Women’s Voice and Agency Research Series 2014 No.9                                 92763




     Addressing Gender Inequalities in Curriculum and Education:
Review of Literature and Promising Practices to Inform Education Reform
                         Initiatives in Thailand

                                        Ruti Levtov




  This paper was commissioned by the World Bank Group to help inform a forthcoming report on
 women’s voice, agency, and participation. It does not necessarily reflect the views and research of
                                     the World Bank Group.

           Feedback and comments are welcome at: genderandagency@worldbank.org
         More details about the report are available at: www.worldbank.org/gender/agency

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Abstract: In Thailand and worldwide, despite increases in educational enrollment, rigid gender norms
dictating appropriate roles and behaviors contribute to the persistence of the gender inequalities. Since
education systems are embedded in the broader social context, they reflect the inequalities that exist in
society. The structure and content of schooling – textbooks, curricular choices, sex distribution of
teachers and administrators, teacher attitudes and behaviors, classroom and discipline practices, and the
presence of violence – reflect discriminatory and harmful social norms about the appropriate roles and
opportunities for boys and girls (Connell, 1996, 2000, 2010). At the same time, schools have enormous
potential to effect social change, transform gender relations, expanding the range of possibilities for both
boys and girls (UNGEI, 2012a). This report provides a brief review of the literature and of interventions
to promote gender equity through education in several specific areas: textbooks and curriculum; teacher
distribution, attitudes, and behaviors; and school violence and discipline. And the report looks at holistic
interventions that address multiple dimensions. This review also gives an overview of important steps for
assessing gender issues in the educational system, emphasizes the need for rigorous interventions that
measure a broad range of outcomes, provides recommendations for policy and programming, and
highlights tools and resources.

Note: This background paper was commissioned by the World Bank Group at the request of the Ministry
of Education in Thailand. The Ministry is seeking to undertake a project on school reforms, focusing on
promoting gender rights and gender equality within the Thai education system. The paper provides a brief
overview of best practices and experiences from other countries, with a view to how these initiatives may
be relevant in the Thailand school context.




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Introduction and Rationale: Why is attention to gender important in the education system?

        For more than 15 years, international agreements have emphasized the importance of gender

equality in education. Much of the focus has been on gender parity – an equal proportion of girls and boys

accessing education – and many countries have made impressive progress in meeting these goals (World

Bank, 2012). In Thailand, girls’ enrollment now exceeds boys’ enrollment at the secondary and tertiary

levels. However, gender equality in education encompasses more than access. Recent data shows that

women are still less likely to participate in the labor force, are concentrated in particular sectors, and earn

less than men. For example, among youth ages 15-24, 56% of men participate in the labor force compared

to only 40% of women, and while women are overrepresented among graduates in many fields, they make

up less than 20% of graduates in the lucrative fields of engineering, manufacturing, and construction

(World Bank, 2013; World Bank, 2014). Gender inequality manifests itself in other ways as well – in

high rates of violence (more than 40% of Thai women reported experiencing physical or sexual violence),

and in low levels of women’s political participation (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006; GenderStats, 2014).

        UNESCO’s GENIA Toolkit for Promoting Gender Equality in Education defines gender equality

as meaning that “women and men have equal conditions, treatment and opportunities for realizing their

full potential, human rights and dignity, and for contributing to (and benefiting from) economic, social,

cultural and political development” (UNESCO, 2009, p. 23).



  Box A: Understanding Sex and Gender:

  Sex refers to biological differences between men and women. Gender refers to the roles and
  responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures.
  The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and
  likely behaviors of both women and men. Gender is socially constructed: gender roles and
  expectations are learned, can change over time, and vary within and between cultures (adapted
  from UNESCO).



        In Thailand and worldwide, despite increases in education, rigid gender norms dictating

appropriate roles and behaviors contribute to the persistence of the gender inequalities described above:

                                                                                                             3
women and girls still reap fewer benefits of economic participation and development, have less

representation and voice in local and national governments, and bear the primary responsibility for

household tasks and childcare. Rigid gender norms do not only disadvantage women and girls: adhering

to notions of idealized masculinity, men may engage in risky behaviors such as unprotected sex,

aggressive driving, and violence. Boys educational underperformance in countries like Thailand has also

been shown to be “the result of any underlying set of gender norms and socially determined, unspoken

expectations concerning gender roles” (UNGEI, 2012b, p. 7)

        Since education systems are embedded in the broader social context, they reflect the inequalities

that exist in society. The structure and content of schooling – textbooks, curricular choices, sex

distribution of teachers and administrators, teacher attitudes and behaviors, classroom and discipline

practices, and the presence of violence – reflect discriminatory and harmful social norms about the

appropriate roles and opportunities for boys and girls (Connell, 1996, 2000, 2010). At the same time,

schools have enormous potential to effect social change transform gender relations, expanding the range

of possibilities for both boys and girls (UNGEI, 2012a).




Box B: Understanding Gender Equality in Education

UNESCO’s Gender Equality Framework defines gender equality in education in terms of four
dimensions: equality of access, equality in the learning process, equality of educational outcomes
and equality of external results. Gender equality in education means bringing gender equality to,
within, and through education (UNGEI & UNICEF, 2009).

The goal is to achieve gender equality, such that “women and men have equal conditions, treatment
and opportunities for realizing their full potential, human rights and dignity, and for contributing to
(and benefiting from) economic, social, cultural and political development” (UNESCO, 2009).



In Thailand, gender equality to education – that is, equal access to education in terms of enrollment, for

example – has for the most part been achieved, though attention is still needed in particular sectors of the

population. The focus now should be on achieving equality within the school system, and perhaps most

importantly, in other outcomes through education.

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Overview of the Report

        This report provides a brief review of the literature and of interventions to promote gender equity

through education in several specific areas: textbooks and curriculum; teacher distribution, attitudes, and

behaviors; and school violence and discipline. While these are general areas of interest in the literature, it

is important to emphasize that the most successful policies and interventions will address more than one

of these areas: in a separate section, we highlight examples of multi-dimensional programs that address

gender in the education system through several different avenues. Finally, since gender and educational

contexts and dynamics vary across countries (as well as within a country), a deep and nuanced assessment

of the specific gender-related activities that are needed in a particular context is necessary. This is both

the first step for identifying gender inequalities in education and a continual process for improvement. To

that end, the last section of this review gives an overview of important steps for assessing gender issues in

the educational system. Tools and resources are presented throughout the report and included in Annex A.

        Four important caveats about this review are warranted. First, gender differences and inequalities

cannot be separated from other social inequalities: gender intersects with poverty, ethnic background,

rural or regional differences, disability, and sexual orientation resulting in specific patterns of

disadvantage. While this review refers broadly to differences between boys and girls, gender analyses,

policies, and programs must take into account the intersection with other social factors. Second, it is

important to note that many types of educational interventions, though not explicitly gendered, may also

have a positive impact on gender equality. For example, initiatives to improve educational quality by

promoting active, child-centered teaching encourage the same reflection, participation, and critical

thinking skills that are essential to addressing gender equality in education. A detailed discussion of such

interventions is outside the scope of this paper, but should be considered an important avenue for

promoting gender equality in and through education. Third, this review highlights the need for more

rigorous impact evaluation of gender-related interventions in schools, beyond programs and policies to

improve access and particularly from the Global South, as well as evaluation of the impact of various

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gender interventions on student learning outcomes. Unless otherwise noted, the evaluation results

described in each section, while often rigorous and comprehensive, do not come from impact evaluation

studies (e.g. randomized controlled trials). Finally, the intervention examples highlighted in this review

are intentionally diverse and global in reach. While the specific country context might be quite different

from the situation in Thailand, the purpose is to profile innovative programs that could be adapted to the

Thai context in order to achieve equality.




