A Window of Opportunity A Diagnostic of Adolescent Girls and Young Women’s Socio-Economic Empowerment in Jharkhand, India Authors: Matthew Morton, Shrayana Bhattacharya & Pravesh Kumar The Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice, World Bank Group © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessaril y reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Design & Print: Macro Graphics Pvt Ltd  |  www.macrographics.com Preface It was on a recent visit to rural Jharkhand that I first Adolescent Girls and Young Women Project in the saw the enormous aspirations of young women in state of Jharkhand. This project, the first-of-its kind India today. Even in a remote dusty village, a two- at such scale in the Bank’s global portfolio, focuses hour drive out of Ranchi, we heard time and again on improving the rates at which adolescent girls that the young girls wanted to do something with and young women in select districts of Jharkhand their lives, be nurses, teachers, police officers, open complete their secondary education and acquire a small mobile shop maybe, or travel into a nearby market-driven skills training. town to learn English. These young women, the The study reveals substantial vulnerabilities and future of the state, wanted to learn and to grow. But exclusion of this population; key constraints to for this they needed both the opportunity and the education, training, and employment; and insights for support. And among their needs was easy access to the design and delivery of programming to improve safe places where they could train and learn. educational and labor market outcomes. It examines Which is why it makes me so happy to introduce adolescent girls and young women’s overall inclusion this report, Window of Opportunity, a product of as well as specific socioeconomic dimensions, collaboration between the Government of Jharkhand including in education, employment, and agency. and the World Bank’s Social Protection and Jobs This report points to five major policy implications team. The report represents a unique statewide for the state of Jharkhand. First, there is a need to mixed-methods study which examines the conditions, prioritize public investments in adolescent girls and constraints, and policy opportunities that can help young women. Second, demand- and supply-side adolescent girls and young women in Jharkhand fulfil interventions to support education and skills training their ambitions. completion are needed, especially for out-of-school Indeed, this research has already contributed to one girls. Third, strengthening girls’ social-emotional skills of our landmark projects, the World Bank assisted could boost educational and employment aspirations Tejaswini – Socioeconomic Empowerment of and improve their resilience in the face of multiple    Preface  iii constraints. Fourth, young women need support and providing technical support and sharing the World opportunities for both self-employment and wage Bank’s global knowledge and operational experience. employment, along with assistance and information Window of Opportunity provides a strong foundation to support safety among those who migrate for of evidence from which government agencies, the work. Fifth, engaging families and communities in World Bank Group, and our partners can collectively support of adolescent girls’ and young women’s advance policy actions to close gender gaps and socio-economic empowerment is critical to relaxing boost young women’s empowerment during a key significant social constraints to their participation in developmental period of the lifecycle. I am confident education, training, and employment. that this report will provide valuable evidence and The World Bank Group remains highly committed lessons to policymakers and practitioners in designing to addressing gender inequalities at all levels. To this and implementing interventions for the social, end, we would continue to work closely with both educational and economic empowerment of the the Government of India and State Governments adolescent girls and young women. to not only strengthen the policy environment for adolescent girls and young women but also Junaid Kamal Ahmad strengthen their capacity to implement initiatives by Country Director iv  A Window of Opportunity   Acknowledgements The Government of Jharkhand’s Department of Kamlesh Singh (Indian Institute of Technology Delhi), Women, Child Development and Social Security Mohita Junnarkar, Amit Sharma, Soumi Saha and (DWCDSS) both requested this research and played Tapan Kapoor. an instrumental role in guiding and shaping it so that D-COR Consulting, Inc. was contracted under this the questions sought and methods used were best task to conduct all of the primary data collection, fitted to the state’s policy needs. including quantitative and qualitative data collection Authors include Matthew Morton, Research Fellow as well as institutional mapping. Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago and former The team also benefited from technical comments Social Protection Specialist; Shrayana Bhattacharya, from Robert Blum (Johns Hopkins University), Rohini Senior Economist; and Pravesh Kumar, Senior Social Pande (Harvard University), Charity Troyer (Harvard Protection Specialist from the Social Protection and University), Renu Singh (Young Lives India), and Jobs Global Practice, World Bank Group. Sarah Elizabeth Haddock (Gender Cross-Cutting The team included World Bank colleagues John Solutions Area, World Bank). Blomquist, Human Development, Program Leader This study has been funded jointly by the World Bank and Srinivas Varadan, Social Protection Specialist and UK Aid from UK Government’s Department as well as consultants to the World Bank who made for International Development, however the views invaluable contributions at various stages of the expressed do not necessarily reflect the official process—namely, Amanbir Singh, Sanchari Roy policies of the World Bank and UK Government. (University of Sussex), Divya Balyan, Vatsala Shreeti,    Acknowledgements  v Abbreviations AGI Adolescent Girls Initiative IFA Iron and Folic Acid AGYW Adolescent Girls and Young Women IMF International Monetary Fund AHS Annual Health Survey IPV Intimate Partner Violence ASER Annual Status of Education Report IT Information Technology AWC Anganwadi Centre ITC Industrial Training Centre BPL Below Poverty Line ITI Industrial training institute BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee JEPC Jharkhand Education Project Council D-COR DCOR Consulting Pvt. Limited JSDM Jharkhand Skills Development Mission DHS District Health Survey KGBV Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya DISE District Information System for Education LFP Labor Force Participation DWCDSS Department of Women, Child Development MS Mahila Samakhya and Social Security MSK Mahila Samakhya Kendra EA Enumeration Areas MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises EBB Educationally Backward Blocks NEET Not Engaged in Education, Employment, or FGDs Focus Group Discussions Training FY Financial Year NFE Non-Formal Education GEMS Gender Equity Movement in Schools NFHS National Family Health Survey GIS Geographic Information System NGO Non-Governmental Organization GSDP Gross State Domestic Product NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling GSES General Self-Efficacy Scale NSS National Sample Survey HH Household NPSDE National Policy on Skill Development and ICDS Integrated Child Development Scheme Entrepreneurship ICT Information and Communication Technology NRLM National Rural Livelihood Mission ICRW International Centre for Research on Women NSDC National Skills Development Commission    Abbreviations  vii NSDP National Skills Development Programme SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan NYK Nehru Yuva Kendra SC Scheduled Caste NYP National Youth Policy SJKV Saksham Jharkhand Kaushal Vikas OBC Other Backward Classes ST Scheduled Tribe OBE Open Basic Education STC Special Training Center OECD Organization of Economic Co-operation and UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund Development UPS Usual Principle Status PHQ Patient Health Questionnaire UPSS Usual Principle and Subsidiary Status PMJDY Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana USD US Dollars RBI Reserve Bank of India VTPs Vocational Training Providers RGSEAG Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of WB The World Bank Adolescent Girls WB Team The World Bank Team RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan WDI World Development Indicators RPWEE Roadmap for Promoting Women’s Economic WDR World Development Report Empowerment WIERD Western-Educated, Industrialized Rich, RTE Right to Education Democratic SABLA Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of WHO World Health Organization Adolescent Girls viii  A Window of Opportunity   Contents Preface iii Acknowledgements v Abbreviations vii Executive Summary 1 Introduction 7 Methods 13 Inclusion 21 Education 29 Employment 37 Agency 53 Policy Implications 67 ANNEXURES Annexure 1: Measures 75 Annexure 2: Technical specifications of analytics 78 Annexure 3: Mapping summary 86 References 89    Contents  ix Executive Summary This document reports the findings of a unique Government’s pilot scheme, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for statewide mixed-methods study to better Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG), was understand the aspirations, conditions, constraints, implemented, were twice as likely to report taking and policy opportunities for adolescent girls and nutritional tablets and half as likely to report not young women in the state of Jharkhand. The study getting enough food as girls in other districts. This comprises a major part of technical assistance suggests that the scheme is having some success requested of the World Bank by the Government with respect to its nutrition-related mandate. Major of Jharkhand’s Department of Women and Child educational investments, legislative actions, and Development and Social Security (DWCDSS) programming efforts over the last decade to increase to inform efforts towards improving the social girls’ schooling and curb child marriage also appear and economic empowerment of adolescent girls to be making a difference. From the National Family and young women. The study included a state- & Health Survey (NFHS) 2005/6 to our survey, the representative survey of 3,942 households with share of girls ages 15-17 attending school more than adolescent girls and young women (ages 11-24), doubled from 27% to 68%. Meanwhile, the share 82 youth focus groups and consultations with other of young women (ages 20-24) reported having stakeholders, and a geo-spatial mapping of relevant married before age 18 has dropped substantially training and service providers across the state. It is from the NFHS 2005/6 survey (64%) to ours (35%). also among the first studies in India of this scale to Furthermore, in the context of efforts to ensure include in-depth analysis of psychosocial factors, such tribal girls’ equal access to education, girls belonging as social-emotional skills and mental health, along to Scheduled Tribes are now more likely to attend with educational and employment modules. secondary school and achieve a class 10 level of education than their non-tribal counterparts. This The study reveals encouraging signs of progress marks a reversal of trends given that mothers of tribal where concerted efforts have been made to improve girls had less education than mothers of their non- girls’ outcomes. For example, girls (ages 11-18) tribal counterparts. in the seven Jharkhand districts in which the    Executive Summary  1 and delivery of programming to improve educational Figure 1: Diagnostic focus areas and labor market outcomes. The diagnostic examines girls’ overall inclusion as well as specific dimensions, which include education, employment, and agency. Education Inclusion To give an overall gauge of inclusion, an estimated 56% of young women (ages 15-24) were not Inclusion engaged in education, employment, or training (“NEET”), compared to 19% of young men from the same households. While young women belonging Employment Agency to Scheduled Tribes face some unique constraints (especially in terms of economic pressures and remoteness), it is clear that, overall, adolescent girls and young women constitute a marginalized group Yet, much remains to be done. Adolescent girls and in their entirety. Data further show that young young women remain a highly excluded group overall, women’s exclusion is a result of constraints rather with little access to regular programs and services than choice, as illustrated by significant aspirations- focused on their socio-economic empowerment. The achievement gaps. For example, 87% of unmarried study reveals substantial vulnerabilities and exclusion girls said they would like to have a paid job after of this population; key constraints to education, marriage, yet only 19% of married young women, training and employment; and insights for the design ages 18-24, were employed. Figure 2: Most young women are not in education, employment, or training (NEET) Jharkhand youth (ages 15-24) 19% NEET 56% 39% Employed 7% 43% In education/training 37% Male Female Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. 