FILE COPy DOCUMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION Not For Public Use Report No.205-IN INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT BACKGROUND STUDIES OF THE CALCUTTA METROPOLITAN DISTRICT July 30, 1973 Urban Projects Department This report was prepared for official use only by the Bank Group. It may not be published, quoted or cited without Bank Group authorization. The Bank Group does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the report. These papers were prepared by the mission appraising the Calcutta Urban Development Project. Although they are not part of the Appraisal Report they do provide detailed background on certain aspects of the appraisal and are referred to at several points in the Report. INDIA BACKGROUND STUDIES OF THE CALCUTTA METROPOLITAN DISTRICT TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I ....... Demographic and Economic Profile of the CMD Part II ....... The ID' Infrastructure - Past Development and Present Situation Part III ....... Center, State and Municipal Responsibilities for Basic Urban Studies Part I ....... State and Municipal Finance Part V ....... Plans and Planning for Development of Urban Services Map 10261 ...... India - Eastern Region Map 10262 ...... West Bengal - Population Densities by District Map 10263 ...... CMD Population Densities in 1971 Map 10264 ...... CMDA Water Supply Service Districts and Major Facilities Map 10507 ...... D Sewerage Zones and Major Facilities Map 10508,...... GD Drainage Basins and Major Facilities Map 10509 ...... Major Urban Transport Projects Initiated during 1969/70-1973/74 Map 10510 ...... CMD Housing and Area Development Projects and Bustee Areas These studies have been prepared by Messrs. G. Kottis, S. Sandstrom, A. Van Nimmen and R. Woodford,and A. Holloway (consultant). PART I INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE GMD Table of Contents Page No. I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CMD IN THE CONTEXT OF WEST BENGAL AND INDIA 1 A. Population Growth I B. Urbanization 3 C. Economic Development 6 D. Demographic and Economic Projections 12 II. URBAN DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE CMD 13 A. Residential Development Patterns 13 B. The Location of Economic Activities 17 C. The Provision of Basic Urban Services 18 PART I Page 1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE CMD I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CMD IN THE CONTEXT OF WEST BENGAL AND INDIA 1.01. In Chapter I the CMD is described in relation to the State of West Bengal and India. I/ Population growth is discussed in general terms in Section A and urbanization patterns in Section B. The CMD economy is ana- lyzed in Section C, leading to some explanations of the population growth pattern observed in Sections A and B. Chapter II contains an intrametropolitan analysis of the CD. A. Population Growth 1.02 Decennial population estimates and growth rates for India, West Bengal and CM for the period 1901 to 1971 are shown in Table 1. The low and erratic growth in the three decades 1901-1931 is due to floods, crop failures, epidemics, and other natural disasters. The high 1931-41 growth rates for West Bengal and CMD should be interpreted with caution. Census authorities have suggested that the 1941 census was politically influenced, particularly in the district of Calcutta, and that the population figures were exaggerated. 2/ It can therefore be assumed that the growth rates for 1931-41 are too high and those for 1941-51 too low, for West Bengal and the CMD. 1.03 The CMD population increased rapidly relative to that of the State, until 1951, but since then there has been a relative decline in the CMD population. The CMD growth rate has during the last two decades been substantially lower than the growth rate of the State, and during 1961-71 the CMD even grew at a lower rate than India as a whole. This is in contrast to the experience of most other urban areas in India; for instance, Bombay, Delhi, Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Ahmedabad - all with populations of over one million persons in 1961 - have grown at annual rates varying from 3.3% to 4.4% as compared to the CMD's 2.1%. 1.04 The growth pattern of West Bengal relative to India has been al- most the opposite of the growth pattern of the CD relative to the State (Table 1). West Bengal's share of the national population declined slightly from 1901 to 1931, but has increased substantially during the last forty years, from 6.8% to 8.1%. The increase should be viewed in relation to the fact that West Bengal comprises only 2.8% of India's land area. That is, the average population density in West Bengal is now approximately three times the national average, 500 versus 170 persons per km , second highest amongst all states and union territories (see Table 2). 1/ For a more detailed description, see inci Ak Ozusta, Calcutta and Its Hinterland, IBRD, Urban Projects Department, December 1972. 2/ Census 1951 Report, Part 1-A, p. 230. PART I Page 2 1.05 The relatively high population density of West Bengal at the beginning of this century was attributable to climate, soil conditions, irrigation, mineral resources, and the development impact of Calcutta and its port. The relatively high growth rate of the State population after 1931 appears to be due mainly to two factors: inmigration because of economic conditions and employment opportunities and inflow of refugees from (then) East Pakistan. The importance of these two factors has been assessed in an analysis of the three main components of the State's popu- lation growth over the two latest decades; natural growth, inflow of refugees, and net immigration excluding refugees (see Table 3). The natural growth was estimated assuming that the growth rates for India as a whole are good approximations of the natural growth rates of the popu- lation in West Bengal. 1/ The data in Table 3 indicates that the inflow of refugees and the net inmigration were important and of about equal size during the 1950's, whereas there was very little net inmigration during the 1960's. 1.06 Available information on rural to urban migration flows 2/ suggests that on the order of 80% of the estimated net 1951-61 migration of 1.6 million persons came from the surrounding states of Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh, with Bihar alone supplying some 40%. Most of the 7.5 million refugees that entered West Bengal during 1971 (see Table 4) have now returned to Bangladesh; by mid-February 1972 about 6 million were estimated to have returned. 1.07 The distribution of population within West Bengal in 1951, 1961 and 1971, population growth rates and densities of each district in the State are shown in Table 5. 3/ The 1971 population densities are also shown in Map 10262. The 1961-71 population growth was more evenly distributed over the State than the growth between 1951-61. A related observation is that the average 1951-71 annual growth rate for the seven districts with densities above the State average of 500 persons per km2 is only marginally higher than the growth rate for the nine districts with densities below the State average, 2.67% versus 2.65%. 1/ There is some empirical support for this assumption. Surveys of births and deaths in West Bengal (Census of India, 1961, Vol. XVI, Part I-B, Report on Vital Statistics) indicate an average natural growth rate during the 1950's of approximately 1.9%, which is reasonably close to the 2.0% growth rate for India shown in Table 1. 2/ M. R. Chaudhuri, The Industrial Landscape of West Bengal, An Economic- Geographic Appraisal, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Calcutta, 1971, p. 93. 3/ In column (6) the 1961-71 growth rates from column (5) have been adjusted so that the average annual growth rate equals 2.9%, the average during the preceding decade; by comparing columns (4) and (6) one can immediately see in what districts the growth rate increased or decreased from 1951-61 to 1961-71, relative to other districts. PART I Page 3 1.08 Map 10262 illustrates that the seven Trost densely populated districts form a contiguous area in the south-eastern part of the State, around Calcutta. Of the nine low density districts the three in the south-west (Midnapore, Bankura and Purulia) had an average growth rate below the State average during both 1951-61 and 1961-71, while the six central and northern districts had average growth rates above the State averages for the same periods. Refugees from (then) East Pakistan have contributed greatly to the high growth rates in the northern districts. The low growth rates in Purulia imply that net outmigration has been taking place. According to a 1963 survey the most common reason for leaving the District of Purulia was lack of economic opportunity within the district, while the second most common was marriage. 1/ 1.09 The growth rate of Calcutta District (coterminus with the Calcutta Corporation and the city of Calcutta) was low and stable over the 1951-61-71 periods. The part of the CM, which lies outside the Calcutta Corporation area consists of parts of four surrounding districts, Howrah, Hooghly, 24-Parnagas and Nadia. The five districts taken together had an average annual rate of growth during 1951-71 of 2.5% which is higher than the rate of growth for the CMD itself, 2.2%, which means that not only has the State population been increasing more rapidly than the CMD's but the population in the area immedi- ately outside the CMD has also been increasing more rapidly than the CMD's. The Calcutta Metropolitan District is actually a pocket in the State with a relatively low rate of population growth (see Table 6). B. Urbanization 1.10 Urbanization rates for the 16 West Bengal districts, West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and India are shown in Table 7. The West Bengal rate is substantially higher than those for the surrounding states and for India as a hole. Among the 21 Indian states West Bengal ranked fourth in 1971 in terms of urbanization while Bihar ranked sixteenth, Assam eighteenth and Orissa nineteenth. 1.11 The four states of West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa form the Eastern Four-State Region (:ap 10261) which in 1971 had a population of 137.7 million, 25% of India's total population. It is the least urbanized of all the major regions of India, with only 14.3% of its population in urban areas. Calcutta's dominance over this region is overwhelming. All major 1/ Purulia's 1971 sex-ratio was 965 females per 1,000 males, the second highest in the State which has an overall ratio of 892; for India the ratio is 932 females per 1,000 males, while in the city of Calcutta there are only 638 females per 1,000 males. Cabinet Secretariat, Govern- ment of India, The National Sample Survey, Eighteenth Round: February 1963 - January 1964, No. 182, Tables with Notes on Internal Migration, Delhi, 1972, pp. 138 and 275. PART I Page 4 cities and urban agglomerations 1/ in the region, with a provisional 1971 population of 150,000 or more, have been ranked in Table 8. The population of the Calcutta Urban Agglomeration (CUA) was about seven million while the urban area next in size, Patna in Bihar had only half a million people. Durgapur, the second largest city in West Bengal, with a current population of about 210,000, had a population of less than 50,000 in 1961 (see paras. 1.14 - 1.17,below). 1.12 Calcutta's importance as a demographic and economic center for the Eastern Region, as well as for India, stems from the trading and industrial activities and policies of the East India Company (see further in Section '). Its dominance is declining, however, even if slowly. The CUA is the slowest growing major urban area in India, and its average annual rate of growth has over the last two decades been about half of that of the rest of urban West Bengal (see Table 9). No single urban area in West Bengal or the Eastern Region can as yet compete effectively with the CUA in terms of absolute attraction and growth, but when taken together the various small urban centers in West Bengal had an absolute 1951-71 growth of the same magnitude as the CUA, 2.2 versus 2.4 million persons. Table 9 also shows that the CUA's share of the total urban population in the State of West Bengal has gone down from 73% in 1951 to 64% in 1971. 113 Another indication of the atypical urbanization picture in West Bengal can be found in Table 10, which shows how the urban population was distributed over various town size classes in West Bengal (1951 and 1961) and India (1951, 1961 and 1971). The proportion of the urban population living in cities with 100,000 inhabitants or more has in the past been much higher in West Bengal than in India as a whole, 56% versus 44% in 1961. This oroportion has been increasing rapidly for India, from 38% in 1951 to 44% _n 1961- to 52% in 1971, while it has been slowly declining for West Lengal, fromn 58% in 1941 to 57% in 1951 to 56% in 1961. 2/ I! An urban agglomeration includes all contiguous municipalities defined as urban. The urban definition is (since the 1961 census): -ither (a) there should be a municipal corporation or other town body functioning; (b) there should be a minimum density of 1,000 per square mile; a minimum population of 5,000; at least 3/4 of the male working population should be outside agri- culture; o (c) or in the opinion of the State Census Director, the place should have pronounced urban characteristics. 2/ The 1971 figure for West Bengal is not yet available. PART I Page 5 1.14 Table 7 indicates that the district with the most rapidly increasing urbanization rate between 1961 and 1971 was Burdwan. Durgapur, now the second largest of the urban centers in the State, is located in the Asansol sub- division of this district (Map 10262). The average annual 1961-71 growth rate of Durgapur was 17.4%, and for the total urban population in the Asansol sub- division it was close to 10%, bringing it to about three quarters of a million persons in 1971. During the latter part of the 1960's the growth slowed some- what because of reduced demand for the raw material and industrial products coming from this area. 1.15 Durgapur is a "new town". From a village population of a few thousand in 1955, it developed within a decade into the single largest concentration of heavy industry in India. It lies within the so-called "Chotanagpur crescent", the industrial belt stretching from Rourkela and Jamshedpur in Bihar to Durgapur, through Ranchi, Bokaro, Dhanbad and Asansol. This belt contains 45% of India's iron ore, most of its coal and a third of its other mineral resources, excepting oil. 1/ 1.16 Durgapur is a "rich town". Its level of services is relatively high, and so is the income level of the population. Per capita income in 1966 was about Rs 72 per month; for the rest of India it was only about Rs 38 per month whereas in the CMD it was about Rs 84 per month. Although the money income level in the CMD is somewhat higher, Durgapur has many of the characteristics of a company town and its population receives substantial fringe benefits, in the form of subsidized housing and services, for instance. Furthermore, the income distribution is much more even in Durgapur than in Calcutta. In Durgapur about 44% of the families have to share 20% of the total income, in Calcutta about 60% of the families have to share the same percentage of the total income, while the average for urban India is about 54% (see Fig. 1). 2/ 1/ Asansol Planning Organization, Planning for a Coal-Steel Complex, mimeo 1967? p. 9. 2/ Sources: (a) Durgapur: Asansol Planning Organization, Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization, Durgapur Development Authority, A Perspective Structure Plan forDurgapur, mimeo, April 1968, Tables 1 and 2, p. 5. (b) Calcutta: State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, Survey of Housing Condition in Calcutta Corporation Area 1963, Calcutta 1967, Table 1.01, p. 16. Average per capita income in 1961 from Kingsley and Kristof, A Housing Policy for Metropolitan Calcutta, mimeo, Calcutta, March 1971, p. A-1. This 1961 per capita income was used to estimate the 1963 and 1966 per capita incomes assuming that changes in the CMD per capita income were directly proportioned to changes in the per capita income for the State as a whole. This pro- cedure indicates a 1969-70 per capita income of about Rs 95 per month in the CM'D which is very close to the income figure of Rs 98 per capita and month obtained in a 1969-70 survey. (c) Urban India: Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama, An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations. Pantheon, New York, 1968, Vol. III. p. 2185, Table 4, columin 1. The urban India distribution refers to 1960, the Calcutta distribution to 1963 and the Durgapur one to 1966, but significant changes are very unlikely to have occurred during these short periods; the distributions should therefore be comparable. PART I Page 6 Available information also indicates that the housing situation is much worse in Calcutta than in Durgapur. For instance, average monthly rent -ar family in 1966 was Rs 26 in Durgapur, while in 1963 it was Rs 52 in Calcutta. At the same. timesthe average occupancy rate was 2.2 persons per room in Durgapur and 3.0 persons per room in the CM. L.17 Although exceptional in many respects, Durgapur is but one of the small and scattered, viable alternative urban growth-points in West Bengal besides the CMD. Living conditions in these centers are generally better than in the CMD and some of them have now reached the size at which there are sufficient external economies to attract even highly specialized industries and institutions. Their future growth patterns are highly dependant on the way in which the Indian economy develops, however, as is the growth of the CMD. C. Economic Development 1.18 Economic problems lie at the root of many of the demographic phenomena observed in the two previous sections and behind some of the economic problems one finds physical constraints, particularly in the Calcutta area. This section analyzes the State and CMD economies, in the context of India, in an attempt to identify the main characteristics of their develop- ment and the interrelationship between the economic and demographic develop- ment of the area. Background 1.19 As mentioned in para. 1.04, West Bengal has about 8.1% of India's population but only about 2.8% of its land area. West Bengal is also richly endowed with mineral resources, as indicated in para. 1.15, and the State has specialized in non-agricultural economic activities. The British East India Company certainly contributed to this specialization. 1.20 Founded in 1599 and slowly establishing itself in Bengal during the following century, the East India Company came to have an impact on Bengal extending far beyond pure trade, for which it originally had received its charter. In 1690 the Calcutta area was chosen as the location for the head- quarters of the Company in Eastern India. In 1790 the Company "controlled the country's trade, financed indigo and sugar manufacture, covered the government contracts, ran three banks and four insurance companies at Calcutta and speculated in public securities'. 1/ In 1833 the Company's trade monopoly was abolished and new outlets for British enterprise in India were opened. Large amounts of British capital went into railway construction during the second half of the 19th century, and investments were also made in jute mills, tea plantations, banks, coal mining, iron works, etc. 1/ Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, West Bengal - An Analytical Study, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1971, p. 8. PART I Page 7 1.21 The Calcutta region and Bengal had a head start on the rest of the country in the industrialization process. The first modern jute mills in India were set up during 1872-74 in the present CMD, and several paper mills were also started during the same period, most of them in the Calcutta area. The first coal mining company, Bengal Coal Company, was set up in 1844, Barakar Iron Works in 1874, and the engineering industries of Howrah were started in the 1870's. In 1921 35% of the industrial workers in India were located in Bengal, and 25% in Bombay State. By 1939 these proportions had declined to 29 and 23% respectively. Present Economic Structure 1.22 The situation has changed substantially since 1939, mainly because of Partition. 1/ In Table 11 the 1961 Census employment figures are presented for India and West Bengal (tatal and urban), CMD and Calcutta City. West Bengal has a far more "developed" economic structure than India as a whole, with only 54% of total employment in the agricultural sector as compared to 73% for India. A comparison of urban India and urban West Bengal give the same result; urban West Bengal has particularly large proportions of its total work force in manufacturing and trade and commerce. 1.23 The CIVM is highly specialized in manufacturing with 38% of its work force employed therein, compared to 35% in urban West Bengal, 28% in urban India and only 9% in all of India (Table 11). Within the CMD the city of Calcutta has particularly large proportions of its work force in trade and commerce, transport, storage and communications, andoother services. The city's manufacturing employment is relatively low. 2/ 1.24 It is of interest to compare the structure of the CMD and West Bengal economies (as described in employment terms) with the structure of the Bombay and Maharashtra economies. Comparable figures are given in Table 12. It is apparent that the structure of the Maharashtra economy is very similar to that of India and Greater Bombay is similar to the CMD. That is, Greater Bombay is industrially much more developed relative to its immediate hinterland than the CMD is relative to its. 1/ New statistical procedures and definitions, the 1959 reorganization of the State boundaries and the creation of Maharashtra make long range time series analyses rather treacherous. However, some indication of the current situation and development trends can be obtained from various sources with reasonably consistent data. 2/ The employment figures for the city of Calcutta should be interpreted with some caution because the Census gives employment by place of residence of the worker, not by place of work. Daily commuting to work across the city boundaries is not expected to affect the distri- bution in column (12), Table 11, substantially, however, because of the size of the city. PART I Page 8 Economic Performance 1.25 Given that the relative structures of the economies in the CMD and Greater Bombay are similar, it is of interest to make a comparative analysis of individual sectors and their performance. An attempt has been made to assemble some comparative statistics for India, CMD, West Bengal, Greater Bombay, and Maharashtra (Table 13). 1/ One of the more interesting facts revealed in the table is that in 1960/61 per capita annual income in the CMD was only about 72% of that in Bombay (Rs 740 versus Rs 1,020). 2/ Per capita income in West Bengal was at the same time about 80% of Marahashtra's (Rs 310 versus Rs 390). The data in Table 13 suggests several explanations for these income differentials: (1) the ratio of total employment to total population was much highner in Bombay (0.41) and Maharashtra (0.48) than in the CMD (0.35) and West Bengal (0.33) and (2) net value added per worker and year was higher in Maharashtra (Rs 460 in the primary sector, Rs 1,500 in secondary, Rs 1,880 in tertiary) than in West Bengal (Rs 650, Rs 1,270 and Rs 1,420 respectively) in both the secondary and tertiary sectors. 1.26 Close to 50% of net value added and employment in large factories ,n India is generated in West Bengal and Maharashtra, with about equal share in each of them (see Table 13). Most of these factories are located in the cwo metropolitan areas, each having about 15% of the total Indian employment in large factories in 1961. Net value added per worker and year in these factories is much lower in West Bengal than in Maharashtra (Rs 4,100 versus 6,300 in 1966; see Table 14). In addition, the rate of increase in net value added per worker is much lower in West Bengal (36% during 1961-66)than in Maharashtra (54%), and even less than in India as a whole (44%). 1.27 The data in Table 13 give a clear indication of the CMD's importance i.n the Indian economy, with about 5% of both net value added and employment Ln the secondary and tertiary sectors generated in the CMD, and with about 15% of Indi's large factory employment located there. However, the CMD's import- ince -Z far greater than is indicated by these figures. The institutions developed in Calcutta in such areas as trade, commerce, transportation, health and education a-re of unmeasurable importance to the development of the city's hinterland, and t.o India. !or instance, Calcutta is where, in 1964, 42% of India's exports left dhe c-uncry and where 25% of the imports arrived. 3/ In 1964, 30% 1/ The figures should be interpreted with some caution, particularly for the CMD and Greater Bombay. When assembling data from various sources one often comes across discouraging inconsistencies; in Table 13 the net value added in the secondary sector is larger in the CMD than in the State of Wesc Bengal. It is not clear whether the CMD figure is too high or the Stal"e one too low. 2! Smail area income figures, such as those for the CMD and Bombay, are not very reliable. For instance, when income figures are estimated from net value added, it is usually implicitly assumed that all production factor income goes to people living in the area. This is mostly true for wages and salaries, but not necessarily for profits. 3/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, CMD 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1966, p.1. PART .I Page 9 of the nation's bank transactions took place in Calcutta, and the same year the city produced 30% of the national tax revenue. 1/ Furthermore, institu- tions in the CMD educate approximately 13% of all India's students pursuing higher education. 2/ Reasons for Slow Growth 1.28 Considering that (1) the economic structure of the CMD,when viewed at the level of aggregation shown in Tables 11-13, is favorable for relatively rapid employment and economic growth, (2) the CMD's hinterland is rich on natural resources, and (3) the CMD has an established and well developed institutional framework, it is, prima facie, unexpected that the population growth rate in the CMD has been declining and now is less than the growth rate for India (Table 1), (2) the per capita income in the CMD is so much low,er than the per capita income in Bombay (Table 13), and (3) the net value added per worked in large factories in the CMD is so much lower than the average for India and also is increasing at such a low rate (Table 14). Some partial explanations will be attempted below. 1.29 The manufacturing production in the CMD is concentrated in industries which are stagnating or declining. For instance, in 1951 about 50% of all registered manufacturing jobs in the CMD were in the jute industry; in 1963 this share had gone down to about 36%, representing about 93% of the national total of 258,000 registered jobs in the jute industry. 3/ The number of CMD Jobs in the jute industry declined between 1951 and 1963 at an average annual rate of 1.2%, thereby almost offsetting a 1951-63 annual growth rate of about 5.6% in the engineering industry which in 1951 had only about 20% of total registered manufacturing employment but in 1963 had increased its share to about 33%. 4/ These figures indicate that rapid and substantial differential changes -I the manufacturing industries have been taking place in the CMD,and that part of the reson for the gloomy over allpicture is that the CM has been, and still is, specialized in stagnating industries such as jute textiles. 1.30 The Calcutta Port, located on the banks of the Hooghly river, is of vital importance to the CMD and West Bengal, as well as to the rest of India and the problems it now experiences are having a substantial impact on the economy of the CMD. Until the end of the 18th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly arm of the Ganga river was the main channel through which the low water discharge of the river used to flow into the Bay of Bengal, and it was this flow of the Ganga along the Bhagirathi-Hooghly course that led to the growth of the flourishing urban settlements along the latter's bank, among them Calcutta. However, over time more and more water has come to be diverted to the Padma-Meghna arm of the Ganga, flowing through Bangladesh, and the duration of the upland supply of water into the Bhagirathi-Hooghly is now limited to about five months per year, from mid-June to mid-November. As a result much of the silt carried by the river is being deposited before it reaches the sea. Ships 1/ Geoffrey Moorhouse, Calcutta, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., New York, 1971, p. 119. 2/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, CMD 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1966, p. 1. 3/ IBRD, Economic Situation and Prospects of India, South Asia Department, May 10, 1972, Volume III, p. 35. 4/ CM0, Basic Development Plan, CMD, 1966-1986, op. cit., p. 25 PAT I Page 10 entering or leaving Calcutta Port now have to cross no less than fifteen sand bars, and can do so only at high tide. No ships of 10,000 tons or more, or with drafts of over 26 feet, can reach the Port of Calcutta at all. 1.31 To improve the situation, or at least to prevent further deterioration the Farakka Barrage project is being.undertaken. However, even after this project has been completed the Port of Calcutta will not be able to receive many ships now being built,in sizes of over 10,000 tons, including ships of 15,000 tons which are now in use for coastal trade of coal and other products. 132 Partly as a response to the problems of the Calcutta Port a new port is now under construction in Haldia, 45 miles down river from Calcutta and well located for the development of a port to complement the Calcutta Port. The Haldia Port will be able to accommodate bulk cargo ships of up to about 45,000 tons, and is expected to be commissioned in June 1973. 1.33 Central Government policies are also considered by some to have contributed to the relative economic decline of West Bengal and the CMD. For instance, it has been said that West Bengal has been discriminated against in the Five-Year Plans, that there has been discriminations against West Bengal in the matter of granting industrial licences, etc. Many of these allegations have been refuted on the grounds of existing statistics. 1/ That some Central Government policies may have negatively affected the State and CMD seems likely, however. For instance, the national policy of industrial decentral- ization and promotion of the development of backward States has probably had an adverse effect on the development of the CMD and West Bengal. In particular, the equalization of steel prices and subsidization of coal prices have taken away much of the locational advantages enjoyed by West Bengal industries, while at the same time measures to reduce the locational disadvantages of West Bengal with regard to other materials, such as raw cotton, has not been attempted. 1/ 1.34 Much of the productive capital in the CMD and West Bengal is old and relatively outdated, which - particularly when combined with the drastic shift from non-engineering to engineering manufacturing production (para. 1.29) implies that capital requirements are great. At the same time there has been reluctance in the private sector to invest in the CMD. The deteriorating situation in the CMD, with limited public services, political instability and civil disorder, certainly affected many investment decisions over the last couple of decades. With the current turn of events this trend may be reversed, and capital is expected to start flowing back to the CMD when the overall situation improves and when the change in the State and Central Governments' attitudes towards the CMD becomes generally recognized. 1.35 Besides the CMDA program and other efforts to improve the urban infra- structure in the CMD, there are programs under way to improve some of the more specific economic conditions in the CMD and West Bengal. In particular, the Central Government in August 1971 announced a sixteen point program specifically aimed at improving the West Bengal economy by removing many legal and admini- strative bottlenecks and by instituting incentive programs. Steps are being 1/ Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, West Bengal - An Analytical Stuly, op. cit. Chapter 16. PART I Page 11 taken to strengthen the West Bengal Industrial Development Corporation which will promote growth of private sector firms and also set up new industrial enterprises in the joint sector. In April 1971 the Government of India set up the Industrial Reconstruction Corporation of India Ltd., with its head office in Calcutta. This institution has already provided wide ranging assistance to 60 industrial units, most of which are located in West Bengal. The Government of West Bengal has also initiated a policy of assuming manage- ment of inefficient and financially distressed firms with a view to putting them back on the road to financial recovery. Under this scheme the manage- ment of a number of firms has already been taken over by the Government. 1/ Unemployment 1.36 The conceptual and statistical problems involved in the estimation of unemployment rates are formidable in India (including definitional changes between the decennial Censuses), 2/ and particularly so in the CMD where the only presently available information refers to the 1950's and then only to the city of Calcutta. 3/ The latest detailed information published, for 1959, 4/ seems consistent with earlier findings and with the scattered pieces of data and "expressed opinions" on the situation during the 1960's. 1.37 In 1959 the overall labor force participation rate in the city of Calcutta was as high as 45%, mainly because of the high proportion of males in the population, and the unemployment rate (unemployed persons in per cent of the labor force) was approximately 12%. The unemployment rate was higher for people with some education than for the uneducated, maybe reflecting the fact that the uneducated cannot afford to be unemployed, and it was also higher for young people than for old people. 1.38 In the reports on the 9th to 15th Rounds of the National Sample Survey (1955-1960), of the urban labor force, combined statistics are presented for the four cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi and Madras, indicating that the labor force represented about 37% of the total population and that the unemployment rate hovered around 8%. During the 1960-67 period the unemploy- ment rate in urban West Bengal was only 2-3%, with the labor force comprising some 35% of the population, according to the 16th to 21st Rounds of the NSS. 1/ CMPO, Urban Situation - CMD, Calcutta, November 1972, p. 27. Commerce, Vol. 125, No. 3196, August 5, 1972, pp. 7-10. 