I. Gender in Textbooks and Curriculum

         In education, the curriculum serves as the connection between national education policy

objectives and the delivery of education services. The curriculum “determines the purpose and content of

education, the mode and length of delivery, and provides guidance material for educators regarding how

the content should be taught and how learning outcomes should be assessed. National curriculum can

reinforce existing social and gender inequalities by implicitly upholding traditional gender stereotypes or

by disregarding the diversity of learning needs and learning styles among girls and boys throughout the

country. Alternatively, national curriculum can be a vehicle to promote positive messages about equality

between women and men and to integrate human rights education.” (CIDA, 2010, p. 23). Addressing

gender biases in textbook and curriculum is an important avenue towards equality within education.


Gender Inequality in Textbooks

         Textbooks are an integral aspect of the curriculum, and an important and influential mechanism

through which children are exposed to ideas about gender (Aikman & Rao, 2010). In Pakistan, for

example, a majority of female students participating in an interview study said that they saw textbook

images as models for themselves (Mirza, 2004). Given their central role in teaching and learning, research

on gender in textbooks has been ongoing since the 1970s. Studies analyzing textbooks across many

countries find remarkable consistent results in terms of the representation of gender (Blumberg, 2007,

2008):

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   Numerically, there are fewer images of women and girls compared to men and boys. Generally, the

    proportion of females represented decreases as grade level increases. Men also appear to have more

    text space devoted to them, for example, through longer stories about men.

   Men and women are generally portrayed in stereotypical roles and professions: women are often

    shown in the home, engaging in domestic and caregiving tasks, while men are portrayed in more

    leadership or professional roles. These representations rarely accurately reflect the actual roles (and

    changes in roles) of men and women in society, and thus serve to reinforce more traditional,

    differentiated roles than actually exist in society.

   Men and women are described as having specific gendered attributes: for example, men are described

    as brave and strong, while women are seen as passive, self-sacrificing, and caring. In some cases,

    there were negative portrayals of women, as gossipy or mean-spirited, for example.

   Contributions of important women (as well as minority groups) were ignored or given less

    consideration.



Addressing Gender Bias in Textbooks

        In response to these findings, several countries have taken action. On the policy level, many

countries, including Thailand, have instituted policies forbidding gender discrimination in the curriculum

and textbooks including specific directives to remove gender stereotypes, and have undertaken revisions

of the textbooks. In the global south, the World Bank and other organizations (e.g. Ford Foundation in

China) have funded studies and explicit initiatives to eliminate gender bias from textbooks. Generally, the

aim is to more accurately reflect the diversity of roles in a society. However, some Nordic countries have

explicitly decided to “overcorrect” to promote equality: representing more equality and diversity in roles

than actually exists at present (Eurydice, 2010). Such an approach might encourage children to think

beyond the social roles they see around them. On the other hand, it may also provoke resistance or

backlash from students, teachers, or the community.



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        Evaluations of textbook reforms in several countries (not including Thailand) have consisted

mostly of reviews of second generation textbooks. By these measures, textbook reform initiatives have

shown some success; however, these reviews suggest that while representation of women has increased

and more overt sexism has been removed, more subtle issues around gender roles and representations

remain, and are exacerbated in later grades (Blumberg, 2007, 2008). There is also a strong need for

evaluations of the impact of gender bias and reform initiatives on student and teacher attitudes and

outcomes.



Working with Textbook Developers

        Many countries have examined or intervened in the process of textbook development. In the

United States, where textbooks are not centrally produced, efforts to lobby publishers and professional

publishing associations resulted in positive changes to textbooks (Blumberg, 2007). There is limited

research on the impact of the gender composition of textbook authors/developers: a study in Pakistan

found a positive correlation between female authors and the representation of females in textbooks in

some subjects (Mirza, 2004). On the other hand, a study in Spain found no impact of the gender

composition of the editorial teams on stereotyping in the textbooks (Luengo & Blázquez, 2004 cited in

Eurydice, 2010). While achieving gender equity in the profession of textbook development may be a

worthy goal in and of itself, these findings (echoed in research on teachers, reviewed below) suggest that

the simple presence of women on development teams will likely not be sufficient to reduce gender

discrimination in textbooks. Instead, training on gender equality for textbook producers may increase

awareness of stereotyping issues, and result in less biased textbooks.



Providing Textbook Guidance and Supplementary Materials for Teachers




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              Removing gender discrimination from textbooks is an important but insufficient endeavor.

Providing supplementary guidance materials and gender training for teachers1 is necessary, as research

shows that teachers interpret and adapt the curriculum based on their own beliefs, and may not be aware

of the discriminatory messages they transmit through the textbooks and teaching techniques (Ginsburg &

Kamat, 2009; Stromquist, Lee, & Brock-Utne, 1998). Such training may also help teachers address

gender discrimination during the lengthy and costly process of textbook reform. For example, In India, a

teaching guide was produced to accompany existing textbooks and help teachers and students critically

assess gender representation. Such a guide provides a powerful opportunity for teachers to engage with

students on gender issues, using existing texts to expose bias and then discuss how to counteract it

(Blumberg, 2007).



Beyond Textbooks: Mainstreaming Gender into the Curriculum

              Mainstreaming gender into the curriculum goes beyond revising textbooks – it is important to

explicitly address gender inequality in the curriculum. One approach to mainstreaming gender into the

curriculum involves incorporating the perspectives and experiences of both boys and girls, as well as

discussions of gender roles and gender discrimination across the curriculum, including in courses on

mathematics, literature, and science. Several European countries explicitly mention in policy documents

that a gender perspective should be considered throughout the curriculum. For example, the Maltese

National Minimum Curriculum states that “gender equality is not a theme that should be treated by the

school in isolation or during the teaching of a particular subject. Equality should be an interdisciplinary

theme which teachers can develop within the context of their particular subject, confronting prejudice and

promoting more gender-inclusive alternatives”(Eurydice, 2010, p. 57). Providing sample lesson plans and

teacher training may facilitate this process for teachers; such resources are widely available and can be

adapted to the local context. For example, a review by the Women’s Equity Resource Center in the


1
    Teacher training is discussed in more detail in the next section.


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United States suggests tips for incorporating gender into science curricula, such as using examples from

what is traditionally considered women’s work (cooking, traditional crafts, cleaning) to teach math and

science concepts, using examples of men and women in non-traditional careers as examples in word

problems, talking about gender and body image as part of units on nutrition, adding books on women in

science to school libraries, and highlighting the work of female and/or minority scientists (Gondek, 2008).

In Ireland, resource packs given to schools include model lessons in multiple disciplines (Eurydice,

2010).

         Other initiatives have included gender as a separate section or unit in classes like Civics or Social

Studies, or as the focus of a separate course. For example, in Spain, the citizenship education core

curriculum for primary education includes lessons on recognition of gender differences; identification of

inequalities between men and women; promotion of equal rights for men and women in the family and

social spheres and in the workplace. At the lower secondary level, the curriculum goals also include the

critical evaluation of social and sexual divisions of work, sexist prejudices and the issue of female poverty

(Eurydice, 2010). Similarly, Tanzania’s national syllabi for secondary schools contains topics related to

gender as part of the Civics syllabus (covering nearly 25% of the Form 2 lessons) and in the national

examination (Thomas & Rugambwa, 2013 cited in Miske, forthcoming). Additional studies to examine

and compare the impact of initiatives to mainstream gender in the curriculum are needed to establish a

stronger evidence base for these decisions. The next section describes two interventions that have been

more rigorously evaluated.



Explicitly Addressing Gender Inequality as Part of the Curriculum: Evidence of Effectiveness

         Two recently evaluated programs in India have demonstrated the promise of explicitly addressing

gender as a major focus of a separate or dedicated course. The Gender Equity Movement in Schools

(GEMS) included school-based group education sessions over two years, taught in an active and

participatory manner by outside facilitators to 6th and 7th grade students in low-income public schools in

Mumbai. The sessions focused on understanding gender roles, power dynamics, violence, and physical

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and emotional changes related to adolescence. An evaluation based on a quasi-experimental design found

that, controlling for baseline responses, children in the intervention schools were more likely to report

equitable attitudes about gender. Specifically, compared to the control group and controlling for baseline

responses, the full-intervention group was approximately 4 times more likely to have highly equitable

gender attitudes, 3 times more likely to support higher education for girls, and more than twice as likely to

oppose violence (Achyut, Bhatla, Khandekar, Maitra, & Verma, 2011). Based on these promising results,

the project has been expanded to 25,000 schools in the state of Maharashtra, and has been adapted for use

in secondary schools in Vietnam. The results from a randomized controlled trial in Vietnam will be

available in 2014-2015 (Martin, et al. 2013).