2  A Window of Opportunity   Education more likely to be self-employed through unpaid family work and on the farm or in the home. Although secondary school enrollment rates are comparable between boys and girls, they remain low Lack of suitable job opportunities, time and overall (45% for girls and 44% for boys in secondary, mobility constraints, information gaps, poor access and 27% for girls and boys in higher secondary). to productive assets, and a lack of education and Additionally, gender disparities emerge among older training were commonly cited as obstacles to young youth and mainly in rural areas, and adolescent girls women’s employment. While many young women face specific constraints to retention and completion. expressed a demand for skills-training to increase Rural young women, ages 18-24, were less likely their employability, the mapping exercise highlighted than rural young men in the same households to significant gender disparities in current access to attend education and have completed at least a training as well as spatial concentrations of training class 10 level of education (17% vs. 27% and 38% providers in urban areas and certain districts. This vs. 48%, respectively). Girls’ school attendance disproportionately affects young women, given drops considerably at secondary education levels, greater mobility and time constraints. with economic constraints, marriage, and domestic responsibilities reported as key reasons for dropping Agency out. Girls’ main motivations for going to school were to find a better job or increase future earnings (53%) While poverty and weak institutions affect both and the pleasure of learning (33%); yet young men in young men and young women’s educational and focus groups tended to emphasize the marital value economic opportunities, deprivations in agency help of girls’ education. to explain gender disparities. The vast majority of younger girls cited parents as the key decision-makers in matters that affected their lives, while older girls Employment indicated that husbands played this role. Few girls Female labor force participation has dropped felt that they themselves were the primary decision- precipitously in Jharkhand. According to National makers over matters such as marriage, education, Sample Survey data, and using a relatively inclusive employment, migration or program participation. definition of participation, from 2004/5 to 2011/12 While the trend is declining, one in three young the female labor force participation rate in Jharkhand women, ages 18-24, still reported having married decreased by 18 percentage points (to 27% in before her 18thbirthday. Further, early marriage 2011/12), compared to a drop of 12 percentage shortly after turning age 18 is also a concern expressed points for India overall (to 33% in 2011/12). by many girls. Girls’ ability to act on educational and Our survey finds that current young women’s employment aspirations are ubiquitously hampered participation rate (ages 18-24) is even lower: by time constraints, with strict gender roles strapping 18%, compared to 69% for young men in the same them with heavy domestic responsibilities—especially households. Young women’s labor force participation, after marriage. Additionally, violence, and the fear of especially in rural areas, is mainly concentrated in violence, is a common fact of life for young women and self-employment. Within self-employment, there are girls. Thirty-eight percent of married young women large gender differences. Young women are much (ages 15-24) had experienced intimate partner    Executive Summary  3 violence, and 65% of girls (ages 11-24) reported and accessing services, facilitating peer abuse or violence against young women and girls in support and social networks, counseling public places as at least somewhat common in their with structured goal setting and planning, communities. and robust life skills education with a focus on social-emotional skills, rights, financial The research indicates that psychological literacy, and health and nutrition. empowerment—including self-efficacy and positive mental health—plays an important role in young ™™ Given the high number of out-of-school girls women’s aspirations and resilience to battle life who still aspire to secondary education, constraints. High self-efficacy, for example, was one consider expanding the use of non-formal of the strongest correlates with girls’ educational education through open schools and bridge and employment aspirations. Meanwhile, depression education to re-integrate girls, as well as symptoms increase dramatically as girls become older, scaling up innovative programs like Mahila with life constraints curtailing their ability to achieve Samakhya Kendras. Non-formal education their aspirations. Poor mental health can imperil through open schools could offer an essential young women’s own well-being and productivity, channel for re-integration if greater efforts and the healthy development of their children. It is are taken to increase girls’ access and well as particularly alarming considering that suicide is the the quality of the contact classes offered by top cause of death among older adolescent girls. the National Institute of Open Schools (NIOS) study centers. Greater efforts should be taken to increase girls’ access and the quality of the Policy implications contact classes offered by study centers. Prioritizing public investments in adolescent ™™ Women’s economic opportunities, especially girls and young women in Jharkhand is clearly in rural areas, will continue to depend in warranted—both for the girls’ benefit and to large part on self-employment, though increase the development and poverty reduction market-driven skills-training for wage prospects of the state. The study results highlight the employment could also help to fill unmet need to include targeted and tailored interventions to labor supply needs for specific sectors in the meet the specific needs of this vulnerable population. state. The vast majority of working young Specific policy implications include the following: women is in self-employment, especially ™™ Interventions to strengthen young women’s in rural areas. Interventions can expand educational and employment outcomes young women’s options, productivity are likely to be most effective by including and income through self-employment elements addressing both social and and micro-enterprise. Targeted skilling economic empowerment. Education and investments could also result in more female job-specific training were highlighted as wage employment in some sectors where necessary but insufficient. Complementary there is a growing demand in the state interventions can increase young women’s and a willingness of young women to work agency and foundational skills. Examples (e.g., food processing, tourism, hospitality, could include safe spaces for studying financial services, and healthcare). 4  A Window of Opportunity   ™™ Engage families and communities in support and supply-side interventions are needed. of girls’ opportunities. In most cases, girls Demand-side interventions should focus are not the primary decision-makers for key on increasing young women’s access to matters in their lives, such as education, information, ongoing social support, and employment, marriage, or reproductive financial assistance (be it cash or in-kind). health. Expanded interventions are needed Supply-side interventions should focus on to foster more gender-equitable norms increasing the incentives and capacity of among men and boys (e.g., school-based existing education and training providers programs and interventions promoting to provide more “girl-friendly” services— equitable fatherhood), while building particularly by offering services closer to broader support for girls’ empowerment the community and more flexible timing, (e.g., through multi-media campaigns and providing course offerings that both girls and community committees). markets demand, and taking measures to assure girls’ safety. ™™ To increase girls’ completion of education and skilling courses, both demand-side Summary Statistics: Young women and girls’ socio-economic empowerment in Jharkhand Indicator Age Group Female Malei Source Inclusion Not in education, employment or training (NEET) 15-24 56% 19% WB survey 2015ii Participation in any social/training programs (at least monthly) 11-24 5% NA WB survey 2015 Education Completed Class 10+ 18-24 44% 50% WB survey 2015 Aspire to Class 10+ 11-16 86% NA WB survey 2015 Employment Labor force participation rate 18-24 18% 69% WB survey 2015iii 15-59 27% 85% NSS 2011/12 % of employed in unpaid family work 18-24 49% 10% WB survey 2015iv Aspire to paid work after marriage 11-18 87% NA WB survey 2015 Agency Married before 18 18-24 32% NA WB survey 2015 Experienced intimate partner violence, among married (ever) 15-24 38% NA NFHS 2005/6 24-49 39% Depression (screening) 11-14 10% NA WB survey 2015 18-24 24% i All male estimates from WB survey 2015 are for young men in the same households as the surveyed young women. ii Based on Usual Principal Status (NSS definition). iii Based on Usual Principal Status & Subsidiary Status (NSS definition). iv Based on Usual Principal Status (NSS definition).    