2/ See IBRD, Economic Situation and Prospects of India, op. cit. pp. 39-46. 3/ See H. Lubell, Urban Development and Employment: The Prospects for Calcutta, World Employment Programme, WEP-2-19 - Interim Draft, ILO, Geneva, October 1972. 4/ Government of West Bengal State Statistical Bureau, Report on the Survey of Unemployment in Calcutta and Calcutta Industrial Areas 1959, Calcutta, 1966. PART I Page 12 1.39 From the above information the following conclusion may be drawn: the labor force participation rate and the unemployment rate are substantially higher in the city of Calcutta than in the rest of urban West Bengal and probably also higher than in Bombay, Delhi, and Madras. Considering the un- reliability of the existing data, reasonable and for present purposes satis- factorily accurate estimates of the present rates for the CMD as a whole might be that the labor force participation rate is 40% (taking into account the drop in the proportion of males during the 1960's) and the unemployment rate 10%, giving an estimate of about 335,000 unemployed persons in 1971. D. Demographic and Economic Projections 1.40 In the course of preparing the Basic Development Plan (BDP) several population projections were made for the CND up to 1986 based on various assumptions regarding mortality and fertility rates, female to male ratios, and net immigration to the CMD. Table 15 summarizes nine of the projections made, 1A-3C, all of which were based on an assumption of declining mortality, and extrapolates the trends in these projections until year 2001. Projection 4 assumes a constant annual growth rate of 2.1%, equal to the actual 1961-1971 rate. The forecast population in year 2001 varies from a low of 13.9 million to a high of 20.3 million. 1.41 In the BDP, projection 2B was chosen as most likely, suggesting that the 1971 CMD population would be 8.6 million, slightly more than the actual 8.3 million. It may be that the rate of inmigration to the CMD was over-estimated, a rate which is extremely difficult to estimate and predict due to lack of data and understanding of the migratory process, and due to the inflow of refugees. The 1951-61 annual rate of net inmigration to the CMD has been estimated to about 1.0%, 1/ implying that the rate of natural growth during the same period was only 1.3%, or about 65% of the national rate of natural increase. In the future the rate of net inmigration may go down, as a result of the elimination of the inflow of refugees, while the rate of natural increase may remain constant, or even go up, because of an expected "improvement" in the female to male ratio. Projection 4, with a constant annual growth rate of 2.1%, may be realistic, suggesting a CMD population of 11.4 million in 1986 and 15.6 million in 2001. The Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage for the CMD is based on population projections which are very close to Projection 4. 1.42 For the sake of determining future water and sewerage requirements for the CMD industries and for transport planning, some employment projections have also been prepared by CMPO. Most important is the projection of jobs in the various manufacturing industries; it is projected that the number of jobs in the jute industry will remain constant, while manufacturing jobs as a whole will increase by about 3.1% per year from 1961 to 2001. 2/ 1/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 68 2/ H. Banerjee, The Socio-Economic Plan Frame, mimeo, CMPO, July 1967. PART I Page 13 II. URBAN DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE CMD A. Residential Development Patterns 2.01 In Chapter I the growth of the total CMD population was analyzed and related to the rest of the State and India. An attempt is made in this chapter to estimate how the population was spatially distributed within the CMD in 1951, 1961 and 1971; see Table 16 where in addition the 1951-61-71 growth rates and the 1971 densities are given.1! The densities are shown in Map 3. 2.02 The Basic Development Plan (BDP) divided the 0D into three major zones, the Metropolitan Center (Zone I), covering Calcutta on the East Bank and Howrah on the West Bank plus immediately surrounding areas, the Kalyani- Bansberia Center (II), in the northern part of the CMD, and the rest of the CMD (III); (Map 10263). Using the River Hooghly as a natural boundary each zone can be further divided into an east (E) and a west (W) zone. Zone III, the rest of the CMD, consists of three disconnected areas: a north-central (NC) part, a south-eastern (SE) part and a south-western (SW) part. The preceding notations have been used in the tables and in Map 10263. Comparative Urban Densities 2.03 Before examining the details of the CMD it would be worthwhile to compare the densities in the CMD with similar figures for other major metropolitan areas (see Table 18). Of the eleven urban areas studied Bombay city has the highest density with about 45,500 persons per km2, followed by Calcutta with some 33,000 persons per km2. Densities are, however, heavily dependent on area definitions and the density of the central city in most cases increases if its boundary is moved inwards. Keeping this in mind and trying to compare areas of the same size the following observations can be made. 1/ The Calcutta Corporation area was divided into five sub-areas, A-E. The ward definitions in the Corporation area were changed between the 1961 and 1971 Censuses, increasing the number of wards from 80 to 100, but with suitable definitions of the five sub-areas it was possible to estimate comparable population figures for 1961 and 1971. Using 1971 wards, the five sub-areas are defined as follows: A: 1-20, 29-36, 58-60; B: 21-28, 37-56, 63-65; C: 57,61-62, 66-68, 71-77, 87-93; D: 69-70, 94-100; E: 78-86. In relation to the zones in Survey of Housing Condi- tions in Calcutta Corporation Area, 1963 (State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, 1967) the definitions are: A: Zone 1-2; B: 3-5 plus Fort; C: 6-7; D: 9; E: 8. For changes in ward definitions, see Corporation of Calcutta, Year Book 1971-72, pp. 72-74. PART I Page 14 2.04 The central part of Calcutta city (sub-areas A-C) is of about the size of Bombay city and has a density of about 44,000 persons per km2 which is about the same as in Bombay. Further, the east bank portion of the CMD Metropolitan Center is comparable in area to Greater Bombay and has a density of about 12,000 persons per km2 which is nearly equal to Bombay's 13,500 persons per km2. Paris, which covers 105 km , has a density of about 25,000 persons per km2, only 75% of Calcutta's density. Manhattan, the most densely populated of New York City's counties, also has a density of "only" 26,000 persons per km2. The eight most densely populated of Bang- kok's twelve districts cover an area of 85 km2, which is somewhat less than the Calcutta city area, but have an average density of only 21,000 persons per km2 as compared to Calcutta's 33,000. 2.05 Given the low rise housing that prevails in Calcutta, it is clear that its density indicates undesirable crowding and that great demands are placed on the provision of public services, for health, water, sewerage, drainage, transportation, etc. One should also keep in mind that Calcutta city is the focal point for employment and transportation in one of the world's largest metropolitan areas; the fact that the CMD population is about 1.4 times the population in 07eater Bombay suggests that the actual crowding in Calcutta city is much greater than in Bombay city. Past Growth Pattern 2.06 The average growth rate of the two corporations and 33 munici- palities in the CMD went down from 25% during 1951-61 to 17% during 1961-71, while that of the 35 non-municipal urban units (towns) and numerous rural pockets increased from 29% to 63% (see Table 16). That is, the central high- density parts of the CMD have a declining growth rate while the outlying areas have increasing ones. This is far from surprising, and it is of more interest to consider the direction of the CMD's growth. 2.07 Summary data for each zone and the two river banks is presented in Table 17. In spite of the lower densities on the West Bank it seems that its growth rate is declining relative to the rest of the CMD, from 30.2% during 1951-61 to 23.5% during 1961-71. The lack of bridges across the river is certainly one of the reasons for this; the external econo- mies of Calcutta and the other population and employment concentrations on the East Bank are not easily accessible fr6m the West Bank. In the 53 miles of river between Kalyani in the north and Budge Budge in the south, there are only two points at which road traffic can cross the river. The only bridge between Howrah, with its railway station, and Calcutta, with its port and government/business district, is Howrah Bridge, built some PART I Page 15 thirty years ago, and it is heavily congested. 12 2.08 As data in Table 17 shows, the growth rate of the Metropolitan Center decreased from 24.8% to 17.2% batween 1951-61 and 1961-71, while the growth rate of the Kalyani-Bansberia Center in the north increased from 29.6% to 40.1% and the rest of the CMID increased its growth rate even more, from 26.8% to 42.8%. During 1961-71 the growth rates of the Kalyani-Bansberia Center and the rest of the CMD were about the same, 40.1% versus 42.8%, with average I971 densities also similar, 3,668 versus 3,704 persons per km2. The performance of the Kalyani-Bansberia area is note- worthy in that one basic concept in the Basic Development Plan is a two- center approach, with the Kalyani-Bansberia Center being developed as a major alternative center to the Metropolitan Center. In the BDP it was assumed that the public acticns and infrastructure development program suggested in the plan would begin to have an impact after 1971 _/ and that the growth rate of the Kalyani-Bansberia Zone would increase rapidly after that year. 2.09 The core of the zone is the town of Kalyani, a new town within the GD, with a present population of only about 25,000 persons. It is designed for low density development and has relatively high service levels. With its small size and as presently conceived, Kalyani appears unlikely to have any major impact on the development of the CMD, in contrast to the expectations expressed in the BDP. For instance, it has been estimated that only CMD families within the upper 4% of the household income range can afford to live in Kalyani with its present design standards, and for those high income households Kalyani is not an attractive alternative 3/ 1/ One observer has described conditions on Howrah Bridge as follows: "In 1947 it was estimated that 12,000 motor vehicles alone crossed the bridge every day; by 1964 the figure had risen to 34,000; today it will be something over 40,000. On top of the motor traffic there is the traffic in bullock carts, handcarts, tramcars, bicycles and simply the endless stream of people; there are half a million pedes- trians pushing and heaving their way over Howrah Bridge every day. Very often everything just locks into a solid jam in which nothing can move for hours. It is now not unknown for the multitudinous traffic of Howrah Bridge to seize up before noon and to stay that way until late in the evening, by which time the police have been called out not only to disentangle everything, but to charge with their lathis and their shields, to put down the riots that have broken out where there is enough room for civil disturbance at each end of the bridge". (Geoffrey Moorhouse, Calcutta, op. cit., p. 279.) 2/ CMPO, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, mimeo, Calcutta, 1966, pp. 41-42 and 47-48. 3/ Nirmala Banerjee, Kalyani, CMPO, March 1972, p.9. PART I Page 16 Projected Growth Pattern 2.10 The population data and growth trends for the CMD shown in Table 17 should be compared with the forecasts of population distribution on which the planning behind the CMDA program was based. These estimates were prepared by CMPO in two stages. The total CMD population was first estimated and then a spatial distribution of the population was deter- mined. Two such forecasts exist; one was prepared in the context of the BDP and it is the one on which the Traffic and Transportation Plan 1 is based, while the second one was made for the Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewcrage and Drainage 2/ (MP). The BDP forecast of the growth of the total CMD population was discussed in Section ID. The aggregate CMD growth rates arrived at in the MP forecast were lower than the BDP growth rates: 51% from 1961 to 1981 (2.09% per year) and 50% from 1981 to 2001 (2.04% per year) versus the BDP's 63% during 1961-81 (2.48% per year). The MP growth rate for 1961-81 appears to be more reasonable than the BDP rate. 2.11 The MP calculations of the intrametropolitan population distri- bution is spatially more detailed than the BDP projection and also appear more realistic. A technically rather complex approach was used in pre- paring the BDP estimates, but in the process many questionable assumptions were made and the end result is not convincing ./. Three key observations can be made about the BDP projections. First, they underestimate the re- lative growth rate outside of the Metropolitan Center. According to the BDP the Metropolitan Center's share of the CMD population would decrease only about 1% between 1961 and 1971, while the actual decrease was 4% (1% represents some 80,000 persons). Second, the BDP projects that the area around the Metropolitan Center will have a constant or declining share of the CMD population (21.7% in 1971, 21.2% in 1976) which is far from the usual pattern of metropolitan growth. In summary, the BDP both under,stimates the rate of change in the spatial structure of the CMD and most Litely overestimates the growth potential of the Kalyani-Bansberia Center relative to the rest of the C11,1D. Third, the BDP projections were made as ta-gets, and assumed that recommended public actions and infra- structure development programs would be undertaken. All these assumptions have not been fulfilled, however, and furthermore, all development plans do not accept, or at least do not use, the BDP targets/projections as a basis for plarining. 1/ CMPC, Taffic and Transportation Plan, Calcutta.Metropolitan District, 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1966. 2/ CMPO, Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage atid Drainage, Calcutta Metropolitan District (1966-2001), Calcutta, 1966. 3/ Sce Table 19 where, in colums (1)-(3), the actual 1951, 1961 and 1971 populatiyn distributions over the five zones are shown, while columns (4) and (5) show the distributions predicted for 1971 and 1976 in the BDP (prepared in 1966). PART I Page 17 2.12 The intra metropolitan population projections prepared in the Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage are of importance to a large portion of the CMDA program. In Table 20 an attempt has been made to aggregate the MP projections, made for ten zones which do not coincide with the zones used in the BDP, in such a way that they can be compared with the 1951-61-71 actual population distribution in Tables 16-17. Cal- cutta's share of the CMD population is projected to decline at about the same rate in the future as during the last two decades, while Howrah and Bally will maintain their share, i.e. they will grow at about the same rate as the CMD as a whole. The most rapid growth is projected to take place on the East Bank, outside of Calcutta city. Between 1971 and 1981 the population on the West Bank is projected to increase at a lower rate than the population on the East Bank, but the situation will be reversed from 1981 on; this is consistent with the current transport situation which will improve during the late 1970's with additional river crossing facilities. In short, the MP population projections appear to have con- tinuing validity. B. The Location of Economic Activities 2.13 There is very little information about the location of jobs within the CMD. The only detailed data available is contained in a 1964 study '± which estimated the 1961 location of manufacturing jobs and also made forecasts of the same for 1981 and 2001 (see Table 21). In 1961 about 30% of the manufacturing jobs in the CID were located in the city of Calcutta. This share is estimated to decline rapidly, to 15% in 1981 and 9% in 2001, whereas the most substantial growth will take place on the East Bank, east and south of the city, where the share will increase from 10% in 1961 to 20% in 2001. 2.14 Viewing the distribution of manufacturing employment relative to the distribution of population, the East Bank north of the city had a relatively large share of the manufacturing jobs in 1961, 25% as against only 20% of the population. The city of Calcutta, on the other hand, had 43% of the population, but only 31% of the manufacturing employment. 2.15 The employment forecasts shown in Table 21, and earlier dis- cussed in Section ID, appear realistic in both their spatial and sectoral aspects. They have been used to determine future industrial water require- ments in the CMD (see Annex 11). 2/ 1/ H. Banerjee, The Socio-Economic Plan Frame, op. cit. 2/ The annexes are found in the main volume of the Appraisal Report. PART I Page 18 C. The Provision of Basic Urban Services 2.16 The attempt is made in this section to describe the various public services currently provided in the CMD in such a way (1) that the Calcutta situation can be viewed in its proper context, i.e. relative to other cities, to the extent available information so permits, and (2) that the impact of the CMDA program can be properly understood and evaluated (see Annex 11 for the evaluation of the CMDA program). The following services will be dis- cussed: water, sewerage and environmental hygiene, drainage, and housing. More dat2iled descriptions of the technical, institutional and financial aspects o" oach sector can be founa in Part II; the purpose here is to identify and analyze actual service levels. Wate 217 When estimating water supply per capita in a particular area, some attention has to be paid to the fact that the water consuming population may differ substantially from the resident population. In an effort to estimate the daytime population in Calcutta. and Howrah, 1964 passenger and vehicle counts -rcm the Traffic and Transportation Plan (see Part V) were used (see lable 22), Daytime to resident population ratios were found to be about 1.23 for Calcutta and 1.18 for lowrah. In order to get some perspective on these values similar ratios were estimated for Tokyo (1970 and 1985) and New York City (1955) and were found to be about 1.43, 1.61 and i17, respectively (see Table 23). The ratio for New York City considers only workers com- muting into the central area, while the Calcutta and Tokyo ratios also in- clude shoppers and people using the specialized services available in the cancral area. The Calcutta and Eowrah ratios appear reasonable, and it will easumed that they will increase to 1.30 and 1.25 respectively, in 1971, 5,d 1.35 in 1981, and 1.50 1.45 in 2001. It will further be as- t there is a correspondin- radction in the daytime population in st the CTM, and chat one ,avtime resident equals one-half of one fulrme resident in terms of water consumption. In Table 24 the 1970/71 water supply 1/ in the CMD is presented, oporation/municipality and the rest of the OND, with the population figures adjusted in accordance withn the estimates and assumptions dis- cussed In the preceding paragraph. Tlhe extremely uneven distribution over 1h PE iclear: from a hand-pumped supply of 4 gpcd 2/ in Panihati (24), wih a population of some 130,000; to a piped supply of 39 gpcd in Khardah S3). adjacent to Panihati. The unevenness is shown graphically in Figures 2 and about 55% of the population receives less than 25 gpcd, while the remain g 45% receives more than 35 gpcd (Figure 2), and about 40% of the population now shares only 10% of the total supply (Figure 3). (The 1981 values shcwn in the figures are discussed in Annex 11). 1/ No corrections for leakage have been attempted. 2/ Gallons (imperial) per capita and day. PART I Page 19 2.19 In the city of Calcutta the current supply is about 37 gpcd. This value excludes the supply of unfiltered water which in 1965 averaged 90 Mgd, or, at that time, about 25 gpcd. The unfiltered water is taken directly from the River Hooghly and is intended for non-drinking purposes such as street-cleaning, fire-fighting, toilet-flushing and sewer main- tenance. In actual practice, however, considerable use is also made of this water -- particularly in bustees -- for washing foodstuffs and uten- sils, and for drinking. An examination of the unfiltered supply in 1958-59 and later showed the presence of cholera vibrio in five percent of the sam- ples taken 1/. The unfiltered supply is to be phased out during the current development program. 2.20 The total supply of filtered water in the city has been increa- sing much slower than the population, and as a result the per capita supply has been decreasing. In 1931/32 the per capita (resident only) supply of filtered water from the Palta plant was 52 gpd, but in 1970/71 it had decreased to 32 gpd. Ground water tubewells have been installed to meet the shortage and there are now more than 11,000 public tubewells in the city; to this should be added an unknown number of private tubewells, mostly used to supply water for industrial purposes. 2.21 In addition to the tubewells in the city, there are more than 7,500 hand-operated tubewells in the rest of the CMD. Seven of the 33 municipalities, with a resident population of about 453,000 persons, rely totally on such small tubewells for their water supply, as do the 1.7 mil- lion persons living in towns and rural areas. There is very limited super- vision of these tubewells and the quality of the water is often low. For instance, south of the city the water quality is so bad that the tubewells require a high level of maintenance and frequent replacement. Also, the hand-operated tubewells take their water from the highest layer of ground water, which is easily polluted, while larger machine-operated tubewells can extract water from lower layers. 2.22 Most municipalities use ground water for their supply of piped water, through large tubewells, and only a few of them use river water for part of their supply: Hooghly-Chinsura, Uttarpara-Kotrung and Seram- pore on the West Bank, Kamarhati and Baranagar on the East Bank 2/. 2.23 The CMD supply levels are put into some perspective in Table 25 where they are compared with levels in eight other urban areas. It is obvious that the CMD supply is very low, even in the Indian context. For instance, the CMD per capita supply is only 65% of the Greater Bombay sup- ply and 46% of the Delhi supply. Even in 1981, after the first phase of the current development program, the CMD supply will be less than the current supply in Delhi. 1/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 26. (Chlorination of the unfiltered supply has subsequently been increased but the oresence of cholera vibrio has not been eliminated.) 2/ CMPO, The Report on the Finances and Administration of the Munici- palities of the CMD, mimeo., Calcutta, 1972, p. 32. PART I Page 20 Seweraga and Environmental Hygiene 2.24 Broadly speaking, there exist four levels of sewerage services in the CMD: (i) No service, with the sewage dumped wherever it is most convenient; (ii) service privies, open bowls which receive the soil and which are supposed to be emptied regularly; (iii) septic tanks; and (iv) water-borne sewerage. The expression "environmental hygiene", used in the CMD, refers to (ii) and (iii). In Table 26 the extent to which each of these services exists in che CM is shown, and an attempt has also been made to compare the CGD situation with Bombay, Madras and Delhi. 2.25 Only 66% of the Calcutta city population is served by water- borne sewerage and of the total CMD population only 26% is served, as com- pared to 68% in Greater Bombay. The remainder of the population, 6.2 million persons, have to rely on service privies and septic tanks to the extent they have access to them. 2.26 With more than 200,000 privies and septic tanks in the CMD, it is no surprise to find that conservancy comprises the largest single cate- gory of municipal expenditures for services L/. It accounts for an average of over 36% of the total ordinary expenditures for the municipalities 2, and in Calcutta Corporation the percentage is about 22% 3/. But even with such a high relative share of the municipal resources going into conser- vancy, the conditions are far from satisfactory, with privies and tanks often overflowing because of inadequate collection. The effect of the more than 200,000 badly maintained privies and tanks on the quality of the water derived from more than 17,500 tubewells, most of which are small and hand-operated, can easily be imagined. Furthermore, the piped water supply from the Palta plant is also affected because of the low water pressure in, and the low quality of, the distribution system. During the monsoon period the contents of the privies are floating around openly in the streets, inside low-lying buildings, in bathing and washing tanks, etc.; the incidence of cholera rises when the monsoon rains fall. / Conservancy consists of the collection and disposal of sewage and solid waste, street cleaning, etc. 2/ CMPO, Report on the Finances and Administration of the Municipalities of the CM , op. cit., p.37. 3/ Calcutta Corporation Year Book 1971-72, op. cit. p. 194(b). PART I Page 21 Drainage 2.27 Water and sewerage systems cannot be treated separately from drainage systems; there is a close relationship between the three. For instance, with the inadequate drainage facilities in the CND the existing sewerage systems often become overloaded with storm water which presses the sewage into streets and buildings, as well as into the low pressure, low quality water distribution systems. The marginal benefits of improving the drainage system may in many Indian cities be greater than the marginal benefits from improvements in water and sewerage systems. 2.28 The drainage facilities in the CMD are grossly inadequate, parti- cularly within the Calcutta area. Part of the blame for this goes back to the last century when ina? ropriately low design criteria for storm water drainage were adopted _/ 2.29 The drainage system within the city is combined with the sewerage system with the result that the city during the four-month monsoon period regularly is being drenched in raw sewage. Outside of the city the condi- tions are similar. Besides the obvious effects in terms of convenience and health, the water-logging (as the flooding is called) also disrupts the various activities in the CMD and damages utility lines and buildings. The cost of water-logging to the city alone has been estimated at about US$4 million per day 2/. However, it has not been possible to find the exact basis and meaning of this estimate, so in evaluating the drainage sector of the CMDA program a new estimate was derived (Annex 11). For the CMD as a whole, the total yearly cost of flooding, as measured in terms of a reduction in output and without considering health and convenience effects, was found to be about US$4 million. Housing 2.30 The housing situation in the CMD is obviously bad, but exactly how bad is difficult to say. Available data is severely limited and defi- nitional problems make it difficult to arrive at reliable comparisons with other cities, particularly with respect to the cost, financial and insti- tutional aspects. However, an attempt has been made to present a descrip- tion of the housing situation in the CMD in physical terms, and to compare it with the situation in six other cities (see Table 27). The small average household size in the CMD, 3.0 persons, has been attributed to the low female to male ratio (5 to 10 in 1901, 6 to 10 in 1961), with a corres- 1/ S. Chatterjee and A.K. Bhunia, Drainage Problem of Metropolitan Calcutta and its Solution, Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 50, PH, June 1970; p. 83. 2/ Chatterjee and Bhunia, Drainage Problem of Metropolitan Calcutta and its Solution, op. cit. p. 83. PART T_ Page 22 pondingly high number of single-member male households. For multi-member households in the city itself, average household size has been estimated to be 5.7 in 1963 1/ and 6.2 in 1969-70 2/. Household definitions vary between both studies and cities, however. The data on persons per room are reasonably free from definitional problems and indicate that there are about 3.0 persons per room in the CMD, an average 2.6 for urban India, and only 2.2 in Durgapur. In Greater Stockholm (and most western cities), there is less than one person per room. In the city of Calcutta there is only 3.7 sq. m of floor space per person, while Manila has 5.8 and Tokyo 6.0. 2.31 The average figures presented in Table 27 should have been comple- mented by data on the distribution of the housing stock over the population. This distribution is said to be extremely uneven, just like the income 3/ and water distributions are. One indication of this uneven distribution is the percentage of the population which lives under squatter and slum condi- tions, 34% in the CMD (a out 2.3 million persons). In Greater Bombay the proportion is only 13% 4-', while in Madras city the squatter and slum popu- lation amounts to 25% of the total population. The percentage of the housing stock with non-permanent walls 5 is very close to the percentage of the population living under squatter and slum conditions, which implies that the number of persons per housing unit is about the same in both the squatter/ slum and non-slum segments of the housing market. However, the housing units in the squatter/slum segment are smaller and lack most of the basic facili- ties for cooking and sanitation. I! State Statistical Bureau, Government 3f West Bergal, Survey of Housing Conditions in Calcutta Cor-oration Area 1963, Calcutta, December 1967, Tle 1.01. 2/ Hindustan Thompson Associates, Ltd., A Study of Food Habits in Calcutt. USAID, Calcutta, November 1972; Table All. 3/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 28. 4/ In the source referred to in note 7/ of Table 27, it is said that 13.2% of the population live in "shanty huts". Another source (CIDCO, New Bombay - The Twin City, Bombay, September, 1970) refers to the same number of people as "slum dwellers in Greater Bombay". 5.' Permanent walls are walls made of concrete, cement, stone or burnt b--ck only; see CMPO, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, op. cit. p. 75. INDIA PART I CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Page 23 LORENZ CURVES FOR THE INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILIES IN DURGAPUR, Figure 1 CALCUTTA, AND URBAN INDIA Cumulative percentage of total income 100 90 70 1 60- 50/ 40 Durgapur Calcutta 30 4' -Urban India 10 20 30 40 44 SO 54 60 70 80 90 100 Cumulative percentage of ramilies World Bank-7556 PART I Page 24 Fizure 2 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT DISTRIBUTION OF CMD POPULATION BY WATER SUPPLY LEVELS, 1970/71 AND 1981 % of CMD Population 60- 1970/71: 50 1981: 46.9 45.1 42.3 40 30 26.9 20 10.8 10 7.9 10.8 5.5 3.8 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Water Supply (Gallons per capita and day) 1970/71 1981 Average Average World Bank-7557 PART I Page 25 Figure 3 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT LORENZ CURVES SHOWING THE WATER DISTRIBUTION OF THE CMD POPULATION, Cumulat.ve percentage of total 1970/71 AND 1981 Water Supply 100 90 1970/71: 1981. .... . 70 - 60 / 50 40- 30 e 20 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Cumulative percentage of CMD population World Bank-7558 INDIA CALOUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Growth of Population in India, West Bengal, and OD, 1901-1971 Population (millions) Relative shares_(y) Annual growth rates (%) Year India West Bengal CMD West Bengal(3) CMD (4) India (2) West Bengal(3) Period India West Bengal CMD (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) ()((78 (8(10 1901 238 16.9 2.0 7,10 11.8 1911 252 18.0 2.2 1.15 12.2 1901-11 0.5 0.6 1.0 1921 251 17.5 2.3 6.97 13.1 1911-21 -0.1 -0.2 0.4 1931 280 18.9 2.5 6.75 13.2 1921-31 1.1 0.8 0.8 1941 319 23.2 4.3 7.28 18.5 1931-41 1.3 2.1 5.6 1951 361 26.3 5.4 7.29 20.5 1941-51 1.3 1.3 2.3 1961 439 34.9 6.7 7.94 19.2 1951-61 2.0 2.9 2.3 1971 547 44.4 8.3 8.13 18.7 1961-71 2.2 2.5 2.1 1931-51 1.3 1.7 4.0 Source: Census of India. '3jtI~ INDIA PART I Page 27 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Table 2 Provisional Population Densities in the States, Union Territories, and other Areas in 1971 State/ Population Area Density Union Territory/ (Provisional) (Sq. km.) (Persons per Other Area (600's) sq. km.) (1) (2) (3) States: Kerala 21,280 38,864 548 West Bengal 44,440 87,853 506 Bihar 56,332 173,876 324 Tamil Nadu 41,103 130,069 316 Uttar Pradesh 88,365 294,413 300 Punjab 13,473 50,362 268 Haryana 9,971 44,222 225 Maharashtra 50,335 307,762 164 Andhra Pradesh 43,395 276,754 157 Mysore 29,263 191,773 153 Assam 14,952 99,623 150 Tripura 1,557 10,477 149 Orissa 21,935 155,842 141 Gujarat 26,687 195,984 136 Madhya Pradesh 41,651 442,841 94 Rajasthan 25,724 342,214 75 Himachal Pradesh 3,424 55,673 62 Manipur 1,070 22,356 48 Meghalaya 983 22,476 44 Jammu and Kashmir 1/ 4,615 137,724 34 Nagaland 516 16,527 31 Sub-total 541,073 3,097,685 175 Union Territories and other areas: Delhi 4,044 1,485 2,723 Chandigarh 257 114 2,254 Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands 32 32 994 Pondicherry 471 480 982 Goa, Daman and Diu 857 3,813 225 Dadra and Nagor Haveli 74 491 151 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1/ 115 8,293 14 North East Frontier Agency 445 83,578 5. Sub-total 6,295 98,286 64 India 547,368 3,195,971 171 1/ Internationally disputed areas and population in internationally disputed areas have been excluded. Sources: Col. (1): IBRD, Economic Situation and Prospects of India, South Asia Department, May 10, 1972, Vol. II, Table 1.2. Col. (2): Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 001, India 1971-72, December 1971, Table 2. PART I Page 28 Table 3 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The 1951-61-71 Population Growth in West Bengal broken down into Natural Growth, Refugees from East Pakistan, and net Immigration (in millions of persons) Period Total Natural Net Growth Growth Refugees Immigration (1)-(2)-(3) (1) (2) (3) (4) 1951-61 8.60 5.92 1.13 1.55 1961-71 9.50 8.36 1.12 0.02 Source: Col. (1): Table 1, Col. (3) Col. (2): Table 1, Col. (8) Col. (3): Table 4 PART I Pa-ae 29 Table 4 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The Flow of Refugees from East Pakistan to West Bengal, 1946-1971 Year No. of Persons 1946 44,624 1947 377,899 1948 419,018 1949 275,592 1950 25,185 22,0422318 1951-52 477,186 1953 60,647 1954 105,850 195 211,573 1956 246,840 1957 9,133 1958 4,285 1959 5,539 1960 8,629 1,129,682 1961 10,095 1962 12,804 1963 14,601 1964 667,125 1965 159,989 1966 4,214 1967 6,895 1968 6,589 1969 11,068 1970 231,126 1,124,506 1971 7, 7,499 553 11,796,059 11,796,059 Sources: 1946-69: The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry: West Bengal - An Analytical Study, Calcutta 1971, pp. 22-23 1970-71: Government of West Bengal: Economic Review, Year 1971-72, Table 2(e), P. 17 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 1951, 1961, and 1971 Population; 1951-61 and 1961-71 Annual Growth Rates; and 1971 Population Density; by District in West Bengal Population (000's) Annual Growth Rate (5)*2.9 Area Density 1971 District 1951 1961 1971 191-61 19 1-71 2.5 (sq. km) (Persons per (Provisional) sq. ka) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1. Calcutta 2,698 2,927 3,141 0.8 0.7 0.8 96 32,849 2. Howrah 1,611 2,038 2, 420 2.4 1.7 2.0 1,441 1,679 3. Hooghly 1,60. 