        The Institute of Human Rights Education (IHRE) includes gender as a major component of its

Human Rights curriculum, taught as a separate 3 year course by trained teachers in more than 3500

schools across India (grades 6 to 8). A multi-method evaluation similarly found that students reported a

substantial impact, ranging from increased knowledge of and support for human rights to activism around

gender and caste equality (Bajaj, 2011a, 2012). It is important to note that these programs provide

evidence that intensive, long term attention to gender as part of the coursework has an impact on

children’s attitudes and behaviors; it is not known (and seems unlikely) whether shorter term class

sessions dedicated to the topic would yield similar results. At the same time, separate courses on gender

should not replace efforts to integrate gender-responsive lessons and materials across the curriculum.



Addressing Gender Segregation across Curricular Subjects

        Another major issue is segregation in curricular subjects. Across the globe, boys and girls

continue to choose different fields of study: men are overrepresented in science, agriculture, and

engineering, while women are concentrated in health and education studies. These gender differences are

important because they have significant consequences for future employment and earnings (Charles &

Bradley, 2009; World Bank, 2012). In some cases, the mandated curriculum varies by sex (for example,

home economics for girls and agricultural technology for boys); more commonly, a complex mix of

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factors including lack of gender-sensitive and relevant content and teaching methodologies, teacher

expectations, economic issues, and social norms affect student choices (Mutekwe & Modiba, 2012).

        Initiatives to address these disparities have concentrated primarily on increasing the proportion of

girls in science and engineering. The Forum for African Women Educationalists’ (FAWE) Science,

Mathematics, and Technology Model for girls, operating in 13 countries across Africa, features science

camps and clubs, study tours, exposure to role models, and awards to female achievers in these fields.

In Europe, small scale outreach projects have been implemented in several countries. In the Czech

Republic, Spain, Ireland, and Malta, a gender perspective is included in manuals for vocational guidance

counselors in the education sector. In other countries, universities, companies, and research institutions

have invited girls to participate in visits and “career days,” and multi -media outreach efforts have been

developed to encourage girls to consider careers in science and engineering. In Sweden, a special state

grant to municipalities funds summer courses for girls that contextualize natural science and technology

in cultural, societal, environmental and historical perspectives. However, a European review of initiatives

to influence educational and occupational choices argues that while small-scale initiatives exist in

numerous countries, “most of them are lacking an overall national strategy to combat gender stereotypes

in career choices and to support young people at school with systematic guidance on gender-sensitivity

for study and career” and very few focus on boys’ career choices. In addition, the review provides no

information on the impact of such initiatives (Eurydice, 2010).




II. Teachers and Teaching

Gender Imbalance in Educational Personnel

        Teachers (and other school staff) are central to promoting gender equality in education. At a basic

level, researchers argue that the sex distribution of personnel in the educational system transmits and

reinforces messages about gendered patterns of power and authority (Connell, 1989, 1996). In many

countries, including Thailand, the distribution of teachers across grades, types of subjects, and

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administrative and ministerial positions is patterned by sex: the proportion of men is higher in secondary

versus primary school, in math and science subjects, and at higher levels of school administration. These

patterns, where women generally hold less prestigious positions compared to men (and in numbers not

proportional to their representation as teachers), “foster the mindset that men are naturally endowed to

control and lead", and, alternately, that women are particularly well-suited for caring and nurturing young

children (Stromquist, 2006, p. 149). Such patterns also mean that the classroom experiences and

knowledge of women teachers, particularly at the primary level, may not represented at the level of

policy-making (Aikman & Rao, 2010).



Addressing the Underrepresentation of Women in Educational Administration

        Numerous reports describe strategies to recruit women teachers (including accelerated training

and strong support) in settings where the proportion of women teachers is lower than men’s, and where

the presence of women is important for increasing girls’ attendance at school. Similar strategies can be

used the proportion of women in higher-level positions. The 2010 Eurydice report describes a few

programs to specifically attract more women into school administration in Europe. In the Netherlands, the

"More Women in Management” program emerged as part of a 2006 agreement between the government,

trade unions, and employer organizations and included specific targets for educational institutions. In

Ireland, the Department of Education and Science conducted detailed analyses of the sex distribution of

educational personnel at all levels, including board membership of educational agencies and committees,

and funded an in-service course for women teachers interested in progressing to management positions

(O'Connor, 2007). Other countries have also used quotas to increase the proportion of women in top

leadership positions.



Addressing the Underrepresentation of Men in Teaching

        The Eurydice report also describes some initiatives to study and address the underrepresentation

of men in teaching, particularly at the primary level. In the Ireland, the Men as Teachers and Educators

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(MATE) campaign has promoted the rewards of being a teacher through ads in newspapers, radio, the

internet, and in guidance counseling materials and posters for schools. In the United Kingdom, the

Training and Development Agency for Schools funds three day courses, including a school placement, for

men interested in teaching. In other countries, initiatives have focused on teacher training colleges: in

Lithuania, male students receive preferential admissions, and in the Netherlands and Sweden, they have

access to mentoring programs and networking opportunities with other male students and teachers. In

Norway, where improving the gender-balance among school personnel is one of the main aims for the

national action plan for gender equality, county level teams were created to recruit more men into early

childhood education, and pilot day care centers focused on men as employees were established. While the

problem of low wages and prestige, and lack of career development may play a role, in countries where

teachers enjoy reasonable remuneration (e.g. Luxembourg) and prestige (e.g. Finland), the profession is

still predominantly female, suggesting that social norms that associate teaching with women’s care work

are a barrier to more equity in the profession. These initiatives emerged as part of a debate on the impact

of the feminization of the teaching workforce on boys. This debate, focused in countries where boys’

enrollment and achievement now lags behind girls’, has at times been contentious, and is often based on

rather simplistic or stereotypical perceptions about the gendered characteristics of teachers rather than on

evidence on the impact of teacher sex on student outcomes (Kelleher, 2011).



Impact of Teacher Sex on Student Outcomes: Brief Review of the Evidence

        What does the evidence say about the impact of teacher sex? There is substantial evidence that

the presence of female teachers in school has been beneficial to girls’ enrollment, particularly in highly

sex-segregated contexts where parents may be reluctant to send girls to schools staffed only by men

(Kelleher, 2011; Lloyd, 2009; Plan, 2013). A recent review also provides some evidence that sex

matching (as well as matching by caste, race, or other social characteristics) between teachers and

students and improved learning outcomes, primarily for girls but also for boys, based on studies in North

America, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa (Plan, 2013). The hypothesized reasons are multiple and

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complex, and may include teachers’ attitudes and/or discriminatory practices (Chudgar & Sankar, 2008;

Rawal & Kingdon, 2010), different teaching/learning styles, and positive role-modeling (Plan, 2013).

        Ultimately, however, experts agree that the sex of the teacher is less important than the teacher’s

equitable attitudes, behaviors, and teaching practices. The evidence does not support the view that female

teachers are automatically able (or willing) to support girls or that male teachers are not able to effectively

do so, and vice versa as related to boys’ education. Instead, interventions should focus on creating

training and accountability systems so all teachers – both male and female – are supported and

encouraged to create learning environments where the participation of all learners is valued, irrespective

of age, ethnicity, caste, religion or learning ability, where children feel safe, and importantly, where

stereotypical views are challenged (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008; Plan, 2013). Thus, focusing on changing the

gender balance in teaching and school administration is unlikely to achieve the long-term goal of equality

within education. Nevertheless, in an effort to increase genders balance in the profession and counteract

stereotypes about appropriate professions for men and women, initiatives to increase the proportion of

men in primary education, and the proportion of women in education management, as described above,

may be of interest as efforts to equalize educational “inputs”.