Executive Summary  5 Introduction In India, the state of Jharkhand presents an is mired by disconcerting trends in this area. important context for advancing social inclusion. Strikingly, while female labor force participation Created in 2000, Jharkhand has a 39% poverty has declined nationally from 2004-5 to 2011-12 headcount and gross state domestic product (GSDP) (by 12 percentage points), the drop has been even of USD 589 per capita (2010-11). The state has steeper for Jharkhand (18 percentage points), a population of 33 million, of which 76% is rural, placing Jharkhand as one of the most lagging states and the share of vulnerable groups is high at 12% for women’s labor force participation. As the 2013 Scheduled Castes and 26% Scheduled Tribes. There World Development Report on Jobs illustrated, are 30 Scheduled Tribes in the state. Jharkhand ranks 1 even basic employment and income-generation among the most lagging states on rates of poverty, can have intrinsic value, increasing women’s self- female literacy, and maternal mortality. The state esteem, intra-household bargaining power, sense places 19 out of 23 on the Human Development th of dignity, and social cohesion.4 However, women’s Index (based on 2007/8 data).2 If Jharkhand were economic exclusion also omits an important source a country, it would be on the low end of the human of potential income, which could contribute to overall development spectrum and just below economies household consumption and risk mitigation. Further, such as Burundi, Chad, and Eritrea. The nutritional 3 international evidence suggests that women tend to status of women has remained virtually unchanged spend more of their income on food consumption since the National Family Health Survey-2 (1998-99) and human capital investments in children.5 This, and is worse than in all other states, except Bihar and in turn, supports long-term economic growth and Chhattisgarh. On multiple fronts, it is clear that public poverty reduction. In these respects, a focus on sector investments are needed to tackle substantial women’s work and economic empowerment is not development challenges in Jharkhand. only good for women; it is important for Jharkhand’s development prospects. Hence, labor market Women’s work and economic empowerment outcomes and bottlenecks are a key area of focus in have important implications for inclusion and this diagnostic. poverty reduction, yet Jharkhand’s development    Introduction  7 Targeting youth appears key to empowering women antisocial behaviors in the presence of idleness. Not and addressing a major bottleneck to the state’s only are adolescence and youth a vital stage of the life competiveness. Adolescents and youth (ages 10-24) cycle for human capital investments, but this is also constitute nearly one-third of the state’s population. a highly vulnerable period in which adolescent girls Adolescent girls and young women of this age group and young women’s lack of control over marriage comprise 4.9 million people in Jharkhand according and sexual and reproductive health decisions results to Census 2011. As Figure 3 illustrates, demographics in abruptly curtailed educational and economic in India are heavily skewed towards the young, and opportunities. As such, interventions targeting this this is even more the case in Jharkhand. Further, stage hold the potential to yield higher returns than this period presents an especially critical window interventions that take place later in the female life for addressing gender inequality. As demographers’ cycle. underscore, this kind of “youth bulge” in the population can materialize either as a demographic Policy interest in adolescent girls and young women dividend or a demographic burden for an economy. has manifested in many respects at the national and A large youth demographic can serve as a dividend state levels. The National Youth Policy, 2014 (NYP- when fertility rates fall and investments in youth 2014) provides a holistic vision “to empower the support greater competitiveness, if combined with youth of the country to achieve their full potential” a large and productive working-age population and and identifies key areas for action. Youth belonging smaller numbers of dependents. Yet the opposite can to poor and officially designated disadvantaged be true when high fertility rates (closely correlated groups, adolescent girls, youth living in conflict- with female disempowerment and illiteracy) affected regions including left-wing extremism, and prevail and a large youth population remains youth at risk of human trafficking were identified as underproductive, underemployed, and prone to sub-populations requiring special policy attention Figure 3: Jharkhand’s population is very young Age-wise female population: India and Jharkhand 80+ 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 Age Range (in years) 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 Population %. Total cumulative population of respective sub-group Female (All India) Female (Jharkhand) Source: Census 2011, team’s analysis. 8  A Window of Opportunity   by NYP-2014. Skills development, employment, political, economic, etc.6 Many of these have been sexual and reproductive health, and elimination of strongly influenced by Nobel Laureate Amartya gender-based violence were identified as particularly Sen’s seminal work that helped to shift emphasis important areas of focus for adolescent girls in development from income to capabilities and under the NYP. The draft National Policy on Skills freedom.7 Some have described empowerment as Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015 (NPSDE- having two components.8 The first involves agency— 2015) similarly identifies “promotion of skilling the ability to act on behalf of what you value. As such, among women” as one of 11“major directions and it emphasizes individual capabilities and freedoms. enablers to achieve [India’s skilling objectives].” The second focuses on the institutional environment, NPSDE-2015 emphasizes narrowing gender gaps which offers people the opportunity—the opportunity in access to vocational education and training, structure—to exert agency fruitfully. Sen, along promoting women’s training in non-traditional fields, with numerous others, such as the International encouraging safe and female-friendly skilling and Monetary Fund (IMF) chief, Christine Lagarde, have employment environments, and creating internet spotlighted gender disparities as one of the foremost and mobile based platforms for connecting women impediments to individual empowerment.9 This to economic opportunities. In recent years, the report applies an empowerment focus to adolescent Government of India has prioritized the nutrition, girls and young women’s welfare, examining not only empowerment, and skills development of adolescent their outcomes but also their aspirations and their capabilities and opportunities to achieve them. girls, most prominently through the pilot Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent The report structure includes the following. It begins Girls (RGSEAG) (commonly referred to as “SABLA”), with a brief summary of the methods and data which is further discussed in the section on inclusion. sources used (a more detailed description is included as a technical appendix). This is followed by an This report describes the findings of a mixed- overview of girls’ exclusion as identified by the study, methods, multi-topic diagnostic study into the with a focus on “NEETs”—those not in education, socio-economic empowerment of adolescent girls employment, or training. It then examines inclusion and young women in Jharkhand. The study examines and empowerment along three key dimensions: girls’ aspirations, preferences, needs, outcomes, education, employment, and agency. These are not, and constraints. The definitions of adolescence and however, meant to be exhaustive. More in-depth youth can vary by country, but in general the United analysis of other important dimensions could warrant Nations refers to the period of 10-19 as adolescence, further attention in the future, such as health, 15-24 as youth, and 10-24 as young people. The political participation, and legal institutions (though present study follows these norms, but the survey we touch on some of these as they relate to other covered ages 11-24. We report results for different dimensions). Finally, we discuss policy and programs, age ranges throughout the text, depending on both in terms of girls’ preferences and priorities appropriateness for different indicators and specify underscored by the research. these along the way. Definitions of empowerment vary quite broadly, emphasizing in different contexts This report draws on two pertinent frameworks both processes and outcomes, as well as different from previous global World Bank publications: domains—psychological, social, organizational, the World Development Report 2012 on Gender    Introduction  9 Figure 4: Gender outcomes result from interactions among markets, institutions and households Data & Gender Equality MARKETS Evidence Buyers and sellers exchange goods and services. Items evaluated and ECONOMIC priced OPPORTUNITIES FORMAL INSTITUTIONS HOUSEHOLDS Laws, public Intra-household bargaining AGENCY ENDOWMENTS system INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS Gender roles, norms, social networks Source: WDR 2012. Equality and Development (WDR 2012) and the central role that overcoming these reasons plays flagship report, Inclusion Matters: The Foundation in achieving shared prosperity. The report signals for Shared Prosperity (2013).The former offers a move towards a rights-based framework in the an important framework for diagnosing and World Bank. It focuses on the inclusion of people addressing gender-specific constraints to equality through three interrelated domains—markets, in key inter-related outcome areas, including services, and spaces—and the importance of this endowments (e.g., health, education, skills, and inclusion for promoting people’s ability, opportunity, assets), economic opportunities, and voice and and dignity. This is especially salient in contexts agency (see Figure 4). The latter articulates the like Jharkhand, in which both substantial gender importance of understanding why some groups disparities and high presence of marginalized are systematically excluded from the key systems groups, such as Scheduled Tribes, present an acute that drive well-being and development, and the need for focusing on social inclusion. 10  A Window of Opportunity   Methods Highlights ƒƒ The study included the first state-representative multi-topic survey focused on adolescent girls and young women in Jharkhand. It included 3,942 girls and households. ƒƒ Mixed-methods allowed for a more well-rounded and in-depth assessment from different angles. The study involved 82 focus group discussions including 812 participants, as well as a systematic mapping and capacity assessment of training and service providers for girls across the state. ƒƒ Limitations of the study include the lack of boys in the survey for gendered comparisons, a lack of employer demand-side inputs (this is planned as a follow up activity), and reliance on cross-sectional data which limits the study’s ability to make cause-and-effect assertions. This study utilized integrated mixed-methods to analysis of existing datasets was conducted as enable a more well-rounded examination of the needed. aspirations, needs, outcomes, and constraints of adolescent girls and young women in the state of Household survey Jharkhand. These included three complementary approaches: a multi-topic household survey, a series The quantitative analyses were primarily based on a of qualitative focus group discussions, and a mapping cross-sectional survey conducted across the state of of training and service providers. The World Bank Jharkhand over an eight-week period from January team devised the overall methodology, sample to February 2015. The sample frame was designed frame, and instruments in close consultation with to be representative at the state-level, as well as for the Government of Jharkhand (DWCDSS). Data certain groupings (e.g., urban/rural [urban areas collection for all three methods was conducted by were over-sampled], age groups, and regions). Study the consulting firm D-COR and involved substantial participants were selected by using a multistage training and supervision of field staff and additional cluster sampling method. Informed by sample- oversight by the World Bank team. Secondary size calculations to be able to conduct the kinds of    Methods  13 analyses intended, a sample size of 3,900 households members (including their employment and with adolescent girls and young women was educational status, among other details), assets, targeted, and 3,942 were surveyed. Ultimately, 150 household shocks, and access to services. The Enumeration Areas (EAs) were randomly selected girls’ questionnaire included the following proportionate to size from a Census 2011 dataset, modules: education and training, employment out of which 105 were in villages (rural) and 45 were and earnings, uptake and perception of services, in towns (urban). Among the 150 selected EAs, one financial inclusion, access to technology, nutrition, was inaccessible due to Maoist insurgence and was social-emotional outcomes, social networks and replaced using the same method. Figure 6 shows the support, gender relations, migration, and time use. spatial distribution of the sample. Wherever appropriate, measures and indicators were integrated from major household surveys in India (for Within each EA, 26 households were selected consistency) or from validated scales with similar using a geographic house-listing method. In case populations (for psychometric soundness). of large EAs having more than 300 households, EAs were divided into segments