2,231 2,874 3.4 2.6 3.0 3,110 924 4. 24-Parganas 4,459 6,281 8,582 3.5 3.2 3.7 14,489 592 5. Nadia 1,145 1,713 2,229 4.1 2.7 3.1 3,874 575 6. Burdwan 2,192 3,083 3,920 3.5 2.4 2.8 6,949 564 7. Murshidabad 1,716 2,290 2,942 2.9 2.5 2.9 5,324 553 8. Malda 938 1,222 1,615 2.7 2.8 3.3 3,576 452 9. Cooch Behar 669 1,020 1,412 4.3 3.3 3.8 3,374 418 10. Midnapore 3,359 4,342 5,515 2.6 2.4 2.8 13,500 409 11. Birbhum 1,067 1,446 1,780 3.1 2.1 2.4 4,481 397 12. West Dinajpur 977 1,324 1,846 3.1 3.4 3.9 5,298 348 13. Bankura 1,319 1,665 2,035 2.4 2.0 2.3 6,800 299 14. Jalpaiguri 917 1,359 1,752 4.0 2.6 3.0 6,123 286 15. Purulia 1,169 1,360 1,611 1.5 1.7 2.0 6,185 260 16. Darjeeling 460 625 766 3.1 2.1 2.4 3,233 237 West Bengal 26,300 34,926 44,140 2.9 2.5 2.9 87,853 506 Sources: Col. (1), (2): Registrar General, Census of India 1961, Vol.XIg Part II-A, Col. (3): Government of West Bengal, Economic Review Year 1971-72, Calcutta, 1972, p. 66 Col. (7): Total area in West Bengal from Table 2. Relative distribution over districts from Chatterjee, Mukhopadhyay, and Gupta (eds.), W Bengal, Calcutta, 1970, A! p. 147 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Annual Population Growth for the CND, Surrounding Districts, and the Rest of West Bengal; 1951-61-71; Percent and Absolute Growth Annual population growth Area Percent growth Absolute growth Absolute growth -_ (000's of persons) (persons per sq. km.) 1951-61 1961-71 1951-71 1951-61 1961-71 1951-71 1951-61 1961-71 1951-71 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) CMD 2.3 2.1 2.2 135 158 146 253 296 275 /1 5 CMD districts, excluding CMB 3.3 2.6 2.9 232 245 239 10 11 11 West Bengal, excluding the 5 CMD districts /I (and the CMD) 2.9 2.5 2.7 495 546 521 8 8 8 /1 Calcutta, Howrah, Hooghly, 24-Parganas, Nadia Sources: Tables 1 and 5. CD PART I Page 32 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Table 7 Urban-Population as Percent of Total Population 1951, 1961 and 1971; and Changes 1951-61 and 1961-71; by District in West Bengal Percent Change District 1951 1961 1971 1951-61 1961-71 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Calcutta 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 2. Howrah 32.4 40.5 41.9 8.1 1.4 3. Hooghly 24.6 26.0 26.5 1.4 0.5 4. 24-Parganas 29.8 31.8 35.2 2.0 3.4 5. Nadia 18.2 18.4 18.7 0.2 0.3 6. Burdwan 14.8 18.2 22.8 3.4 4.6 7. Murshidabad 7.8 8.5 8.4 0.7 -0.1 8. Malda 3.7 4.2 4.2 0.5 0.0 9. Cooch Behar 7.5 7.0 6.8 -0.5 -0.2 10. Midnapore 7.5 7.7 7.6 0.2 -0.1 11. Birbhum 6.5 7.0 7.0 0.5 0.0 12. West Dinajpur 5.8 7.5 9.3 1.7 1.8 13. Bankura 7.2 7.3 7.5 0.1 0.2 14. Jalpaiguri 7.2 9.1 9.6 1.9 0.5 15. Purulia 6.7 6.8 8.3 0.1 1.5 16. Darjeeling 13.1 23.2 23.1 10.1 -0.1 West Bengal 23.9 24.4 24.6 0.5 0.2 Assam n.a. 7.4 8.4 n.a. 1.0 Bihar n.a. 8.4 10.0 n.a. 1.6 Orissa n.a. 6.3 8.3 n.a. 2.0 India 17.3 18.0 19.9 0.7 1.9 /1 The urban definition is (since the 1961 census): feither (a) There should be a municipal corporation or other town body functioning; or (b) there should be a minimum density of 1,000 per square mile; a minimn population of 5,000; at least 3/4 of the male working population should be outside agriculture; or (c) or in the opinion of the State Census Director, the place should have pronounced urban characteristics. Sources: Col. (1): Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, West Bengal - An Analytical Study, New Delhi 1971, p. 45. .Col. (2): Registrar General, Census of India 1961, Vol. XVI, Part II-A. Col. (3): Commerce, Vol. 125, No. 3196, August 5, 1972. INDIA PART I Page 3 3 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Ranking of the Cities and Urban Agglomerations1/in the Eastern Four-State Region with a Population of 150,000 or More in 1971 City/Urban Agglomeration State 1971 Population (Provisional, 000's) 1. Calcutta Urban Agglomeration (C.U.A.) West Bengal 7,005 (Centers in the C.U.A. with a popula- tion of 150,000 or more: 1. Calcutta 3,141 2. Howrah and Bally 741 3. South Suburban 274 4. Bhatpara 205 5. South Dum Dum 175 6. Kamarhati 169 7. Garden Reach 156 4,861) 2. Patna U.A. Bihar 490 3. Jamshedpur U.A. Bihar 6 4. Dhanbad U.A. Bihar 433 5. Ranchi U.A. Bihar 256 6. Durgapur West Bengal 207 7. Cuttack Orissa 194 8. Gaya Bihar 180 9. Bhagalpur Bihar 173 10. Rourkela U.A. Orissa 173 11. Kharagpur West Bengal 162 12. Asansol West Bengal 157 1 An urban agglomeration includes all contiguous municipalities defined as urban. The urban definition is (since the 1961 census): either (a) there should be a municipal corporation or other town body functioning; or (b) there should be a minimum density of 1,000 per square mile; a minimum population of 5,000; at least 3/4 of the male working population should be outside agriculture; or (c) or in the opinion of the State Census Director, the place should have pronounced urban characteristics. Sources: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, India, A Reference Annual, 1971-72. New Delhi, 1971, pp. 16-17. Government of West Bengal, Report on the Finances and Adminis- tration of the Municipalities of the C.M.D. 1972, Appendix 1. IN DI A CALCUTTA URBAN DEVEIDMENT PROJECT The Thportance of the Calcutta Urban Agglomeration (CUA) in Urban West Bengal, 1951-6L-71 Annual rate of growth of Percent of total urban Urban Population urban population population in West Bengal Year Rpst of Rest of Rest of CUA West Bengal West Bengal CUA West Bengal West Bengal CUA West Bengal (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1951 4.6 1.7 6.3 73.0 27.0 2.2 5.1 3.0 1961 5.7 2.8 8.5 67.1 32.9 2.1 3.4 2.5 1971 7.0 3.9 10.9 64.2 35.8 Source: Col. (1) - (3): H. Lubell, Urban Development and Employment: The Prospects for Calcutta, World Employment rogranme, WEP-2-y - interam Draft, 10U, Ueneva, October 1972, Table 3.1. 4?Th FJ N3 PART I Page 35 Table 10 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Relative Distribution of Urban Population over Town Size Classes; West Bengal 1951 and 1961; India 1951, 1961 and 1971 West Bengal India Size Class 1951 1961 1991 1961 1971 (1 (2) (3) (4) (5) Over 100,000 57.5 56.5 38.0 44.5 52.4 50,000-99,999 14.7 17.8 12.2 12.1 12.1 20,000-49,999 16.1 17.0 17.8 19.9 17.4 10,000-19,999 8.9 5.9 15.0 14.4 12.1 5,000-9,999 2.2 2.5 13.6 8.0 5.2 Less than 5,000 0.6 0.3 3.4 1.1 0.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total Urban Population (millions) 6.282 8.541 62.4 78.8 108.8 Sources: Col. (1) - (2): Chatterjee, Mukhopadhyay, and Gupta (eds.), V West Bengal, Calcutta, 1970, p. 163. Col. (3) - (5): IBRD, Economic Situation and Prospects of India South Asia Department, May 10, 1972, Vol. II, Table 1.13. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 1961 Employment by Industry in India, West Bengal, Urban India, Urban West Bengal, CMD and Calcutta Employment in 1,000's Percent of Total Employment Urban Urban Urban Urban Industry India West Bengal India West Bengal CMD Calcutta India West Bengal India West Bengal CMD Calcutta (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting 137,546 6,231 3,207 55 40 0 72.90 53.80 12.13 1.86 1.69 0.00 Mining and Quarrying 918 578 210 29 20 3 0.49 4.99 0.79 0.98 0.85 0.25 Manufacturing 17,906 1,806 7,527 1,049 910 307 9.49 15.60 28.49 35.43 38.45 25.95 Construction 2,059 151 964 92 67 38 1.09 1.30 3.65 3.11 2.83 3.21 Trade and Commerce 7,654 872 4,308 583 454 283 4.o6 7.53 16.30 19.70 19.19 23.92 Transport, Storage and Communication 3,019 392 2,125 304 232 138 1.60 3.39 8.04 10.27 9.81 11.67 Other Services 19,572 1,550 8,088 848 643 414 10.37 13.39 30.60 28.65 27.18 35.00 TOTAL 188,674 11,580 26,429 2;960 2,366 1,183 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 1000f Source: Derived from the 1961 Census of India. PART I Page 37 Table 12 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 1961 Employment by Industry in India, CMD, West Bengal, Greater Bombay and Maharashtra (Percentages) India CMD West Greater Maharashtra Bengal Bombay Industr () (2) (3) (4) (5) Agriculture, Mining 73.39 2.57 58.79 1.90 72.07 Manufacturing, Construction 10.58 41.28 16.90 43.48 12.52 Trade, Commerce 4.06 19.19 7.53 18.03 4.52 Transport, Storage Communication 1.60 9.81 3.39 11.21 2.36 Other Services 10.37 27.18 13.39 25.38 8.53 TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Sources: Col. (1) - (3): Table 11 Col. (4, (5): IBRD, Report on Bombay, Special Projects Department, March 1971, Annex 1, Table 3.1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Comparative Population, Value Added, and Employment Figures for India, CMD, West Bengal, Greater Bombay, and Maharashtra India CMD West Bengal Greater Bombay Maharashtra Abs. Abs. ( of (1) Abs. % of (1) Abs. % of (1) Abs. % of (1) (1 (2) (3) () (5) (6) (7) () (9) Population (1961) /7 y Total (millions) 439 L2 6.72/5 1.53 346 7.94 4.15 0.95 39.55Z7 9.01 Urban (millions) 78.8 5.99 7.60 8. 10.84 4.15/7 5.27 11.16 14.16 Females per 1,000 males 941 674 L 71.63 878 L 93.30 658 L 69.93 936 L 99.47 Net Income (1960/61) Total (Rs millions) 133,660 4,957 3.71 10,907 8.16 4,249 3.18 15,328 11.47 Per capita (Ra) 304 737 242.43 312 102.63 1,024 336.84 388 127.63 Net value added by industrial sector (1960/61) (R millions)/17L /10 Primary sector 69,650Z8 80 0.11 4,416/10 6.34 49 0.07 6,268 9.00 Secondary sector 24,760 2,814 11.37 2,487 1004 2,128 8.59 3,56 14.41 Tertiary sector 39,250 L 2,60o 5.25 4,00i- 10.20 2,072t, 5.28 5,4 2 13-99 Employment by industrial sector (1961) (000'8)/17 /12 /12 1 0 Primary sector 18 19865 Go 0.0 6,809 4.92 3 002 13 656/ 9.86 Secondary sector 19,965 977/ 4.89 1,957 9.80 733 3.67 2,372 L1-l 11.88 Tertiary sector 30,245 12 1,329/12 4.39 2,81412 9.30 921 11 3.05 2,920/11 9.65 Total 188,67=12 2,3612 1.25 11,580 6.14 1,686 0.89 18,94 Z1 10.o4 Ratio of total employment to total population 0.430 0.352 81.86 0.332 77.21 G.406 94.42 0.479 111.4G Net value added in registered large factories/13 (Rs millions) 1948 - 3,173 n.a. - 752 23.70 n.a./15 - n.a. - 1961 9,776 n.a. - 2,043 20.90 2,057- 21.04 2,664 27.25 1966 18,100 n.a. - 3,523 19.46 n.a. - 4,702 25.98 lo0ent in registered large factories/L 19. 1,704 n1;95 5 n4a.p5 14.07 nta 21.31 196 9 n.a. - 8 21.9L 46§Th: 11.92 7 18.96 Sources and Notes: (When no source is indicated the estima has been derived within the table.) f1 Table 1 /2 Table 10 /3. /8 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, India, A Reference Annual 1971-72, New Delhi, 1971; /3: p. 9; /8: pp. 170-171. /4, /5, /14 Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, amimeo., Calcutta, August 1966. /4: p. 6; /5: Table B.1; /14: Derived from pp. 25-28. , /10 Government of West Bengal, Economic Review, Year 1971-72, Alipore 1972. /6: p. 65; /10: p. 68. 7, ,/15, /16 IBRD, Reort on Bombay, Special Projects Department, March 1971. 17: Main Report, Table 1; /11: Annex I, Table 3.1; /15: Derived from Table 4.1, Annex I; /16: Derived from Table 4.3, Annex 1. /9 H. Banerjee, The Soci-Economic Plan Frame, mimeo., CMPO, Calcutta, July 1964, p. 4. /12 Table 11 /13 Data for India, West Bengal and Maharashtra from: Central Statistical Organization, Cabinet Secretariat, Government of India, Statistical Abstract of India, New Delhi, various years. 1966 figures are provisional. Factories included are those employing 50 or more workers with the aid of power and 100 or more without the aid,of power. /17 Primary sector: agriculture and mining. Secondary sector: manufacturing and construction. Tertiary sector: transport, communication, trade, commerce and services. PART I Page 39 INDIA Table 14 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Net Value Added per Worker in 1961 and 1966; Secondary Sector and Large Factories; for India, West Bengal and Maharashtra Secondary Sector Large Factories West West India Bengal Maharashtra India Bengal Maharashtra (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Net value added per worker and year (Current Rs): 1961 1,270 1,271 1,504 3,205 3,009 4,098 1966 n.a. n.a. n.a. 4,601 4,082 6,303 Percent growth 1961-66 n.a. n.a. n.a. 43.56 35.66 53.81 Source: Derived from Table 13. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Population Projections for the CMD Assumfptions CMD Population (000's) Annual Growth Rates () Projection Net in- No. Fertility migration 1971 1981 1986 1991 2001 1961-71 1971-81 1981-86 1986-91 1991-01 ( per year) (1 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) LA Constant 1 8,823 11,664 13,408 15,390 20,290 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 B Constant 0.8 8,672 11,338 12,992 14,910 19,660 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 C Constant 0.6 8,529 11,029 12,594 14,460 19,050 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2A Slowly declining 1 8,762 11,274 12,70 14,230 17,685 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 B Slowly declining 0.8 8,627 10,965 12,301 13,720 16,880 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 C Slowly declining o.6 8,478 10,653 11,899 13,200 16,090 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 3A Rapidly declining 1 8,762 11,009 12,031 13,090 15,340 2.7 2.3 1.8 1.7 1.6 B Rapidly declining 0.8 8,627 10,693 11,614 12,590 14,590 2.5 2.2 1.7 1.6 1.5 C Rapidly declining 0.6 8,4,78 10,391 11,224 12,090 13,890 2.3 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.4 4 - . - 8,348 10,270 11,400 12,650 15,570 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 Source: For projections lA-3C, Cols. (l)-(6): CMPO, Basic Development Plan, Calcutta Metropolitan District 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1966; p. 69. INDIA PART I CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT P g The CMD Population in 1951, 1961 and 1971; Its Growth Rate and Density; by Cogorations, Municipalities and Zonesil. Area Population (000's) Percent change Density (sq km) 1951 1961 1971 1951-61 1961-71 1971 (Persons per sakm) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) per The Metropolitan Center East Bank (Zone I-E) Corporation 1 Calcutta 95.62 2,549 2,927 3,141 14.8 7.3 32,849 IA Area A 25.90 n.a. 945 990 n.a. 4.8 38,224 IB Area B 15.00 n.a. 842 887 n.a. 5.3 59,133 ic Area C 16.18 n.a. 581 605 n.a. 4.1 37,392 ID Area D 19.71 n.a. 274 344 n.a. 25.5 17,453 1E Area E 18.83 n.a. 285 315 n.a. 10.5 16,729 Inmicipalities 2 Kamarhati 10.96 77 125 169 62.3 35.2 15,420 3 Baranagar 7.12 77 108 131 40.3 21.3 16,399 4 North Dum Dum 19.42 12 38 63 316.7 65.8 3,244 5 Dum Dum 2.85 14 20 31 42.9 55.0 10,877 6 South Dum Dam 15.49 61 111 175 82.0 57.7 11,298 7 Garden Reach 12.95 109 131 156 20.2 19.1 12,046 8 South Suburban 30.38 104 186 274 78.8 j M19 Sub-total 1-8 194.79 3,003 3,646 4,140 21.4 13.5 21,254 Towns (8) and rural areas 188.28 164 253 454 54.3 79.4 2,411 West Bank (Zone I-W) Muicipalit ,es 9 Howrah2 40.64 497 614 630 23.5 2.6 15,502 10 Bally 11.81 63 101 111 60.3 9.9 9,399 11 Uttarpara-Kotrng1 7.25 31 52 68 67.7 30.8 9,379 12 Konnagar 4.33 20 29 34 45.0 17.2 7,852 Sub-total 9-12 64.03 611 796 843 30.3 5.9 13,166 Towns (9) and rural areas 117.63 152 209 311 37.5 48.8 2,644 Kaliyani-Bansberia Center East Bank (Zone II-E) Mnicipalities 13 Kanchrapara 9.07 57 69 79 21.1 14.5 8,710 14 Kalisahar 9.07 35 51 69 45.7 35.3 7,607 15 Naihati 4.35 25 5 82 5.5 41.4 18,851 SUb-total 13-15 22.49 147 178 230 21.1 29.2 10,227 Towns (4, inel. Kalyani) and rural areas 46.27 41 48 87 17.1 81.3 1,880 West Bank (Zone II-w) Municipalities 16 Banaberia 14.25 31 45 62 45.2 37.8 4,351 17 Hooghly-Chinsura 15.54 57 83 105 45.6 26.5 6,757 Sub-total 16-17 29.79 88 128 167 45.5 30.5 5,606 Rural areas 51.94 28 40 68 42.9 70.0 1,309 Rest of CMD - North Central East Bank (Zone III-NC-E) Municipalities 18 Bhatpara 11.97 135 148 205 9.6 38.5 17,126 19 Garulia 3.89 28 29 44 3.6 51.7 11,311 20 North Barrackpore 8.42 32 57 77 78.1 35.1 9,145 21 Barrackpore 11.66 43 64 97 48.8 51.6 8,319 22 Titagarh 3.24 72 76 88 5.6 15.8 27,160 23 Khardah 3.89 19 28 32 47.4 14.3 8,226 24 Panihati 19.42 50 94 148 88.0 57.4 7,621 25 Barasat 14.24 16 29 42 81.3 44.8 2,949 26 New Barrackpore- 2.90 14 21 33 50.0 57.1 11l379 Sub-total 18-26 79.63 409 546 766 33.5 40.3 9,619 Towns (3) and rural areas 138.13 103 138 232 34.0 68.1 1,680 /cont'd. PART I Paize 42 Table16 (cont'd) Area Population (000's) Percent change Density (sq Im) 1951 1961 1971 1951-61 1961-71 1971 (Persons per sq km) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) etst Bank (Zone III-NC-W) Corporation 27 Chandernagar 9.66 50 67 76 34.0 13.4 7,867 Municipalities 28 Bhadreswar 6.48 36 35 45 -2.8 28.6 6,944 29 Champdani 6.48 32 42 58 31.2 38.1 8,951 30 Baidyabati 9.06 25 44 54 76.0 22.7 5,960 31 Serampore 5.88 74 92 102 24.3 10.9 17,347 32 Rishra 3.24 27 39 64 44.4 64.1 _19, Sub-total 27-32 40.80 2k44 319 399 30.7 25.1 9,779 aral areas 48.95 26 33 57 26.9 72.7 1,164 Rest of CMD - South West East Bank (Zone ITI-SW-E) Municipality 33 Budge Budge 7.77 32 40 52 25.0 30.0 6,692 Towns (2) and rural areas 64.01 104 114 168 9.6 47.4 2,625 Wst Bank (zone III-SW-W) Towns (9) and rural areas 87.76 150 166 244 10.7 47.0 2,780 Rest of CHD - South East (zone III-SE) Municipalities 34 Rajpur 20.98 16 23 36 43.7 56.5 1,716 35 Baruipur 9.06 9 13 20 44.4 53.8 2,208 Sub-total 34-35 30.4 25 36 56 L.o 55.6 1,864 aral areas 55.79 38 42 74 10.5 76.2 1,326 CMD 1,268.10 5,365 6,732 8,348 25.5 24.0 6,583 Corporations (2) and Municipalities (33) 469.34 4,559 5,689 6,653 24.8 16.9 14,175 Towns (35) and rural areas 798.76 806 1,043 1,695 29.4 62.5 2,122 Calcutta 14.8 7.3 1/ Sources: - CMPO, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, mimeo., Calcutta, 1966, Table B.1 - Provisional 1971 population figures derived from the Census by CMDA. An attempt has been made to use 1961 CMD boundaries and the 1961 Census definitions of each area; for Uttarpara-Kotrung and New Barrackpore the 1971 definitions were used however. 2/ A Municipal Corporation of Howrah was formed in 1965 and includes Howrah and Bally. It has not yet started to function. 3/ Uttarpara and Kotrung were two separate municipalities in 1961 but are now one. No 1971 data was available for them separately. 4/ New Barrackpore was a non-mxnicipal urban unit in 1961, and a municipality in 1971. PART I Page 43 Table 17 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The CMD Population in 1951, 1961, and 1971; Its Growth Rate and Density, by Zone Area Population (000's) Percent change Density (sq kon) 1951 1961 1971 1951-61 1961-71 1971 (Persons per sq kIn) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Mtropolitan Center -.73 3L930 .4 5,748 24.8 1t 10s178 E E B383.07 3,167 3,899 4,594 23.1 17.8 11,993 w Wat Bank 181.66 763 1,005 1,154 31.7 14.8 6,353 II Kalyani-Bansberia Center 150.49 304 394 552 29.6 40.1 3,668 E East Bank 68.76 188 226 317 20.2 40.3 4,610 W West Bank 81.73 116 168 .235 44.8 39.9 2,875 III Rest of CM 2.88 1, 1 aQ24048 26.8 3,704 NC North Central 307.51 782 1,036 1,454 32.5 40.3 4,728 E East Bank 217.76 512 684 998 33.6 45.9 4,583 W West Bank 89.75 270 352 456 30.4 29.5 5,081 SW South West 159.54 286 320 464 11.9 45.0 2,908 E East Bank 71.78 136 154 220 13.2 42.9 3,065 W West Bank 87.76 150 166 244 10.7 47.0 2,780 SE South East 85.83 63 78 130 23.8 66.7 1,515 C4 1,268.10 5 6,732 8,348 25 24.0 East Bank 827.20 4,066 5,041 6,259 24.0 24.2 7,566 West Bank 440.90 1,299 1,691 2,089 30.2 23.5 4,738 Source: Table 16 PART I Page 44 INDIA Table 18 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Population Densities in Eleven Large Metropolitan Areas, Ranked According to Central City Densities Density Area Population (Persons (sq km) (000's) per sq km) Bombay, 197111 Central City 68 3,100 45,600 Greater 437 5,969 13,659 Calcutta, 1971 Central City 96 3,141 32,849 Areas A, B and C 57 2,482 43,483 Metropolitan Center, East Bank 383 4,594 11,993 Metropolitan 1,268 8J348 6,583 Manila, 1970 Central City 38 1,210 31,842 Paris, 1970A/ Central City 105 2,590 24,667 Tokyo, 1970Y Central City 577 8,841 15,320 Metropolitan 2,141 11,408 5,328 New York, 1970 Central CWy 830 7,772 9,364 Manhattand 58 1,518 26,181 Singapore, 1960- Main urban area 117 1,632 13,949 Republic 583 2,040 3,499 Shanghai, 197051 Central City 778 10,820 13,900 Bangkok, 19711/ Central City 239 2,271 9,502 8 most densely popula- ted districts 85 1,782 20,965 Mbscow, 197CL 875 7,100 8,114 London, 197f . Greater 1,562 7,500 4,802 Sources: 1/ IBRD, Report on BombaZ, Special Projects Deparlment, March, 1971, Annex I, Table 1.1 IBRD, Ecoomic Situation and Prospects of India, South Asia Department, May 10, 1972j Vol. II, Table 1.14 2/ Table 16 / IBRD, Urbanization/Thailand/1971, Draft Report Prepared by James S. Bogle, Consultant, October 1971, p. 23. 4/ Tokyo Nunicipal News, Vol. 22, Mo. 7; September/October, 1972, p.8 5/ New York Times, Thursday, February 15, 1973 6/ ELizabeth Thomson and Henry Wardlaw, "Growth and Change in Singapore", Royal Australian Planning Institute Journil, Vol. 9, No. 2, April 1971, p. 46 PART I Paize 45 Table 19 INDIA CALCUTTA URB-AN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The Relative Distribution of the OMD Population over Zones, in 1951761771 (Actuals) and 1971/76 (BDP Projections) Actual BDP Projections 1951 1961 1971 1971 1976 () (2) (3) (4) (5) Metropolitan Center 73.25 72.85 68.85 71.85 70.22 Kalyani-Bansberia Center 5.67 5.85. 6.61 6.47 8.58 Rest of CMD 21.08 21.30 24.54 21.68 21.20 CMD 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Sources: Col. (1) - (3): Table 17 Col. (4) - (5): CM0, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 51 PART I Page 46 INDIA Table 20 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The Relative Distribution of the CMD Population over Major Zones, in 1951/61/71 (Actuals) and 1981/2001 (EP Projections Actual MP Projections 1951 1961 1971 1981 2001 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Calcutta 47.51 43.48 37.62 32-70 23.00 Rest of East Bank 28.28 31.40 37.35 42.74 49.38 Howrah, Bally 10.44 10.62 8.88 9.13 8.35 Rest of West Bank 13.77 14.50 16.15 15.43 19.27 CMD 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Calcutta, Howrah, Bally 57.995 5.10 46.50 41.83 31.35 Rest of CMD 42.05 45.90 53.50 56.17 68.65 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 East Bank 75.79 74.88 74.97 75.44 72.38 West Bank 24.21 25.12 25.03 24.56 27.62 CID 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Sources: Col. (1) - (3): Tables 16, 17 Col. (4) - (5): CMPO, Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerge and Drainage, Calcutta Metropolitan District, 1966-2001), Calcutta, August 1966, Vol. 1, p. 2-b. CALCUTTA UibAN DhV&,0PMENT PROJECT Comparative Data on the Spatial Distribution of the Population and Manufacturing Employment in the OMD; 1961, 1981 and 2001 1961 1981 2001 (Actuals) (Projections) (Projections) Population Manufacturing Population Manufacturing Population Manufacturing Employment Eaployment Employment (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Calcutta 43.5 31.2 32.7 15.0 23.0 9.3 East Bank, north of Calcutta 20.3 25.5 27.0 30.6 31.8 34.8 East Bank, east and south of Calcutta 11.1 10.6 15.8 24.0 17.6 21.1 Howrah and Bally 10.6 12.6 9.1 8.8 8.4 10.6 West Bank, north of Howrah and Bally 10.2 9.9 9.0 10.8 10.1 12.3 West Bank, west and south of Howrah and Bally 4.3 10.2 6.4 10.8 9.1 11.9 CMD,, total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 East Bank (f) 74.9 67.3 75.5 69.6 72.4 65.2 West Dank (%) 25.1 32.7 24.5 30.4 27.6 34.8 CMD, absolute total (000's) 6.732 910 9,879 1,888 14,788 3,062 Source: H. Banerjee, The Socio-Economic Plan Frame, op. cit. > DMIA PART I Page 48 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Table 22 Estimates .of Daytime to Resident Population Ratios for Calcutta and How-rah, 1964 Calcutta Howrah Resident population 2,991 619 Commuting into the area, daily: By railway 230 66 By tram and bus 374 32 By other fast vehicles 61 7 By slow vehicles 33 6 Total commuting 698 111 Daytime population 3,689 730 Ratio, daytime to resident population 1.23 1.18 Sources: CMPO, Traffic and Transportation Plan, alcutta Metropolitan District 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1967, p.45 (for railway passenger volumes, which are of March 1966) CIPO, Data Supplement for Traffic and Transportation Plan, Calcutta Ietropolitan District, 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1967, Tables 15-17. Notes: - Resident population estimated through linear interpolation between 1961 and 1971. - 50% of all commuters arriving in Howrah are assumed to continue to Calcutta. - The resident population in Jalcutta and Howrah is assumed not to commute to work, etc., outside of the respective city. - Other fast vehicles include private cars, taxis, lorries, and motorcycles and are assumed to carry on the average two persons each. - Slow vehicles are assumed to represent on the average one and a half person each. PART I INDIA Page 49 Table 23 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Comparison between the Daytime to Resident Population Ratios for the City of Calcutta (1964) and the Central Parts of the City of Tokyo (1970 and 1985) and New York City (1956) tllew York Calcutta Tokyo city 1964 1970 1985 1956 (projection) (1) (2) (3) (4) Resident population, central area (000's) 1/ 2,991 5,438 5,497 6,156 Daytime population, central city area (000's) 3,689 7,778 8,862 7,206 Ratio, daytime to resident population 1.23. 1.43 1.61 1.17 Metropolitan population (000's) 2/ 7,217 11,399 12,579 15,375 Resident population in central city area as per cent of metropolitan population 41.4 47.7 43.7 40.0 1/ For Calcutta the central city area includes all of the central city. For Tokyo and New York it includes only part of the central city, in order to have a central area comparable to the City of Calcutta in terms of its size relative to the metropolitan area as a whole. The Tokyo central area is contiguous and covers all of the Central City except for the following wards: Aerima, :akano, Suginami, Setagaya,Itabashi, Kita and Arakawa. The New York central area includes Manhattan, Brooklyn and Queens. 2/ The New York Metropolitan Region includes 22 counties in three States. Sources: Col. (1): Table 25 (Metropolitan population estimated through linear interpolation between 1961 and 1971) Col. (2)- (3): Tokyo for the People - Concepts for Urban Renewal, TMG Municipal Library, No. 6, Tokyo, March 1972; pp. 24-25. Col. (4): Edgar M. Hoover and Raymond Vernon, Anatomfy of a 'Metropolis Doubleday, Garden City, 1962; pp. 6 and 282-2d3. INDIA PART I Pae 50 CALCUTTA URBAN DEV3LOPMENT PROJECT Table 24 Estimates of 1970/71 per Capita Water Supply in the CMD, by Municipality .umber Piped of hand- Nater Adjusted Per Capita operated Supply Population Population water supply tubewells 1970/71 1971 1971 1/ 1970/71 V! 1970 (000's of (gallons per gallons (CO0's) (000's) day) (1) perday)(4 ) Corporations 1. Calcutta 11,415 133,250 3,141 3,612 37 27. Chandernagar 50 2,500 76 67 38 Manicipalities 2. Kamarhati 200 770 169 149 8 3. Baranagar 20 1,250 131 115 11 4. North Dum Dum 133 520 63 55 13 5. Dun Dam 71 415 31 27 19 6. South Dum. Dam n.a. 3,200 175 154 21 7. Garden Reach 2 1,000 156 137 8 8. South Suburban 300 555 274 241 3 9. Howrah 3,000 12,000 630 706 21 10. Bally 119 1,229 111 98 15 11. Uttarpara-Kotrung 145 550 68 60 13 12. Konnagar 100 96 34 30 7 13. Kanchrapara 0 689 79 70 10 14. Kalisahar 0 150 69 61 2 15. Naihati n.a. 1,393 82 72 19 16. Bansberia 30 580 62 55 12 17. Hooghly-Chinsura n.a. 1,730 105 92 19 18. Bhatpara 100 1,686 205 180 10 19. Garulia 75 600 39 19 20, North Barrackpore 223 0 77 68 4 21. Barrackpore 240 0 97 85 4 22. Titagarh 46 1,000 88 77 14 23. Khardah n.a. 1,100 32 28 39 24. Panihati 515 0 148 130 4 25. Barasat 287 0 42 37 4 26. New Barrackpore 35 0 33 29 2 28. Bhadreswar 70 818 45 40 24 29. Champdani 113 180 58 51 8 30. Baidyabati 84 30 54 48 5 31. Serampore 235 1,300 102 90 18 32. Ri.shra 190 1,800 64 56 36 33. Budge Budge 6 390 52 46 8 34. Rajpur 120 0 36 32 4 3$. Baruipur 45 0 20 18 4 Towns and rural areas n.a. 0 1,695 1,493 4 Cm >17,969 170,781 8,348 8,348 22 -, Jifrnet'fl PART I Page 51 Table 24 (cont'd 1/ Daytime to resident population ratios of 1.30 for Calcutta, 1.25 for Howrah and 0.76 for the rest of the CMD have been assumed. Assuming further that one daytime resident equals one-half full time resident in terms of water consumption, the following factors have been used to adjust Col. (3): 1.15 for Calcutta, 1.12 for Howrah and 0.88 for the rest of the CMD. 2/ When the number of hand operated tubewells equals or exceeds 2 per 1,000 persons a per capita supply of 4 gallons per day has been added to the piped water supply. When the number of tubewells is between 0 and 2 per 1,000 persons linear interpolation between 0 and 4 gpcd has been used. The figure 4 gpcd is an estimate supplied by the CMDA. 3/ The tubewells referred to in Column (1) are hand as well as motor opera- ted. Only filtered water supply has been included. A detailed break- down of the figures in Columns (1) and (2) is as follows: Big tubewells yielding 24.00 Mgd Small tubewells yielding 10.00 Mgd Palta plant 100.00 Mgd 134.00 Mgd Sale of water 0.75 Mgd 133.25 Mgd 4/ 1966 figure. Sources: Col. (1) - (2): CMPO, Report on the Finances and Administration of CMD Municipalities (excluding Calcutta Corporation), mimeo., Calcutta, 1972, Appendix 5. For Calcutta Corporation: Corporation of Calcutta, Year Book 1971-72, pp. 197 and 335. Col. (3): Table 16. INDIA PART I Page 52 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Table 25 Comparison of Water Supply Levels in Nine Cities Resident Water Population Supply (000's) (gocd)1/ (1) (2) 2/ Calcutta City (1971, 1970/71 ) 3,141 42 CED, corporations and municipalites (1971, 1970/71) 6,653 27 CMD (1971, 1970/71) 8,3.8 22 CD (1981, 1981) 9,879 42 Madras City (1971, 1971) 2,470 19 Greater Bombay (1971, 1971/72) 5,969 34 Greater Bombay (1981, 1980/81) 4/ 7,800 47 Delhi Urban Agglomeration (1971,1971) 2/ 3,630 48 Bangkok - Thonburi (1971, 1968)/ 2,972 55 Greater London (1970, 1969) 6/ 7,500 50 Tokyo City (1970, 1969) 6 8,841 63 Paris City (1970, 1969) ( 2,590 71 New York City (1970, 1967) 7,772 116 1/ Expressed in gallons (imperial) per resident person and day. 2/ The first year refers to the population figure in Column (1). 3/ Information on water supply furnished by the Department of Health, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Government of India. 4/ IBRD, Appraisal of Bombay Water Supply and Sewerage Project, India, Report No. 88-IN, Asia Projects Department, March 2, 1973;Annex 7; p. 1 and Table 1. En route and industrial supply has been substracted from total supply but estimated leakage has been included to arrive at supply figures comparable to those for Calcutta. For instance, for 1971/72: 34 = (13.6-0.6-2.2) * 24 * 3600/ (4.546 * 5.969 * 1,000). The data given by the Department of Health (see note 3/) indicate a per capita supply of 37 gpcd in Greater Bombay. 5/ IBRD, Urbanization/Thailand/1971; Draft report prepared by James E. Bogle, consultant, October 1971; p. 66. 61 Tokyo Municipal News, Vol. 22, No. 7; Sept/Oct. 1972; p. 8. INDIA PART I Page 53 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPNENT PROJECT Table 26 Cobiparison of Existing Sewerage Services in four Indian Cities No. of No. of Population Sewered Population unserved or area served by service septic served by e water born privies and in % of sewerage, privies tanks tanks, in % total in % of of total area total population population in the area in the are (1) (2) (3) ((5) () /1/ 2/ Calcutta Corporation 4.92,000- na. 34 5-1 66 - Howrah 23,500-/ 5,000 100 01- 0 _ 3/ 3/ Rist of CID 86,300 h4,700 98 1 2 >151,850 >49,700 74 5 26 Bombay City 1,000 100 22 n.a. 78 Suburbs 5 10,500 15,750 h2 n.a. 58 Greater Bombay 11,500 15,8650 32 n.a. 68 Madras City n.a. n.a. n.a.. n.a. 65 t Delhi U.A. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 60 2 1/ CI-PO, Basic Development Plan; op. cit., p. 17. 1964-65 figures. (The number of service privies was 39,000 on March 31, 1970, according to Corporation of Calcutta Year Book. 1971-72, p. 337.) 2/ Estimates furnished by the Department of Health, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Government of India. 3/ CIPO, Report on the Finances and A dninistration of the Municipalities of the CMD Vpendix VI, 1964 figures. 4/ Data on the number of privies and tanks refer to mnicipalities only. 5/ IBRD, Appraisal of Bombay Water Supply and Sewerage Projectj India, op. cit., and mission estimates. Aqua privies have been classified as septic tailts, and basket privies as service privies. In partly sewered suburban areas it has been assumed that 50% of the population is served by underground sewerage. 6/ The city area is said to be fully sewered with the exception of low-lying areas where septic tanks are provided. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMNT PROJECT PART I Pabe 54 Physical Characteristics of the Housing SLtuation in Saven Cities Demand Side Supply Side Market Characteristics Number of Average Housing Rooms Units with Households Persons Persons Sq. m. Squatter and Population Households Household Units per Rooms Non-permanent per per per per Slum Population Size Housing walls, in % Housing Housing Room Person in % of total (OOO's) (000's) (Persons) (000's) Unit (000 sof all units Unit Unit population (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (u1) (12) 2/ 2/ 2/1 calcutta (1961) 2,927 976 3.0 609 1.61? 982 25.2 1.60 4.81 2.98 3. 25 Rest of CMD (1961) 3,805 1,268 3.0 780 1.57 1,223 39.0 1.63 4.88 3.11 41 CMD (1961) 6,732 2,244 3.0 1,389 1.59 2,205 33.0 1.61 4.85 3.05 34 Bombay city (1963) 3,196 594 5.38 Greater Bombay (1968) 5,384 1,023 5.26 13 - Mdras City (1961) 1,729/ 351 4.9 279I 28. 10 1.26 6.20 25 Durgapur (1966) 178 42 4.2 81 2.2 Urban India (1961) 2,6 6/ E7/ 1 19/ Manila City (1965) ,081 16 6.4 5.8 460 LO/ olyo city (1970) 21/ 8,833 6.o Greater Stockholm (1960) 1,150 422 2.7 427 3.09 1,320 0 0.99 2.7 0.84 0 1/ Inclding institutional and houseless population which is not known for all cities, in order to make the market characteristics more comparable. In the CMD the institutional population was about 366,000 persons in 1961, while the houseless population amounted to some 30,000 persons. 2/ CIFO, Technical Supplement to the Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 75. 3/ G. Thomas Kingsley and Frank S. Kristof, A Housing Policy for MetronnliTan Calcutta, A Recommendation to the Ford Foundation Advisory Planning Group with the C2PO, mimeo., Calcutta, March 1971, Table 4. (The small size is said to be a reflection of the low female to male ratio and the predominance of single-member male households. The same average size is assumed throughout the C0). 