Teacher Attitudes and Behaviors

        Extensive research demonstrates that teachers, both male and female, hold stereotypical and

discriminatory attitudes about boys’ and girls’ characteristics, abilities, and roles. In studies around the

world, teachers attributed girls’ academic achievement to hard work but to boys’ natural ability, and

assigned competency in certain subjects to a specific sex – for example, reporting that boys were better at

math (for a review see: Plan, 2013). Teachers’ behavior also varies based on the sex of the student,

consciously or subconsciously. Teachers have been observed paying more attention and interacting more

frequently (positively and negatively, through discipline) with male students (Eurydice, 2010; Sadker,

Sadker, & Zittleman, 2009). For example, classroom observations from a study in India found that

although teachers stated that girls should have the same right as boys to attend school, they called on boys

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more often, asked them more challenging questions, and praised them more frequently (DeJaeghere &

Pellowski Wiger cited in Miske, 2013). Research has also shown that teachers assign roles and tasks in

the classroom based on gender stereotypes, for example, sweeping or cleaning assigned to girls, and

monitoring the class, rearranging desks or interacting with other adults to boys (Aikman & Unterhalter,

2007; Anderson-Levitt, Bloch, & Soumare, 1998; Leach & Humphreys, 2007).

           As a whole, these attitudes and behaviors have important implications for children: for example,

Lloyd, Mensch, and Clark (2000) found that in Kenya, girls were more likely to drop out of schools in

which teachers rated math as less important for girls than for boys. Overall, these attitudes and differential

treatment reinforces existing gender roles, and may encourage passivity and conformity in girls, while

placing greater value on independence and leadership for boys. At the same time, harsh treatment and

expectations for quiet or submissive behavior may alienate boys (UNGEI, 2012b).



Addressing Teachers’ Inequitable Attitudes and Behaviors

           Addressing teachers’ gendered attitudes and behaviors requires important investments in gender -

focused teacher professional development, including pre- and in-service training, and monitoring systems.

Such training would encourage teachers to understand gender (and other) hierarchies and power

dynamics, and what they as teachers do to either maintain or challenge these hierarchies. A new review of

gender in teaching and learning in the global South, produced for the United Nations Girls Education

Initiative, found that “few, if any, current teacher education models seem to explicitly integrate gendered

approaches to teaching into classes on content and pedagogy. This seems to be the case from the first term

of teacher education, to classroom observations, and up through teaching experiences while still a teacher

education student” (Miske, 2013, p. 20). Similarly, a review of European countries found that generally,

gender does not feature prominently in pre-service teacher education programs, and is only sporadically

included as a topic for continuing professional development (Eurydice, 2010).2 There is much room for


2
 The authors note that given the highly decentralized nature of teacher education in many European countries, it is difficult to assess the
extent of availability.

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growth and innovation in this area. One innovation, the Teacher Training Portal on Gender Equality

(iGEP), was developed by Promundo-Brazil and accredited by the Brazilian Ministry of Education. iGEP

consists of a website portal and online facilitated training package including modules on gender,

sexuality, health and care, pregnancy, motherhood and fatherhood, and violence. Teachers who

participate in the online course are awarded continuing education credits.




Box C: Examples of Teacher Training for Gender Equality in East Asia and Pacific Region

In 2009, in response to legislation on gender equality and violence prevention, the Government of
Vietnam together with 12 UN agencies launched a Joint Programme on Gender Equality. As part of the
Programme, UNESCO Ha Noi Office and the Vietnamese Ministry conducted a national textbook review
and developed teacher training modules to promote gender equality. The teacher training modules
were conceived as a comprehensive, generic resource package that teacher training institutions can
customize for specific pre-and in-service trainees, local contexts and needs. The manual, which is
available online, includes specific activities and assessments for school personnel to understand and
address gender inequalities in education (Vietnam MOET & UNESCO, 2011).

In Indonesia, the Decentralized Basic Education project includes a focus on enhancing the quality of
teaching and learning and improving the school learning environment. Teachers are trained in active-
learning, gender-sensitive methodologies to engage both boys and girls. As a result of the trainings,
teachers were able to connect their lessons to students’ realities and encouraging inquiry and
reflection among them (USAID, 2008). A recent evaluation (USAID, 2012) found some improvements in
teachers’ use of active learning methods, but did not specifically focus on its gender dimensions.




Transforming Teacher Attitudes and Practices: Examples and Evidence of Impact

        The few teacher training programs that have been evaluated have shown promising results,

though more rigorous studies that explore the impact of teacher-focused interventions on a variety of

outcomes, including teacher attitudes and practices, as well as student learning outcomes, are needed. An

evaluation of an elective one term course on gender equity for pre-service Turkish teachers found that

course participants had more equitable attitudes (in terms of male and female gender roles at home, at

work, and as related to education) at the end of the course (Erden, 2009). The IHRE program, described

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above, provides training for practicing teachers who then teach a human rights focused course to their

students. A recent evaluation found that the teachers took action on abuse in their own and their students'

lives, changed their teaching practice to eliminate corporal punishment, and interacted more with students

and colleagues of different backgrounds, especially those from different social status and ethnicities.

Since teachers had high status in the rural communities included in the study, they were able to have

significant impact (Bajaj, 2011a, 2011b). The GEMS program in India, described above, also included a

series of teacher workshops focused on gender and power dynamics. In interviews, teachers who

participated in the workshops reported profound changes in their interactions with students as well as in

their personal lives, in terms of how they interacted with, related to, and valued their female family

members (Levtov, 2013). Finally, in Sweden, “gender pedagogues” were trained to serve a s resources in

their school communities and initiate activities around gender equity. While most of the participants

reported that the course strengthened their competence to make connections between equality and gender

and the national curriculum goals, less than 50 percent of the gender pedagogues had employment that

made it possible for them to work as resource persons. The authors argued that the one-time investment in

a course was easier for schools and municipalities to provide compared to the longer-term financial

support needed for programming for gender equality (Nilsson, 2007).



Using Action Research to Transform Teacher Attitudes and Practices

        An especially promising approach may be to integrate action research on gender into teacher

training, to help teachers observe and understand the impact of their teaching on students, and to develop

self-assessment tools. Thus approach encourages self-reflection and deeply contextualized analysis and

proposed solutions, and can be a more cost-effective compared to bringing in external evaluations or

interventions. This approach was used in Bhutan (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008), as well as in Ghana, where a

group of teachers conducted a gender analysis of their school curriculum and practices, and identified

areas for change (MacKinnon, 2000 cited in Miske, 2013). A variety of tools, checklists, and manuals

have been developed to help teachers and administrators to document and reflect on gender in educational

                                                                                                        18
settings. The Forum for African Women Educationalists and the Gender in Education Network in Asia-

Pacific (GENIA) have developed toolkits and teacher manuals (see Annex A), as have various national

education bodies. For example, in Romania, the Institute of Education Science in cooperation with

UNICEF developed a compendium for teachers and school inspectors including specific tools for self-

evaluation and evaluation of educational institutions and textbooks from the gender perspective

(Eurydice, 2010). Similarly, teacher training modules developed in Vietnam (see Box C) include self-

assessment activities (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training & UNESCO, 2011). Plan’s Because I

am a Girl “School Equality Scorecard,” focused on gathering information from students, is another useful

tool. Information collected as part of school assessments can be used as part of broader monitoring of

changes towards gender equality in school.



Teacher Training and Gender Equality: Lessons Learned

        Additional research is sorely needed on the effectiveness of specific content and pedagogy in

teacher training around gender. Nevertheless, some important lessons have emerged. Teacher training

should be participatory and allow teachers to reflect on gender in their personal and professional life

(Aikman & Unterhalter, 2007; Chege, 2006a; Kirk, 2004). It should be ongoing: one or two gender

trainings are not enough, as demonstrated in an evaluation of the USAID-funded QUIPS project in Ghana

that found that changes in teachers’ classroom practice regarding girls’ participation lasted only as long as

the head teacher -- a champion for the approach -- together with other teachers and mentors continued to

give their support (Camfed, 2012 cited in Miske, 2013). This finding also suggests that training for school

administrators and special resource persons may also be important for supporting teacher change. Finally,

it is important that teacher training and monitoring happens as part of broader changes that allow teachers

to change their practices. For example, teachers in Nepal and Bhutan who were trained on child centered

pedagogies expressed frustration and felt professionally unsupported, given that the content heavy and

exam driven curriculum had not been revised (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008).

