken but have significant negative and and civil society. Rather, PEA helps direct a campaign unexpected results. Often, the challenge will emerge to those issues and those stakeholders that matter from ongoing policy dialogue or existing reports. most and that are most likely to influence reform. The second level aims at understanding institu- PEA requires research and analysis at three levels: tional and governance arrangements and how these (1) identifying the problem, opportunity, or vulner- are related to poor outcomes. The aim is to explain ability to be addressed; (2) mapping the institutional why policies and/or institutional and governance and governance arrangements and weaknesses; and arrangements are not sufficiently supportive of anti- (3) identifying the political-economy drivers, both corruption measures. The explanation will involve to recognize obstacles to progressive change and analyses of stakeholders and their interests and in- to understand where a "drive" for positive change centives, of how these interact with the institutional could emerge. Figure 4 illustrates these three levels environment, and of how these have been shaped by and their foci. political and economic dynamics over time. As outlined in figure 4, the first level of PEA The third level of PEA aims at discovering the requires defining the challenge that is to be ad- underlying political-economy drivers. Discovering dressed. Typical challenges are reforms that fail or are these is important to understand why the identi- Figure 4 Three Levels of Political-Economy Analysis What vulnerabilities/challenges? Evidence of poor outcomes to For example, repeated failure to adopt which PEA-identified weakness- sector reforms; poor sector outcomes; es appear to contribute infrastructure identified as a constraint to growth, but not addressed effectively; continuous food insecurity; corruption that continues to undermine the business climate, even after anti-corruption law is enacted Institutional What are the associated insti- Mapping of relevant branches of govern- and governance tutional setup and governance ment, ministries, agencies, and state- arrangements and arrangements? owned enterprises and their interactions; capacities existing laws and regulations; policy processes (formal rules and de facto prac- tices). What mechanisms exist to ensure integrity and accountability and to limit PEA corruption? Political-economy Why are things this way? Why Analysis of stakeholders, incentives, rents/ drivers are policies or institutional rent distribution, historical legacies, and arrangements not being im- prior experiences with reforms; social proved? trends and forces (such as ethnic tensions); and how these trends and forces shape current stakeholder positions and actions Source: World Bank 2009b. Note: PEA = political-economy analysis. 56 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How fied problem has not been addressed successfully ers can be mapped on two dimensions: interest in and to determine the relative likelihood of receiving reform and influence on reform. A matrix with these stakeholder support for various change options. Un- two dimensions will show where the relevant groups derstanding the institutional status quo in sufficient stand and, most important, the positions to which detail is crucial not only to conduct PEA, but also to they will have to be moved. Figure 5 presents such a be able to map a feasible reform path. PEA asks about stakeholder map. (The groups indicated in the map underlying drivers, such as the relationships among are examples only and will be different for different stakeholders, the available rents and how they are settings and issues.) distributed, interests, collective action dilemmas, In figure 5, civil society, unions, and consumers and incentives. have a high interest in fighting corruption because PEA considers structures, institutions, and stake- they often suffer the most from corrupt behavior. holders as factors that influence a problem. Structural However, they have little political influence that factors are beyond the direct control of (local) stake- could help them initiate reform or support anti- holders, and many such factors change only slowly corruption agencies. Therefore, it should be the goal over time. Institutional variables are those related of a communication campaign to move those three to "the rules of the game" (laws and regulations, and groups into the top-left field of the matrix (high influ- such informal rules as social obligations). Actors or ence and high interest). Employer associations and stakeholders include individuals, organized groups, politicians, who may have large influence on gover- or groups with shared interests (such as political nance issues, may not be interested in changing the parties, the military, business associations, nongov- status quo because they benefit from corruption. In ernmental organizations, traditional associations, this case, a communication campaign should aim and traders in a particular region). to move them into the high influence/high interest One of the crucial goals of PEA is an overview of field of the matrix. the stakeholders involved with the issue. Stakehold- Figure 5 Reform Influence-Interest Matrix for Stakeholders High stakeholder in uence