of 150 or more All girls were interviewed by a trained female households, where one segment was randomly interviewer and responses were recorded using selected for house listing. In the rest of the EAs, electronic tablets. One-to-one interviews were the entire households in the EAs were listed. To conducted by experienced interviewers trained over ensure adequate representation across age groups, six days on the study objectives and content, use of listed households were stratified according to the the electronic tablet, and interview techniques. Pilot presence of at least one adolescent girl or young testing and mock interviews were conducted with woman within the specified age groups (11-14, all instruments. Written consent (thumb impression 15-17, 18-21, and 22-24). Interviewers used a from illiterates) was obtained prior to the interview, randomization mechanism to pick a direction and but each household was left with a consent form the number of dwellings to pass in order to reach with details of the study, respondents’ rights and the first sampling unit. Interviewers then selected confidentiality, and contact details in case of any every other dwelling in that direction by applying concerns. Interviewers and respondents were always systematic random sampling method until all 26 matched, based on gender. Supervisors analyzed the surveys within the EAs were completed. A total of collected surveys on a daily basis, identifying outliers, 4,559 dwellings were approached; 3,942 (86.5%) giving feedback on data collection, and addressing participated in the study. All of those that did not any questions. participate were those who could not be reached even after four attempts. Table 1 provides indicative information on sample characteristics and compares Focus groups and consultations these to Census 2011 data. From 2015-2016, 82 focus group discussions The survey instruments included three instruments: (FGDs)—70 with young women (721 participants) community, household, and girl. The community and 12 with young men (92 participants)—were questionnaire focused on local conditions, conducted, both in rural and urban settings in employment opportunities, and services. The the districts of Dumka, Chatra, Ramgarh, Ranchi, household questionnaire focused on household Gumla, Khunti, Lohardaga, Giridih, West Singhbhum, 14  A Window of Opportunity   Table 1:  Survey sample characteristics and estimates for Jharkhand compared to Census 2011 data Quantitative data analysis was conducted using STATA statistical software package Indicator WB survey, unweighted WB survey, weighted Census 2011 % rural (female population ages 11-24) 69% 82% 75% % SC (female population ages 11-24) 18% 16% 12% % ST (female population ages 11-24) 23% 19% 27% % attending education (female population 76% 75% 74% ages 11-18) % literacy rate, females ages 7+ 61% 62% 55% % literacy rate, males ages 7+ 77% 78% 77% East Singhbhum and Koderma. Additionally, four facilitated by a trained qualitative researcher fluent consultations with stakeholders (e.g., district in the local language whose sex corresponded to that officers and community workers) and civil society of the group, and was supported by a note-taker and organizations were conducted in 2016 (441 logistics coordinator. Coordinators generally traveled participants). Subsets of these FGDs focused on to communities a day in advance in order to mobilize different angles of adolescent girls and young participants. All FGDs were digitally recorded in women’s socio-economic empowerment (e.g., addition to manual note-taking, and FGD recording aspirations and constraints broadly, psychosocial was translated and transcribed into English. outcomes, employment, ability to participate in training and programs, and convergence and Qualitative data analysis was assisted by using NVIVO community supports). Focus group discussions coding software package as well as manual coding generally lasted for one to two hours. Each was and organization. Figure 5: A rural focus group Source: WB team.    Methods  15 Mapping ™™ Skills or employment exchanges/help centers. While the household survey and FGDs focused on a ™™ Providers of Open Schooling education/ better demand-side understanding of adolescent girls examination. and young women’s socio-economic empowerment, an institutional mapping exercise was important to ™™ Anganwadi Centres (without primary better understand the supply-side challenges and data collection or validation, given the opportunities for addressing girls’ constraints. The unfeasible number of AWCs in the state aim of the mapping exercise was to identify, locate, (approx. 38,000)). collect information on, and map the specified skills ™™ Youth development programs/girls and service providers relevant to adolescent girls and clubs (with physical facilities, regular young women’s empowerment across the state of programming, and organized by formally Jharkhand, applying a systematic methodology and recognized organizations). field-based data collection method. The mapping ™™ Formal support services for survivors of assessment began with a desk review and outreach human trafficking or gender-based violence to relevant departments and agencies to create a list (e.g., domestic violence or sexual assault). of all public, private, and civil society organizations offering any of the following training or services ™™ Certified mental health treatment centers/ exclusively or partially to the adolescent girls and service providers. young women. The list was validated through ™™ Special Training Centers for out-of-school physical site visits, while collecting information on children tasked with bridge education. Geographic Information System (GIS) coordinates and key attributes pertaining to these facilities. The creation of GIS maps was assisted by using Epi- Additionally, some “snowball” sampling was also Info software package. A summary table of providers applied to identify potentially missed providers mapped is provided in Appendix 3. by asking visited providers about others in the district. “Providers” in this case refers to formal organizations (e.g., non-governmental organizations, Secondary data analysis public agencies, or private firms) with an ongoing Where relevant and accessible data existed from programming presence in the mapped place or other sources, the team conducted supplementary area, rather than individuals or informal groups or analyses using these secondary sources to fill gaps activities. They included the following categories: or to compare Jharkhand indicators to other states, ™™ Industrial training institutes (ITIs). all-India, or other countries. The team drew on the ™™ Vocational and technical training providers. datasets provided in Table 2. ™™ Micro/small business development or enterprise skills providers. Limitations ™™ Traditional/craft skills providers. While this study included multiple integrated ™™ Life skills providers (having a standardized/ methods to provide a richer diagnostic, it has a few manualized curriculum). key limitations. First, the household survey only 16  A Window of Opportunity   Table 2: Secondary datasets used for this diagnostic Dataset Information used Census 2011 Demographics District Information System for Education (DISE), 2010-2015 Education statistics for primary and secondary levels Global Findex database, 2014 International financial inclusion statistics Jharkhand Police Monthly Crime Statistics Reported incidents of gender-based violence National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 2005-6 Domestic violence, nutrition, and access to health services National Sample Survey (NSS), 2005-6, 2008-9 & 2011-12 Labor force participation, migration, employment, and education World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI), International education and employment data and gender 2007-2015 statistics Figure 6: Household survey sample geographic coverage across the state    Methods  17 interviewed adolescent girls and young women. This conducted with young men to better understand decision was made on the basis of cost and feasibility their perspectives on gender roles and adolescent reasons. The team and Government opted for a larger girls and young women’s participation in education, sample of females to be able to examine subgroup training, employment, and programs. Second, the estimates within the target population rather than study did not include an employer (demand-side) including both male and female youth with smaller assessment. As such, our findings related to skills sample sizes for each. The lack of adolescent and employment preferences are based on labor boys and young men in the sample precludes the supply-side information. The state plans to conduct possibility of sex-based comparisons on a range of a district-level market assessment to include outcomes. Any reported sex-based comparisons are consultations with employers and complement the based on information from the survey’s household methods in this report, but this is forthcoming. Third, questionnaire (e.g., on labor force and education the survey is cross-sectional, which limits the study’s information) and secondary data. Additionally, ability to make causal or temporal inferences about a small number of focus group discussions were many important relationships between variables. 18  A Window of Opportunity   Inclusion Time is running out for us. Even if we want to do something, we can’t do that. We do hard work but still do not get the success. This is a tension. – Rani,v female youth One more problem is that if one’s family’s financial condition is not good, it is the girl who first sacrifices. She thinks that she should support her parents and boys generally have time. – Situ, female youth Highlights ƒƒ 56% of young women (ages 15-24) were neither engaged in training, education, nor employment, compared to 19% of young men from the same households. ƒƒ Young women’s exclusion from key institutions that drive development is a result of constraints rather than choice, as illustrated by significant aspirations-achievement gaps. ƒƒ The data show widespread aspirations-achievement gaps. For example, 87% of unmarried girls said they would like to have a paid job after marriage, yet only 9% of married young women were employed. The overall picture in Jharkhand is one of adolescent which began with OECD countries and is now girls and young women facing significant exclusion systematically collected by the World Bank’s World from education, training, and employment—the Development Indicators for all countries. As Figure 8 major institutions that can drive state competiveness illustrates, Jharkhand’s female youth NEET rates are and poverty reduction. An estimated 56% of young high, relative to other countries around the world. women (ages 15-24) were neither engaged in While young women belonging to Scheduled Tribes training, education, nor employment (“NEET”), face some unique constraints that are important to compared to 19% of young men from the same consider in the design and delivery of services, they do households (see Figure 7). NEET is an increasingly not underperform other groups with respect to NEET common international indicator for youth inactivity, indicators. While there is some variation between v All names associated with quotes from the qualitative work in this study are pseudonyms in order to protect the confidentiality of the respondents.    Inclusion  21 Figure 7: Young women are far more likely to not be in education, employment, or training (NEET) compared to young men in the same households Jharkhand youth (ages 15-24) 19% NEET 56% 39% Employed 7% 43% In education/training 37% Male Female Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis groups, it is clear that adolescent girls and young women’s exclusion in some indicators is exacerbated women are highly excluded from educational, social, by poverty. As shown in Figure 9, girls in the lowest and economic opportunities irrespective of their asset quintile lag behind girls in the highest in every demographic group (see Table 3).This is consistent respect except for employment, which is expected with national-level research that shows that, while the given that most young women who are employed well-being of upper-caste men is significantly higher in Jharkhand are working largely in informal, than men from SCs and STs, there is relatively little subsistence-based work. The disparities across the variation between women of marginalized and non- ends of the welfare distribution tend to be larger in marginalized social groups. 