III. School Violence

                                                                                                          19
         The issue of gender-based harassment and violence in schools has received increasing attention

and is an important aspect of addressing gender issues in schools. Violence has negative academic,

emotional, and health consequences for children, and childhood experiences of violence are associated

with future perpetration (for men) and victimization (for women) in adulthood (Flood & Pease, 2009;

Pinheiro, 2006). Violence in school occurs in many forms: bullying, sexual harassment, verbal abuse, and

physical altercations between students, as well as corporal punishment or sexual contact between teachers

and students. Community or gang violence may also spill-over into schools, or manifest as violence

across schools. While recent studies have focused on violence against girls, studies in most countries

show that it is boys who most commonly experience violence in school, and that sexual minority boys are

at particular risk (Meyer, 2009; Pinheiro, 2006). A recent review of the school violence literature

identified other groups that may vulnerable to violence, including children who have a disability or

stigmatized illness (including HIV/AIDS), and refugee or minority group children (RTI International,

2013).

         In Thailand, violence remains very much a part of daily life -- a 2008 study found that a quarter

of students had been in a physical fight on the school premises, 28% reported being bullied on one or

more days in the past month, and 54% reported being verbally abused by a teacher on or more times in

the past year (WHO, 2008). Boys are generally more likely to experience (and perpetrate) school violence

compared to girls. In addition, a new UNESCO report documents fear of and experiences of violence

among sexual minority youth or youth who do not conform to traditional gender roles (UNESCO &

UNGEI, 2014).

         Violence in school is deeply rooted in gender inequalities: scholars argue that violence in school

reproduces power hierarchies in society and reinforces the idea of the use of violence as normative and

appropriate for resolving conflict. Violence can also be used to “prove” masculinity or to police (and

punish) the actions of students who deviate from rigid notions of appropriate gender roles and behaviors

(Leach & Humphreys, 2007; Meyer, 2009). While reducing violence is an important goal in its own right,


                                                                                                        20
emerging evidence shows that violence and a lack of feelings of safety in schools are associated with

negative academic outcomes, including lower enrollment and attendance, and lower achievement (RTI

International, 2013). Despite the importance of this issue, a 2009 analysis of gender and education in East

Asia and the Pacific concluded that there is little evidence of national strategies to tackle gender violence

in schools or incorporate its discussion into the curriculum (UNGEI, 2009).



Corporal Punishment and Gender Inequality

In many settings, violence and harsh treatment perpetrated by teachers is an important concern. In

Thailand, where corporal punishment in schools was banned in 2000, a 2006 study funded by the

National Health Foundation found that corporal punishment continued to be used,3 and up to 60% of the

teachers surveyed strongly believed that corporal punishment was the right method to use with students

(Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2013). More recent data may show

whether the ban has had an effect in reducing corporal punishment. Research shows that corporal

punishment is gendered, in terms of who uses it, under what circumstances, and to whom and in what

severity is it applied. In South Africa, for example, Morrell (2001) showed that corporal punishment is

more commonly used (and with greater severity) against male students, with the assumption that “they

can take it” or that it made them “tough,” and that it taught girls to be submissive and unquestioning.

Rules and practices around corporal punishment also served to sexualize relationships between male

teachers and female students (Humphreys, 2006, 2008; Morrell, 2001). The use of corporal punishment

also reflects teachers’ lack of training or practice with alternative effective, non -violent disciplinary

measures (UNGEI, 2009).

Peer Violence

           School violence is most commonly perpetrated by other students. Aggressive behavior and sexual

harassment is often normalized as typical behavior for boys, as the ‘boys will be boys’ discourse, and is

not taken seriously by school officials, while violence among girls, especially verbal harassment and

3
    Specific prevalence rates were not cited.

                                                                                                          21
bullying, may be dismissed. Sexual violence is also a concern: several studies, primarily from Africa,

reveal a consistent pattern of sexual abuse in school, perpetrated mostly by other students but also by

teachers or school staff (Dunne, 2007; Leach, 2006; Pinheiro, 2006). In several settings, including

Cameroon and the United States, researchers describe how teachers and male students trade sexual banter

in the classroom (Johnson-Hanks, 2006; Pascoe, 2007). How the school responds to instances of violence

between students (as well as from staff) is considered critical: it directly affects levels of violence in

school, as well as normalizes such behaviors (Klein, 2006; Leach, 2003).



Addressing Violence in School: The Need for a Comprehensive Approach

        Addressing violence in schools requires a comprehensive, multi-level approach that includes both

the prevention of violence and effective mechanisms to address it when it does occur (Greene, Robles,

Stout, & Suvilaasko, 2013). At the national level, policies regarding corporal punishment or harsh

treatment, as well as general gender-based violence are an important step; more important perhaps, are

effective monitoring and sanctions. At a more local level, establishing school policies and committees to

address violence and creative a positive discipline climate can both support and monitor teacher and

student behavior, providing guidelines and recourse. In addition, goals and benchmarks around social and

emotional skills hypothesized to prevent violence (e.g. self-esteem, self-efficacy, tolerance and

appreciation for diversity, respect, conflict resolution) can be included in national curricular goals, as was

done by several states in the United States (Dusenbury, Zadrazil, Mart, & Weissberg, 2011).

Working with Teachers to Prevent Violence

        Working with teachers and school staff is essential to eliminating school violence. These efforts

need to take into account gendered power relations and should therefore provide opportunities for

teachers to reflect on their beliefs about gender and violence and how these relate to the practice of

corporal punishment, as well as provide training in alternative methods for discipline and classroom

management. In Kenya, an innovative program worked with student-teachers to reflect on their own

experiences of violence as children, which led to positive resolutions to avoid violence in their future

                                                                                                           22
professional practice (Chege, 2006a, 2006b). Similarly, as a result of their training on human rights,

teachers involved in the IHRE program reported lower use of corporal punishment (Bajaj, 2011a).

Training on effective, non-violence classroom management and discipline, and on how to effectively

intervene in peer violence can assist teachers to maintain a commitment to reducing violence. For

example, in Bhutan, teachers and teacher educators received training on preventing disciplinary problems

by using active and joyful teaching methods such as Circle Time, where children have an opportunity to

discuss important issues in their lives such as relationships, respect, and non-violent conflict resolution

(Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008).

        In high violence contexts, guardians or advocates can be trained to provide additional support and

monitoring. In refugee schools in Sierra Leone and Guinea, female Classroom Assistants (CAs) worked

in pairs to protect girls from sexual exploitation by being another adult observer and an explicit advocate.

An evaluation of a similar school-based intervention in Tanzania where female teachers were trained as

guardians and supported by regional committees showed that girls felt they had someone to go to for

advice, and that the communities began to confront sexual violence more openly. This resulted in both

protection for girls and prosecution of perpetrators (Mgalla, Schapink, & Boerma, 1998 cited in Miske,

2013). While the level of violence in these contexts may seem extreme compared to Thailand, similar

programs for training guardians or advocates may be effective in schools with lower levels of violence, or

different types of violence such as bullying, by creating safer spaces and a culture that does not tolerate

violence.



Working with Students to Prevent Violence

        Interventions have also been geared directly at students. Numerous programs violence prevention

and conflict resolution programs have been developed, implemented, and evaluated worldwide. However,

these interventions rarely incorporate a gender dimension, and as such are beyond the scope of this

review. An important aspect of addressing violence with students requires helping girls (and boys) “build

skills to identify, name, and, at times, confront the social conditions and gendered relations behind these

                                                                                                         23
acts” (Miske, 2013, p. 16). A notable example is the GEMS program in Indian middle schools, where

group education activities and a school campaign included reflective discussions of violence in the

context of gender relations, emotional management, and relationships between boys and girls. At the end

of the intervention, participating students reported less tolerance of violence and greater likelihood of

taking positive action in response to peer violence (e.g. tried to stop it, sought help) compared to students

who did not participate (Achyut, et al., 2011).