on reform Politicians Employer associations World Bank Media High stakeholder interest in reform Low stakeholder interest in reform Civil society Unions Citizens Low stakeholder in uence on reform Source: Adapted from World Bank (2009a). Tool 2: Planning a Communication Strategy for Anti-corruption Agencies 57 Clearly Identify Objectives Identify the Stakeholders You Want to Address PEA has one specific goal: identifying feasible paths to reform. Because "feasible paths" are sensitive to > Identify reform champions in relevant institu- the political-economy context, they also should be tions who can help achieve your goal. more compatible with a country's culture. Finding > Build coalitions with the key stakeholders. (See feasible approaches to reform may include priori- "Coalition Building," the third tool in this section.) tizing the vulnerabilities and concerns that can be > Identify and profile the audience you want to addressed with a reasonable chance of success; and reach with a media campaign. Research the proposing how governance arrangements can be audience to discover their positions on the is- improved in a way that not only is feasible but also sue you want to address, their potential cultural is not likely to be subverted by political-economy sensitivities, their language habits, their social drivers and would channel political-economy driv- structures, and so forth. ers more productively in achieving development and poverty reduction. These approaches include Select Communication Channels interventions, based on careful assessment, that might seek proactively to ease political-economy > Select the channels through which you are able constraints--for example, by supporting coalitions to reach the largest part of your target audience. for change, promoting a better informed public > In areas where people don't have televisions, debate, and so on. (community) radio may be more efficient. There can be more than one objective; however, > If your audience reads newspapers a lot, focus more objectives make the strategy bigger, more your media campaign on print media. complicated, and more expensive. The objective(s) > In remote areas, posters, flyers, or direct com- of a communication campaign should be spelled munication may be most efficient. out clearly. It is necessary to answer the following questions: Design Messages > Which (feasible) outcomes are desired? > Message design depends on the audience and > Which stakeholder groups are to be addressed, the communication channels available. and for what purpose? > Articulate your messages clearly and consis- > Do we want to raise awareness about an issue, tently. to make people think differently about an issue > Phrase your messages simply, and back them (attitude change), or to encourage them to be- up by a few "proof points" that include the most have differently? compelling data. > How will the challenges identified in the PEA be > If appropriate, choose different messages for the addressed? different key audiences that you have defined. > What will be the time frame for the communica- tion activities? (Usually, medium-term planning Implement Strategy is required.) > Identify the tactics/activities with which to The remaining steps in planning a communica- achieve each communication objective. tion strategy will only be outlined here. These steps > Among the possible tactical devices are press are widely established phases in the communication releases, press conferences, and replies to media community, and they result mostly from the two requests. basic activities already discussed. 58 Building Public Support for Anti-Corruption Efforts: Why Anti-Corruption Agencies Need to Communicate and How Monitor Impact and Evaluate Strategy > Web site statistics, if a project page is estab- lished. > Specify a method of evaluating the communica- > Monitoring of reduced negativity and/or tion program. (One possible evaluation tool can growing support for your cause among citi- be found in figure 3, "Logic Model for Designing zens and civil society organizations. Communication Interventions.) > Counting of tactical devices provided (that > Compare the outcomes and impact of your com- is, the number of press releases, press con- munication strategy with your objectives. ferences, media requests answered, and so > Possible evaluation tools include: forth). > Media analysis to determine if messages are coming across in the media. Tool 3: Coalition Building T he following chart illustrates the relation- phased approach to building trust and leveraging ships among the stages of coalition build- diversity. ing, its communication dimensions, and a Table A Key Coalition building Description Communication dimensions and challenges stages of each stage recommended techniques Issue framing and Overall objective of the politi- Gauging public opinion and consulting with policy specification cal problem is articulated and experts to determine the national mood, public broken down; policy options discourse, and policy options surrounding the re- are defined in terms of a con- form initiative (use public opinion research methods tinuum of options and key informant interviews) Relationship/ Significant actors are identi- Listening to actors and key informants, includ- Building trust stakeholder fied, positions