10 urban areas. Yet on a range of educational, economic While this report focuses on women’s social and empowerment, and psychosocial indicators, young economic empowerment relatively early in the Table 3: Education, employment and NEET status by subgroups (Jharkhand youth, ages 15-24) Overall SC ST OBC General Rural Urban M F M F M F M F M F M F M F In education 43% 37% 39% 38% 39% 40% 44% 36% 47% 36% 41% 35% 51% 47% or training Employed 39% 7% 47% 6% 37% 8% 37% 7% 37% 2% 40% 7% 34% 4% NEET 19% 56% 16% 56% 24% 52% 19% 57% 16% 61% 20% 58% 15% 49% Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. 22  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 8: Jharkhand has a relatively high share of young women “NEET” by international comparison NEET (15-24) 100 80 Percentage (%) 60 40 20 0 Denmark Australia Germany Vietnam Canada UK Nepal Liberia Mali USA Peru Thailand Brazil Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Indonesia Mexico Colombia South Africa Zambia Turkey Egypt Tanzania Iran Jharkhand India Bangladesh Yemen Maldives Male Female Source: WB survey 2015 (Jharkhand), OECD “Closing the Gap” (India), and World Development Indicators (other countries, latest year available from 2007-2014). Figure 9: Young women’s exclusion is exacerbated by poverty, especially in urban areas Rural Urban 100% 100% Young women (ages 15-24) 80% 80% 60% 60% 40% 40% 20% 20% 0% 0% Class 10+ Employed Financial High self- Depressed Class 10+ Employed Financial High self- Depressed account efficacy account efficacy Poorest quintile Richest quintile Poorest quintile Richest quintile Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Welfare quintiles based on a household asset index. life cycle, it is important to underscore that, by in Jharkhand are also three times more likely than adolescence, gender biases have already taken a their male counterparts to show evidence of mild heavy toll. The starkest example is that of child sex anemia, reflecting patterns of bias that take place ratios. According to Census 2011, Jharkhand has a during the course of childhood (see Figure 10). This child sex ratio (0-6 years) of 943 females to 1,000 disadvantage can have long-term implications for males (compared to 918 for India overall), and the women’s cognitive capacity. To fully achieve gender number falls as low as 917 and 912 in Dhanbad equality in the world of work, it is important that and Bokaro districts, respectively. Young women policy actions take a full life-cycle approach to skills    Inclusion  23 Figure 10: A son gets much more food than a daughter, Anemia in Jharkhand youth though the daughter gets more work to do. A son 50% 48% is sent to school and provided with his needs. Daughters get much less facilities and they are 40% also forced to marry early since the family thinks 30% she might run away. They educate the son and 20% 18% find him a nice girl to marry but they don’t bother 16% 17% about the family to which the daughter goes 10% 11% 0.4% - Kudi, female youth 0% Mild anemia Moderate anemia Severe anemia Girls (15-24) Boys (15-24) girls’ own aspirations. For example, 87% of unmarried Source: NFHS 2005-6, team’s analysis. girls said they would like to have a paid job after marriage, yet only 9% of married young women development, ensuring both girls’ and boys’ health were employed. Although 82% of young women and nutrition, freedom from trauma and neglect, and (ages 16-24) said they would like to achieve class 10 opportunities for positive stimulation. Fortunately, 11 education or above if they had no constraints, but only we find that a government initiative to improve 43% had been able to do so. Figure11 illustrates the nutritional outcomes among adolescent girls seems extent to which the aspirations of younger girls are to be making progress (see Box 1 on Sabla). unrealized by the time they reach young adulthood. These aspirations-achievement gaps underscore It is clear that young women’s exclusion from constraints as more important explanations for young education and employment is not a matter of women’s exclusion than choice. preference or choice. The level of disengagement of women in Jharkhand’s workforce effectively renders Qualitative focus group discussions highlighted a large share of half of its population’s labor force a myriad constraints and challenges that directly potential under-realized, and this runs counter to the or indirectly hinder girls’ ability to achieve their Figure 11: Aspirations-achievement gaps between younger and older girls At ages 11-15 By ages 18-24 The average ideal age of marriage is 19 The average age of marriage was 17 85% of unmarried girls would like a paid job after getting 16% of married girls are employed (nearly 1/2 in unpaid married family work) 91% of girls aspire to achieve Class 10+ 43% of girls achieved Class 10 94% of girls would like to participate in a skills or training 8% of girls ever participated in a training program. Nearly program 0% attained a vocational training diploma Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. 24  A Window of Opportunity   Box 1: The “Sabla” experience in Jharkhand The Government of India’s pilot scheme, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) (commonly referred to as “Sabla”), aims to improve the nutrition and health status of adolescent girls (11-18 years) as well as strengthen their life skills. Furthermore, to link them with existing non-formal and vocational skills in collaboration with the National Skills Development Programme (NSDP). The non-nutritional program elements of the scheme have centered on peer leadership, life skills education, and facilitating access to existing vocational training and non-formal education providers. While the pilot has had challenges and faces an uncertain future, evaluation work commissioned by the Government of West Bengal has found that, where additional investments in implementation are made, both social and economic results for adolescent girls appear to be positive.12 In Jharkhand, Sabla is piloted in seven of the state’s 24 districts: Giridih, Sahibganj, Garhwa, Hazaribagh, Gumla, Paschimi Singhbhum and Ranchi. The program is implemented using the ICDS platform in the state, and during the last FY (2014-15) it reached 660,889 girls from these districts with a total budget allocation of INR 3231 lakhs (USD 4.8 million). About 85% of this total budget allocation was for the nutrition component, with INR 435 lakhs (USD 653,000) allocated for the non-nutrition component. During the year, about 72% of these girls benefited from the nutrition component, while implementation of its non-nutrition component remained a challenge due to underfunding (INR 30,000 (USD 450) per block). Only about 147,000 girls received some form of counseling and guidance on life skills education and 9,307 girls (16-18 years) received vocational training. These figures corroborate our findings that Sabla has achieved some measurable success with respect to its nutrition-related mandate, but its non-nutrition component requires additional resources and attention to achieve the intended goals. As shown in Figure 12, the share of girls reporting taking Iron and Folic Acid (IFA) nutritional tablets regularly, was twice as high in Sabla districts as it was in non-Sabla districts (11% vs. 21%). Girls in Sabla districts were also less likely to report not getting enough food to eat on most days (7% vs. 15%). Both of these differences were statistically significant, and the results are robust to controlling for other relevant variables.13 Lacking rigorous evaluation, we cannot rule out the possibility that these differences were due to other unobserved differences between Sabla and non-Sabla districts, or the girls within them. Yet the findings offer promising evidence that the state’s Sabla efforts are making a difference with respect to their nutrition-related mandate. Yet broader participation in non-nutritional interventions remains low in Sabla districts. Only 3% of eligible girls (those ages 11-18) reported at least monthly participation in the scheme’s groups or programming. Young women (ages 16-20) were also no more likely to report having participated in vocational or skills training in Sabla than non-Sabla districts (approximately 9% in both cases). aspirations, but some stood out more prominently. Figure 12: The word cloud in Figure 13 reveals difficulties that Girls in Sabla areas enjoy better nutrition- were raised most frequently. For instance, girls related outcomes commonly cited time burdens related to housework 25% 21% and caring that made it difficult to dedicate time to 20% studies or employment. The discussions highlighted Girls (ages 11-18) 15% the role of care work and gendered notions of intra 15% 11% household labor in mediating female education and 10% 7% employment outcomes. Economic constraints were 5% also a common theme, with many girls noting the difficulty of paying for schools fees, productive assets, 0% Take nutritional Don’t usually get and other inputs to education and employment tablets regularly enough food in the presence of poverty. Furthermore, girls’ Sabla districts Non-Sabla districts social environments played powerful roles in their Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis.    Inclusion  25 day-to-day experiences and opportunities. Family face of adversity. In light of multifarious constraints resistance—be it from parents or husbands—held to young women’s ability to realize ambitions, many girls back, and this resistance was often fueled they felt that these characteristics were essential by community members who scrutinized girls’ sources of resilience. Beyond individual strengths, movements and behaviors. Notably, the problem girls frequently described the importance of social of alcohol abuse—primarily by men—was raised by supports, particularly from parents, husbands, girls in nearly every focus group. Alcohol abuse was in-laws, members of the community, and friends. often viewed as a drain on household resources that Relatedly, girls often spoke of the importance of unity could otherwise support girls’ opportunities and was and togetherness. There is power in numbers, with a catalyst of household violence and instability that girls more able to do a range of things in groups that provoked distress among girls. would otherwise be much more difficult alone—for instance, talking with families or community elders, Conversely, girls were also asked to describe traveling, going to a place of work, or participating factors that could increase the likelihood of their in training. Many girls also felt uninformed of the achieving their aspirations, and some common opportunities, options and resources available to themes also emerged (see Figure 14). Girls placed a them—including those for education, training, and significant emphasis on individual qualities, such as employment—and expressed a desire for more hard work, self-confidence, and persistence in the information and guidance. What helps girls achieve their aspirations? A person can do work with self-confidence... by not blaming the smallest of things. She can do it and achieve her goal. For example, even if she doesn’t have a vehicle, she can go on foot and do it, if she has self-confidence that she can go there on foot. If she is thinking that there is no vehicle and how will she go, then her aim will be destroyed here only. – Babli, female youth Without parents’ support, we can’t do anything. – Priti, female youth Husband’s support is very necessary. How will it be if husband does not support. The husband should have faith in his wife – Chanda, female youth We go to the centre, we meet with our friends; we work together. If stressed, the girls either remain silent or speak with friends. – Kumari, female youth There should be a stipend for students. It should be sufficient so that she can complete her education and isn’t required to do other housework. – Rintu, female youth A girl I know succeeded because she had money. Due to money, her parents could give her a good education. We have neither money nor education. Therefore I am not going ahead. If I had money, I would have received a good education in a better school. – Geeta, female youth 26  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 13: Constraints and challenges that hinder girls from achieving their aspirations Source: WB focus groups 2015, team’s analysis. Larger words represent higher frequency of mention in focus group discussions. Figure 14: Enablers and qualities that help girls achieve their aspirations Source: WB focus groups 2015, team’s analysis. Larger words represent higher frequency of mention in focus group discussions.    