        Students can participate in activities to identify safety concerns in and around the school and

community: for example, the Population Council has developed “safety mapping” tools that include

identifying safe and unsafe spaces (e.g. hallways or restrooms) and times (specific times of day, or times

of the year), and examining options for accessing support and resources (Austrian & Ghati, 2010).

School-based clubs for girls have also been shown to be an effective mechanism to increase girls’ safety

in schools by creating ways to monitor and report violence, building girls’ confidence and agency, and

creating social networks and support (ActionAid International, 2013; Austrian & Ghati, 2010; Miske,

2013). Similar clubs for sexual minority students can similarly raise awareness of and reduce violence

against this vulnerable population (Meyer, 2009).

Violence Prevention as Part of Sexual and Reproductive Health Education

        Finally, violence prevention has been effectively integrated into courses or workshops on sexual

and reproductive health and HIV prevention. For example, the Stepping Stones program in South Africa

included a 50 hour curriculum on a variety of sexual and reproductive health topics including gender

based violence, taught through participatory approaches over a six to eight week period to adolescents and

young adults. A randomized controlled trial found that a significantly lower proportion of men in the

intervention group reported perpetration of violence against a partner compared to men who did not

participate (Blanc, Melnikas, Chau, & Stoner, 2013; Jewkes, Nduna, & Levin, 2008).

        Sexual and reproductive health education, together with programs or elements to improve girls’

confidence or self-esteem, may also contribute to the prevention of teen pregnancy, which is associated

with school dropout. However, a comparative analysis of data across several countries in francophone

                                                                                                          24
Africa found that the risk of dropout for girls for reasons other than pregnancy (e.g. exam failure or

financial constraints) far exceeded the risk of dropout due to pregnancy (Lloyd, 2011). While these

findings need to be tested in other contexts, they suggest that in addition to providing sexual and

reproductive health education and services and implementing policies that support school attendance of

pregnant or parenting girls, schools must create systems to support girls in school and ensure their

progress.




IV. Addressing Gender Holistically: Multi-dimensional programs

        While specific elements of gender in the education system have been examined in the previous

sections, promoting gender equality through education requires addressing multiple elements and

dimensions of schooling simultaneously. Achieving gender equality in education cannot be done by only

addressing textbooks, or only implementing violence prevention programs. A safe and supportive

environment free from violence, textbooks and curricula free from stereotypes and discrimination,

equitable teacher attitudes and practices, and specific attention to understanding gender relations and

building competencies beyond educational basics are all important components. In this section we briefly

describe three integrated, multi-dimensional programs that incorporate some or all of these components,

identified in a recent review by education expert Cynthia Lloyd (2013). These programs are generally

either alternative programs as part of the formal education system or separately run by NGOs and are

designed to address the specific needs of girls, building individual, social and economic competencies to

enable them “to recognize their inherent worth, the fundamental equality of all human beings and their

ability to contribute to personal and social betterment […] develop the capacity to critically examine their

lives and broader society and take action toward personal and social transformation” (Murphy-Graham,

2012, p.3 cited in Lloyd, 2013). While they generally focus on the empowerment of girls, these programs

are built on strategies that have broad potential to engage and transform the lives of boys as well.




                                                                                                         25
        One model already operates in Thailand. The Child Friendly Schools (CFS) model, implemented

by UNICEF in multiple countries in collaboration with governments is designed to improve the quality of

public primary schools and create gender-sensitive, healthy, safe, and inclusive learning environments.

The model varies across countries, but generally includes a wide spectrum of interventions, from ensuring

adequate school building facilities, providing teaching and learning materials, extensive teacher training

on child-centered pedagogy, and developing links to the community. A 2009 evaluation of CFS schools

in six countries found huge variation across countries and schools in the level of investment and

implementation. Still, the evaluation found that schools that had high levels of family and community

participation and use of child-centered pedagogical approaches had stronger conditions for learning – in

these schools, students felt safer, supported and engaged. Students, teachers, and parents in CFS schools

generally had a very positive view of the equality of opportunities for male and female students, and these

findings were corroborated by classroom observations, though some deeply rooted gender stereotypes

were also noted (UNICEF, 2009a). In Thailand, the evaluation found that students who attend CFS

schools where students report greater gender equality were significantly more likely to state that they

looked forward to coming to school, that they felt safe at school, and that they wanted to complete

secondary school when compared with students who attended CFS schools where students reported less

gender equality (UNICEF, 2009b). These evaluations suggest that CFS is a promising approach in terms

of creating gender equitable schools.

        The Forum of African Women Educationalists (FAWE)’s Centre of Excellence (COE) model has

transformed ordinary schools in 14 African countries into gender-responsive schools that focus on the

physical, academic and social dimensions of both girls’ and boys’ education. Elements of the model

include gender-responsive training for teachers and school, an emphasis on Science, Mathematics and

Technology for girls, empowerment training for students, a sexual maturation management program for

girls, gender-responsive school infrastructure, and community involvement in school management.

FAWE has developed manuals and guidelines for wide dissemination, but the program has not yet been

formally evaluated (Lloyd, 2013).

                                                                                                        26
        The SAT Program (Sistema de Aprendizaje Tutorial), designed in the 1980s by the NGO

FUNDAEC (Fundacion Para la Aplicacion y Ensenanza de las Ciencias), is an alternative formal

secondary education system for ethnic minority girls in Honduras, fully accredited and subsidized by the

government and implemented by local NGOs. The SAT curriculum and teachers use student-centered,

experiential, and dialogue based pedagogy, and specifically focus on gender issues, presenting

“interdisciplinary content in ways that purposefully question dominant, patriarcha l power structures”

(Miske, 2013, p. 12).    Service to and engagement with the community is an essential feature. A

longitudinal qualitative evaluation found that SAT students displayed greater ability to identify problems

and conceive solutions, more gender awareness, self-confidence, and knowledge compared to women in a

comparison village who had not attended the program. A quasi-experimental quantitative study found that

after two years, that adolescents in SAT villages had higher composite test scores than students in public

secondary schools. The SAT program has been expanded to Colombia, Guatemala, Costa Rica,

Nicaragua, and Ecuador (Lloyd, 2013).



V. Gender Analysis in Education

        Addressing gender inequalities in education requires a comprehensive approach that is both

systemic and specifically targeted at girls and other vulnerable populations (Gunawardena & Jayaweera,

2008; Subrahmanian, 2006), and that is designed for the particular context and needs of the country. A

recent UNGEI working paper suggests four steps for gender analysis: 1) Collect and analyze data on all

aspects of gender inequality within the sector, including multiple levels of analysis (e.g. institutional,

community); 2) Raise awareness and identify allies to ensure that data leads to action; 3) Plan and

implement programs and policies based on the specific context; and 4) Monitor and evaluate the

implemented initiatives (UNGEI, 2012a). These steps are discussed briefly below.



Collecting Data and Evaluating Impact



                                                                                                       27
        The importance of data cannot be overstated. Accurate and detailed information is essential for

planning appropriate action, as well as for mobilizing support. Table 1 provides some ideas about

indicators that could be collected to give a clearer picture of the current gendered context of schooling in

Thailand – much of this information is already available for analysis. For all of these indicators, it is

important to examine not only national differences by sex, but also sex differences by region, socio-

economic status, ethnic background, etc., and among groups of disadvantaged children such as those with

disabilities, street children, or working children (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008).

        Assessing change in gender attitudes and norms is an important aspect of evaluating gender

reform initiatives in education. Numerous survey tools to generally assess attitudes about gender roles,

gender equity, and violence have been developed and used, primarily in Western contexts – Beere's 1990

"Gender Roles: A Handbook of Tests and Measures" specifies more than 50 different scales. Within the

context of research on women's empowerment and gender inequality in the global south, the most

frequently used measures of gender-related attitudes (used in for example, the Demographic and Health

Surveys and the World Values Survey) relate to attitudes about who should make decisions on various

domestic issues (e.g. large and small purchases, healthcare, and education of children), women’s freedom

of movement, and access to or control over resources (e.g. participation in paid employment, contribution

and use of household income), and the appropriateness of violence against women in specific situations.