2/ State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, Survey of Housing Conditions in Calcutta Car2oration Area 96, Calcutta, 1967, Table 1.03 5/ The year after the name of the area refers to the year to which most of the data applies. / IBRD, Report on Bombay, on. cit., A- 7 C, Table 1.2 7 /& Information furnished by the Department of Health, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Government of India. 9 ) Rural Development and Local Administration Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras Metropolitan Plan 1971-1991, January 1971. 4 ) 8/: p. 5; 9/: p. 68; 10/: p. 69, (Kutcha structures only); 11/: p. 69. L3/ X4PC, Basic Development Plan, op. cit., p. 91 14/ Asansol Planning Organization, et. al., A Perspective Structure Plan for Durgapur, op. cit., pp. 5-6 15/ Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, India, A Reference Annual, 1971-72; op. cit., p. 475 16/) City of Manila, Manila, Its Needs and Resources; 1967. 16/: p. 20; 1J/: p. 21; 18/: p. 172. 19/ Aprodicio A. Laquian, Slums and Squatters in Six Philippine Cities, mimeo., International Development Research Centre, Ottlaa, Canada; March 1972, p. 38; (only total squatter ad alum population given, no dates or total city population; 1970 city population has been used in arriving at the figure 4o%.) 20/ Toiyo for the People, op. cit., p. 26. 21/ Stockholmstraktens regionplanekontor, Skiss 1966 till regionplan for Stockholmstrakten, Stockholm 1967. PART II Page 1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT THE CMD'S INFRASTRUCTURE PAST DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT SITUATION 1. This Part contains the following sections: A. Water B. Sewerage and Drainage C. Garbage Collection and Disposal D. Environmental Hygiene E. Urban Transport F. Housing G. The Bustees A. Water 2. About 23% of the CMD's 8.3 million people have no public supply of piped water but rely on hand-operated tubewells yielding only 2-4 gpcd. The average public supply of piped water in the 33 municipalities, containing 38% of the CMD population, is only 11 gpcd. The two corporations, Calcutta and Chandernagar, provide 37 and 38 gcpd respectively in addition to which there is a supply of 25 gcpd of unfiltered water in Calcutta (see Part I, paras. 2.17-2-23). 3. No satisfactory estimate can be made of the present average economic cost of water in the CMD. The marginal cost appears to be com- paratively low, however. In the CMD the current investment program implies that an additional investment of about Rs 0.22 crores is necessary for each 1 mgd increase in total water 7upply, whereas Rs 0.63 crores are needed in Greater Bombay (see Annex 11)2' No extensive transmission lines are required in the CMD, and there are no major treatment problems, except for the salinity of the Hooghly River. 4. The flow in the Hooghly River has gradually declined in recent decades resulting in a serious accumulation of silt and encroachment of saline water into the river many miles above the CMD under certain tide and seasonal conditions. When the Palta waterworks was erected in the 1860's the water in that reach was free from any harmful degree of salinity through- out the year. In 1900 the salinity was 20 parts per million (ppm), in 1940 100 ppm, in 1950 1,040 ppm and today it reaches 2,000 ppm or more at high 1/ Gallons (imperial) per capita and day. 2/ The annexes are found in the main volume of the Appraisal. Report. PART II Page 2 tide, at certain times of the year at Palta, l- and 8-9,000 ppm further down the river at Garden Reach. A maximum of 250 ppm has been established as the practical upper limit for drinking water. To obtain this standard a storage lagoon at Palta is now being used during the high salinity period, Mvarch - June, to average out the salinity over time periods of one day or more. 5. A practical remedy to the declining Hooghly River flow may be provided by the Farakka Barrage project now being completed. The project consists of a barrage across the parent river at Farakka (Map 10261), a 43 km feeder channel to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and certain supporting facilities. One of the purposes of the project is to increase the up- stream discharges into the Hooghly River at times of minimum flow so as to reduce silting and salinity. The barrage complex is scheduled to become operational at the end of 1973. 6. The GMD water supply facilities existing prior to the introduction of the CMDA program are described below; for the Calcutta Corporation area in paras. 7-17, for the rest of the CMD in paras. 18-19. Facilities for Calcutta Corporation .7. The potable water system of Calcutta dates from 1868 when the first slow sand filters were placed in operation at Palta (Map 10264). It is of interest to note that the filters and most of the original mains are still providing satisfactory service in the present system. The filtered water system has been augmented over the years as the population grew and demand for water increased. With the exception of approximately 2.5 mgd 2/ of water delivered to consumers between the treatment works and the city the service area is limited to Calcutta. During the 1890's an unfiltered system drawing water directly from the Hooghly River at two pumping stations was installed for fire fighting and street flushing services. However, over the years as filtered water became scarce its use for domestic purposes increased. 8. In 1966 the Palta Treatment Works had a total caoacity of 84 Mgd: slow sand filters with a capacity of 66 X.gd and a battery of rapid sand filters producing 18 Mgd. The unfiltered water system provided a total of 90 Mgd of which 45 Mgd was estimated to be consumed for domestic pur- poses. An additional 24 Mgd was pumped directly into the distribution system from wells. 9. The raw water pumping facilities at Palta are antiquated and in process of major renovation. Work started with the installation of three 48 mgd -- 60 foot head electrically powered pumps in 1966 to replace steam units. Pumping during the dry season is scheduled at low tide only due to excessive salinities during high tide. 1_/ Survey of Water Supply Resources of Greater Calcutta, Report prepared for the Government of India by the World Health Organization, acting as Executing Agency for the United Nations Development Programme, Geneva, 1969, p. 12. 2 / Million gallons per day. PART II Page 3 10. Aluminum sulphate is added at the influent end of the sedimentation tanks using pump turbulence for mixing. There are no flocculation chambers or provision for determining dosage and accurate feeding of chemicals. The sedimentation tanks have a design capacity of 85 million gallons but are filled with silt and aquatic growth to the extent that very little, if any, sedimentation occurs. Sedimentation actually takes place in the 200 million gallon settled water reservoir. This is an open earth tank partially brick lined. The reservoir also serves as a salinity equalizer during the low flow periods of the Hooghly River. 11. There are 47 acres of sand filter of which 43 acres are normally in use, the remainder out of service for cleaning. The normal production is at a rate of 1.5 Mgd per acre, which is quite low. This low rate is attributed to: (a) very fine sand in filter beds, (ii) high turbidity remaining in the settled water, and (iii) hydraulic deficiencies in in- fluent and effluent piping. 12. The high service pumping facilities consist of two steam driven 42 Mgd -- 120 foot head centrifugal pumps and one electrically driven 48 Mgd -- 120 foot head pump for a total capacity of 134 Mgd. The steam units are in very poor condition. 13. Water is transmitted to the Tallah Pumping Station (Map 10264) through the following parallel transmission lines: Main Capacity 42" Cast Iron 6 Mgd 48" Cast Iron 24 Mgd 60" Steel 56 Mgd 72" Steel 90 Mgd Total 176 Mgd The cast iron mains and the 72" steel main are in good condition but the 60" steel main is heavily corroded and frequently out of service. Even with the 60" main out of service the transmission mains were capable of handling the 1966 output of the Palta Works. 14. The Tallah Pumping Station has storage capacity of 25 million gallons in underground tanks and 9 million gallons in an elevated tank. This 34 million gallon storage was adequate in 1966. Water is pumped into the distribution system by pumps with a total capacity of 284 Mgd. Five of these pumps with a total capacity of 118 Mgd are steam powered; some of them are in very poor condition and frequently out of service. The remaining 166 mgd are provided by electrically powered units. Discharge pressures vary during the day from 20 feet to 110 feet. Thus during some periods the pressure in the system is insufficient to provide a satisfactory supply of water. The distribution system is divided into six services zones by valving, PART II Page 4 each supplied by major mains from the Tallah Pumping Station. Pressures are not uniform between zones with pressure in the southern zones generally far lower than those to the north closer to Tallah. The dis- tribution piping in the filtered water distribution system is generally of cast iron with a field pressure rating of 200 feet (400 feet and 480 feet test pressures). However, there are some large diameter steel mains in the primary grid which are in questionable condition. The sanitary condition of the system is nevertheless considered to be satis- factory. 15. There is evidence of substantial water waste in the Calcutta system. Although a portion of this wastage may be in the distribution system, which has never been adequately inspected for leaks, the greater part of the wastage appears to be within the premises of consumers. Part of this is due to faulty plumbing, but careless use of facilities is probably more important. Due to low pressures and intermittent service, water is often collected in below ground tanks and pumped to roof tanks for distribution to the house outlets. 16. The unfiltered water distribution systems are also of 200 feet field test cast iron pipe but their condition is uncertain. The lines have considerable deposits of silt from the raw water even though they are constantly flushed by open fire hydrants. The sanitary standards of these systems are poor as they pass near sewers and sewerage appurtenances and are fitted with below street level hydrant outlets. 17. There are around 110,000 service connections on the filtered water distribution system. These connections are made by brass ferrules with a nonreturn valve to prevent back-flow. There are approximately 4,400 operating street outlets, most of which are damaged and flowing constantly. There are an estimated 65,000 service connections in the unfiltered water system. Facilities for the Rest of the CMD 18. Twenty-six of the thirty-three municipalities have small water systems. Of these, six are filtered water supplies with capacities from 0.4 Mgd to 4.0 Mgd, and a total capacity of 7.6 Mgd. All others depend on ground water and have a total capacity of about 28 Mgd (see Part I, paras. 2.17-2.23). These systems cover only a part of the CMD. In unserved areas people depend upon hand-operated and private wells, water sold by vendors, open channels, tanks, ponds and other questionable sources. 19. The public ground water systems consist of one or two deep wells with pumps, a small elevated storage reservoir and a limited piped distri- bution system. Although some of these facilities will be incorporated into future systems they will be of little consequence and further discussion is therefore omitted. PART II Page 5 B. Sewerage and Drainage 20. The topography of the CMD presents problems for both sewerage and drainage. The land is extremely flat with the highest point only 30 feet above mean sea level. This flat terrain limits the distance over which gravity flow is possible and thus substantial pumping of both sewage and storm water is required. The terrain presents further complica- tions in that it is an ancient deltaic formation created by the meanders and axbows of old streams. As a result, the land slopes away from the River Hooghly on both banks and little natural drainage is afforded. 21. Drainage on the west bank is collected into canals (Bally Khal, the Howrah Drainage Canal and the Barayala Drainage Channel) all of which drain into the Hooghly. On the east bank drainage from the city of Calcutta and areas north of it is collected into canals which flow to the Kulti River. The area south of the city is served by canals and channels which discharge into the Hooghly (Maps 10507 and 10508). Due to the flat terrain sluices are required at the outfalls into both rivers. This is to provide storage for the storm runoff which occurs during high tides. 22. Over 80% of the 64 inches of annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon period which usually lasts around three and a half months. The present inadequate drainage becomes quite apparent during this period with flooding of streets, homes and businesses. Waterlogging is particularly serious in the bustees where the huts often collapse when exposed to flood waters. 23. Flooding is also of public health significance in that the wastes in the service privies and on the streets is washed into buildings. The frequent surcharging of overloaded sewers also contributes to the problem (see Annex 11, Appendix1 ). A description of the sewerage and drainage facilities existing prior to the CMDA program in the Calcutta Corporation area follows in paras. 24-33 and for the rest of the CMD in paras. 34-36. Facilities for Calcutta Corporation 24. Calcutta has two large combined sewerage systems; the Town System serving the northern part of the city and the Suburban System serving the south. The two systems serve 52 km2 of the city's 96 km2. The remaining 44 km2 have no sewers, whereas limited drainage is provided by open ditches and a few channels (see Part I, paras. 2.24-2.29). 25. The combined waste water from the Town System is collected at the Palmersbridge Pumping Station (Map 10507) where dry weather flow, principally sewerage, is lifted to a high level gravity sewer flowing to the Topsia out- fall station. The excess storm drainage is lifted to an open channel which flows to Bantala Treatment Plant. PART IT Page 6 26. The combined wastes from the Suburban System are collected at the Ballygunge Pumping Station where the dry weather flow is lifted to a high level gravity sewer which flows to Topsia. The excess storm water is lifted to an open channel which flows to Bantala. 27. At Topsia the dry weather flows from both systems join and flow to Bantala where primary treatment takes place through two 120 foot dia- meter clarifiers. Sludge is deposited in open digestors and is eventually used by farmers. The treated dry weather flow and the storm drainage from both systems flow from Bantala via the Calcutta Storm Water Channel to the River Kulti and eventually to the Bay of Bengal. 28. The trunk sewers in both systems are of brick masonry and are in a reasonably good condition structurally. However, there is some need for repairs, particularly in the crown of arches where sulphur dioxide has attacked the mortar. The slope of the sewers are such that self-cleaning velocities are not realized except during storms. This, combined with inadequate cleaning, has resulted in the accumulation of silts and other solids to the extent that some sewers are barely operable. 29. The storm loading design of the Town System provides for no flood- ing with a 1" rain and with 1" in the suburban system. Catch basins have small inlet capacities and the spacing of the basins is inadequate. During major storms the sewers fill rapidly and substantial flooding occurs. The over-capacity flows cause the sewers to surcharge large quantities of silts and raw sewage into the streets and in some cases into buildings causing a serious health hazard. 30. The lateral sewers in both systems are adequate for dry weather (sewage) flows but are grossly inadequate for storm water flows. Their physical condition is believed to be relatively good with the exception of heavy silt deposits. 31. The Ballygunge Pumping Station which serves the suburban system has a rated capacity of 328 1kd. However, the station is in very poor condition with two steam powered 18 Mgd pumps installed in 1918 which are obsolete and one of which is completely inoperable. Extensive repairs and renovation of the building and appurtenances are needed before the station can be operated effectively. Electric pumping equipment with a capacity of 292 Mgd is in a fair to good condition. The Palmersbridge Pumping Station which serves the Town System is also in poor condition. Two-thirds of the units are well beyond their useful life and in poor or inoperable condition. The total rated capacity of the station is 349 Mgd. 32. The pumping facilities at the two stations are adequate for dry weather flows but due to inoperable units and frequent breakdowns they are unable to cope with the storm loads delivered to the stations. These stations require complete renovation and the replacement of the obsolete and unrepair- able equipment. There are a number of points in the system where lift stations are needed to relieve local flooding. PART IT Page 7 33. The high level gravity sewers from the pumping stations to Topsia are in relatively good condition and of adequate capacity to carry the storm loads. The open storm water channels from Palmersbridge and Ballygunge are heavily silted but if cleaned would be of sufficient capacity to serve the stations. The design capacity of the Calcutta Storm Water Channel is 1,425 Mgd but the channel is heavily silted and the actual capacity is therefore less than that. Sluice gates have been installed at the outfall into the Kulti River but they are in very poor condition. Facilities in the Rest of the CMD 34. The new town of Kalyani has a semi-combined system capable of collecting the sewage from a population of 200,000 people and storm runoff up to three times the sewage flow. A pumping station delivers this flow to a 34 Mgd treatment plant; flows in excess of the 34 mgd rate bypass the plant. The treatment plan can serve a population of around 40,000 and provides complete treatment through primary sedimentation, high rate trickling filters, secondary sedimentation and recirculation. 35. A 6 Mgd sewage treatment plant and collection system to serve approximately 1,100 acres is under construction at Dum Dum and a small combined system is under construction at Maniktala. 36. The above three facilities serve less than 2% of the population of the CMD. In addition, small collector systems exist at Serampore, Bhatpara and Titagarh. These systems are in nearly all cases used for the disposal of industrial waters. The remainder of the population depend on cess-pits, septic tanks and privies for the disposal of human waste. A substantial amount of household wastes, including sewage, is discharged into open drain- age ditches. Lateral drains, usually open unlined ditches, throughout the CMD receive sewage and household wastes as well as storm water. C. Garbage Collection and Disposal 37. The Calcutta Corporation 1/ collects and disposes of more than 1,600 tons of trash and garbage per day. House collection of refuse is done only in a few areas but where the service exists the owner places the refuse in small containers which are emptied by Corporation laborers into hand-drawn carts and deposited in larger containers at collection points. In most areas households take their refuse to the central collection points themselves. 38. Material from the collection points is transported an average of 17 km by truck to one of five dumping grounds. The 113 trucks assigned to this task have open tipping bodies with no provision for compaction and are insufficient. 1/ A detailed study of garbage disposal in Calcutta Corporation has been carried out by the Central Health Engineering Research Institute: Alternate Methods of Garbage Disposal for Calcutta City, Nagpur, 1970. PART II Page 8 The corporation owns a Shoda incinerator which has been out of service for many years. However, it is now planned to recommission this unit to operate on an experimental basis. Operations and costs will be carefully monitored to determine the feasibility of incineration in Calcutta. 39. Limited public garbage collection also takes place in the CMD outside of the city but there is not enough equipment available for this task and most of the disposal is done unsystematically. D. Environmental Hygiene 40. In the CMD the expression "environmental hygiene" refers to the use of service privies and similar facilities and their hygienic effects. A service privy can be described briefly as a small brick-built shed con- taining a platform above an earthenware bowl at ground level which receives the droppings of human excreta. This bowl, fully exposed to flies and to human view and usually filled to overflowing with excreta, is emptied by municipal workers -- inefficiently and irregularly in most cases -- for transport to disposal pits. There are more than 150,000 such privies in the CMD. They should be viewed as part of the sewerage services available in the CMD and are discussed as such in Part I, paras. 2.24-2.26. E. Urban Transport 41. The CMD, with Calcutta at its center, is a focal point for regional person and goods movements by virtue of its position in the road, rail, water and air networks (Map 10261) and its strong economic linkages with the Eastern Region, other national centers and international markets. Calcutta is also the center of a large local labor market extending well beyond the boundaries of the CMD. Despite these important external transport connections, internal passenger transport accounts for about 90% of all person travel occurring within the CMD and the bulk of all transport movement. Internal person travel by foot, animal cart, motor vehicle and rail is also the primary focus of transport operations and investment in the CMD and are thereby the primary concern of the present appraisal. 42. Only readily available passenger transport data have been used in compiling this section. These are contained in a number of recent transport studies I/ and annual reports of passenger transport operating authorities. The available travel data are incomplete and mostly cover only those movements to or within the "metropolitan center" of the CMD (4ap 10263). Time series data for road traffic are almost non-existent though regular counts are now being taken at a number of traffic census points. The available data are nonetheless as comprehensive as will be found in most major cities in LDC's and are adequate for broad transport analysis. I/ Traffic and Transportation Plan for the Calcutta Metropolitan District, 1966-1986, CMPO, 1967; Report on Mass Transportation System, Calcutta, Metropolitan Transport Team, Planning Commission, 1969; Report of the Working Group on Metropolitan Transport Services, Planning Commission, 1970; and Traffic Study for the Proposed Rapid Transit System and Suburban Dispersal Line in Calcutta, CMPO, 1971. PART II Page 9 General Modal Characteristics 43. Pedestrian travel in the CMD is not well documented but it is the predominate means of travel over short distances and accounts for more total trips than any other means of person travel. Non-motorized vehicle movement is also significant over short distances in some areas of the CMD. Despite this, motorized means of transport over medium to long distances account for the bulk of passenger-kilometers of travel and of transport investment within the CMD. The particular importance of mass transport is shown in Table 1. Buses and trams in mixed road traffic presently account for three-quarters of all motorized person travel and suburban rail services account for about one-eighth. Travel Pattern Trends and Determinates 44. The magnitude and growth of person movements in the CMD ara products of the highly interrelated factors of economic and social condi- tions, locational patterns, transport facilities and transport use regula- tions and costs. The growth of urban population and economic activity which underly the development of metropolitan transport movements are examined in Annex 1. The pattern of urban expansion, transport facilities and policies are examined in the following paragraphs. 45. A basic determinate of the pattern of transport routes and movements in the CMD is the Hooghly River which divides the area (Map 10263). The diffi- culty and cost of providing adequate river crossings and the resultant lack of facilities (only three bridges and limited ferry services over an 85 km length of river) have led to the development of highly independent activity patterns and transport systems on the east and west banks. The natural levees built up by the river have also formed much of the high, buildable land and have provided the basis Tbr a linear north-south expansion of the two major centers, Calcutta and Howrah, and the development of a strong north- south orientation of major streets, highways and rail lines. 46. Constraints on buildable land, provision of industrial housing adjacent to scattered factory sites, historically poor transport services and the limited ability of the population to pay even low prices for trans- port services have contributed to the development of a series of small, dense and relatively self-contained urban clusters outside Calcutta and high density, compact development of the city itself. Only in recent years has the city begun to lose population and to engulf existing settlements in a more or less contiguous urban sprawl. 47. The above described metropolitan structure with a dense urban core and compact sub-centers has been highly conducive to large pedestrian move- ments within activity centers. Pedestrian travel between activity centers has also been induced by existing gaps in public transport services: the location of suburban rail terminals some distance from the center of employ- ment in central Calcutta and the overcrowding, infrequency, unreliability and low operating speeds of bus and tram services between many important parts of the urban area. Despite the high pedestrian volumes and the obvious personal PART II Page 10 and social advantages of travel by foot, inadequate provision and control of pedestrian facilities are the rule rather than the exception in most parts of the CMD. Past and present planning for pedestrian movements have been inade- quate and motor vehicle traffic is, with rare exceptions, given greater priority in the provision and use of circulation space. It is unlikely, however, that pedestrian travel has been greatly restrained by such conditions but merely made less convenient. Pedestrian travel, whether hindered or en- couraged by future policies and facilities, will continue to produce more person trips, if not more person kilometers of travel, than any other mode in the CMD. 48. The urban development and socio-economic conditions giving rise to high pedestrian movements have also given impetus to significant volume of non-motorized forms of human or animal driven vehicles which make up what is called in Calcutta, "slow" traffic.1/ Although animal drawn vehicles have virtually disappeared in recent years, and slow traffic has declined from 50% of total road traffic after World War II to 22% in 1964 and 15% in 1971 (see Table 2), human powered vehicles have actually increased and serve as a cheaper, more convenient and sometimes faster means of transport than buses, trams or taxis in congested areas. Unregulated slow traffic is considered as one of the present causes of traffic congestion and accidents, however, and slow vehicles have been banned on some arterial roads during rush hours. A role for slow vehicles which would complement other transport modes has not yet been defined but it is recognized that slow vehicles could play a positive role in a better organized urban transport system. If present transport policies continue rickshaws, cycle rickshaws and the like will probably remain significant means of local transport movements within activity centers as long as there is surplus labor willing to operate such vehicles. 49. The nearly 5.million person trips now made by motorized means (see Table 1) in the metropolitan center are thought to be about three times the number made just after World War II. The particularly rapid growth (about 7% p.a.) during the two decades between the mid-1940's and mid-1960's was directly dependent on the renewal and expansion of the severely depleted transport facilities existing at the beginning of the period: the local road system, the bus, tram and suburban rail system, as well as the taxi and pri- vate car fleet. The factors which fueled the demand for motorized travel during that period included a near absence of individual choice in location of employment and residence which might minimize commuting distances, a con- tinuing decentralization of the housing stock, a gradual increase in real incomes and a general decline in real transport user costs. The much lower recent growth of motorized travel in the CMD (about 3% p.a.) has not resulted from any basic change in these locational factors and .transport regulations and charges or in user preferences, but rather from the increasingly limited spare capacity of public transport services, roads and parking facilities, the relatively smaller net additions to these capacities and to the relatively small net additions to the supply of motor vehicles. 50. The growth in use of personal means of motorized travel (cars and taxis) has historically been constrained by the availability of vehicles despite the very high costs of purchase and use of road vehicles. There are some indications, however, that in recent years congestion and the relative 1/ The vehicles include rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, hand carts, bullock carts, and bicycles, nearly three-quarters of which are rickshaws or cycle rickshaws. PART II Page 11 shortage of parking spaces in central Calcutta are undoubtedly having a restraining influence on the use of private cars. Vehicle registration data for the CMD are not entirely reliable, but it is apparent that car registrations in the metropolitan center have been increasing at about 4% p.a. since the mid-1960's whereas car traffic has increased at only about 2% p.a. The taxi fleet has been growing at about 5% p.a. and traf- fic volumes at about 4% p.a. Neither the restraining effect of the rela- tive shortage of vehicles nor road and parking space is an explicit element of transport policy towards private motor vehicle travel in the CMD. Whereas the limits on the vehicle population are accepted as given (not desirable or undesirable), the shortage of road and parking space and resulting congestion is seen to be undesirable and future transport policy is geared to the reduction of congestion at the anticipated level of "restricted" car ownership. 51. The growth of passenger transit travel has consistently been limited by physical capacities of transit services. During the early 1960's the level of bus and tram services in the metropolitan center remained about constant (bus services increased and tram services declined slightly), passenger loadings remained at very high, saturation levels and passenger volumes did not increase (see Table 3). The inability of the largest bus operator in the metropolitan center, the Calcutta State Transport Corporation (CSTC), and the largest tram operator, the Calcutta Tramways Corporation (CTC), to pro- vide more capacity led the state government in 1966 to grant franchises to private bus operators to extend their routes into the center of Calcutta and expand greatly their services. As a result, private bus passenger volumes in the metropolitan center nearly trebled, from 0.8 to 2.8 million per day between 1966 and 1971, and those outside the metropolitan center also increased rapidly. During the same period, however, both CSTC and CTC experienced sharp declines in services provided and in passenger volumes. Their combined passenger volumes declined from about 2.1 to 1.5 million per day. Both claim that increased competition from private bus services have hurt their patronage (especially CTC which during part of the period had a marginally high fare schedule) but nonetheless both CSTC and CTC services have been curtailed due to operational difficulties not due to lack of demand. In fact, passenger loadings (and capacity restraint on demand) during the period have increased beyond what many considered initially into- lerable saturation levels. The prevailing policy is to increase the level and reliability of transit services to cater more adequately for existing demand and to rely on suburban rail services and the metro (subway) now under construction (see para.78) to cater for future increases. 52. The growth of suburban rail passenger traffic has closely paralleled the increases in the frequencies and capacities of trains made possible by electrification of lines, replacement and augmentation of rolling stock and signalling and control systems begun in the late 1950's (see Table 3). Passenger volumes have increased from about 360,000 in 1956 to 700,000 in 1971. The most marked increases occurred in the late 1950's and extended into the early 1960's. Current increases are modest. Future policy is to continue signalling and control improvement which will allow for another 20-25% increase in passenger volumes at existing levels of passenger loading. PART II Page 12 Existing Transport Facilities and Services - Road Transport Roads 53. About 2,500 miles of motor vehicle roads now exist in the CMD, over 700 miles of which are within the metropolitan center. Under the National Highways Act, 1956, the Union Ministry of Transport and Communi- cations is responsible for developing and maintaining the four national highways serving the CMD: NH2 to northern India via New Delhi, NH6 to western India and Bombay, NH34 to northern West Bengal, and NH35 to the Bangladesh frontier. The Ministry makes disbursements from the Central Road Fund to the State for these purposes. The Public Works (Roads) Department, GOWB,is responsible for the construction and maintenance of State and National highways in all areas beyond the boundaries of the Calcutta Corporation and the larger municipalities. The Public Works Department, GOWB, a separate agency, has responsibility for construction of certain road bridges and maintenance of specified roads in Calcutta and other parts of the CND. Construction and maintenance of local roads within the existing municipal area have been considered to be local responsibilities. In the past, however, municipal bodies have not fully discharged these responsibilities on the plea of inadequate resources. The result was almost complete stagnation in road development and maintenance work in the built-up areas of the CMD prior to the CMDA program. 