Inclusion  27 Education According to me, if everyone would have minimum knowledge of education, they would make the future generation educated. For that to happen, we ourselves have to be aware and also have to make the family members aware. Along with this, villagers also have to be made aware. – Soma, female youth In every corner of the village there should be government schools and there should be up to class 10, and those schools should provide better quality education. And family should also support them. – Nita, female youth Highlights ƒƒ Although secondary school enrollment rates are comparable between boys and girls, they remain low overall and adolescent girls face specific constraints regarding retention and completion. ƒƒ School attendance drops considerably at secondary education levels, with economic constraints and domestic responsibilities cited as key reasons for dropout. ƒƒ In the 18-24 age group, gender differences emerge, especially in rural communities: rural young women were less likely than rural young men in the same households to receive education and have completed at least a class 10 level of education (17% vs. 27% and 38% vs. 48%, respectively). ƒƒ While younger tribal girls (ages 11-15) are less likely to attend schools than their non-tribal counterparts (81% vs. 88%), the trend reverses for older girls (16-24; 41% vs. 30%). Jharkhand has similar levels of secondary net boys in higher secondary. As Figure 15 shows, girls enrollment for boys and girls, but inequities emerge and boys have roughly equal rates of net enrollment in completion and attendance outcomes among in secondary and higher secondary school, though older rural youth. In terms of net secondary school enrollment overall at both levels is slightly lower than enrollment, the rates in 2013-14 were 45% for girls the national average. This likely reflects both public and 44% for boys in secondary, and 27% for girls and investments and overall less cultural bias against    Education  29 Figure 15: Jharkhand’s net secondary enrollment rates are similar for boys and girls Net enrollment rates 60% 50% 40% Secondary - Boys 30% Secondary - Girls 20% Higher Secondary - Boys 10% Higher Secondary - Girls 0% Bihar Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan West Bengal Jharkhand Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh All India Source: DISE 2013-14. girls’ schooling compared to some other states. Act, 2009, there has been an improvement in the However, school enrollment drops significantly basic education level up to 14 years of age. Yet, for for both girls and boys during secondary levels of better employability, the enhancement of skills after education (class 8 and above), as Figure 16 shows. 14 years is a prerequisite. Similarly, our survey shows that while 88% of girls ages 11-14 attended school, the share dropped to These outcomes belie the girls’ own aspirations, 69% for ages 15-17, and 26% for ages 18-22. Our which are strongly oriented towards acquiring survey also indicates that larger gender disparities higher levels of skills through education and emerge among older youth and mainly in rural areas. training. Eighty-six percent of girls (ages 11-24) Rural young women, ages 18-24, were less likely than said they would like to achieve class 10 or above if rural young men in the same households to receive they had no constraints. Even 69% of out-of-school education and have completed at least a class 10 girls that had not achieved a class 10 education level of education (17% vs. 27% and 38% vs. 48%, aspired to this much or more if they could. This respectively). Additionally, the reasons for attrition finding suggests a significant entry point for bridge can be gender-specific. Though we do not have sex- and non-formal education to help out-of-school disaggregated data for Jharkhand on determinants girls achieve secondary levels of education if it can of dropping out, analyses of national data find that remove or offset the key constraints that prompted cost reasons are pervasive and common to both boys these girls’ attrition from school in the first place and girls, but, beyond these, boys are more likely to (see Box 2 on non-formal education). Among girls drop out as a result of needing to help supplement still in school, nearly half (48%) aspired to university family income or losing interest in school, while girls education or above. When asked about girls’ main are more likely to report housework, marriage, and motivations for going to school, respondents cited distance to school. With the introduction of the 14 both instrumental and intrinsic reasons: 53% gave the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the Right to Education ability to find a better job or increase one’s earnings 30  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 16: Enrollment drops significantly for all youth at secondary levels of education (Class VIII and above) 500000 Jharkhand 400000 Enrolled (number) 300000 200000 100000 0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Grade Girls Boys Source: DISE 2014-15, team’s analysis. Box 2: Non-formal education for re-integrating out-of-school girls Non-formal and bridge education have the potential to help out-of-school girls achieve certified secondary levels of education by providing a second chance, and, with certain public investments, removing costs and adding flexibility to help address key factors that drove many girls to drop out from school in the first place. In Jharkhand, there are three major non-formal education interventions currently in operation – (i) distance education through the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS); (ii) bridge education through Special Training Centers (STCs) funded under RTE/SSA; and (iii) Mahila Samkhya (MS) Program. NIOS: There are 151 accredited institutions of the National Institute of Open Schools (NIOS) in Jharkhand that provide non-formal education at the secondary level. The cost of non-formal education through NIOS is around INR 2,500 (USD 38) at the secondary level. Approximately 107 of these institutions are currently operational. In 2013, DISE reported 3,322 male and 1,542 female students enrolled in Open Schools for class 10, and 4,516 male and 2,351 female students enrolled for class 12. This is small considering the number of out-of-school youth in the state, and the gender gap highlights the importance of making extra efforts to increase out-of-school girls’ access to this second chance option. Yet, in consultations, NIOS reports the ability to educate much larger numbers if demand-side supports can be provided to address financial and awareness constraints. STC: There are 203 Special Training Centres (STCs) operating in Jharkhand that provides academic assistance (bridge education) to out-of-school children for admission to an age-appropriate class in a regular school. These centers are affiliated with the Jharkhand Education Project Council (JEPC). The study team had visited a sample of 30 STCs in Jharkhand and reported 4,143 female and 939 male students enrolled for bridge education in the last academic year (2015). Of these, 1,536 female and 129 male students have passed the exam during the last academic year. The majority of these STCs (21) were reported to be operating from KGBV premises. Of these 30 centers, 25 were offering vocational skills training, seven were providing enterprise development training, 12 were imparting traditional craft skills training and 15 were providing life skill training. MS Program: There are 13 Mahila Samkhya Kendras (MSKs), including a Sakhi MSK for survivors of human trafficking, operating in 11 districts of Jharkhand. These centers provide residential bridge education to out-of-school girls (15 and above), from socially and economically marginalized populations, for enabling them to complete class VIII through non-formal education (Open Basic Education). The cost of non-formal education through this program is around INR 27,000 (USD 405) per beneficiary per year. In 2013, the administrative data from the MS program reported 382 girls enrolled, of which the majority (340) were from SC and ST communities. As per administrative reports, the MSK program has a 100% success rate as all 382 girls enrolled during FY 2013 passed the exam and were mainstreamed into various Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs) for continuing their secondary education or linked with NIOS accredited education providers. However, given the predominantly high numbers of out-of-school girls in Jharkhand, these numbers are very small and warrant increased investment for increased coverage and outreach. The MSK program has recently faced financial problems due to delayed receipt of funds and faces uncertainty as to whether the program would continue to be funded through the Education Department or would need to work with the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) in coming years.    Education  31 On some days, parents would ask us to not to go to school as there are so much work to do at home. Irregularity in attendance affects my studies. I cannot catch the lecture and the lessons midway through. Missing classes disturbs my studies. – Rani, female youth I study in class 9. I face many difficulties to attend school. The school at Godijhopa is far and it is very tiring to walk so long to school every day. Boys also pass bad comments on the way. The river on the way makes it all the more taxing. I wish I had a bicycle! – Seema, female youth as the top reason and 33% emphasized the pleasure to school fees, books, supplies, or transportation) of learning. A lack of qualifications, such as an 8th or and domestic responsibilities (see Figure 17). The 10th class level education, also closes doors. Many costs of secondary education remain a constraint to training courses and jobs require secondary levels keeping older girls in school, unlike primary education, of education, and earning prospects even in self- for which tuition is free. The direct and indirect costs employment can be curtailed by poor literacy and of secondary school (starting in Grade 8) numeracy. are often prohibitive for the poorest families. Combined with the fact that families are less likely to Among girls under age 18 who are not attending view girls’ education as an investment given that girls school, the most common reasons cited for dropping tend to move to the spousal household, the increase out are economic reasons (poverty or costs related of unsupported costs for girls’ education can be a Figure 17: Top reasons for not attending educational institutions (out-of-school girls, 11-18 years) Top reasons for not attending educational institutions Poverty/fees Domestic/care responsibilities Finished as far as desired Distance/accessibility of school Disability/illness/orphaned Safety concerns or abuse Marriage 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% ST non-ST Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. 