toward key ing using and analyzing public opinion data to mapping and related issues are plotted determine positions of general public as well as subgroups (use public opinion research methods, network analysis, and key informant interviews) Forming Core Core of a coalition is orga- Listening to, lobbying, and persuasion of influen- Coalition nized, early leaders and tial individuals and key targets, as well as deepen- Membership champions identified, and ing understanding of their positions and trade-offs agenda takes shape (use lobbying and persuasion techniques) Demonstrating Coalition demonstrates it Messages should focus on successes to date, even credibility can act effectively and is small ones, framed in terms of the interests and in- worthy of support from centives of core membership and key stakeholders stakeholders (use issue framing and media relations techniques) Leveraging diversity Purposeful Critical stage when a small Target of communication efforts should shift to- expansion organization builds a ward addressing the interests of broader relevant broader social and resource interest publics and policy networks (use framing base while retaining coher- for collective action and networking approaches) ence and effectiveness Sustainable Coalition has grown and Communication efforts should broaden and transformation becomes polycentric, with include appeals to the general public, especially in initiatives on many fronts, terms of addressing social norms (use framing for drawing strength from many collective action and media relations techniques) sources Notes 1. By media we understand a wide range of means of communication, including more traditional media such as television, newspaper, and radio, but also new information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as the Internet, mobile phones, and social media. Research on media effects and the role of media for public opinion is mostly concerned with traditional media. However, because of the new access possibilities provided by new technologies, we explicitly include them as an important channel for communication. Some thoughts on the role of ICTs can be found on p. 32. 2. For a detailed discussion on the use of composite indexes, refer to Knack (2006). 3. Information on this agreement may be found at the following Web site: http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/ fostering-mutual-trust-between-journalists-and-anti-fraud-services-in-europe-. References Abramo, Claudio Weber. 2008. "How Much Do Per- Cappella, Joseph N., and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. ceptions of Corruption Really Tell Us?" 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By working with the media and informing the public, anti-corruption agencies can influence public percep- tion of corruption, accurately represent their work and their successes and achievements, educate citizens about the negative effects of corruption on their everyday lives, and mobilize both citizens and the media to help the agencies to achieve their objectives. to their immense cost, many agencies underestimate the role of the media and the negative effects of weak and inadequate communication on their own work. missed opportunities to communicate are missed opportunities to curb corruption. this publication is a "how-to guide" to help anti-corruption agencies understand how to control their public image, frame their work, and build public support. it shows why anti-corruption agencies need to take the media seriously. the publication introduces how the media communicate and what effects they have on the public. the second part of the publication provides tools and checklists for agencies that have proved helpful to practitioners in certain contexts or have been developed directly by anti-corruption agency officials. the first set of tools addresses real-world challenges that anti-corruption agencies face in their daily work and suggests activities designed to help meet those challenges. second, a road map for designing a communication strategy outlines steps that can easily be followed to build a strong relationship with the media and the public. the third tool shows the phases of a coalition-building strategy, from building trust to achieving sustainable transformation. the Communication for governance & Accountability program (CommgAp) seeks to promote good governance through the use of innovative communication approaches and techniques that strengthen the constitutive elements of the public sphere: engaged citizenries, vibrant civil societies, plural and independent media systems, and open government institutions. Communication links these elements, forming a framework for national dialogue through which informed public opinion is shaped about key issues of public concern. CommgAp posits that sound analysis and understanding of the structural and process aspects of communication and their interrelationships make critical contributions to governance reform. CommGAP is funded through a multi-donor trust fund. The founding donor of this trust fund is the UK's Department for International Development (DFID). Website: http://www.worldbank.org/commgap Blog: http://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere/ THE WORLD BANK 1818 H St. NW Washington, D.C. 20433