54. Traffic engineering functions are shared by several agencies. In Calcutta, signing, pavement marking and other such traffic engineer- ing works are the responsibility of the Commissioner of Police. Instal- lation and maintenance of traffic signals are also the responsibility of the Commissioner of Police but actual execution of this work is carried out by the Public Works Department, GOWB. On that part of the CMD out- side Calcutta proper, certain minimal traffic engineering measures are undertaken by the Public Works (Roads) Department and the Public Works Department, GOWB. This work, however, relates only to State and National highways and traffic engineering applications to other roads has been extremely limited. Extensive traffic engineering and operations projects are included in the CMDA program (Annex 7, para 66 to 76). 55. The principal roadway connections between the metropolitan center and the remainder of the CMD and its hinterland (Map 10509) are provided by four National highways, seven State and district highways and several local roads. The Grand Trunk Road NH2-NH6 running north and south from Howrah on the west bank and the Barrackpore trunk road running northward from Calcutta on the east bank form the primary connec- tions between the metropolitan center and outlying developed areas in the CMD. The relatively complete grid pattern of major streets in central Calcutta is in contrast to a rather haphazard and incomplete pattern of PART II Page 13 major connecting roads in other parts of the metropolitan center. The lack of rationalization in the pattern has been conditioned by the existence of many major natural and man-made barriers (the river, nume- rous canals and ponds, railway lines and yards) and by the absence of prudent reservation of public road rights-of-way in advance of urbani- zation. A much lower proportion of the urbanized land area is devoted to streets than in other major Indian cities. Many major roads are narrow and have poor alignment. Nearly half the streets in Calcutta and more than half of those in Howrah have grossly inadequate footpaths or lack them altogether. Nearly all major roads have poor lighting and traffic markings and signals. 56. Available road space and capacity in the CMD is highly utilized, mostly by cars and taxis. Together, cars and taxis consti- tute 65% of the vehicle volumes, whereas buses and trams constitute only about 8% (see Table 2). Traffic congestion is widespread, particu- larly in and around central Calcutta, but a 1967 study concluded that with extensive traffic operations improvements, the capacity of the present road system could be augmented so as to carry significant amounts of additional traffic. The overall potential increase in move- ment estimated for the metropolitan center was equivalent to 25% of exist- ing traffic levels, lesser increments in the center and greater at the periphery. PART TT Page 14 57. Road development in the recent past has proceeded at an extremely slow pace. Less than five miles of major new arterial facilities in the C'MD were opened to traffic during the first three Plan periods (1951 - 1966). Metropolitan roadway development was, however, given high priority in the Third Plan. 7he most important of these include: the by-pass of the existing, badly congested NH2-NH6 alignment (Grand Trunk Road) which previously formed the only continuous north-south road alignment through the western half of the CMD (financed by IDA); an expressway facility connecting the Dun Dun (airport) area to Calcutta; an improved roadway connection between Calcutta and Asansol- Durgapur (the Durgapur Expressway) which extends north-west from Bally to the Grand Trunk Road (NH2) near Memari; and an improved connection from the NH2- NH6 by-pass and Durgapur Expressway to the existing Vivekananda Bridge. Sub- sequent road improvements in the CMDA program are described in Annex 7, paras. 66 to 76. Tram Services 58. Trams are the oldest means of mass transportation in the CM1D, having been introduced in Calcutta in 1880 and in Howrah in 1905. The tram system was developed under the continuous ownership and operation of the Calcutta Tramways Company (CTC), a private, London registered company. The Calcutta Traiways Act, 1951, gave effect to an agreement between the company and the GOW which granted the GO'B an exclusive purchase option to be exercised on or after January 1, 1972 at a specified price of E.2,500,000. The interests of the two parties in the interim operation of the traways were clearly divergent, however; the commercial managers desiring an advantageous financial return from their stockholders fixed term investment and the GOS desiring an improvement in present services and the strengthening of physical and financial assets for long as well as short term operation. Operations during the 1950's and early 1960's were also complicatad by aging equipment, rising labor costs nd -increased road traffic congestion. 1Idership reached a high of 1.0 to 1.1 million passengers per day between 1959 and 1964 and earnings continued to increase through 1965 even though the numaer of trams in daily operation had begun to decline (see Table 3). After a fare increase in 1963 both earnings and ridership declined while costs continued to increase (see Table 4). In June !967 cTc requested a further fare increase but within a month the company reached insolvency. CTC has since been managed by an administrator appointed by the Government of West Bengal. The ownership of CTC remains with the original shareholders pending the completion of now suspended negotiations on compensation. 59. The tramway network had been developed as a city service within Calcutta with extensions beyond the corporate limits to the mnicipalities of How-v?rah and South Suburban. The State administration has undertaken a review of the profitabili'y of various components of the network and during 1970 and 1971 the last 8 kilometers of tram lines extending into Howrah from PART II Page 15 Howrah Station were abandoned. The surplus rolling stock was applied to routes on the remaining Calcutta network. The present tram network consists of 62 kilometers of double track service lines, including 11 kilometers on reserved rights-of-way as well as 16 kilometers of single track loop and depot lines. At the beginning of 1971 CTO had a total fleet of 472 trams of which about 330 were in daily service. Nearly all are two unit trams with one first-class 60-80 passenger car and one second-class 80-100 passenger car. 60. Despite the consolidation of its network and equipment, the State administration has been unable to stem the decline in the traways operating and financial performance. Pfter State take-over tram speeds and frequencies were increasingly affected by derailments, failures of overhead wires, processions and other distur bances as well as vehicle congestion and inter- ference, and the number of serviceable trans was reduced by physical destruction and mechanical failure. In the past year the first results of the accelerated renewal of track and wires begun in 1970 are beginning to be felt and civil disturbances have abated. However, the serviceable tram fleet is depleted, operating procedures and utilization of manpower have not been signifcantly altered and traffic congestion increases. 61. The financial performance of the traxways has deteriorated rapidly from a marginal prof-i in 1965 to a US$2.5 million loss in 1971. While revenues have declined 10% over the period, labor, power and maintenance costs have inflated operating costs by . The projected deficit, at constant fares and costs, averages about US$3 million per annum through 197. (see Table 4). These projected deficits are undoubtedly underestimated as fares are unlikely to be increased in line with rising operating costs. The GOW5 has provided "ways and means advances" since 1967 to offset CTC's operating deficit and through nkd-1972 these have totalled approximately US$8 million. 62. CTC has long maintained low passenger fares based on a two-stage schedule. In early 1969 the State directed CTC to raise its schedule of fares to improve its revenue performance. Fares for the predominate 3-mile single stage fare were increased from US 1.070 to US 1.62 for second-class and US 1.350 to US 2.030 for first-class. The increase forced minimum tram fares above the minimum 2.2 mile first stage bus fare of US 1.350 which continued unchanged. The increase caused sporadic rioting and destruction of tramways property and ridership fell by about 25%. After three months, the fare increases were partially withdrawn and the minimum tram and bus fares were equated. 63. Declining operating surpluses during the later years of private management were accompanied by a curtailment of maintenance funds and a large backlog of deferred maintenance and renewal of rolling stock and track. Financing for renewal is presently provided for within the CMDA program (see Annex 7, paras. 66 to 76). PART II Page 16 Bus Services 64. Buses began operating in Calcutta at the beginning of this century but it was not until a group of private operators formed the Bengal Bus Syndicate in 1925 that services were regularized. Bus operators competed directly with the tram system in Calcutta and also maintained services extending well beyond the corporate limits. The end of World War II brought an unprecedented growth in demand for public transport and overcrowding of buses and trams reached an intolerable level. The GOWE thus established a State Transport Organization, run on a departmental basis, to supplement private bus operations. In 1960 this body was super- seded by the Calcutta State Transport Corporation (CSTC) set up by the State Government under the Road Transport Corporations Act 1950 (a Union Act) and the Road Transport Corporations (Amendment) Act, 1959. The estab- lishment of an autonomous corporation was the result of policy laid down by the Central Government and the Planning Commission, to the effect that a commercial undertaking in the public sector should be managed by an autonomous body functioning under either the Indian Companies Act or the Road Transport Corporations Act. CSTC began operations as a nationalized bus service within the corporate area of Calcutta. Private bus operators were restricted to Howrah and other outlying areas of the CMD during this period, their services terminating at or near the boundary of Calcutta. 65. All private bus operators within the CMD are organized into either bus syndicates or route committees. A bus syndicate is an association of bus owners which looks after the interests of the operators and organizes the services. It supervizes the operation of these services by forming one or more route committees which are in turn responsible for maintaining regu- larity of service and are recognized by the Regional Transport Authorities (see para. 73). Each bus route other than those operated by the CSTC falls under the jurisdiction of a route co.mittee, which is the basic unit of control. But all the routes operated by private bus owners within the CD do not necessarily fall under a synideate, as some routes are supervized by only route committees. 66. In 1964 private operators were granted three routes within Calcutta and were allowed to extend a limited .uber of subuirban routes into the city. CSTC retained a virtual monopoly of intracity services but private bus operations expanded considerably. Even with an eleiment of competition, CSTC did not expand its services to the extent desired by GO-WB and in late 1966 private bus operators were granted permission for extensive routes within and into Calcutta. Since that date 0STO services and patronage have declined and private operators services and patronage have soared. By 1968 the size of private bus operations equalled those of CSTC and by 1971 were more than three times the dwindling size of CSTC (see Table 3). PART II Page 1-7 67. In 1971 0STC operated 29 bus routes out of five depots on a system totalling 391 route kilometers. A daily average of 460 CSTC buses provided _1,000 route kilometers of service and carried about 70,000 passengers. Private bus companies operated 67 routes on a system totalling 856 route kilometers extending beyond the limits of the metropolitan center. A daily average of 1,480 private buses provided 216,000 route kilometers of service and carried about 2,800,000 passengers. CSTC1s effective operating fleet consists of about 40% double deck buses and 60% single deck. The double deckers have a rated capacity of 86 sitting and standing passengers and the single deckers have a capacity of 60 passengers. The privately owned buses are single deckers with comparable capacities. 68. The financial performance of the CSTC has steadily worsened since its inception in 1960. Operating losses were first sustained in 1963/63 and by mid-1965 there was an accumulated deficit of about US$1.8 million. ince then, however, increasing wage rates and decreasing productivity (dae to poor fleet utilization and a fixed labor force) have resulted in rapidly mounting deficits. In 1971/72 the operating deficit is estimated to have been about US$6 million and the total accumulated deficit about US$17 millior.. CSTC has received substantial loans from GO ,B to maintain its solvency. The financial performance of private bus operators has not been assessed but it is under- stood that some operators have recently pressed for fare increases due to falling profits or rising deficits. 69. Neither CS's financial nor its operating performance compares favorably with public bus undertakings in other major Indian cities (see Table 5). CSTC, with the poorest fleet and labor utilization and a fare structure 25-35% lower than those in the other cities, not surprisingly produced the largest deficit in the year reported, 1969/70. 70. 0STC and private bus companies have an equivalent ralti-stage fare schedale for most services (CSTC has introduced express and first-class services at higher fares) which has remained constant for many years. The minimum fare is US 1.350 for a 2.2-mile single stage iicket with fare increments of US .670 for subsequent 2-mile stages up to a maximum fare of US 4.650. 71. Despite mounting cost pressures, bus fares have not been revised upwards in part because declining standards of service, at least on the OSTC system, have precluded the possibility of gaining widespread public acceptance of such measures. The low fleet utilization and poor bus operating performance of CSTC are symptoms of an old and dilapidated fleet which has not been properly renewed and maintained. The situation has arisen from the restricted avail- ability of import permits for new buses and spare parts, the limited capacity of domestic sources of buses and spare parts and the lack of internally generated funds. During 1970 funds were made available to CSTC for renewal and maintenance and acquisition of new buses. PART II Page 18 Taxi and Cycle-Rickshaw Services 72. In addition to bus syndicates, taxi and cycle-rickshaw cooperative societies have been organized under the West Bengal Cooperatives Directorate. Road Transport Administration 73. Road transport administration in India is at present a State responsibility. The Home (Transport) Department, GOh, is responsible for road transport development, coordination and administration in West Bengal. Under it is a State Transport Authority which coordinates the activities of Regional Transport Authorities. The Regional Transport Authorities are responsible for granting permits and advising the State Government on passenger fares. Three of the four Regional Transport Authorities within the CMD are chaired by the respective District Magistrate who also oversees the Additional District Magistrate responsible for licensing, registration and taxation of motor vehicles. The fourth is the Calcutta Ragional Transport Authority which is geographically more extensive than the others encompassing Calcutta and the District of 24-Parganas (all of Calcutta and its immediate suburbs) and functionally different. WIthin that authority licensing, registration and taxation are performed by the Director of Public Vehicles, a State Official. EKisting Transport Facilities and Services - Rail Transport Suburban Rail 74. Apart from a few light railway lines run by private companies, the Government of India owns and operates the entire railway system throughout the country. The operation of suburban rail services began after electri- fication had been introduced in Bombay in 1925, when suburban commuters were first allowed special fare facilities. It was not intil the early 1950's that electrification was contemplated in Calcutta, and not until an electri- fication program was started in 1957 that a separate suburban rail system was established in the CMD. 75. The Eastern Railway operates the entire suburban section of the Indian Railway in the area excepting the suburban line from Howrah westwards to Kharagpur, which is under the control of the South-Eastern Railway. Both railways have broad-gauge lines and for the operation of services they have established suburban sections on 12 rail alignments extending beyond the boundaries of the CMD. Although passengers use some of the 80 intermediate stations, the vast bulk of them terminate their inward journeys at Sealdah and Howrah stations, which handle 400,000 and 300,000 passengers a day respectively. In 1969 there were 649 suburban train runs per day into and out of Sealdah and Howrah stations. Frequencies have been gradually increased PART II Page 19 over recent years, the present frequencies being more than twice those provided before electrification began in 1957. Services out of Howrah operate with eight car trains with a rated capacity of 1,600 passengers and those out of Sealdah operate eight and four car trains. 76. A large percentage of suburban commuter traffic is oriented towards central Calcutta and practically all of this traffic is funnelled through either Sealdah or Howrah stations. Approaches to both stations are poorly designed and access is complicated by a variety of local traffic and physical conditions. Transfer to bus and train services is poorly organized at How:rah station and the movement between the station and Calcutta city is complicated by intense congestion on the bridge and its approaches, intensi- fied by the proximity of thc station to the western bridge approach. However, a terminal complex improvemert plan at Howrah station is under execution and is expected to aleviate problems in the next few years. Connections to Sealdah station also involve serious traffic bottlenecks and limitations in surface transport capacity. Deficiencies in surface transport capacity result in heavy pedestrian movements in east-west corridor which, in turn, seriously interfere with the movement of street traffic including transit vehicles. Considerable congestion occurs within the station approaches and this is aggravated by traffic generated by several large markets, the rail- way goods yard and adjacent commercial activities. 77. The fares and finances of the suburban rail services in the CMD have not been reviewed. Rail Transit 78. A 16.4 kilometer underground rail transit line, called the RTS, is presently being constructed on a departmental basis by the Metropolitan Transport Project (Railways), a division of the Eastern Railways. This first leg of a possibly more extensive future system runs on a north-south align- ment through the center of Calcutta and interconnects with the main suburban rail line north of Sealdah station. It is intended to carry many passengers directly into the center and to divert many rail passengers who would other- wise change travel modes at Sealdah. The RTS is expected to be completed in 1979 at a cost of nearly US$200 million. On the basis of existing forecasts about 1.5 million passengers per day would use the subway in 1980. The operating authority for RTS has not yet been decided but it is safe to assume that the Eastern Railways will perform that function providing that terms agreeable to it can be agreed with 001 for sharing the anticipated operating deficit of the system. PART II Page 20 F. Housing 79. Existing studies of the housing situation in the CMD are mostly based on the 1961 Census of India, a 1963 housing survey in Calcutta Corpo- ration 1/, and various estimates of population increase and housing construction after 1961 (see Part V ). Housing information collected in the 1971 Census of India is not yet available. 80. One basic feature of the housing situation in the CMD is the large proportion of the population living under squatter and slum conditions, 34% or 2.3 million people in 1961 (see Part I, para. 2.31). The highly special characteristics of this segment of the housing market are discussed separately in Section G; however, squatter and slum housing is, of course, also included in the following more general description of the situation. Housing in the Early 1960's 81. The existence of the pavement dwellers of Calcutta, the completely houseless, is well known. Their actual number is difficult to estimate and fluctuates greatly with the season. The figure given by the 1961 Census, 30,000, is considered to be low. 2/ Alternative estimates are as high as 80,000. Another 370,000 persons were living in various institutions such as colleges, hospitals, and jails, but the exact distribution by type of institution is not known. The remaining 6.3 million were people residing in some form of non-institutional shelter. 82. An estimated 1.1 million persons were living in "single-member households". Most of them were single males, or males who had left their families in their villages; one of the reasons being the lack of suitable accommodation. In such cases, family members may stay separated for long periods, with the husband supporting the other members through small remittances. The sex ratio for the CMD was considerably unbalanced, with only 674 females per 1,000 males in 1961, compared to an overall average of 941 for India. The presence of such a relatively large number of unattached males, voluntarily withholding significant portions of their earnings from local consumption, creates special conditions in the C.MD's housing market. 83. For the population of the CD the average number of persons per housing unit was 4.8 in 1961. This ratio was not exceptionally high, at least by Indian standards. In the same year, the corresponding ratio for Madras City was 6.2, while in 1968 the ratio for Greater Bombay was 5.3 (see Part I, Table 27). What makes the Calcutta situation worse is the small size of rooms and units. The average number of persons per room was about 3.0 for the CMD area, compared to an average of 2.6 for urban India, and only 2.2. persons per room in Durgapur, the second largest urban center in West Bengal. 1/ Survey of Housing Conditions in Calcutta Corporation Area, 1963, State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, 1967. 2/ CMPO, Basic Development Plan, Calcutta Metropolitan District, 1966-1986, Calcutta, 1966, p. 27. PART II Page 21 84. Shortage of space is not the only, perhaps not even the main aspect of Calcutta's housing problem. The quality of tha structures is poor, and there is inadequate supply of water, sewerage, drainage and other services. In 1961 at least one-third of all units in the CMD had non-permanent walls (see Annex 1, Table 27). Calcutta had the smallest proportion of non- permanent (kAtcha) buildings (25.2%), the largest occurring in the rural areas (57.8%). Howrah also had a large proportion (42.0%) of such units. Many of the permanent (pucca) structures had deteriorated to an extent which made them similar to non-permanent structures. 85. The serious lack of basic household facilities was documented in the 1963 sample survey 1/ (see Table 6). More than two-thirds of the renter families with a monthly income of less than Rs 350 did not have the exclusive use of a separate kitchen. As many as 89% did not have their own bathroom, and 84% did not have their own drinking water tap. In the lowest income group less than 2% had their own bathroom and less than 1% had their own water tap. The average family in this group had only 7.8 m2 of floor space (2.5 m per person), while for all families with an income of less than Rs 350 per month the average floor space was 11.6 m2 (2.7 m2 per person). 86. The survey also revealed that as many as 73% of the families inter- viewed were living in some type of rented accommodation, and only 19% could be considered as owners. The problem of accommodation seems to be much more acute among renters than among owners. Thus, only 30% of the total renter families had more than one room. Among owner families the proportion was 80%. The proportion of families that had to utilize their living rooms for cooking was about 20% among renter families. 2/ 87. The average rent and taxes paid by the various families included in the 1963 sample survey ranged from Rs 13 to Rs 244 per month, with the relative burden becoming progressively lighter as the income of the family increased. Thus, while families with a monthly income not exceeding Rs 100 paid on the average 16.3% of their income for rent and taxes, the respective proportion paid by families with monthly incomes of Rs 1,200 or more was 10.4% (see Table 7). Development during the 1960's 88. The housing situation in the early 1960's could have been noticeably improved only through a drastic increase in the rate of new housing construction. It appears, however, that there has been no improvement. Over the 1961-1971 decade the rate of new pucca construction has been less than that required to accommodate the population growth. 1/ Survey of Housing Conditions in Calcutta Corporation Area 1963, op cit. 2/ CMPO, Housing Programme for CMD, 1971-1986, Calcutta, pp. 5-6. PART II Page 22 89. An annual average of about 25,000 new pucca units were completed in the CMD over the 1961-1971 period, 1/ whereas some 33,000 units per year 2/ would have been required to provide new residents with pucca housing (including an attrition allowance of 1,000 units per year). In 1961 there were 7.2 persons for each pucca housing unit in the CMD. 3/ The above production gap of 8,000 units per year implies that there was no improvement in the housing situation between 1961-1971; there was still 7.2 persons per pucca unit in 1971. On the other hand, there was no deterioriation either, in relative terms. It appears that the same proportion (34%) of the CMD population lived under squatter and slum conditions in 1971 as in 1961; the number of persons increased, however, from 2.3 million to 2.8 million. 90. An immediate addition of 560,000 pucca units to the housing stock would be necessary if all CMD residents were to be provided with housing in permanent structures, assuming no reduction of the present overcrowding; that is, about 5 persons per unit. If this goal were to be achieved over the next ten years, a four-fold increase in the present rate of pucaconstruction would be required, from 25,000 to 100,000 units per year, taking into account the expected population growth (see Part I, para 1.41) and attrition. If the goal were to be achieved over the next 20 years, a three-fold increase in the present rate would be necessary. The resources required for such a massive construction effort are simply not available (see para. 91 below) and this fact has been recognized in the CMD. The continued existence of a squatter and slum (bustee) population has been accepted and efforts are being made to improve general sanitary and living conditions for this segment of the population (see Section G below and Annex 7,. paras. 91-97). In addition, new ways of inducing new housing construction are being tried, including sites and services schemes and financial innovations (see Annex 7, paras. 77-90). Demand and Supply Factors 91. The primary reason for the housing situation in the CMD is the lack of effEective demand, and behind the lack of demand is the low and unevenly distributed income in the C M (see Part I, paras. 1.16 and 1.25 and Figure 1). It is estimated that only 7.5% of the CMD households can afford the economic rent of new pucca housing. 4/ This leads directly to overcrowding and squatter and slum living. 1/ G. Thomas Kingsley and Frank S. Kristof, A Housing Policy for Metropolitan Calcutta. A Recommendation to the Ford Foundation Advisory Planning Group with the Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization, mimeo, March 1971, p. 1-1. 2/ Assumes a standard of 5 persons per housing unit; the 1961 standard was 4.85 (see Annex 1, Table 27). 3/ Derived from Annex 1, Table 27. 4/ Kingsley and Kristof, A Housing Policy for Metropolitan Calcutta, op.cit. PART II Page 23 92. The cost of new housing construction is high and rapidly increasing. Among the many reasons for this are: (i) the scarcity and high price of developable land; (ii) the legal complexities of land assembly and develop- ment; (iii) the high cost and uneven quality of many construction materials and the shortage of critical ones, particularly steel and cement; and (iv) the generally inefficient organization and management of the industry itself and its reliance on tradition-bound construction practices. 93. The public sector has made a substantial contribution towards covering part of the housing gap, mainly by building units that qualify for subsidies and assistance offered by the Government of India. Between 1961 and 1966 the public sector financed the construction of 16,500 units (about 11% of total new construction) at a cost of about Rs 14 crores. The various programs are still in existence, but the rate of public housing construction has declined somewhat since 1966. The public sector has been the main source of satisfactory housing for families in the middle and lower income categories. I/ The total public housing stock within tfe CMD at the present is about 60,000 units, 5% of total pucca housing. G. The Bustees 94. About a third of the CMD population live in overcrowded settlements of single-storey huts of temporary construction. These settlements are of three different types; statutory bustees, squatter settlements and refugee colonies. 95. The statutory bustee has been defined by the Calcutta Municipal Act of 1951 as "an area of land occupied by, or for the purpose of, any collection of huts standing on a plot of land not less than ten kottahs in area. 2/ A hut is defined as "any building no substantial part of which excluding the walls up to a height eighteen inches above the floor level, is constructed of masonry, reinforced concrete, steel, iron or other metal". The bustees thus defined are registered and have unique characteristics of assessment for corporation taxation, tenure and physical appearance and conditions. 3/ 1/ Ibid., p. 11-26. See also N. Banerjee, The Housing Problem in the CMD and Possible Policy Measures for Tackling It., CMPO, 1970; and CMPO, Interim Report Housing; Calcutta Metropolitan District, Calcutta, 1967. 2 2/ Ten kottahs are approximately equal to one-sixth of an acre or 670 m There are many bustee holdings that are less than 10 kottahs in size and were not registered as bustees. The vast majority of the "unregistered bustees" were, however, physically joined to, or very close to, registered bustee holdings. The State Statistical Bureau decided to include these small areas within the scope of its bustee survey conducted in 1958-59. It was found during the survey that of the total of 3,219 bustee holdings surveyed by the SSB, 23% were unregistered because they covered areas of less than 10 kottahs. See CMPO, Bustee Improvement Programme: Calcutta and Howrah, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 4-5. 3/ See "Bustee Improvement Programme", in Papers on Housing, CMPO, Calcutta, 1969, pp. 53-54. PART II Page 24 96. The first bustees were located near the port and the various factories. Their function was mainly to provide accommodation for workers near the place of their employment. More bustees developed subsequently to provide accommodation to various low-income segments of the population. Bustees are now found through- out the CMD with the exception of five wards in the central city. In some central city wards they cover as much as 30% of the area. 97. The term "bustee holdings" refers to the pattern of ownership, not the physical layout. A single bustee, as a physically distinct area of contiguous huts, may have a single owner or may be divided into several separate holdings. One of the main characteristics of the registered bustee is its three-tiered system of land ownership, hut ownership and tenancy. The landlord owns only the land, while the structure is owned by a middleman known as a "thika-tenant". The latter rents the dwelling unit to its occupants. 1/ He uses part of the rent he collects to compensate the landlord. Most thika-tenants are not affluent, and many live in bustees themselves. For certain thika-tenants the main or only source of income is the rent they collect from one or more huts they own. As a rule,they are strongly in opposition to clearance schemes which, though offering them alternative accommodation and compensation for the huts demolished, will deprive them of their steady income. They favor improvement schemes (so long as they are not asked to contribute substantially to the cost) which would confirm their continued tenancies of the land on which their bustee huts are located. 98. The thika-tenants have enjoyed particular security since the enactment of the Thika-Tenant Act of 1935, which gave them legal protection for their houses and prohibited their eviction withoutcompensation. The Act came as a result of resistance among thika-tenants to the efforts of many bustee landlords to do away with the huts and utilize their land more profitably. Rigid appli- cation of the law and the politicalization of the bustee dwellers put the land- lord at the mercy of the thika-tenant, who pays him a low rent for the use of his land. The landlord is usually willing to sell the land because of its extremely low return. He has no incentive for any type of improvement. The thika-tenant has little incentive for investing in the improvement of the hut because of rent controls which make such investments unprofitable. The occupant of the hut not being its owner, has also little or no incentive for similar improvements. However, the occupants would favor improvement schemes which would ameliorate their living conditions -- particularly in terms of drainage, water supply and latrine facilities -- provided that they are not asked to pay a heavy cost. They seem unable to afford much higher rents if these were demanded for rehousing the occupants in new projects. 1/ There are approximately 20,000 thika-tenants owning a total of 30,000 huts on the total bustee holdings in Calcutta. 93% of these thika tenants do not have leases for a specified period. A hut is typically worth about Rs 2,000 in materials and contains, on the average, six rooms, each let out for an average rent of Rs 15 per month. In Howrah, 60% of the hut owners are also land owners. The indicence of thika-tenancy in Howrah is therefore less acute than in Calcutta generally. See CMPO, Bustee Improvement Programme: Calcutta and Howrah, op. cit., p. 13. PART II Page 25 99. Squatter settlements are unregistered slums. Many of them consist of shacks or other temporary structures built in the fringe areas of the older parts of the city. The land on which several of these settlements have been built is public. 