32  A Window of Opportunity   We want our girls to pursue higher education. But the problem is that the local school in our panchayat provides facilities for education only up to class 8. For higher education, a girl has to travel farther. There is forest on the way and it is unsafe for a girl to walk alone through the forest especially while returning from school in the dusk. Girls are usually nervous while walking through the forest road and parents are equally concerned. If they have a bicycle, and a group of girls are encouraged to pursue education, they can cycle through the forest road from school to home in group. That way we will also feel self-assured that our daughters are safe while commuting between home and school. – Anita, mother of adolescent girls Figure 18: Girls’ perceptions of the quality of their local school (ages 11-24, attending educational institutions) 100% Very Good 80% Good 60% Okay 40% Poor Very Poor 20% 0% Facilities Teaching Facilities Teaching Attending public school Attending private school Source : WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. major bottleneck to their human capital formation. non-tribal girls to report domestic responsibilities as Additionally, problems with school or teacher quality a reason for dropping out while non-tribal girls were were cited in several focus groups, and Figure 18 more likely to cite distance to schools as a constraint. further illustrates room for improvement. Following the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) launch in the early 2000s, the Government of Jharkhand has As focus groups highlighted, domestic made significant investments in increasing access to responsibilities become more acute when girls get schools among tribal populations which could explain married. As such, marriage could play a bigger role why this was less of a constraint for this population. than directly reflected by the graph in Figure 17. Additionally, tribal girls might not be as affected by Only 20% of married girls, ages 14-18, attend school social norms that can constrain girls’ mobility. 15 compared to 65% of unmarried girls, and no surveyed girls who had given birth were in school. As Figure 17 Menstruation can also be an under-acknowledged shows, tribal out-of-school girls were more likely than source of difficulty for girls’ education. More than    Education  33 Census 2011 data, which show slightly higher rates Figure 19: Girls face unique challenges in education of attending education for tribal young women, ages 16-24, than for the overall age group average. How does menstruation affect your schooling? Difficulty Tribal young women (ages 16-24) were also more concentrating, 8% likely than non-tribal counterparts in the state to have completed at least a class 10 level of education No effects, 31% (51% vs. 41%). This is notable given the generally higher rates of deprivation among tribal communities Feeling physically sick/weak, 32% in India. Indeed, tribal girls were less likely to report that their mothers had achieved primary education Other effects, 11% of at least up t o class five level (13%), than non- Feeling tribal girls (20%). Further, this is also in spite of Keeping out of psychologically school, 5% affected, 13% greater accessibility challenges for tribal girls. Nearly Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. half (49%) of tribal girls reported that the nearest school was more than half an hour travelling distance two-thirds of girls attending school reported some compared to about a quarter of non-tribal girls struggles with schooling related to menstruation (27%). Similarly, tribal girls were far more likely (see Figure 19), and 8% of girls not attending school to live in communities in which public secondary reported that menstruation was in some way related schools were more than five kilometers outside of the to their dropping out. Gender-specific hygienic community (50%) than non-tribal girls (9%). needs can be compounded by inadequate facilities; Tribal girls’ relative gains in education could be 30% of girls, for instance, said that their schools a response to public and private investments at lacked separate female toilets. Only two-thirds of the secondary level. For example, 27% of tribal girls had anyone educate them on menstrual hygiene girls, compared to 21% of non-tribal girls, report before the change occurred. Among these, the having received financial scholarships or grants for most common sources of information were mothers education-related costs from governmental or non- (58%), other female relatives or neighbors (29%), governmental organizations over the last 12 months. peers (19%), and teachers (12%). Moreover, in contrast to public secondary schools, Why are older tribal girls more likely to attend tribal girls were more likely to live in communities in education than non-tribal girls? Examining education which private secondary schools were less than one trends by tribal affiliation presents puzzles. As kilometer from the community (54%) than non- might be expected, given the generally higher rates tribal girls (46%). This is also in contrast to primary of deprivation among tribal communities in India, schools, to which communities of approximately younger tribal girls (ages 11-15) are less likely to be equal shares of tribal and non-tribal girls (83% and attending school than their non-tribal counterparts 82%, respectively) reported distances of less than (81% vs. 88%). Yet the trend is reversed for older one kilometer. Indeed, school-attending tribal girls of girls (16-24), with 41% attending educational secondary school age (14-17 years) were more likely institutions among tribals versus 30% among non- to attend at a private school compared to their non- tribals. This is consistent with NSS 2011/12 and tribal counterparts (37% vs. 27%). 34  A Window of Opportunity   Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) schools Educationally Backward Blocks. KGBV’s mandate is have also played an important role in providing to set up residential schools with boarding facilities education to girls belonging to vulnerable groups. As at the elementary level to increase access among of March 31st, 2013, Jharkhand had 203 sanctioned disadvantaged girls. Our mapping shows reasonably and operational KGBVs and as of June 30th, 2013 good coverage, though some districts remain served 19,328 girls, of which 18% were SC, 41% without facilities (see Figure 20). Jharkhand has ST, 27% OBC, and 6% Muslim. The KGBV scheme been spotlighted by the national KGBV evaluation for was introduced by the Government of India in laudable state investments in the scheme and forging August 2004, and then integrated in the Sarva linkages to Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan Shiksha Abhiyan program, to provide educational (RMSA), particularly to support the continued facilities for girls belonging to Scheduled Castes, secondary education of older girls.16 Jharkhand has Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, minority upgraded all the KGBVs to class 12 with the state’s communities and families below the poverty line in own funds and with help from RMSA funds. Figure 20: KGBV facilities across the state Source: WB mapping 2015.    Education  35 Employment My dream is to become an engineer. By being an engineer, I will get the opportunity to create new things. I love to make new things and mend old. Creating new things expands my thinking capacity. I want to be like a scientist who creates new things. The things that I will create will be useful in our day-to-day activities. – Tulsi, female youth We can open a poultry farm to earn some money. Selling eggs in the market… We can do goat rearing. First, we will keep one goat. Then she will give birth to many baby goats, and we will start selling those… Actually, we have to keep two goats—one male and one female—else how would she produce babies! [Group laughs.] – female youths Highlights ƒƒ Female labor force participation has dropped precipitously in Jharkhand—by 60%—from 2004/5 to 2011/12, a decline twice as large as the national trend. ƒƒ Women’s economic opportunities, especially in rural areas, will continue to depend in large part on self- employment, though market-driven skills training of young women for wage employment could also help to fill unmet labor supply needs for specific sectors in the state. ƒƒ Lack of suitable job opportunities, time and mobility constraints, information gaps, little access to productive assets, and a lack of education and training were commonly cited as obstacles to young women’s employment. ƒƒ Training providers are currently spatially concentrated and reaching a small number of young women (28,502 women and 50,853 men were enrolled across the state over the most recent academic year), but new state initiatives have the potential to expand access. Gender gaps at work Sample Survey (NSS) data using a “usual principal status” definition,17 from 2004/5 to 2011/12, the Women’s labor force participation has dropped female labor force participation rate in Jharkhand precipitously in Jharkhand. According to National decreased by 21 percentage points (23 percentage    Employment  37 points in rural areas and 7 percentage points in activities (“usual principal status and subsidiary urban areas), compared to 10 percentage points status”); when only usual principal status activities for India overall (11 and 3 percentage points for are included, the share drops to 10% for young rural and urban areas, respectively) (see Figure 21). women and 65% for young men. The vast majority Similarly using the more inclusive definition of labor (83%) of young women (ages 18-24) participating force participation (based on “usual principal status in the labor force is self-employed, which is largely and subsidiary status”), the decline in Jharkhand driven by young women in rural areas (see Figure 21 women’s labor force participation was greater than for further breakdown). Meanwhile, only 42% of that for the country as a whole. Recent analyses by young men in the same households participating in the World Bank suggest that national declines in the labor force are self-employed, and they are far female labor force participation in rural areas reflect more likely to be employed in regular wage or salaried diminishing jobs—mainly in agriculture—that women jobs (11% of working young women vs. 25% of find acceptable (or families consider acceptable for working young men) and casual wage labor (6% and them) in large villages.18 These trends appear to be 32%, respectively). especially acute in Jharkhand. Team analysis of NSS Why have so many women withdrawn from the data for Jharkhand reveals the largest declines in rural labor force? This question has been the subject of female employment in farm-based self-employment, considerable academic debate at the national level. followed distantly by casual wage labor and off-farm Broadly, four main hypotheses have been posited: an self-employment, with virtually no change in regular income effect (as income rises, women’s participation wage employment. recedes as their participation is no longer needed Using a more inclusive definition of labor force for household subsistence), an education effect participation, our survey finds that approximately (fewer women in the labor force as a result of more 18% of young women (ages 18-24) participate, women in school), an underestimation effect (women compared to 69% for young men from the same are working but in ways that are not captured by households. This estimate includes subsidiary standard household surveys’ labor modules—e.g., Figure 21: Labor force participation rates by two definitions Usual principal status (ages 15-59) Usual principal and subsidiary status (ages 15-59) 100% 100% 86% 87% 87% 87% 83% 85% 82% 83% 80% 80% 60% 60% 45% 45% 40% 35% 35% 40% 33% 25% 27% 20% 14% 20% 0% 0% Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women 2004-05 2011-12 2004-05 2011-12 All India Jharkhand All India Jharkhand Source: NSS, team’s analysis. 