Another survey, the International Men and Gender Equality Survey, implemented in at least 10 countries,

includes the Gender-Equitable Men Scale (also adapted for women) which measures norms related to

masculinity, gendered roles, sexual and reproductive health, sexual relations, and violence, as well as

several items measuring men and women’s attitudes towards gender equality and equality policies

(Barker, et al., 2011; Pulerwitz & Barker, 2008).

        While these scales can capture general attitudes about gender, they do not focus specifically on

education or school experiences. In this case there is less consistency: different researchers have

developed specific survey questions for teachers and students adapted to the particular context, including

items related to perceptions of competency (e.g. “Math is harder for girls”), fairness and equal treatment

                                                                                                         28
(e.g. “Girls and boys are treated equally in my school”), as well as more general questions about school

climate, teaching practices, support in school, and school violence (See for example: Achyut, et al., 2011;

Chudgar & Sankar, 2008; Ghuman & Lloyd, 2010; Lloyd, El Tawila, Clark, & Mensch, 2003; Lloyd, et

al., 2000). Plan and Care, two large international non-governmental organizations, have adapted the GEM

scale or developed other measures geared specifically towards school-aged children to assess gender

attitudes, norms, and circumstances in schools, and are currently evaluating these measures in multiple

countries. Classroom and school observation tools have also been developed, and are included as Part of

Annex A. In general, there is great interest in improving measurement of gender equality dimensions in

schools, and new tools and guidelines are likely to become available in the coming years.

        In addition to survey tools, qualitative research and participatory methodologies that engage

teachers, students, and communities can provide invaluable insight into gendered norms and practices in

schools. As discussed in previous sections, there are numerous participatory tools that can be used at the

school or community level for the dual purpose of collecting information while providing sensitization

and training to school staff, students, and community members. This information can also be collected on

a regular basis as part of a monitoring plan, and incorporated into other educational monitoring systems,

to examine change over time.



Building Support for Gender Equality in Education

        Raising awareness, identifying allies, and building broad support for promoting gender equality

through education is an important and challenging step. Analyses of gender mainstreaming in South and

East Asia concluded that political will was perhaps the strongest factor in facilitating gender

mainstreaming in education. International commitments (e.g. Education for All, Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs)) have also played an important role in generating interest and action, and the renewed

focus on goals beyond gender parity in education (for example, in the discussion of post-2015 MDGs) is

promising. Several countries in the Asia-Pacific region have developed comprehensive plans and

partnerships to promote gender equality in education. In Cambodia, for example, an Inter-ministerial

                                                                                                        29
Gender Working Group and a Steering Committee on Gender and Girls’ Education regularly report on

progress on Goal 5 of the EFA, achieving gender equality in education. The Cambodian Ministry of

Education, Youth and Sport developed a Quality Assurance Scheme to apply standards to a range of

areas, and a Gender Mainstreaming Strategic Plan with both qualitative and quantitative indicators was

disseminated to central, provincial and district education staff. Gender assessments were carried out in 24

provinces, and gender responsiveness was one of six core dimensions implemented in Child-Friendly

Schools. As mentioned in Box C, a collaboration between government agencies and UN bodies is

implementing gender equality efforts in Vietnam, in response to legislative mandates around gender

equality and violence prevention. Indonesia has created a dedicated unit within the education ministry

responsible for ensuring that gender equity is planned for and monitored, in consultation with the

Coordinating Ministry of Women’s Empowerment.

        As the above examples demonstrate, there are different models for implementing efforts to

promote gender equality in education. In general, however, these efforts require developing partnership

and garnering broad-based support: mainstreaming analyses have found that establishing specific gender

units (within national or local governments), while successful in raising awareness of gender issues, have

struggled with limited power and funding to achieve their ambitious mandates. Efforts to mainstream

gender should thus occur “in the context of a broader discourse on institutional change, addressed to

issues of reaching excluded groups, tackling inequality, and improving accountability of functionaries and

providers” (Gunawardena & Jayaweera, 2008; Subrahmanian, 2006, p. 17).



Involving Parents

        In addition to government agencies, teachers, and students, it is important to garner support from

parents and parent organizations. Parents play a key role in their children’s educational and career choices

through their expectations and material, informational, and emotional support and resources (Equal

Opportunities Commission, 2007). Parents, like teachers, are also central to shaping their children’s

gendered attitudes and experiences. Parents often hold traditional attitudes about gender and about

                                                                                                         30
schooling, and may resist efforts to promote equity in school. For example, studies in several countries

found that parents support teachers’ use of corporal punishment for disciplining children (e.g. Feinstein &

Mwahombela, 2010; Morrell, 2001; Mweru, 2010). At the same time, parents can act as allies and

advocates for their children, and maintain accountability from the school or teachers. For example, a

grassroots website by Thai parents monitors the use of corporal punishment in schools, naming particular

schools and teachers who violently punish children and demanding responses and actions from the school

administrations. While this particular approach is controversial, it demonstrates that parents can be

involved in creating more equitable schools. Meeting with parents, providing gender training, explaining

the reform initiatives, listening to their concerns, and involving them in the process of promoting gender

equity can strengthen the implementation in schools, as well as extend the impact of these programs

beyond the school and into the community. For example, the evaluation of the IHRE program in India

found that students and teachers engaged with parents – enlisting their support or actively resisting or

challenging their inequitable attitudes or behaviors (Bajaj, 2011a).

        Regarding all stakeholders, it is important to recognize that gender norms and inequalities are

deeply entrenched, and efforts to promote equality may be met with anything from indifference to active

resistance. Gender training at all levels – from parents and teachers to senior government officials – with

opportunities for discussion and reflection, can counteract this resistance and build support. Emphasizing

the benefits of promoting equality in schools, from compliance with international agreements to expanded

opportunities for boys and girls, can contribute to this process.



Implement and Evaluate Programs and Policies

        Once information is collected and support garnered, context-specific policy and program

interventions can be designed and implemented. Examples of such initiatives have been discussed

throughout this paper, and should be designed for the local context and needs. However, as this and other

recent reviews have indicated, more data and rigorous evaluations are sorely needed to understand the

short- and long-term impact of interventions on the gendered experiences of students in school. Thus, the

                                                                                                        31
fourth step – careful monitoring and rigorous evaluation of policies and programs at multiple-levels –

should be an integral part of these initiatives.


Table 1: Sample Indicators of Gender Equality in Education
                                         Equal          Treatment          and
Equal Access                                                                     Education and Other Outcomes
                                         Opportunity
(equality TO education)                                                          (equality THROUGH education)
                                         (equality WITHIN education)
Sex disaggregated:                        Subject choice/assignment by           Exam performance (on both
 Gross/net enrolment rates by             gender (including extra-curricular      international and local exams) by
  location, region, ethnicity, religion,   activities)                             gender
  socio-economic status, etc.             Gender-awareness in textbooks,         Male/female employment across
 Survival rates (+5 years of              curriculum, and teacher training        different levels of education
  schooling)                              Gender balance within classrooms       Gender differentials in teaching
 Drop-out rates                          Level of training of male/female        at all levels (recruitment, wages,
 Completion rates                         teachers                                positions)
 Absenteeism/attendance rates            Gender discrimination within the       Gender differentials in wages
 Repetition rates                         school and classroom (context           across different levels/sectors of
 Average years of schooling               specific indicators needed, e.g.,       employment
 Transition/progression to higher         teacher practices, access )            Changes in social norms and
  levels                                  Teacher gender attitudes                gender roles
 Proportion of female to male  Levels and types of violence                     Changes in levels of violence
  teachers, head teachers, school          experienced                            National, local, and school
  administrators     and      ministers,  Other         factors       shaping     related to outcomes
  inspectors                               participation and performance
 National, local, and school policies     (e.g.       reproductive/productive
  related to access                        responsibilities)
                                          National, local, and school
                                           policies related to equal treatment
                                           and opportunity
Adapted from (Subrahmanian, 2005)

Conclusions and Recommendations

        This paper presented ways in which the education system reproduces gender stereotypes and

inequalities, as well as policy and program examples that aim to instead promote gender equality in and

through education, harnessing the enormous transformative power of schools. We conclude with these

recommendations:

   Efforts to promote gender equality need to be comprehensive and systemic, supported by legislation,

    resource allocation, and institutional development. Gender training for education officials and

    collaborations across units and ministries may be necessary in order to garner support.