100. Refugee colonies appeared after the partition of India in 1947 when millions of people moved to the Calcucta area from East Bengal. Several refugee colonies were built on available government land. 101. Regardless of type, statutory bustees, squatter settlements and refugee colonies are seriously inadequate living areas, Most of these settle- ments have no sewer connections but depend on the irregular manual collection and disposal of night-soil by sweepers em.ployed by the municipalities. 1/ All such settlements suffer from grossly inadequate drainage and water systems and very poor natural drainage conditions. Most of the land that squatter, refugee and other poor households were able to occupy was in the less desirable low lying areas without drainage and piped water supply. Most settlements are flooded during the monsoon period and their water sources, ponds and open drains, are polluted. 102. Traditionally, the bustees have bee% breeding grounds for tuberculosis, smallpox and gastro-intestinal diseases such as cholera. In the past, two-thirds of the cholera cases encountered in Calcutta have occurred in the bustee areas, even though the bustee population constitutes only slightly over one-quarter of the total population. 2/ In the last few years the problem of epidemics has become somewhat less serious, thanks to the introduction of chlorination of unfiltered water. 103. The environment of the bustees suffers also from the presence of unlicensed cattle yards (khatals). This problem is particularly acute in Howrah. The removal of the Khatals has been suggested by CMPO but no success- ful steps have been taken yet toward that goal; the cows are an important source of fresh milk supply. Size and Location 104. In the Calcutta city area there are 3,220 bustees. Of them, 899 are in the sewered part of the central city; they cover 240 acres of land and have a population exceeding 200,000. The remaining 2,330 bustee-holdings area spread along the fringe of the city covering an area of 1,470 acres, most of which are totally without sewerage facilities. According to an estimate, the population living in those bustees approaches 800,000. In the Howrah and Bally area the total bustee population amounts to 250,000. More than 75,000 of them live in central Howrah, in bustees covering an area of 165 acres. The rest of the 250,000 bustee dwellers have mainly clustered in 392 acres of land to the north of the South Eastern Railway Line. All the bustees in Howrah are totally 1/ The majority of the bustee-dwellers have to depend on service privies as their only toilet facility. 2/ The health hazards caused by the unsanitary conditions of the bustees were emphasized in a report of the World Health Organization. See H.P. Cronin, L. Gulick, R. Pollitzer and A. Wolman, Assignment Reports on Water Supply and Sewerage Disposal, Greater Calcutta, WHO Project: India 170, WHO, January 1960, pp. 3, 5, 6 and 7. PART II Page 26 unsewered; as is the entire Howrah area (see Annex 1, Table 26). Besides the bustee dwellers residing in Calcutta and in Howrah, an estimated 523,000 live in various bustees on the east bank, and another 155,000 on the west bank. The most populous outlying bustees in the east bank area are those in Garden Reach (estimated bustee population: 80,000), Bhatpara (80,000), Kamarhati (68,000) and Titagrah (60,000). Several bustees in that area have population ranging from 5,000 to 30,000. On the west bank, the largest bustees outside Howrah are in Champdani (estimated bustee population: 30,000), and Rishra (30,000). There are several bustees with population of 5,000, 10,000 15,000 or 20,000 (see Annex 7, Table 8). 105. Calcutta city has more than 50% and Howrah more than 12% of the total registered bustee population in the CMD. The spatial distribution of bustee holdings in Calcutta and Howrah appears in Map 10510. Past Programs of Action 106. Until the 1930's no serious effort was made to improve the living conditions in the bustees. Then the Calcutta Corporation attempted to achieve improvements through the bustee landlords, but these attempts failed because of legal difficulties. The Thika-Tenant Act (para. 98) reduced the interest of the landlord by securing the right of the thika-tenants to the huts. Certain provisions were contained in the Calcutta Municipal Act of 1951 for improvements to be carried out by the Calcutta Corporation according to stan- dard plans, the cost of which could be recovered from the bustee owners. Legal difficulties and resistance from the bustee owners did not allow the realization of those provisions. 107. A gradual clearance of the bustees and re-housing of their dwellers within given distances were envisaged by the Calcutta Slum Clearance and Rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers Act of 1958. However, any large scale appli- cation of the Act would have been prohibitively expensive and would have faced serious legal difficulties and delays. 1/ Thus, the total number of bustee rehousing units constructed in Calcutta under the slum clearance programs amounted to only 9,000 units for the entire period cf the first three Five-Year plans, i.e., for the 15 year period ending in 1966. At this rate it would take nearly a hundred years to eli-minate the present bustees in Calcutta city alone. 108. Private development has affected only a few bustees in favorable locations within central and south Calcutta city. In the few such instances, the private developer who acouired the land from the landlord also had to pay substantial compensation to the bustee-dwellers to persuade them to move elsewhere. As a rule, the latter moved to other bustees since no alternative accommodation was provided by the developer. This action increased increased the congestion in the bustees that received the dislocated households. The cleared land was used mainly for multi-storey buildings for high income residents and/or commercial purposes. This form of private clearance has been slow, frag- mented, and very limited in scope. 1/ See K. C. Sivaramakrishnan, Bustee Improvement Programme in Calcutta, Position Paper, CNDA, Calcutta, March 1972, pp. 1-2. PART II Page 27 Present Approach 109. A gradual realization that it is not possible to achieve total clearance of the bustess in the foreseeable future has caused a major shift in emphasis from bustee clearance to bustee improvement. Although the total clearance of the bustees and the replacement with better housing remains the ultimate goal, the immediate goals of the bustee improvement programs are to reduce or remove the health hazards and to improve the overall environment of the slums. Such programs cost considerably less than clearance and redevelop- ment. The cost of the environmental improvements proposed in the CMDA's 4th Plan improvement scheme is approximately Rs 10 crores; in the case of total clearance and renewal for the same bustee population the cost of new accommo- dation alone would be about Rs 166 crores. 110. Besides the cost considerations, the change in attitude was also influenced by the realization that despite their appalling environmental and other conditions the bustees do perform certain important functions in the CMD. These functions are valuable and worth preserving. They are founded on locational, social and economic features of the bustees. Major disruptions of bustee communities, such as dislocations for rehousing in more distant areas, may cause problems and failure of rehousing programs due to lack of cooperation from the part of the bustee population. 111. The main functions performed by the bustees have been described as follows: 1/ They provide housing at rents that can be afforded and, through variation in hut and room size, they provide a narrow hut important range of housing choices in relation to varying income levels and varying housing compo- sitions. (2) They act as reception centers in the urban area for rural migrants to the city, most of those migrants being unskilled and illiterate and, therefore, unable to afford better type of accommodation. (3) They house a large number of family and cottage industrial establishments which provide both income and training to large numbers of bustee dwellers. (4) They provide the means to the bustee dwellers of a very considerable physical mobility within the urban area to search employment. Being scattered widely, they also provide the opportunity of finding accommodation in close proximity to the work place. (5) They provide the bustee dwellers with essential social support in periods of unemployment and other difficulties through the various social and communal organizations that have evolved in the bustees. (6) They encourage and reward small-scale private entrepreneurship in the field of housing by inducing many dwellers to construct their huts in a way which permits rooms to be let out for profit to individual tenants. 112. Bustee improvement programs presently underway attempt to preserve and develop the bustees as socio-economic entities while at the same time improving their physical and sanitary conditions (see Annex 7, paras. 91-97). 1/ Colin Rosser, Housing for the Lowest Income Groups: The Calcutta Experience, Centre for Urban Studies, London, 1970, pp. 13-15. PART II Page 28 Table 1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELPMENT PROJECT Motorized travel in the jalcutta Metropolitan Center, 1971 Person Trips Percent Transport Mode (000's day) of Total zbad Transport Bus - Private 2,800 50 Bus - State 750 13 Tram 700 12 Sub-total 4,250 75 Car 440 8 Taxi 220 4 Motorcycle 60 1 Sub-total 720 13 Sub-total Road Transport 4,970 Rail Transport Suburban Rail 700 12 TOTAL 5,670 100 Source: Mission estimate based on recent travel data. PART II Page 29 Table 2 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Road Based Travel in the Calcutta Metropolitan Center, 1971 Transport Mode Person Trips Vehicle Trips Number Percent Percent of Trips of Total of Total (077 day) Motorized transport: Bus and Tram Bus - Private 2,800 4 Bus - State 750 15 2 Tram 700 lb 2 Subtotal 4,250 84 8 Passenger car 40 9 39 Taxi 220 4 25 "otorcycle 60 1 8 Truck - - 5 Subtotal 720 lb 77 Non-motorized transport: Rickshaw/Bicycle 80 2 11 Cart - - 4 Subtotal 80 2 15 Total 5,050 100 100 Source: Mission estimate based on local traffic surveys. PART II Page 30 Table 3 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Mass Transport-Average Daily Vehicle and Passenger Volumes in the Calcutta Metropolitan Center Private Bus Year CSTC Operators CTC 1 Eastern/S.Eastern Ry Buses Passengers Buses Passengers Traxns Passengers Trains Passengers 1961/62 615 1,300 613 1,036 Lj9 q66 1 6 666 1.LtDO 175 400 4 D3 1,06 416 567 1 63/6 4 663 1,351 606 1,075 409 532 1966/65 665 1,361 396 1,003 612 620 69 1,090 390 982 413 632 /67 669 1,091 500 803 363 99 656 635 1067/5- 655 1,)75 375 868 696 635 1 38/69 592 1,:30 337 886 63 671 1939/70 561 950 338 727 589 663 1973/71 50J 763 1,L80 2,600 J 337 716 7D0 1c71/72 66 L/ 7502/ 3302/ 6922/ Da+a for earlier calendar year s +imat.ed Sources: Report of the Working Group on Metropolitan Transport Services, Planning Commission, 1970; Traffic Study fortIM Proposed Rapid Transit System as Suburban Dispenal Line in Calcutta, CMPO, 1971; CTC Administrative Report, 1971; Quarterly Operating Reports, CSTC, 1971-72. PART II Page 31 Table 4 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Mass Transport - Financial OperatinZ Results of CSTC and CTC (in Rupees Crores7 Year CSTC CTC Total Total Total Total Total Operatir Operating Operating Surplus Operating Operating Surplus Revenue Expense (Deficit) Revenue Expense .(Deficit 196h/65 4.93 5.63 (0.70) 1965/66 5.39 6157 (1.18) 3.46 3.24 0.22 1966/67 7.18 8.65 (1.47) 3.42 3.24 0.18 1967/68 6.08 8.20 (2.12) 2.96 3.49 (0.53) 196/69 6.14 8.83 (2.69) 3.25 4.02 (0.77) 4.87 8.33 (3.6) 3.42 4.21 (0.79) 1970/71 - - - 3.21 4.55 (1.34) 1971/72 3.78 1 9.58- (5.80)1/ 3.13 5.oh (1.91) 1972/73- 3.33 6.49 (3.16) 1973/74./ 3.58 5.91 (2.33) 1974/75! 43.03 6.16 (2.13) 1975/76i/ 4.04 6.39 (2.35) 1/ Estimated Sources: See Table 3 INDIA PART TT Page 32 CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Table 5 Mass Transport - Selected Operating Data, State Operated Bus Undertakings in Metropolitan Areas in India STD BEST CSTC DTU Madras Bombay Calcutta Delhi Fleet Strength (Nos.) 1,975 1,307 1,093 1,193 Operating Fleet (Nos.) 1,700 1,178 561 866 Fleet Utilization (%) 86.1 90.1 51.3 72.6 Employees per bus operated (Nos.) 11 14 23 18 (Amounts in Rs crores) Capital employed 16.67 22.26 12.14 12.10 Total Revenue 16.59 14.71 4.87 6.55 (of which bus fares) 15.65 14.00 4.71 6.31 Total Expenditures 17.10 15.39 8.33 9.16 Personnel 4.26 6.70 3.85 3.66 Materials 6.42 4.40 2.04 2.93 Depreciation 1.94 1.52 0.69 1.22 Overheads 3.43 2.76 1.09 1.04 Interest 1.04 - 0.66 0.31 Net Surplus (Deficit) (0.51) (0.68) (3.46) (2.61) Amounth in Paises (1/100 Rupee) Rev. per seat Km. 1.72 2.48 2.27 1.67 Cost per seat Km. 1.77 2.60 3.88 2.34 Source: Review of Public Road undertakings 1969/70, Transport Research Bureau. PART II Page J3 Table6 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Facilities Available for Renter Families in Calcutta, 1963 Monthly No. of Percent with Exclusive Use of Average Floor Space (m 2) Income of Families Separate Drinking Per Per Families in Sample Kitchen Bathroom Water Supply Family Capita (Rs) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1-100 362 15.7 1.9 .8 7.8 2.5 101-200 558 30.5 5.7 13.6 10.5 2.4 201-350 437 48.9 25.6 31.9 16.2 3.1 Sub-total 1,357 32.5 11.1 16.1 11.6 2.7 351- 700 388 66.7 51.2 49.2 24.8 3.7 700-1200 143 88.3 79.2 83.0 34.0 4.2 1200 and above 91 99.0 93.5 94.1 53.7 6.0 Source: Survey of Housing Conditions in Calcutta Corporation Area 1963, State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, 1967, Tables 1.03 and 1.05. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Income and Rent for Renter Families in Calcutta, 1963 No. of Average Rent Rent and Monthly Sample Av. monthly and taxes paid Average Taxes paid as Income of Renter Income per per month per Rent and taxes Percentage to Families Families Renter Family Renter Family Paid per Room Total Income (Rs) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1- 100 362 79.61 12.98 12.74 16.30 101- 200 558 154.64 21.40 18.59 13.84 201- 350 437 276.88 40.02 25.22 14.45 351- 700 388 503.25 66.83 29.94 13.28 700-1200 143 945.16 120.91 41.64 12.79 1200 and above 91 2,354.29 243.87 64.18 10.36 Total 1,979 406.62 51.94 30.20 12.77 Source: Survey of Housing Condition in Calcutta Corporation Area 1963, State Statistical Bureau, Government of West Bengal, 1967, Table 1.04. >QQ 900 P PART III Page 1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CaNTMR, STAT1E AND 14UN ICIPAL RESFO11SIBILITIES FOR BASIC URBAN SE3TICES IN THE CMD A. Introduction 1. The Calcutta Metropolitan District (CM) is not a unit of local government but an area initially delineated through executive action of the State Government, which covers an area of 1,270 km2 with two municipal corporations, 33 other mnicipal bodies, 37 non-municipal towns, and 544 semi-urban or rural units. The CM4D has since gained legal acceptance in three statutes of the State Gover-ment, viz: Calcutta Metropolitan Area (Use and Development of Land) Control Act, 1965, the Calcutta Metropolitan Water and Sanitation Authority Act, 1966, and the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority Act, 1972. The first statute enables enforcement of development controls on land, pending the enactment of a comprehensive urban and regional planning law for the State. The second provided for the establishment of a metropolitan special-purpose authority for development and management of water supply, sewerage and drainage services in the CMD, but the authority has never taken over the relevant services from the existing municipal bodies in the C11D. The third has established the CID as the administrative jurisdiction of ClQk, defining the geographic limits of its powers to plan and execute works. The CD has also been accepted as a statistical and planning unit. The Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization (CMAPO) is at the moment an executive arm of the State Government for formulating plans for the CMD), but will not have statutory development control powers until an urban and regional planning law for the State has been enacted. 2. The framework of government in the CMD follows the usual pattern in federal countries with a large number of central, state and local agencies having various functional responsibilities. A special feature of the CMD is that metropolitan institutions have yet to become important. The CMWSA (see para. 1) the first and only agency given sizeable metropolitan functional powers has not been able to exercise them. CMIDA does have metropolitan responsibilities for program formulation and execution and administration of the bustee program but these are very small in relation to urban services carried out in a non-metropolitan authority basis in the CMD. The Central (Federal) Government is directly involved in several essential services in the CMD. For example, it is responsible for the con- struction and maintenance of national highways, controls the railways including the suburban system and administers the airport. FART III Page 2 4. At the State level, directorates responsible for public health, (including municipal engineering) road construction and maintenance and education all have important roles in development of the CID. The directorates function as executive agencies of the State Government, and share major responsibilities for execution of development programs in their concerned functional fields within the CMI. The three important public utility agencies in charge of electric supply, tramways and gas are all public limited companies operating on the basis of concessions granted by the State Government (the tramways now being under direct State operation). Surface transit buses are operated by the Calcutta State Transport Corporation established by the State Government. Fire protection services and the Police are directly under the control of the State Government. The two local development authorities, vis: the Calcutta Inprovement Trust and the Howrah Improvement Trust, responsible for urban renewal and area development, slum clearance and rehousing, street improvements and related functions are also creatures of State legislation and receive a portion of their revenues from the State. 5. The functional responsibilities of urban local government authorities are restricted to water supply, sewerage and drainage, public cleansing, public works including roads, parks and footpaths, maintenance and lighting of streets, primary education, public health administration, and control of building operations. These urban local authorities have not performed any planning or development functions outside of the CTMDA program; capital works are largely handled by the two Improvement Trusts in the two most important municipal units in the CMD, viz: Calcutta and Howrah. 6. The complex structure of governmental agencies in the CMID is re- flected in inter-governmental relations. The State Government controls the urban local authorities in various ways, particularly through local budgeting procedures, inspection and audit of accounts, control of municipal executive appointments, control over local finances through grants, and powers over sanctioning of local borrowing, and generally through the State Government's role as a banker to local authorities. The apportionment of tax jurisdictions between the State and local Governments, and inter-governmental transfers of funds through assignment of tax proceeds to local authorities, tax sharing, and grants-in-aid are the critical instruments through which state-local relations are governed. Under the national five-year plans, most important urban development work has to be accepted in the State Plan priorities for financial assistance from the senior levels of Government; this is yet another important control exercised bythe Centaland the State Governments on local authorities. Though control of the Central Government on local authorities is otherwise generally remote, most development funds for water supply, sewerage and drainage, and housing are made available to local authorities through the agency of the State Government by the Central Government (see para. 33). PART III Page 3 The Central Government 7. The administration of the Central Government is carried out by a number of ministries and their respective departments. In some matters, the Central Government exercises its functions through the State although it also has its own field offices. Apart from the ministries, there are other central bodies specially designated in the Constitution. The Finance Colmission, for exarTle, is appointed by the President once in five years or earlier if necessary, to make recommendations on principles to be followed in the distribution of the shares of the States in taxes ad grants-in-aid. The Co=ptroller and Auditor General is responsible for maintaining and auditing the accounts of the Government of India. The Union Public Service Commdission is responsible for recruitment and staffing of all-India Services. The Planning Commission is a non-statutory body, similar in status to a ministry, and set up by an executive order of the Government of India, with planning and advisory powers. It has primary responsibility for formulating the five year plane for both Central and State Governments. Its membership now includes technical experts and public men, with an appointed Deputy Chairman who is an economic expert and with the Prime ]KLnister as Chairman. The State Government 8. State administration is carried out through several departments, directorates and Boards. Each department is headed by a Ninister, who is a non-permanent political executive and by a Secretary, who is a non-political permanent executive. The State is divided into several divisions, each of which is headed by a divisional commissioner. The divisions are in turn divided into districts, each headed by a district magistrate or collector. Districts are subdivided into subdivisions, each headed by a subdivisional officer. The subdivisions, in turn are divided into development blocks each headed by a block development officer, or into circles, which are in turn divided into Tensil Blocks for purposes of land and land revenue matters. Finally, for police administration, the subdivisions are also divided into a number of Police Stations. 9. The Calcutta urban area includes areas in Presidency Division, the districts of Twenty-four Parganas, Tlc " nd courLh, and in Lurdj., 4ii, the district of Hooghly. Calcutta Corporation is largely excluded from district administration but the District Magistrate of the District of Twenty-four Parganas has some responsibilities which affect parts of the corporate area: the management of land belonging to the State Government, the collection of land revenue and overdue public demands, and the initiat ion and triLl of criminal cases. Areas outside Calcutta city proper, of course, ar l subject to district administration, which is related primarily to the main- tenance of law and order, land records and surveys, the maintenance of water courses, grants and loans for land improvement, the collection of land taxes, licensing, poor relief and community development. PART III Page 4 Local Government 10. Under the federal constitution, matters relating to local govern- ment in India are vested in the State Government. Hence, apart from general coordination, no direct control is exercised by the Central Government over the local bodies within the Calcutta urban area, with the exception of a military Cantonment. The State exercises control and supervision over local bodies through the Department of Local Self-Government and Panchayats. This extends to both administrative and financial matters. 11. Local authorities in India are divided into urban and rural bodies. Urban and local bodies consist of municipalities, cantonments and Notified Area authorities. Municipalities are generally of two types: municipal corporations, which have greater autonomy., powers and financial resources, and uranicipal councils, where executive and legislative powers are vested in an elected Chairman who is at the head of an elected Municipal Council. Cantonment Boards are set up under a statute of the Central Government and are usually governed by executive boards consisting of military officials, state officials and elected representatives of the civilian population. A Notified Area authority is created by the State Government for any stretch of urban territory. It functions as a. nominated municipal authority for the notified area and its executive and legislative functions are carried out by nominees of the State Government. All urban local authorities except Cantonment Boards are under the control and supervision of the State Govern- ment. Some States have created state-wide cadres of mainicipal officials to work for local authorities. During emergencies, all forms of local government can be superseded by the State. This may also take place, when there is a failure to perform local duties on the part of local authorities or when there is evidence of malfeasance. The Calcutta Mnicipal Corporation 12. Under the Calcutta Municial Act of 1951, the Government of the central city has a three-tier structure, consisting of the Corporation, Standing Committees and the Commissioner. The Corporation consists of 101 Councillors. One hundred are elected for four-year terms by universal adult franchise from as many wards. The remaining Councillor, the Chairman of the Calcutta Improvement Trust, is an ex officio member. The Corporation also includes five Aldermen, elected by the Councillors. It is vested with authority over matters of policy, taxation and finance and general supervision over the execution of policy resolutions. E3ecutive power is vested in a Commissioner who is appointed by the State Government for five years and is the executive head of the ivunicipal Administration. In addition to the Commissioner, one or more Deputy Commissioners may be appointed by the State Government. The Mayor of Calcutta, who is titular head of the City Government, PART III Page 5 is elected by the Corporation from among its mceers and presides over meetings of the Corporation. He has certain appelate authority in cases of disciplinary actions taken by the Commissioner against employees. He may also require records and files to be subnitted to him for examination. There is a Deputy Mayor, also elected by the Council. At present Calcutta Corporation is under direct State administration, without an elective corporation. 13. A number of Standing Comittees are constituted by the Corporation every year for functions such as: Finance and Dstablishment, Education, Health and Bustee Improvement, Water Supply, Drainage and Sewage Disposal, and Works and Town Planning. Standing Committees have authority in the sanctioning of works, the making of appointments and in similar matters of executive action and policy decision. Ho;.ever, powers of executive decision- making in respect of works, appointments and the creation of posts are, in fact, shared in varying degree between the three levels of government; the Commissioner, the Standing Committees and the Corporation. Some Standing Committees have been given certain defined powers under the Calcutta Municipal Act and other duties and functions have been defined in rules, established by the State Government. 14. The Corporation also establishes Borough Committees consisting of the Councillors of the wards constituting the Borough and three registered electors. Borough Comrittees are responsible for implementation of works in such fields as lighting, the sinking of tube-wells and slum improvement. By convention they also exercise a general supervision over maintenance and over the operations of civic services at the borough level. kunicipalities 15. Besides the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, there are in the Calcutta urban area thirty-five other municipal bodies, which are general local bodies, and thirty-two non-municipal towns. There is also a large area not yet urbanized. For the municipal bodies the Bengal Municipal Act of 1932 is the guiding statute. This empowers the State Government to create, abolish, merge or alter the boundaries of the municipalities. For exarple, the municipalities of Kotrang and Utterpara were merged into one in 1964; and there is a proposal, not yet implemented, to merge the municipalities of Bally and Howrah into one large municipal Corporation with a population of approximately one million. Most of the activities of the municipalities are subject to the control and supervision of the State Government. Legislative and executive authority in the municipality is vested in an elected committee of Municipal Commissioners. However, the State Government may require the Ytnicipal Commissioners to appoint an executive officer and to delegate to him any authority which it deems necessary. The Chairman and the Vice-Chairman of a municipality usually have a number of executive powers thus delegated to them. An executive Officer PART III Page 6 may also be appointed by the State Government for a specific purpose. Dxecutive Officers, once appointed, may not be removed from office without the approval of the State Government. The State Government also has authority to require the appointment, for a specified period, of such officers as Sanitary Inspector, Engineer, Health Officer, or Secretary. In general the approval of the State Government is required for municipal appointments above a certain salary level. Functional Arrangements for Major Urban Services 16, As described above, the framework of government in the Calcutta Metropolitan District follows the federal pattern; a number of central, state and local government agencies have general, as well as functional, responsibilities. The pattern within each of the major urban services (water supply and sanitation, drainage, urban transport and housing) are described in detail in the following sections. B. ater Supply, Sewerage and Drainage 17. Administrative responsibilities for water supply and sewerage services in the CM1D follow a fairly clear division of authority between the Central and State Governments and local authorities. Planning, Development and Project Ececution 18. Metropolitan level planning for water supply, sewerage and drainage is a responsibility of the CYPO but with overall guidance at the national level from various Central Government entities, most particularly from the inistry of Health and Family Planning with respect to water and sewerage and the inistry of Irrigation and Power with respect to drainage. CNFO also shares its planning responsibilities with State agencies, particularly the Department of Health and its operating arm, the Public Health Engineering Directorate (PHED), in water and sewerage and the Department of Irrigation and aterways and its operating arm, the Irrigation and Waterways Directorate (TID). The P1ED- has responsioilities for planning and developing (as well as executing and operating) water supply and sewerage systems in rural and non- municipal urban areas. In recent years it has been the most active planning and development agency in the field of water supply and sewerage as it has had to projectize the rather general recommendations of the Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage in the outlying areas. The IWD is involved in continuing analysis and monitoring of rivers and waterways in the State. 19. Present execution of CMD improvement works in the field are entirely within the C11DA program. As described in Annex 81 paras. 21-26), the major implementing responsibilities are held by the PHED, IWD, CPO, CMSA and the Calcutta Corporation. 1/ The annexes are found in the main volume of the appraisal report. PART III Page 7 Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Operation 20. Water supply is a municipal function. Surface water systems presently exist only in Calcutta and Kalyani and are operated by the Calcutta Corporation and Kalyani Notified Authority respectively. Ground water systems in municipal areas are operated by the ninicipalities under the general supervision of the PHED. Non-nmunicipal systems are also operated by the relevant local authority with the involvement of the PHIED which may include the performance of the entire maintenance function. Water-borne sewerage presently exists only in Calcutta and the Corporation is responsible for operating and monitoring the system. The Corporation and other municipalities alqo collect and dispose of garbage and night soil, empty cess pools and clean and maintain drains and operate drainage pumps as a part of their conservancy functions. The IWID operates and maintains the major drainage and sewerage canals and outfall sluices. 21. Present arrangements for operation and maintenance of improved and expanded water, sewerage and drainage systems have been based on the existing pattern of responsibilities but with a recognition of the require- ments for integrated operation within water service districts, sewerage zones and drainage basins. Interim emergency and augmentation groundwater facilities within each of the four service districts outside Calcutta are being built to be operable by existing agencies on a temporary basis until incorporation into systems. The ultimate surface water systems within each district have been designed to be operated as single units. PHED has the overall responsibility for the interim operation but as far as possible delegates this responsibility to municipalities or other agencies. The ultimate system in Calcutta has been assigned to the Corporation and all fringe area schemes to local agencies. The facilities within each sewerage zone and drainage basin are designed to be operated as a complete unit inter- connected directly to the River Hooghly or with canals and outfalls to the iver Kulti. The operating responsibilities for the improved combined sewerage and drainage system in Calcutta have been accepted by the Corporation, the sewerage and drainage systems in Howrah by Howrah Municipality, the new sewerage systems in other municipalities by the PHED, the improved canals and outfalls by the Irrigation and Waterways Department and other drainage works by municipalities. C. Urban Transport 22. The organization and administration of urban transport facilities and services in the CMD have been the subject of several multi-sector, sector PART III Page 8 and partial-sector studies during the past ten years. The broad sector studies concluded that the number and diversity of entities involved in urban transport on the CMD was greater than that of any other sector and greatly in need of consolidation. CAPO's Basic Development Plan and Traffic and Transportation Plan contained the recommendations for a Metropolitan Traffic and Transportation Authority with responsibilities for traffic and transportation planning; development and coordination of mass transport services; design and implementation of traffic engineering improvements; design, implementation and maintenance of arterial roads and highways; design, development and implementation of parking and terminal facilities; and coordination of traffic regulations. No action has been taken on the recommendations and these and other metropolitan local transport functions continue to be executed in a relatively ad hoc manner by a number of separate agencies. Transport Planning 23. Metropolitan level planning for all urban transport modes in the CMD is a responsibility of the 0MPO but some overall guidance is provided by the Metropolitan Transport Team of the Planning Commission and by the State Planning Board of West Bengal. Since the publication of its Traffic and Transportation Plan CMPO has become less involved in ongoing, broad scale transport planning and has concentrated on project analysis and preparation. The emphasis has been a logical response to immediate needs but it has diverted CMPO from the equally essential involvement as an active and influential agent in broad transport policy formulation for the CMD. CMPO intends to prepare a new transport plan document to take into account changes in conditions, priorities and resource availabilities but this effort is far from that required to make CMPO an effective voice in the broad concerns of transport planning. CMPO may be given planning responsibility for re- structuring of surface public transport routes and services in conjunction with the future operation of the Rapid Transit System (subway) and if so, OYPO would have the possibility of gaining an active future role in transport policy. 1/ The multi-sector studies include: Government in Metropolitan Calcutta, A Manual, institute of Public Administration, New York, !965; Special Agencies in Metropolitan Calcutta: A Comparative Study, Institute of Public ndministration, New York, 1967; and Basic Development Plan for the Calcutta Metropolitan District, 1966-1986, CO, 1966. The sector study is: Traffic and Transportation Plan for the Calcutta Metropolitan District, 1966-1986, CMPO, 1967. 1he partial sector studies are: Report on Mass Transportation System, Calcutta, Metropolitan Transport Team, Planning Commission, 1969; and Report of the Vorking Group on Metropolitan Transport Services, Planning Commission, 1970. PART TI Page 9 in recent. years, the most active initiatives in transport planning have been taken by the Mass Transit Project (Railways), the affiliate of the Eastern Railways responsible for planning and implemientation of the Rapid Transit System and the CMDA. The mass transit agency intends to undertake its own studies and prepare a schedule of investment for a more or less continuous rapid transit development program extending over the next two decades. The CMDA, without planning resources of its own, has been involved in the more limited task of identifying gaps in and adjusting priorities between transport projects previously identified by C!FO. 25. In the short term, the important transport planning concerns will be with the continued functional rationalization of existing transport facilities ad the restructnring of surface transport services in line with the comitted rail Rapid Transit System. These planning tasks have been given priority and should be able to be undertaken successfully by the existing agencies with some strengthening of personnel and procedures. The planning concerns with broader social and economic transport issues such as pricing and regulation of vehicle use and services, coordination of rail and road transport investment, coordination of transport and other infrastructure inputs and recoupment of transport benefits have not been given adequate recognition and could not easily be dealt with by existing agencies. TrasDat Dveilma-ntand Execution 26,. Under the National Highways Act, 1956, the Central 'inistry of Transport and Communications is responsible for developing and maintaining the four national highways serving the CMfJD: NH2 to northern India via New Delhi, 4H6 to western India and Bombay, -NH34 to northern West Bengal, and H39 to the Bangladesh frontier. The inistry makes disbursements from the Central Road Dund to the State for these purposes. The Public Works (Roads) Department, GOB, is responsible for the construction and maintenance of State and lational highways in all areas beyond the boundaries of the Calcutta Corporation and the larger municipalities. The Public Works Department, GOWB, a separate agency, has responsibility for construction of certain road bridges and maintenance of specified roads in Calcutta and other parts of the C1D,. Construction and maintenance of local roads within existing municipal areas have been considered to be local responsibilities. In the past, however, municipal bodies have not fully discharged these responsibilities on the plea of inadequate resources. The result was almost complete stagnation in road development and maintenance work in the built-up areas of the CMD prior to the CMDA program. The Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners is a special purpose agency empowered to construct bridges and operate ferries across the River Hooghly within the C4D. It is responsible for the Princep Ghat Bridge now under construction (see Annex 8). PART III Page 10 27. Traffic engineering functions are shared by several agencies. In Calcutta, signing, pavement marking and other such traffic engineering works are the responsibility of the Commissioner of Police. Installation and maintenance of traffic signals are also the responsibility of the Commissioner of Police but actual execution of this work is carried out by the Public Works Department, GOWB. In that part of the CM outside Calcutta proper, certain minimal traffic engineering measures are undertaken by the Public Works (Roads) Department and the Public Works Department, GOIB. This work, however, relates only to State and National highways and traffic engineering applications to other roads have been extremely limited. Road Transport Services 28. Trams. Trams are the oldest means of mass transporation in the CMD, having been introduced in Calcutta and in Howrah in 1905. The tram system was developed under the continuous ownership and operation of the Calcutta Tramways Company (CTC), a private, London registered company. The Calcutta Tramways Act, 1951, gave effect to an agreement between the company and the GOTB which granted the GOWB an exclusive purchase option to be exercised on or after January 1, 1972 at a specified price of B2,50o,ooo. The interests of the two parties in the interim operation of the tramways were clearly divergent, however; the commercial managers desiring an advantageous financial return from their stockholders' fixed term investment and the GOWB desiring an improvement in present services and the strengthening of physical and financial assets for long as well as short term operation. Operations during the 1950's and early 1960's were also complicated by aging equipment, rising labor costs and increased road traffic congestion. Rider- ship reached its peak between 1959 and 1964 and earnings began to fall in 1966 after the number of trans in daily operation had begun to decline. In July 1967 the company reached insolvency. CTC has since been managed by an administrator appointed by the Government of West Bengal. The ownership of CTC remains with the original shareholders pending the completion of now suspended negotiations on compensation. 29. Buses. Privately owned buses began operating in Calcutta at the beginning 7TTEis century but it was not until a group of private operators formed the Bengal Bus Syndicate in 1921 that services were regularized. Bus operators competed directly with the tram system in Calcutta and also maintained services extending well beyond the corporate limits. The end of World War II brought an unprecedented growth in denand for public transport and overcrowding of buses and trams reached an intolerable level. The GOB thus established a State Transport Organization, run on a departmental basis, to supplement private bus operations. In 1960 this body was superseded by the Calcutta State Transport Corporation (CSTC) set up by the State Government under the Road Transport Corporations Act 1950 (a Union Act) and the Road Transport Corporations PART III Page 11 (Amendment ) Act, 19 59.- The establishme-n' of an autonomous corporation was the result of policy l4ai-d down by the Central Covernirent ad the Planning Comission. CSTC began operations as -a nationalized bus service within the corporate area of Calcutta. Private bus operators were restricted to Howr'ah and other outlying areas of the CHDO during this period, their services termifnating at or near the boundary of Calcutta. All private bus operators within the CM~ are organized into either route comi=ttees or bus syndicates. Each bus route other than those operated by the CSTC falls under the .juris- diction of a route co-n-arttee, which is the basic unf,it ofC cont-rol recognized by the Regional Transport Authorities (see para. 30). A bus syndicate is an association of bus owners which lookcs after the interests of operetors and organizes services by repro qenting one or more route committees. Road Transport Adnis' rati n. 30. Road transport administration in India is at present a State resnonsibility. The lHomie~ (Trans port) Dep artirientv., GOR5 is responsible for road transport development, coordination and administvration in lWest Bengal. Under i t i s a State TLransport Authority which coordinates the activities of Regional Transport Authorities. The Regional Transport Authorities are responsi1ble for granting permil's and advising the State Government on passenger fares. "Inree of the four Ra,gional Transport Authorities within the CWJD are chaired by the respective District Magistrate who also oversees an Additional District Magistrate responsible for licensing, regist"-ration and t1axation of rotor vehicles. The fourth is the Calcutta Regional Transport Authority which is geographically more extensive than the others encompassing Calcutta and the !."striet of 24-Parganas (all of Calcutta and its immediate suburbs) and functionally different. Within that authority licensing, registration and taxation are performed by the Director of Public Vehicles, a State official. Rail Transport Development and O)peration 31. suburban Rail. Apart from a few ligh-t rail-way lines run by private companies, the Government of India owns and operates the entire railway system throughout the country. After electrification was started in Calcutta in 12957 a separate suburban rail system was established in the CmII. The Eastern Railway operates the entire suburban section of the Indian Railway in the area excepting the suburban line from Howrah westwards to Kharagpur, which is under the control of the South-Eastern Rail-way. Investment, operation and maintenance funds are budgeted internally by the railways. 32. Rail Transit. The 16.4. idlometer first line of the Rapid Transit system (RTST is presently being constructed on a departmental basis by the KAropolitan Transport Project (Railways), a division of the Eastern Railways. PART IIT Page 12 The operating authority for RTS has not yet been decided but it is safe to assume that Eastern Railways will perform that function providing that financing arrangements for operations and maintenance suitable to it can be made with the GOI, GOIC and local authorities. The proposed arrangements for financing the anticipated operating deficit of the system have not been finalized. D. EoIn 33. Housing and area development in India is basically a State respon- sibility although central assistance has been made available for various housing and slu improvement programs including the present Bustee Improve- ment Program in the CMD. The public housing programs so far initiated in CMD have been executed by a number of agencies including the Calcutta and Howrah Improvement Trusts and the Calcutta Corporation, all under the aegis of the State Housing Department. Recently the department was reconstituted as the State Housing Board, an autonomous body. The management and operation of housing and area development schemes will continue to be a responsibility of the above bodies as well as C!,DA. PART TV. Page 1 INDIA CALCUTTA URBA4 DEVELOPME"T PROJECT STATE AND NICIPAL FINANCE 1. The legal, political and constitutional prerogatives for resource mobilization and expenditure at the metropolitan and local level in the CMD are, like the prerogatives for the performance of services, limited. The Central and State Governments have retained the more remunerative and elastic revenue sources, have established between them relatively systematic and important means of revenue sharing and development assistance, and have made the bulk of direct expenditure and investment in the CMD. Local bodies, however, rely almost completely on the property tax supplemented by limited current account and development grants-in-aid, and make relatively small current account and developmant expenditures. 2. The Central Government has traditionally made large transfers to the State and lesser transfers to local bodies in the CND through a number of relatively well defined financial mechanlsms, including the five-year State Plans and plan supplements which form the basis of Central and State finance for the CKDA program. Central loans for various purposes, comprise the major source of State, and in turn local, investment funds. Furthermore, the Center's current account transfers to the State together nearly equal the State's own current receipts from its exclusive revenue sources. Direct- Central grants and loans to local agencies for certain designated central purposes or schemes are also sizeable. The Central Government's direct expenditures in the CND through its ministries and operating agencies are even more significant. 3. The State's financial involvement in the direct functions of its own agencies and the operations and development activities of local units within the C1"D is also comparatively large and encompassed within relatively well defined financial mechanisms. In addition, State Government contributions comprise a significant proportion of local government revenues. State agency infrastructure investment in the CMI has traditionally been much greater than that of local authorities. Furthermore, the State has provided nearly all capital resources for local authorities as a direct lender or in passing on central loans. 4. The relatively minor role of municipal and local bodies in current expenditure and development in the CMD and the low standard of services they provide are due, in part, to the lack of their own diligence in exercising the limited fiscal power and autonorm they possess. Property tax rates, for example, have not been set in relation to the actual or desirable level of services provided or effectively collected. PART IV Page 2 5. This annex describes the current fiscal features of the primary agent in public finance in the CMD, the State of West B-ngal, and those of the primary units of local government, the municipalities. A. State Finance Introduction 6. The recent evolution of West Eengal's financial situation can only be properly understood in the framework of India's federal financial system which includes the following important features: (a) India's Constitution explicitly determines the taxing power of the States relative to the Center by reserving a nuiber of taxes to the Center and devolving a number of others to the States. The two major taxes exclusively reserved to the Center are customs duties and a corporation tax. The revenue from two other sources - income tax and excise duties (except on liquor, narcotics, etc.) - while levied and collected by the Center is shared between the Center and the States. Sharing of income tax proceeds is obligatory and presently amounts to 75% of total receipts, whereas the sharing of excise duties is optional and presently only 20% is so shared. The rules governing the distribution of the proceeds of shared taxes are set every five years by a commission (Finance Commission) appointed by the Central Government. (b) Among the major taxes, the proceeds of which are exclusively reserved for the States, are the sales tax, excise duties on liquor and narcotics, a tax on motor vehicles and the agri- cultural inconie tax. (c) Apart from their own tax revenue and a share in Central taxes, some States also receive grant aid from the Center to the extent that their revenue receipts are expected to fall short of their revenue expenditures on non-plan account (see (f) below). The devolution of this assistance, called statutory grant aid, is also made at the recommendation of the Finance Commission. (d) The budgetary presentation of the States, like that of the Ccnter, draws a distinction between revenue and capital accounts. The revenue account is reserved for those receipts which do not involve a repayment obligation and for those PART IV Page 3 expenditures which are of a recurrent nature and do not entail the creation of a physical or financial asset (or the reduction of a liability). The capital account is reserved for mvements in the debt and for outlays on assets formation. (e) A further distinction exists between development and non- development outlays. The latter are outlays on civil government as narrowly defined. Included are expenditures incurred for civil administration, for the collection of taxes, for famine relief and for interest payments. (f) There exists a classification of expenditures under the headings of plan and non-plan. Plan outlays comprise the bulk of development expenditures on capital account as well as a small portion of development expenditures on revenue account. A State Plan is financed partly through the State's own resources (including the surplus on revenue account under existing taxation, the revenue from additional taxation and internal borrowing by the State Government or by State enter- prises) and partly through Central assistance (which is now given on a 70% loan/30% grant basis). (g) Public sector investment in a particular State consists, apart from the State Plan proper, of a nuber of centrally sponsored schemes - nornally entirely financed by the Center - and of a number of projects included in the Center Plan, but physically located in the State. Revenue Account Receipts 7. As shown in Table 1, total revenue receipts of the State of West Bengal increased by almost two-and-a-half times in the last five years; they rose from Rs 162 crores in 1966/67 to Rs 437 crores in 1971/72, a rate of increase of over 19% per annum. This increase is much faster than the rise in revenue receipts for the Indian federation as a whole (12% per annum) and is largely influenced by the events of 1971/72. In that year West Bengal incurred expenditures of Rs 73 crores for the Bangladesh refugee relief. These expenditures were entirely financed through a grant from the Center. WIthout them receipts of the State would have totalled RS 364 crores only. This would still have implied, however, a 1966/67 - 1971/72 growth rate of 19, per annum. PART IV Page 4 West Bengal's own revenue has increased much less rapidly than the State's overall revenue receipts. In the five-year period from 1966/67 to 1971/72 the State's own revenue increased from Rs 129.5 crores to Rs 180.3 crores, expanding at a rate of less than 7% per annum. Half of the increase of as 50.8 crores is accounted for by the increase in the sales tax proceeds only. This buoyancy in sales tax receipts has taken place despite the fact that only the rates on a few luxury items (such as precious stones and pearls) have been raised in recent years. It indicates the importance which the sales tax occupies in expanding State revenues within an otherwise unresponsive and inelastic taxation system. The sales tax also provides the largest single source of West Bengal's tax revenue, accounting for 53% of the total. Only Maharashtra and Gujarat are more heavily dependent on the sales tax. 9. Two other increasing sources of tax revenue are State excise duties (mainly on liquor) and the octroi tax. The letter tax was introduced by the State of West Bengal, effective November 16, 1970. It is payable on all goods entering tie CMD nd is levied on the basis of weight for bulky items and ad valorem for the more valuable goods. Goods brought into the area for immediate export are exempted. Gross tax proceeds, which are collected at road, rail and port checkposts, as well as on oil entering via a pipeline, are shown below. Collections are running ahead of expectations and may reach Rs 11 crores in 1972-73. Octroi Receipts (in Rs crores) 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 (47 -ths) (7 mnths) Road checkposts 1.0 3.6 2,1 Rail checkposts 0.9 3.1 1.b Port checkposts 0.3 1.0 0.6 Pipeline 0.8 1.4 0.8 Others 0.1 0.3 0.2 3.1 9.4 5 ., Collection costs of the tax are presently estimated to be approximately 6% so that the net proceeds in 1972-73 may be in the order of Rs 10.3 crores. Half of these proceeds is distributed by the State to the mnicipalities in the Calcutta Metropolitan District on the basis of their population, while the other half is passe _ on to C2DA. Government authorities are aware of the possible distortions which the tax can introduce in production costs, 1/ but have decided to retain the tax - at least for the time being - in view of the considerable resources which it provides for development expenditures in the Calcutta area. 1/ Iron and steel, for example are taxed at an average rate of 0.5% while the tax on finished metal products is 1%. On the other hand, in a few cases - as for instance the cotton milling industry - the tax provides in effect a disincentive to local producers by taxing the raw materials, while letting the finished product enter duty-free. PART IV 10. most other tax receipts have been fairly unresponsive to increases in economic activity which have taken place in Wst Bengal between 1966-67 to 1971-72. 1/ Receipts from stamps and registration as well as from the motor vehicle tax have remained more or less constant over the period, while the receipts from land revenue and agricultural income tax have fallen by slightly over Rs 2 crores. West Bengal's land revenue tax (including cess) for average quality land is only Rs 4.5 per acre. which is much lower than in other States.2/ The Government has proposed to revise this rate, but is awaiting the recommendations of a select Committee before taking action. 11. An attempt has been made to measure West Bengal's tax effort as compared to other States (see Table 2). The exercise indicates that tax collection in West Bengal as a percentage of State income is almost at the level of the national average, 16%. It ranks ninth among States in tax effort and trails far behind Kerala, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, but is well ahead of Assam, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. West Bengal's taxation performance is even less impressive when compared to its per capita income, however, since the State is fifth among all States in terms of income per head. 12. State revenue receipts other than those from taxes represent only a relatively minor share of the total, and because they have remained more or less stable in the last five years, their total contribution to State revenue receipts has declined from 23% in 1966/67 to 20% in 1971/72. These non-tax receipts consist largely of administrative income accruing from various State Government departments from the sale of goods and services but also include interest receipts on lending operations by the State. Another important, though negative, component of this category of State receipts is the net contribution from departmental undertakings. This net contribution has been continuously negative for the last five years. Its drain on State finances has increased from Rs 5.6 crores in 1967/68 to Rs 9.0 crores in 1971/72. According to the State's budget this drain on est Bengal finances by the departmental undertakings is expected to reach Rs 12.2 crores in 1972/73. 13. As in all other parts of the Indian federation, the relatively slow expansion of the State's own revenue receipts has made West Bengal increasingly dependent on financial assistance from the Center (see Table 1). hereas the State's own receipts provided 71% of total revenue resources in 1966/67, this share had dropped to 41 in 1971/72. As explained in para. 7, this was an unusual year, which witnessed a considerable inflow of Central grant aid on account of the refugee problem. But even for 1972/73, a year virtually free of this kind of assistance, West Bengal's own revenues are only expected to reach 56% of its total receipts. The increased State dependence on Central assistance manifests itself not only in the expansion of shared taxes (which tend to have a higher elasticity than State taxes) but principally in the 1/ According to recent estimates the State income for West Bengal has increase. by 13% between 1966/67 and 1970/71, in constant prices, and by 25% in currcnt prices. 2/ In Tamil Nadu the comparable rate is Rs 11.8 per acre, in M1aharashtra Rs 18.3 per acre. PART IV Page 6 rapid increase of Central grant-aid. This type of aid can be channelled to the State on various accounts, including (i) statutory aid, (ii) State Plan aid, (iii) centrally sponsored schemes, and finally (iv) ad hoc assistance for famine relief, and other remedial activities undertaken at the initiative and discretion of the Center. Capital Account Receipts 14. The heavy dependence of the State on the Center for the provision of financial resources is even more pronounced in the case of capital receipts than for revenue receipts. Financial resources for the defrayment of capital outlays are largely provided through loans from the Center. As in the case of grants-in-aid, Central loan assistance can be channelled to the State in the framework of various activities, including (i) the State Plan, (ii) centrally sponsored schemes, (iii) the net mobilization of small savings, two-thirds of which is passed on to the States as a loan, (iv)special loan accommodation which is given by the Center to those States whose statutory grant-aid is found insufficient to cover the non-plan gap, and of which West Bengal has been allotted Rs 133 crores for the Fourth Plan period, and (v) ad hoc loans for specific purposes. The yearly gross amount of W,st Bengal's receipt of central loans has increased from Rs 42 crores in 1966/67 to Rs 123 crores in 1971/72; the budgeted amount for 1971/73 is -s 110 crores (see Table 3). As a result of this large flow of funds from the Center to the States in the form of loans, West Bengal's total outstanding debt vis-a-vis the Center has risen from Rs 441 crores at the end of March 1967 to Rs 516 crores at the end of March 1969, and is expected to reach Rs 709 crores in March 1973. This increase in debt has resulted in a sizeable rise of the yearly debt service payments (see para. 17). However, this situation is typical of all other States as well and will certainly be one of the main concerns of the next Finance Commission (see para. 23). Expenditures on Hevenue and Capital Account ig. 'While the State's total revenues have increased rapidly, its level Cf exoenditures has risen even faster. Revenue account expenditues, which stood at Rs 183 crores in 1966/67, ju:qped to Rs 479 crores in 1971/72, indienting a gro-th rat of 21- per annum (see Table E). Even if, as on the receip- sid, al]owance is made for the exceptional character of expenditures for refugee relie`, the implied growth rate would still average 17` per annum. On closer examnaton it appears that the bulk of the increase in current outlays is of non-.evelopmental nature, and that the share of these expenditure has risen from 43. .. 1967/68 to nearly 50/ in the budget estimates for 1972/73. On the other hand, these figures clearly indicate the low priority which the agricultural sector has received in West Bengal in recent years; from Rs 14 crores or 7" of revenue expenditures in 1967/68, agricultural outlays are expected to rise to only Rs 17 crores, or a mere 5% of budgeted expenditures in 1972/73. PART IV Page 7 16. As for capital account expenditures, they show that development outlays proper continuously declined between 1966/67 and 1970/71, but suddenly picked up in 1971/72 (see Table $). Amost all of this increase was due to the expansion of CMDA's Pctivities and took place in the fields of water supply, sewerage, drainage and transport. The record on the agri- cultural front, however, remained fairly dismal, with expenditures on agricultural improvements stabilizing at a level of Rs 2.7 crores, or barely 9% of development expenditures, and 2% of total expenditures on capital account. 17. Almost all the other expenditures on capital account are either for loans and advances made by the State 1/ or for principal repayment by the State of loans from the Center. Because of the increasing volume of central loan assistance in the recent past, these principal repayments have risen rapidly from Ra 11 crores in 1967/68 to Rs 57 crores in 1971/72 and net borrowing from the Center by the State of West Bengal has only gone up from Rs 29 crores in 1967/68 to as 66 crores in 1971/72. Transfer of Loan Resources from Uenter (in as crores) devised Actua 1 s Budget Budget 1967/68 1968/69 1969/70 1970/71 1971/72 1 9773 Gross borrowing 40.8 70.3 59.3 106.8 123.2 110.1 loan repayment -11.3 -24.9 -43.5 -47.8 -57.1 -57.8 Net borrowing 29.5 45.h 15.8 59.0 66.1 52.3 interest payment - 6. -15.2 -17. -3.8 -34.9 -28.6 Het transfer 23.5 30.2 - 1.6 2.2 21.2 23.7 After taking into account interest payment on Central loans, it appears that the net transfer of resources (on loan account) from the Center has, in fact, remained more or less constant in the last five years. In 1967/68 this net transfer amounted to Rs 23.5 crores; in 1972/73 it is expected to be in the order of Rs 23.7 crores. Plan Dutlays and Plan Financing 16. State authorities now recognize that West Bengal's Fourth Plan was extremely modest as compared to the State's plan outlay during the period of the Third Plan (1961-66). In current prices the total plan outlay in these 1/ To individuals, cooperatives, local bodies, etc. In this category also appear the non-plan central loans which are passed on by the State to CII)A.. PART IV Page 8 two five-year periods was to rise from Rs 305 crores to hardly Rs 323 crores and this despite the fact that an interim period of 3 years had elapsed between the two Plans. 1/ What is generally less well understood is that, at the present level, the State's per capita plan expenditures are the lowest in the country. Based on the original outlay figure for the Ftate' s Fourth lan, West Bengal was expected to spend Rs 73 per capita as against a national average expenditure on State plans amunting to As 122 crores (see Table 6). For the year 1972/73 alone West Bengalls per capita plan outlay of Rs 17 crores cormares to a national average of Rs 29 crores. For both periods West Bengal has the lowest per capita figure of all States, followed by Bihar, a State which has a considerably lower per capita income than West Bengal. 19. Table 7 indicates that irrigation, power and social services together absorb more than half of West Bengal's current planexpenditures and that agriculture gets a m,eager 18c, both of total plan outlay and of the 1972/73 annual exoenditures. The State Plan also includes Rs 42.88 crores of expendi- t=re which are part of GMDA s Fourth Plan programti; this represents 13` of est Benga' s total Fourth Plan outlay. 2/ 10. Because the State does not have any surplus on its non-plan revenue account, ~est Bengal's own contribution to the financing of its Plan consists almost entirely in the mobilization of additional resources. In the Fourth Plan proposal this additional obilization had been evaluated at 1s 70 crores (see Table 9) but tax increases having been very limited in the last three years, t_=a measures taken in the years 1969 to 1972 a_re estimated to yield s 30 crores only,by the end of the Plan. LYen if the new ieasures taken in 1972/73 provide additional revenue of Rs 10 crores in 1972/73, and unless possible additional measures are introduced in 1973/74, West Bengal's total resource mobilization over the Plan period is uilikely to exceed Rs 50 crores, leaving a shortfall of Ps 20 crores as cormpared to the original plan estiiates. Government authorities intond to fill this gap through increased borrowing by State enterprises, sither in the form of m.rket borrowings or as negotiated Le ens. Conseqently, by7 the end of the Fourth Plan period such borrowing may total as 60 erores, instead of :s 25 crores, as originally envisaged in the -,an. The bulk of the financial resources for the Plan will. however, be pro-vided through central assistance totalling Rs 221 crores. This will finance slightly over two-thirds of West Bengal's plan, and will - as for other States - be given on a 70% loan30% grant basis. 1/ For other Staa, as for the Center, a rule of thmnb says hat Plan outlay in current prices usually doubles betweer one plan period and the next. 2/ This is approximately the same proportion as the one which CMDA's total Fourth Plan provision (Rs 159 crores) occupies in est Bengal's total expected public investment in the same period (Ris 1,150 crores). PART IV Page 9 0,erall Financial Situation 21 . Table 8 indicates that est Bengal has persistently incurred a deficit on revenue account since 1966/67 and that this deficit has grown, almost without interruption, from Fs 8 crores in 1966/67 to Rs 42 crores in 1971/72. On the other hand, the capital account balance 1/ has fluctuated widely; it jumped from a deficit of Rs 13 crores in 1967/68 to a surplus of Rs 43 crores in 1968/69. On the whole, however, finances of the State - after allowing for market borrowrings and Central loans - have been in deficit, with the exception of 1966/67 and 1968/69, when surpluses of RHs 4 crores and Rs 11 crores, respectively, were registered. These deficits have been financed through advances from and overdrafts with the Reserve Bank. Again, as for many other States, the amount of un- authorized overdrafts had reached disouieting proportions and totalled 's 33.7 crores by the end of March 1972. 