   Support for gender equality initiatives must also be built at the grassroots level, with students,

    teachers, parents and communities.


                                                                                                                  32
   Efforts should be guided by in-depth gender analyses and supported through data collection,

    monitoring, and evaluation, with specific attention to the intersection of gender with socio-economic

    status, ethnicity, regional differences, sexual orientation, disability, etc. Data should go beyond

    measures of access to capture equality within and through education, including gendered experiences,

    attitudes, and outcomes, as described in Table 1. A range of methods – qualitative, quantitative, and

    observational – with an emphasis on participatory approaches should be used.

   Explicit policies to prohibit discrimination and stereotyping, promote positive messages about

    equality, and reduce violence in schools should be developed and incorporated at the national, local,

    and school level. Processes and guidelines for addressing these issues should also be developed and

    widely disseminated to school authorities, teachers, parents, and students.

   Training on gender inequality, power dynamics, human rights, and violence should be an integral part

    of pre- and in-service teacher training, training for curriculum developers and school inspectors, and

    the student curriculum. Resources to support teachers including self-assessments, sample lesson

    plans, mentoring, and accessible resource persons or centers are necessary to help teachers improve

    their practices.

   Efforts to train, monitor, and support teachers to use child-centered, participatory, and diverse

    teaching and assessment styles, as well as training on positive, non-violent classroom management

    and disciplinary strategies should continue, as these methods focus on the diversity and strengths of

    children, rather than on gender stereotypes.

   Comprehensive approaches to eliminating violence in schools (both against girls and among boys or

    girls) should include establishing national and school level policies prohibiting violence and

    procedures to effectively address it when it does occur, as well as training program for violence

    prevention and teacher or bystander interventions.




                                                                                                       33
   Holistic, multi-dimensional programs that build social, emotional, and financial competencies in

    addition to educational skills, with a component on gender analysis and human rights, should be

    implemented, as part of the curriculum or as supplemental programs for both girls and boys.

   The gender analysis may reveal that programs targeted to specific disadvantaged groups are

    necessary. These programs may include incentives for enrollment, additional support, condensed or

    distance learning programs, depending on the specific needs.

   Continuous monitoring and rigorous evaluation of policy and program initiatives should be

    undertaken, using participatory methods to the extent possible. Lessons learned from these initiatives

    should be incorporated into the design and planning of current and future interventions.


        This report presented an overview of gender equality issues and initiatives in the education

sector. Challenging gender norms and inequalities is a long and challenging process, involving change at

the individual as well as institutional level. However, gender inequality also has serious costs, for men

and women, and for society as a whole. The various efforts outlined in this report show promise in

bringing about a more equitable world and expanding the range of opportunities for boys and girls, men

and women.




Annex A: Gender Equality in Education Resources

General Resources, including tools:

   UNESCO (2009) Gender in Education Network in Asia-Pacific (GENIA) Toolkit: Promoting
    Gender Equality in Education


                                                                                                       34
    A comprehensive guide for learning about, analyzing, implementing, and advocating for gender
    equality in education. Includes tools for raising gender-awareness among a range of stakeholders, as
    well as tools for assessing and creating gender-responsive educational environments and educational
    management.
    Available at: http://www.unescobkk.org/education/gender/gender-networks/genia-resources/

   Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) (2006) Experiences in creating a conducive
    environment for girls in schools: FAWE Centre of Excellence
    Includes useful discussions on setting up centers of excellence schools and on building support and
    collaborations.
    Available at: http://www.fawe.org/Files/fawe_best_practices_-_centres_of_excellence.pdf

   Canadian International Development Agency (2010) Education & Gender Equality Tipsheets
    Originally developed to assist CIDA program officers, this document explores issues of gender
    equality in education policy, education statistics and management information systems, teacher
    training, and curriculum development. The examples of result statements (outlining ultimate
    outcomes, intermediate outcomes, and immediate outcomes) and key questions to ask are particularly
    helpful.
    Available at: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2010/acdi-cida/CD4-62-2010-eng.pdf

   Equal Opportunities Commission, UK (2007) The gender equality duty and schools: Guidance
    for public authorities in England
    A useful example of guidelines for education professionals for implementing gender equality policies
    Available                                                                                         at:
    https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCoQFjAA&url=h
    ttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.equalityhumanrights.com%2Fuploaded_files%2FPSD%2F46_gender_equality
    _duty_and_schools_guidance.doc&ei=vOwsUoKDN6-
    r4AOv8YDgDg&usg=AFQjCNF1TxxTjQCCR3Tt3qA1ZxcCJoSnpQ&sig2=yQWa9PQIHS-
    Ggoo_8l6XXA&bvm=bv.51773540,d.dmg

Gender Training:

   Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training & UNESCO (2011) Teacher Training Modules
    that Address Gender Issues and Promote Gender Equality
    Specific training tools and activities for teachers and educational personnel. Includes assessment
    tools.
    Available                                                                                      at:
    http://www.academia.edu/2764201/Teacher_Training_Modules_that_address_gender_issues_and_pro
    mote_Gender_Equality


   FAWE (2005) Gender Responsive Pedagogy: A Teacher’s Handbook
    Another collection of tools and tips for training and sensitizing teachers to gender issues in their
    schools. Includes assessment tools.
    Available at: http://www.ungei.org/resources/files/FAWE_GRP_ENGLISH_VERSION.pdf

   UNESCO (2004) Gender Sensitivity: A training manual for sensitizing education managers,
    curriculum and material developers and media professionals to gender concerns
    Includes activities to sensitize a range of stakeholders to gender issues.
    Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001376/137604eo.pdf

                                                                                                      35
   International Center for Research on Women, CORO, and the Tata Institute for Social
    Sciences (2011) Gender Equity Movement in Schools (GEMS): Training Manual for
    Facilitators
    This manual was developed for facilitators working with middle-school students in India, and
    includes activities around gender and violence appropriate to that age-group.
    Available                                                                                 at:
    http://www.icrw.org/files/publications/Gender%20Equality%20Movement%20in%20Schools%20Tra
    ining%20Manual.pdf

   Promundo’s Program H & M toolkits
    Promundo’s training tools for young men and women focus more specifically on the role of
    masculinity in understanding gender inequalities, reducing violence, and improving sexual and
    reproductive health. Though not school specific, they have been implemented in school settings
    provide useful activities and tools, particularly for working with men and boys.
    Available at: http://www.promundo.org.br/en/publications-for-youth/

Specific Tools and Resources:

   UNESCO (2009) Promoting Gender Equality through Textbooks: A Methodological Guide
    This guide provides both a rationale for why textbooks are important in terms of gender equity and
    human rights, as well as specific tools to assess and monitor inequalities in textbooks.
    Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001588/158897e.pdf

   UNESCO (2005) Exploring and Understanding Gender in Education: A Qualitative Research
    Manual for Education Practitioners and Gender Focal Points
    This comprehensive manual provides guidance on conducting qualitative research (including
    interviews and observations) with a focus on gender in education.
    Available                                                                                 at:
    http://www.ungei.org/resources/files/Exploring_and_understanding_gender_in_education_UNESCO.
    pdf

   USAID (2009) SCOPE Report: Girls’ Improved Learning Outcomes (GILO)
    This report presents one useful example of an observation tool to examine teachers’ gendered
    behaviors. Developed as part of the GILO project in Egypt.
    Available                                                                                 at:
    http://gem2.org/sites/default/files/GILO%20SCOPE%202009%20Report_FINAL_20Apr2010.pdf




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