2/ Under these circumstances, the Central Government decided to discontinue as of May 1, 1972 the possi- bility of incurring overdrafts with the RTEI over and above the ceiling of authorized ways and means advances. States were enjoined to repay 15% of the outstanding overdrafts in the course of 1972/73, while the remaining 85% were converted into special loans vis-a-vis the Center. Financing of the Fifth Plan 22. The financial situation of West Bengal in the next five years will not be an easy one. Now that overdrafts with the Reserve Bank have been discontinued, the State will have to check the expansion of non- development expenditures, so that the present overall deficit can be eliminated, without reduction in development outlays and without undue increase in the State's already heavy debt burden. This control over the rise of non- development expenditures may be particularly difficult if the present tendency of rapid price increase continues. It is, nevertheless, all the more necessary if, as the State planning authorities presently hope, West engal's next five year plan is to be considerably larger than the present one and more in line with the development needs of the State. / 1/ Including a "net remittance" item which consists in receivables not yet received and obligations not yet paid. 2/ Total overdrafts, involving 12 States, aggregated as 50) crores at that time. / The State's "Approach to the Fifth Five Year Plan" advocates a public sector investment program of Rs 3,200 crores, as compared to a Fourth Plan program of Rs 1,150 crores. PART IV Page 10 --. State authorities feel that their debt burden towards the Center nas become too heavy and absorbs an unduly large share of new gross assistance from the Center. Therefore, they have made a case for partial debt re- scheduling by the Sixth Finance Commission. Whether such rescheduling is acceptable to the Center is a matter of all-India concern and will have to await the conclusions of the Commission. But it is nevertheless likely that, regardless of the recommendations made by the Commission, the State's depend- ence on the Center for additional financial resources on revenue and capital account will become even heavier than in the past. B. MUnicipal Finance 24. Ihereas the Indian Constitution provides for specific sources of revenue for the States (see para. 1) this is not so for Mn-icipalities. In this respect, the Constitution simply permits State Governments to assign any of the taxes exclusively reserved to the States either in whole or in part to local bodies. In most States, ninicipalities have been assigned the collection of property taxes and taxes on professions, trades and callings. In some instances, these are complemented by terminal and octroi taxes, or by a vehicle and an entertainment tax. In virtually all cases tax revenue is only a part of total municipal revenues. The balance includes non-tax revenue derived from fees, licences and property, as well as grants- in-aid given by the State Government. Some large -mvnicipalities also resort to borrowing, either from the Central Government or from the market. 25. In principal, all municipalities should have yearly budgets of receipts and expenditures. However, except for the Calcutta Corporation, budgets of aunicipalities in the C1M1D are single account documents which do not make a distinction between revenue and capital account. 1/ In many cases, furtherrre, the budget concepts are not quite comparable and, in several instances, information is reported with considerable delay or is entirely missing. The data on mxnici-pea finance in the CMD area - apart from those relating to the major mUnicipalities - must be interpreted with certain degree of caution. At best, they only give an indication of the order of magnitude or of the trends in receipts and expenditures. Receipts 26. Data on overall receipts for the municipalities in the CfM area e given in Table 10. These data indicate how small the resource base of the =mnicipalities is. Total revenues of as 17.9 crores in 1969/70, for an area comprising 6.7 million people (i.e. Rs 27 per capita), compares to 1/ Even in the case of the Calcutta Corporation the distribution is between revenue fund and loan fund, a distinction which does not coincide with the breakdown between recurrent and capital outlays. PART IV Page 11 the figure of Rs 378 crores for the State of 7est Bengal, which had a population of approximately 42 million in the same year (or Rs 90 per capita). Furthermore, it appears from the same figures that the resources of the municipalities increased at a slower rate than those of the State Government. Between 1963/64 and 1969/70 financial resources of the munici- palities increased by 83% while 4tate Government resources increased by over 110%. 27. The low average revenue performance of mnicipalities masks a sizeable variation between Calcutta Corporation and the rest. In 1969/70 the revenue per capita was more than three times higher in Calcutta (Rs 42.9) than for the other municipalities (Rs 13.8). Furthermore from 1963/64 to 1969/70 the increase in manicipal resources has been considerably slower for the Calcutta Corporation (9.1% per anum) than for the other municipalities (15.9% per annum). ConsequCntly, Calcutta's share in total municipal revenues, although still dominant, has declined from 81% in 1963/64 to 74% in 1969/70. This slower growth of Calcutta's resources is partly explained by its slower population growth, but even on a per capita basis Calcutta's financial resources have expanded somewhat less (8.3% per annum) than those of the other anicipalities (13.1% per annua). 28. The Calcutta Corporation and the other municipalities differ significantly with respect to their dependence on state grants (see Table 11). Whereas both the Corporation and the municipalities are increasingly dependent on State grants for revenue receipts, this dependence is more pronounced for the other municipalities than for the Corporation. In 1969/70 the manici- palities received 33% of their revenue receipts from the State, as against only 18% for the Corporation. This reflects that although tax revenues collected by the other municipalities have increased relatively faster than in Calcutta, expansion of municipal outlays., both in overall and per capita terms, has increased even more rapidly. 29. Calcutta and the other municipalities have about the same dependence on the property tax as a principal source of tax revenue. The proportion of property taxes in the total tax receipts of the Corporation has been fairly constant at about 90% in recent years. No reliable figures are available for the other municipalities, but a recent study of municipal finances under- taken by CMPO indicates that, depending on the municipality, property tax accounts for 80 to 95,L of municipal tax revenue. 30. Jalcutta Corporation levies the property tax as a single consoli- dated rate. The tax is graduated according to a progressive scale, which increases from 15, to 33% depending on assessed value plus a flat kfo rate for the Howrah Bridge: PART IV Page 12 Annual Valuation Rate (Rs) () Less than 1,000 15 1,001 to 3,000 18 3,001 to 12,000 22 12,001 to 15,000 27 15,001 and over 33 Although consolidated, the rate does allow for two elements of use charges. Premises with a private tubewell can benefit from a 6 V rebate on the con- solidated rate if no water is taken from the municipal water mains and a rebate of 8 1/3: is given to holdings which are located in unsewered areas. Thus holdings which get neither water nor sewerage and fall in the lowest assessable category (less than Es 1,000) hardly pay any tax at all, while those which have a rateable value between Rs 1,000 and Rs 3,000 would be liable to pay a rate of just over 3%. 31. The value of the holding on which the property tax is payable is deemed to be the gross annual rent at which the land or building may at the time of the assessment be reasonably expected to let. This assessment is made for a period of six years and reviewed every sixth year thereafter. In the case of buildings an allowance of 10% can be made for the cost of repair and maintenance. And for buildings or land which are not let the annual rent is arbitrarily set at 5% of the present value. 32. From Table 12 it can be seen that in 1965/66 the per capita property tax revenue in Calcutta (Rs 18.27) was significantly below the per capita revenue in Bombay (Rs 31.53) and slightly below the one in Ahmedabad (Rs 22.10), but compared favorably to the per capita revenue in iadras (Es 16.72). Since then, however, the total assessed valuation in the Calcutta area, as well as the assessed value per holding have increased by more than 30%. Because of the progressive character of the rate scale, total property tax revenue has increased more than proportionately to the unit rateable valuation. Total revenue rose from Rs 5.0 crores in 1963/64 to Rs 6.8 crores in 1970/71, at a rate of h.5% per annua, conpared to an increase of 3.9% per annum in the unit rateable value during the same period. And because of the slow increase in population in the Calcutta Corporation area, the per capita property tax has increased from is 18.3 in 1965/66 to as 21.8 in 1970/71. 33. Unlike Calcutta, the other municipalities in the CMD have property tax rates consiting of multiple elements. 1/ Apart from the basic property tax, called "holding tax", there exists a water rate and lighting rate, and 1/ E:cept for Howrah which has a flat property tax rate of 25%, including -0 for the Howrah bridge. PART IV Page 13 a conservancy rate. The latter three elements are levied only if piped water 1/ and electricity are supplied or if the municipality makes pro- vision for the cleansing of private latrines and cesspools in the area. The Bengal Municipal Act stipulates only the maximum rates for each of these components and allows the municipalities to set the actual rates. The Act specifies only that water rates may vary with the distance of holdings from the nearest standpipe and that a rebate of one-fourth of the conservancy rate may be given to holdings which are equipped with a sanitary-type latrine. Also in contrast to Calcutta, none of the rate elements in the other municipalities are based on a progressive scale. The maximum rate li.mts are: Holding tax 10% Conservancy rate 10% Water rate 74 Lighting rate 3% Actual rates levied by the mu-nicipalities are much below the maxima despite the fact that the service actually provided would in some cases warrant the inposition of a higher rate. Four municipalities, for example, do not levy any water rate yet supply piped water. There thus seems to be scope for raising tax revenue even under present conditions, but a fortiori with improvement in the civic services provided. 34. As in Calcutta, property tax rates in the other municipalities are levied on the gross annual rental value of the holding. . This rental value is assessed every five years. From Table 13 it appears that in 1969/70 the average assessed value per holding in the municipalities was only Hs 539, as against Rs 3,536 in the Calcutta Corporation area. There are, of course, sharp variations in valuations between municipalities, varying from as little as Rs 124 to over Rs 1,000 for some of the more well- to-do municipalities with industrial properties. 35. Property tax revenue in the municipalities is estimated to have increased from Rs 1.2 crores in 1963/6b4 2/ to ts 2.4 crores in 1969/70, a rate of 12.3% per annum. This increase is considerably faster than the one for the Calcutta Corporation (5.5") and is only partly e:xplained by the more rapid urban growth in these areas. Even on a per capita basis property taxation income in these areas increased. twice as fas as that in 'alcutta: Annual 1963/64 1969/70 increase (Rs) (Rs) (M Calcutta Corporation 16.8 22.3 4.8 Other Municipalities 4.2 7.3 9.7 1/ For metered water the tax is replaced by a meter charge. 2/ A-suming that, on the average, 87.5% of tax revenue originates from property taxation. PART IV Page 14 There are reasons to believe that this growth in income is more related to an upward revaluation of the assessed property values than to an increase in taxation rates. Any past under-assessment of these values may then have been partly corrected, but nevertheless there are still indications that in many cases actual rents paid are higher than the assessed value or that the imputed value for owner-occupied premises is underestimated. 36. The only other municipal tax of any significance in the CMDl0 is the tax on professions, trades and callings. This tax which is levied in the Calcutta Corporation as well as in most of the other CMD) municipalities, is rather uncommn in India. Among the other large urban centers, it is only used in Madras. In Calcutta, the tax is levied on self-employed persons and on registered. companies. In the case of self-employed persons the basis of taxation is determined, depending on the professional activity, by the assessee's income, by the rent he pays for his business premises or by the number of vehicles he owns. In the case of companies, the tax is levied on the corpany's paid-up capital. Taxes paid vary from Rs 3 to a maximum of Rs 250. 1/ In 1970/71 this tax yielded only -R 66 lakhs for the Calcutta CorporatTon and Rs 1; lakhs for all other municipalities together; this represented respectively, 91 and 5% of total tax revenue. 37. All other taxes taken together account for 14% of tax revenues in Calcutta, and probably somewhat less in the other municipalities. In this respect, the structure of fiscal receipts in Calcutta differs signifi- cantly from the one prevailing in other urban centers. As can be seen from Table 2, 1965/66 tax receipts other than those on property and profession contributed 345 of tax revenue in Madras, 39% in Bombay and 43% in Ahmedabad. And this dependence of Calcutta on property tax and professional tax has not been really reduced through the introduction in 1970/71 of the octroi tax, since contrary to the situation in other urban centers, the Octroi tax in Wvst Bengal is levied by the State and distributed to local bodies on a population basis. 38. Jon-tax revenue of the municipalities consists of revenue from licenses and rents, borrowing by the municipality (in the case of the Calcutta Corporation), and grants from the State Government. An analysis of the figures in Table 11 indicates a striking analogy between State- municipal relations and Center-State relations (see para. 2). Not unlike the State Governments, the municipalities witness a decrease in the share which tax revenue occupies in their total receipts. They are also becoming increasingly dependent on outside grant assistance for the financing of even their most basic expenditures. 1/ The Indian Constitution stipulates that the maximum tax which may be levied on professions, trades and callings by any State or local body is Rs 250. PART IV Page 15 39. The principles underlying State grant assistance are, however, quite different from those which determine Central grant assistance to the States. States do not have the equivalent of the Central Finance Commission to lay down the guidelines for the sharing of taxes and the distribution of grants. Furthermore, municipalities have no development program and the capital assistance which they receive can, therefore, not be geared to the achievement of certain targets and remains, on the whole, fairly much ad hoc. In fact, the principles guiding the distribution of grant assistance to municipalities has been under heavy criticism from various quarters, because of their lack of emphasis on performance and because of their unpredictable character which makes it very difficult for the municipalities to engaZe in any kind of long-term budgeting. The bulk of these State grants is purely of the subvention-type and essentially geared to the payment of 80% of staff salary increments for municipal civil servants. Because of the increased importance of increments as compared to the basic salary, the State Government now subsidizes on the average 40% of the municipal wage bill. The remainder of the State grants is usually given for the defrayment of specific recurrent expenditures, such as the salaries of primary school teachers, health officers and mid- wives, and maintenance outlays for roads. Only very small amounts are granted for the execution of specific development works, usually the con- struction of buildings or roads. 40. In the CM%D area only the Calcutta Corporation has the financial capacity to borrow, and its borrowing pattern is highly irregular. In recent years its loan funds have mainly come from the Center, with debentures occupying a less important place. Expenditures 41. Although municipalities, according to the Bengal Municipal Act, have the legal obligation only to collect sewage and garbage from public places, they in fact provide a much wider range of services, including road maintenance, water supply, street lighting as well as some primary education. Of all these functions conservancy 1/ is the one which absorbs the largest share in terms of both personnel and financial resources. In the Calcutta Corporation this function makes up 25% of all revenue expenditures, while in the other CMD municipalities the role of conservancy as an expenditure item is even more predominant. In more than half of the municipalities its share of total outlays exceeds 40%. In terms of staff, conservancy duties represent 65% of total activities. 42. The second most important budget item is the outlay on establishment, which includes general administration and tax collection. This function absorbs about 15% of total outlays, and 10% of total staff. On the whole, 1/ A general term which covers cleaning of drains and roads, collection and disposal of garbage and night soil. PART IV Page 16 about 60% of municipal resources are devoted to wages and salaries, slightly over 350 to maintenance and less than 5% to capital outlays. Because of the paucity of data in the field of municipal finance, relatively little is known about the evolution of municipal outlays in the CMD area. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that in recent years the wage costs have increased more rapidly than total available resources, so that the share for maintenance has been decreasing and the share of capital outlay has virtually disappeared. Impact of CMDA Program L3. The execution of the sizeable CNDA program will undoubtedly have serious repercussions on the administrative and financial resources of the m=nicipalities. As indicated in Annex 8, the CMD) municipalities are scheduled to act as implementing agencies for Rs 37 crores worth of projects out of a total program of Rs 315 crores. The Calcutta Corporation will play a major role in this, and be responsible for the execution of a number of projects with a total cost of Rs 28 crores, representing more than three-fourths of total municipal involvement in the CMDA program. 44. The effects of the CMDA program on the implementing municipalities will be two-fold. Firstly, in many cases the CMDA funds have been passed on to the municipalities, in part or in total, on a loan basis and will entail a future repayment obligation on the part of these mnicipalities; and, secondly, a number of the CMDA projects, once completed, will have to be main- tained by the municipalities in which they are physically located. This will put a severe additional burden on the already precarious financial situation of the local bodies. 45. As far as debt service is concerned, a distinction should be drawn between the Calcutta Corporation and the other municipalities. From the onlending terms used by CMDA it appears that the average terms for its on- lending to the Calcutta Corporation are somewhat harder than those used for the other municipalities. Funds have been transmitted to it on a 80% loan basis. All water supply, drainage and garbage disposal projects which the Corporation will be executing have been financed on a 100% loan basis, while bustee improvement and environmental hygiene projects are entirely financed out of grants. In the case of the other rmicipalities, a further distinction has to be drawn between Howrah, which has received 52% of its CIDA funds as loans, and the remaining municipalities to which only 22% of the funds are passed on as loans. In both cases, water supply and garbage disposal projects have been passed on 100% as loans, transport projects are financed on a two- thirds grant, one-third loan basis. PART IV Page 17 L6. The sectoral distribution of manicipally executed projects is shown below: Amount Percent (Rs crores) Water supply 8.39 33.3 Sewerage 8.40 33.4 Garbage disposal 4.85 19.2 Transport 1.66 6.6 Other 1.90 7.5 Most of the lending has been for potentially revenue earning services (water supply, sewerage and garbage disposal) and with the improvement in municipal services which the CNA program will bring about, part of these loans could be recovered from the ultimate beneficiaries through increased user charges. This is particularly the case for water supply improvements. Municipalities already have means to increase the recovery rate from beneficiaries from water supply projects even within the present rate structure. AL an alter- native to the property water rate, the =nnicipalities might also make a wider application of water metering. At present the only water meters in the CMDA area are almost exclusively for industrial consumers. Once the water supply condition is improved, a number of these consumers can be expected to shift over to municipal water and the number of meters increased. Metering is also to be exclusively followed in the fringe areas where piped water will be introduced for the first time but this is outside municipal areas. It seems unlikely that in the near future, additional municipal revenues from increased water rates and metering would.suffice to cover the entire debt burden on municipal water supply projects. let alone the financial charges resulting from other projects as well. 47. With respect to the maintenance and operations expenditures resulting from the CDA program, the Authority itself has recently made an estimate which shows that the completion of its projects under the Fourth and Fifth Plans may entail an increase in maintenance and operation expenditures from Rs 0.68 crores in 1972/73 to Rs 10.6 crores in 1978/79. Admittedly, this is a very rough estimate, but it gives an idea of the order of magnitude involved. If, for instance, municipalities would ultimately be responsible for the maintenance of half the CMDA program, this would mean an additional outlay of Rs 5 crores to be supported by their budgets. Assuming further that total municipal resources were to continue increasing at a rate of 10"6 per annum, the municipalities would have a total revenue of approximately Rs 42 crores in 1978/79. Maintenance expenses in CMDA projects would then have to absorb 12.5% of their total outlays. Although this is not an un- realistic proportion it would certainly entail a much larger volume of S1"tate assistance to CMD municipalities than at present. PART IV Page 18 L$8. It is precisely the size of this additional State assistance which Mo has tried to estimate in a recent study on CM municipal finances. 1/ In this study CMPO has made an attempt at estimating the impact of CMDA' s Fourth Plan program on the finances of the CMD maici- palities, excluding Calcutta Corporation, on the hypothesis that the mnicipalities would be financially responsible for the maintenance of CMDA projects which will be handed over to them as well as for the debt service on water supply and road projects. The study concludes that, even after taking into account a sharp improvement in property assessment as well as increased efficiency in tax collection, the CND municipalities excluding Calcutta would show a resource gap of Rs 3.25 crores after com- pletion of CMDA's Fourth Plan period. A similar exercise indicates that, after inclusion of the Calcutta Corporation, the gap might reach Rs 11 crores. Clearly these estimates are very rough and often based on old data for maintenance standards and on arbitrary assumptions regarding debt servicing, but they clearly indicate that the State Government will have to take on an important additional financial burden or allow the munici- palities to levy new or higher taxes. 49. The State of West Bengal presently has under consideration a number of reform proposals for the Calcutta Metropolitan District. These proposals include a centralization of powers and a reduction in the number of municipal bodies. Such a consolidation could help in increasing the revenue collection from existing taxes, but as such they will not solve the financial problem of the area. Even after such a reform, there would still continue to be a need for the State to enlarge its financial assistance to the municipal units and/or endow them with additional taxing powers. 1/ "The Resource Gapf, CMPO, April 1972. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT West Bengal - Receipts on Revenue Account (in Rs crores) Revised Ac tuaIs Budget ualset 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 I. TAX RECEIPTS 1. State Tax Revenue 99.1 104.9 111.7 124.9 129.0 143.5 163.1 a) Taxes on Land and Income 7.2 6.5 6.2 8.8 5.1 4.3 5.3 of which: agricultural income tax ( 1.2) ( 1.4) ( 1.7) ( 1.6) ( 1.1) ( 1.0) ( 1.0) land revenue ( 6.0 ( 5.1) ( 4.5) ( 7.2) ( 4.0) ( 3.8) ( 4.3) b) Stamps and registration 9.0 10.5 9.1 9,3 9.4 9.3 10.0 c) Taxes on Conmiodities and Services 83.2 87.9 96.3 106,8 114.4 129.4 147.0 of which: sales tax (48.6) (52.3) (56.9( (63.3) (67.9) (74.1) (04.8) state excise (13.4) (13.2) (13.7) (16.1) (17.1) (17.7) (13.0) motor vehicle ta;: ( 5.3) ( 6.2) ( 6.2) ( 6.2) ( 5.1) ( 5.5) ( 3.0) octroi tax (-) (-) (-) -) ( 3.1) ( 9.4) ( 9.2) 2. Share in Central Taxes 33.5 33.8 44.5 _06 62.7 78.1 Q1.8 of which: income tax (15.1) (19.1) (21.3) (27,4) (33.9) (43.5) (43.2) union excise (18.1) (13.5) (22.7) (22.7) (23.2) (34.1) (33.2) Total Tax Revenue 132.6 143.7 156.2 175.5 191.7 221.6 244.9 II. NON-TAX RECEIPTS 1. State Non-tax Revenue 30.4 25.2 36.8 32.0 18.0 36.8 29.4 of which: administrative receipts (16.9) (13.1) (20.0) (18,7) (14.5) (17.8) (19.0) interest receipts ( n.a) ( 7.2) ( 7.5) ( 4.6) ( 4.0) ( 9.5) ( 9.0) departmental undertakings (net) (n.a.) (-5.6) (-5.3) (-5.3) (-8.1) (-9.0) (-13.2) 2. -Grants-in-aid from Center 19.1 20.3 21.4 44.4 46.1 173.7 68.4 of which: statutory grants (nia.) (u-. ) ( 0.4) (22.7) (10.7) (14.5) (10.6) state plan schemes (n.a.) (n.a.) (n.a.) (11.3) (11.4) (13.3) (12.9) centrally sponsored schemeo (L.a.) (n.) ( n.) (a.) ( 3.1) ( 6.5) (10.1) Total Non-tax Revenue 49.5 45.5 5'.2 75.4 64.1 215.5 97.0 III. TOTAL RIECEIPTS 102.1 103.2 214.4 251.9 255.0 437.1 342.7 PART IV Page 20 Table 2 I'47DIA CALCUTTA URBA` DEVELOPMEN;T PROJECT Taxable Capacity and Tax Effort of Indian States Tax Effort Taxable Capacity (State tax revenue for Rs 1000 (per capita income) of income) a/ a/ State Amount Capacity Rank Amount Effort Rank (Rupees) (n /oo Maharash ra 487 139 1 18.5 113 5 Punjab b 483 138 2 17.4 106 7 Tamil Nadu 391 112 3 18.8 115 4 Gujarat 380 109 4 19.6 119 3 West Bengal 370 106 5 16.2 99 9 Andhra Pradesh 360 103 6 15.7 96 10 Assam 357 102 7 11.4 70 15 Mysore 356 102 8 18.4 112 6 Rajasthan 337 96 9 15.6 95 11 Madhya Pradesh 335 96 10 14.4 88 12 Himachal Pradesh 329 94 11 28.4 173 1 Kerala 311 89 12 20.0 122 2 Orissa 304 87 13 12.8 78 14 Uttar Pradesh 288 82 14 13.2 80 13 Bihar 241 69 15 16.6 101 8 Average 350 16.4 a/ Capacity and effort are expressed as the ratio of each State's income or tax revenue over the average income or tax revenue. b/ Includes Haryana and present-day Punjab INMI CALCUTTA UIBAN DEVE~OPMENT PROJECT West Bengal - Receipte on Capital Account ( in Rs crores) Revised c t u a 1 s Budget Budget 1966-67 1967-6< 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1. Loans from Center 41.8 40.8 70.3 59.3 105.8 123.2 110.1 o.f xhich: State plan sehemes (n.a.) (n.a.) (n.a.) (26.8) (26.9) (30.9) (30.0) CnItally sponsored nchoses (n.a.) (n.a.) (n4a.) ( - ) ( - ) ( 1.6) ( 1.7) Chare in small savings (n.a.) (n.a.) ( 7.9) (12.9) ( 0.8) (15.0) (19.0) 2. IlarIzet r>orr:owi.ng 6.1 8.3 9.1 12.1 12.1 15.7 14.3 3. Repayment of Loann and Advances 4.5 4.1 10.6 10.4 7.4 11.3 12.2 4. Otheu 0.0 2.2 21.7 5.1 51.4 -__.9 2-2 Total Receipts 52.2 55.4 111.7 126.9 177.7 168.1 153.( Source: RBI Bulletin INDJIA QALCJTTA UBAN DEELPMEHNT PROJECT est Bengal - Expenditure on Rev*u ACount ( in és crores) Revised A c t u a i s Budget- iiudget 1966-67 1967-63 1963-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 I. DEVELOPiET XP DITURES 100.7 111.2 123.7 144.6 154.2 186.5 180.4 o which: education (36.9) (45.9) (49.3) (59.1) (69.6) (82.0) (73.2) public health (17.0) (21.3) (24.0) (28.2) (26.7) (30.7) (33.0) agriculture (n.a.) (13.9) (14.2) (12.5) (13.3) (15.2) (17.1) civil vorks (11.7) ( 3.3) (11.9) (15.2) (14.4) (22.2) (13.1) II. NON-DEVELOPIENT EXPENDITURES 84.7 85.0 112.9 118.6 140.5 292.2 179.2 of which: civil Admiaistration (23.1) (32.7) (37.0) (43.3) (45.7) (52.6) (54.3) collection of ti,:es and duties ( 6.0) ( 3.6) ( 9.4) (10.5) ( 9.9) (12.0) (12.3) interest on loans frorn Center (15.3) ( 6.0) (15.2) (17.4) (34.0) (34.9) (23.6) famine relief ( 7.3) ( 8,0) (14.2) ( 7.2) (13.2) (20.4) ( 3.0) III. TOTAL EXPEITDITURES 185.4 196.2 236.6 263.2 294.7 478.7 359.6 Source: RBI Bulletin. INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Wast Bengal - &penditures on Capital Account n s crores _ Revised A tuals t Bud&et 1966-67 1967-60 1963-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1. Development outlays 25.4 22.2 21.2 22.9 19.3 30.3 40.7 of which: multipurpose river valley schemes ( 5.6) ( 4.1) ( 6.2) ( 5.1) ( 4.0) ( 3.3) (.3.6) irrigation and navigation ( 1.2) ( 1.3) ( 1.0) ( 2,6) ( 3.3) ( 2.7) ( 9.7) agricultural improvements ( 5.2) ( 3.4) ( 1.3) ( 2.6) ( 2.1) ( 2.7) ( 2.7) building, roads and watcr works (11.2) (11.9) (10.3) (10,4) ( 8.2) (17.2) (18.5) 2. Ilon-development outlays (n.a.) 9.2 2.3 3.8 3.7 4.1 4.0 3. Repayment of loans to Center (n.a.) 11.3 24.9 43.5 47.3 57.1 57.8 4. oervice on market borrowings .. 7.6 7.1 7.1 5.1 7.7 7.3 5. Loans and advances 14.6 17.9 22.4 16.2 37.3 42,3 34.1 6. Other (m.a.) 0.5 0.6 36.3 34,2 1.3 1.4 Total expenditures 45.8 63.7 73.5 129.3 147.4 143.3 145.3 Source: RBI Bulletin. T(D 'dI3 PART IV Page 24 Table 6 INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPME.T PROJECT Per Capita Outlay on State Plans Fourth Plan Annual Plan 1969-74 1972-73 Rs crores Per capita Rank Rs crores Per capita Rank Nagaland 40.0 800 1 9 180 1 Jammu and Kashmir 158.4 344 2 36 78 3 Haryana 225.0 225 3 82 82 2 Punjab 293.6 217 4 85 63 4 Maharashtra 898.1 178 5 206 91 5 Assam 261.7 174 6 40 27 9 Gujarat 455.0 170 7 106 40 6 Tamil Nadu 519.4 126 8 116 28 8 Kerala 258.4 121 9 64 30 7 Mysore 350.0 120 10 72 25 13 Rajasthan 302.0 117 11 65 25 13 Uttar Pradesh 965.0 109 12 225 25 13 Orissa 222.6 102 13 57 26 10.5 Andhra Pradesh 420.5 97 14 105 24 15 Bihar 531.2 94 15 100 18 16 Madhya Pradesh 383.0 92 16 109 26 10.5 West Bengal 322.5 73 17 74 17 17 Average 122 29 Source: RBI Bulletin INMA CALCUTTA UBAJ DEVKLPMENT PHDJECT Wet wwl State Plan B dtr X_k2_& k i n- Rs 7rr M E _s Third `Iree Fourth Annual Five Year Annual Five Year Plan Average ReviseC Plan Plans Estimates in Actuals Actuals Bud et ]udet 1961-66 L96669 1963-74 1966-6 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1?72-73 1. Agriculture and allied programmes 37.3 37.5 59.0 12.5 9.3 11.6 10.4 12.4 2. Cooperation and community development 16.6 6.4 9.7 2.1 1.4 1.3 2.5 1.3 3. Irrigation and power 92.5 40.0 110.3 13.3 17 5 21.1 23.4 27.5 4. Industry and mining 25.1 13.2 15.0 4.4 1.7 1.2 3.4 4.3 5. Transport and communications 26.2 14.3 15.7 4.8 3.5 1.3 3.0 3.3 6. Social Services 100.5 41.2 69.0 13.7 7.9 9.5 15.2 15.6 7. Miscellaneous 6.5 8.9 44.4 3.0 4.5 8.1 9.7 3.6 Total 304.7 161.5 323.1 53.8 45.8 54.1 67.6 73.5 Source: Government o' 'Jest Tiengal, Finance Department. Ot*41 I DIA CALCUTTA jüä.!'\] DEViLoPME' PROJECT Test Bengal Overall Financial Situation (in Rs crores) Revised A t u a Budget Budget 1966-67 196U6 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 191-72 1972-73 Receipts Revenue Account 182.1 189.2 214.h 251.9 255.8 h37.1 342.7 Capital Account .2 _55 111.7 126.9 177.7 168.1 158.8 Total 235.3 244.6 326.1 378.8 433.5 605.2 501.5 Expenditures Revenue Account 285.4 196.2 236.6 263.2 294.7 478.7 359.6 ,apital Account 45.8 68.7 78.5 129.8 147.4 143.3 145.3 Total 231.2 26h.9 315.1 393.0 442.1 622.0 504.9 overall surplus/deficit (-) 4.1 -20.3 11.0 01h.2 - 8.6 -16.8 - 3.4 014.2 - 8.6 -16> INDIk ÅLUTA UN DEV[PIET PBFJET West Begal - financing of Fourth FiV-Y*ar Plan in Tis crores) ve 'cCALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTNDA f~ /s BURMA -ASTERN REGION CalCutta Metropohitan District (D Towns and Cities - - Major Roads - --State and Union Territory BoundariesUf e gaI ii i Railway Lines -- - International Boundaries "2",jlf"2,' ,"" R1 L ANK A IBRD 10262 Appox le Cease-Fire iKK JUNE 1973 B HUTAN NBH H U T A N 7 iig ®ALPAIURI v- COOn Behar - ý -%rikO?~1 ý0,H BE-HAR INDIA WEST BENGAL r) CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT POPULATION DENSITIES BY DISTRICT, 1971 PERSONS PER Sq. Km More than 2,000 WEST D AJJUR 701 - 2,000 ( 501 - 700 301 - 500 Less then 300 E Baz- S DisIrict Capitals 0 Mm Centers Calcutto Metropolitan Distrct Boundaries E- SDistrict Boundories - State Boundories - - International Boundaries Rivers 2 MILES 0 60 0 40 80 120 K LOME T E R - Berbompur O Ascnso O Durgapur Krishnagar -nBurdwan Ch,suro - ) HOGHLY How ~ HQRf~H ~,CALCUTTA HORAH °'cT Mdnoi~r®.- ~ cgLUTTA M aAlipur 24 P AR GA S4 Ny V ~ Pdi >1-..' … 「［ INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CMD SEWERAGE ZONES AND MAJOR FACILITIES Proposed Sewerage Zones Proposed Pumping Stations Proposed Sewerage Treatment Plants * Existing Pumping Stations - 'Channels, Canals BulI t - up Areas .. Major Roads Other Roods Rojiways ---- -- Corporat,on and Mun,cpolity Bound.,nes - Kalyani-Bansberia Boundanes - - - Metropolitan Center Boundaries - - - Colcutto Metropohton Distrct Boundaries - - - International Boundores KILOME TERS- i E s0- H~ -S N D A Bor- TIET) I N C)lA).RAR ega R AN KA '" N INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CMD DRAINAGE BASINS AND MAJOR FACILITIES .r1 . cl- Ä,, kmt j -- - *** 1 .. - . : - r - - - | -.. . -I- 2 BE N D l A « .. ...... -. --i- SR LAK NIda- Hd INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MAJOR URBAN TRANSPORT PROJEOTS INITIATED DURING 1969/70-73/74 EXISTING FEATURES Maor Roads Other Roads Railways CMDA PROJECTS Area Circulation Scheme Road Widening/Traffic Operation Scheme Bridge/Underpass Roads OTHER PROJECTS Brdge -- Road Rapid Transit System Built-up Areas Corporation and Municipolity Boundaries Kalyoni-Bonsberia Boundaries - - Metropohton Center Boundories - - - CaIcutto Metropolitan District Bounda - - -- nternational Boundies 0 510 5 KILOMETERS C 2 1 7b DGE-- - - BUDG T, C A 4,i. l N D IA 4LRMA RIU gay'- , jV r LANK 00/ L INDIA CALCUTTA URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CMD HOUSING AND AREA DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AND BUSTEE AREAS Slum Rehousing . :Len- . Sites ard Service- Land Developmer - - Hire Purchase Sc< -.. Subsidised Public H-: .. ¶ i -. - Bustee Areas(Cal -.ern ýnd Ma&.^r But-up Areas - Maior Roads Other Roads Railways Corporation and --. - -- Kolani - Bansber., · .. 5 - - *Merropolitan Ce.'.. - -. >.c Calcutta Metrop-l ¯. r... l . International Bou-. i . K1LOME T-RS M ILES - 1 - - r -3 *- - - MRS \5 --IIAA r{ --r C A SIKKIMBUA j2 lN D lA UM .er. .