38  A Window of Opportunity   in labor migration or public works), and structural employment. These trends appear to follow suit transformation of the economy (job creation has in the Jharkhand context where the share of rural taken place in sectors in which women are less willing women employed in agriculture has dropped from or able to work, while jobs have reduced in sectors 25% in 2004-5 to 9% in 2011-12 (see Figure 22). that have been more suitable to women). While 19 Unlike men, women have been substantially displaced all of these factors can play a role to some degree, from farm-based jobs without gains in other types of recent World Bank analyses have found the last to work. The occurrence of an even larger withdrawal be the largest contributing factor. In particular, a 20 of women from the labor force in Jharkhand, than in substantial decline of farming jobs—in which large the country as a whole, appears to represent a more shares of women have worked—in small villages has acute reduction of jobs in the state economy that are not been offset by job creation in non-farm jobs that suitable to women, given social and skills constraints. would be suitable to women in a traditional society. These would be regular part-time jobs and work Migration (via “underestimation effect”) might also close to home that gives women the flexibility to still contribute to some degree of the declining female fulfill domestic responsibilities expected of them. participation rates in Jharkhand. Consultations Job creation over the last decade has largely been in with stakeholder groups underscored a common construction and services, which have favored men’s belief that many Jharkhand young women migrate Figure 22: Women’s farm-based self-employment has dropped without gains elsewhere Employment status, rural (ages 15-59) Men - India Women - India 50% 50% 40% 40% SE-Farm 30% 30% Casual SE-Non-farm 20% 20% Regular 10% 10% 0% 0% 2004-05 2011-12 2004-05 2011-12 Men - Jharkhand Women - Jharkhand 50% 50% 40% 40% SE-Farm Casual 30% 30% SE-Non-farm 20% 20% Regular 10% 10% 0% 0% 2004-05 2011-12 2004-05 2011-12 Source: NSS, team’s analysis based on usual principal status.    Employment  39 for marriage and/or work reasons, with tribal Figure 23: young women in particular believed to migrate in Many girls perceive risks to migration large numbers for domestic work and other low- Do you think girls are safe from harm when they skilled jobs. While data are limited, the perception migrate for work? appears to be substantiated. According to NSS 2008-9 data, which included migration information, Jharkhand had the highest net female interstate 26% 34% outmigration rate in the country after Bihar.21 The phenomenon is especially pertinent with respect to young women. A 2010 study on female migration 16% among tribal communities in four states found that 24% 61% of women migrating for work from surveyed households in Jharkhand were between the ages of Most unsafe Some unsafe Most safe Don't know 19-25.22 The NSS and other household surveys used Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis (ages 11-24). to estimate labor force participation rates in India do not capture women who migrate for work. As such, if female labor migration has been very high, this is widely recognized as a significant source state for might explain some of the statistical drop in female human trafficking. Thousands of poor and tribal girls labor force participation according to surveys. It is in particular are estimated to be lured every year by possible that even with high male labor migration, domestic work in urban areas of Jharkhand, other the consequence for labor force estimates would Indian states, or Gulf countries and subsequently be greater for women, since women who remain victimized by labor and/or sexual trafficking.24 behind in Jharkhand have fewer opportunities for Furthermore, work outside of girls’ own communities employment with declining jobs in agriculture, while was not always preferred. men remaining behind are more likely to take up work in sectors like construction, which have created About half (53%) of girls said they would like to more new jobs. Although the predominant impetus leave their community for work. There was no for female migration nationally is marriage, emerging statistically significant difference between tribal and studies show a pattern of female migration motives non-tribal girls on this intention. Many girls described changing from marriage to economic reasons.23 the act of leaving the community for domestic work and other low-skilled labor as a last resort in The subject of female labor migration in Jharkhand the context of a paucity of other opportunities, is complex. In focus groups and consultations, views and it was often a choice that girls thought was towards young women’s labor migration, and often predominantly made by families on their behalf. particularly young women’s participation in domestic Only 17% of respondents believed that it is girls work in other cities, ranged from supportive themselves who usually decide where and when and encouraging of policy interventions to help adolescent girls and young women migrate. The facilitate such types of employment opportunities rest reported this choice being made by others in to disgruntled and alarmed with the significant risks the family—predominantly fathers (51%). Yet, as that labor migration poses for many young women. Figure 23 shows, many girls associate safety risks Indeed, while reliable statistics are lacking, Jharkhand with labor migration. 40  A Window of Opportunity   Self-employment emerges as a key area in women. Indeed, more non-farm self-employment which to increase young women’s employment opportunities close to home, are likely needed to opportunities and productivity. The vast majority offset the reduction of agricultural jobs for young of working rural young women is self-employed women who lack the ability or desire to pursue work (see Figure 24). Working young women are twice as outside of the community. Furthermore, there are likely to be in self-employment as employed young significant gender disparities within self-employment. men. Focus group discussions reinforced that, due Young women’s self-employment is more than to family, cultural, and human capital constraints, twice as likely to involve unpaid family work, and self-employment near the home remains the nearly twice as likely to take place on a farm or in preferred option for income-generation for many the home, compared to male counterparts in the young women—especially among married young same household (see Figure 25). Much of this is Figure 24: In rural areas, young women’s work is concentrated into self-employment Usual principal status & subsidiary status 25% 20% LFP 20% Unemployed but available for work 15% Regular wage employment 10% LFP Casual wage labor 10% Self -employment 5% 0% Urban Rural Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. LFP = labor force participation rate. Figure 25: There are large gender differences within youth self-employment in Jharkhand (ages 18-24) Self-employment by type Self-employment by location 100% 100% 25% 80% 28% 80% 61% 68% 21% 60% 60% 40% 40% 55% 9% 72% 20% 20% 32% 31% 0% 0% Male Female Male Female Own account worker/employer Unpaid family work Other Dwelling Farm Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis (based on usual principal status)    Employment  41 concentrated in subsistence agriculture and unpaid the opportunity to pursue a job offered benefits from family work. boosting their sense of dignity and empowerment to enabling her to contribute to her household and While self-employment is the predominant society’s welfare. Additionally, when asked in focus entry point for most young women in the near- groups whether young women or young men should term, skilling and support for wage jobs remains be prioritized for a job, most young women argued important. Targeted human capital investments for the former. They often noted a belief that women could result in higher female wage employment in are likely to spend more of their income on household some sectors where there is a growing demand in welfare as a justification. As one young woman the state and a willingness of young women to work suggested, “because men drink, they will spend it on (e.g., food processing, tourism, hospitality, financial liquor if they earn. Women are concerned that they services, and healthcare). A Jharkhand skills-gap have to take care of their children so they should not study estimates that, over the period of 2012- waste it.” Similarly, another young woman argued, 2017, there will be demand for 890,000 skilled and “Today those men who earn money, they don’t care semi-skilled workers against an overall labor pool of for their own sisters and brothers; some of them 2.3 million workers.25 However, not only does the don’t even give to their parents. That is why women incremental demand fall short of the overall labor should get the job. If men earn, they say bad things pool, but the nature and extent of demand for skilled in the house, like, ‘everyone is eating my money’ and and semi-skilled manpower is also spatially-specific. all.” Other young women agreed that women should The study found that five out of the 24 districts be prioritized for a job but cited inclusion reasons. (Ranchi, Dhanbad, East Singhbhum, Hazaribagh and For example, “A woman should get the job because West Singhbhum) account for over half of the state’s in the society, women are seen in a demeaning light; manpower requirements. Incremental demand in so, they should be encouraged to move forward. India the districts of Ranchi, Dhanbad, East Singhbhum, is a male-dominated country. So, women should be Hazaribagh, West Singhbhum, and Bokaro is brought in the front.” Among the minority of young expected to be primarily generated in the secondary women who responded in favor of prioritizing men sector (manufacturing, construction, energy and for a job, they usually cited their own constraints— water supply) and tertiary sectors (services, trade, e.g., “Men don’t help with household chores so they transport, banking, tourism, communication, and should at least earn, because if the man works the public administration), whereas incremental demand woman will look after the house.” in the districts like Godda, Garhwa, Gumla, Chatra, Sahebganj and Pakur is expected to be primarily Common constraints to young women’s employment generated in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, that surfaced from focus group discussions included fishing, and mining). time, mobility, a lack of capital and resources, and Weak labor market outcomes run counter to many I can allow my spouse for higher education or young women’s desire to work. Among unmarried skills training if there are extra hands to cook girls (ages 11-24), 87% wanted to have a paid job food and take care of the house work. Otherwise, I don’t think it is possible. A home-based enterprise after marriage, and among all girls ages 11-24, only is more suitable for my wife. 2% reported “full-time housewife” as what they – Satya, male would like to be doing in 5-10 years. For many girls, 42  A Window of Opportunity   insufficient information and guidance. Mobility Girls expressed a range of occupational preferences, challenges are common, with young women in rural though some were more popular than others. As areas being affected by the distance to be covered Figure 26 illustrates, occupations to which girls for availing of training and market opportunities, likely had the most exposure—teacher, tailor, nurse, while urban young women are especially concerned doctor, police—were the most commonly named. with safety in traversing across town and using public The high share of girls reporting a desire to teach, transport. Domestic responsibilities—particularly in particular, could hint to the power of quotas cooking and childcare can be a constraint for to increase aspirations over time. The Operation participation in training and employment activities— Blackboard scheme launched in 1987 in pursuance among married young women. Forty-six percent of the National Policy of Education stipulated that at of young women ages 17-24 in Jharkhand reported least 50% of appointed teachers in primary schools having given birth to at least one child. Finally, must be women.26 Out-of-school girls were more the lack of knowledge expressed in focus groups likely to indicate tailoring and other jobs involving of employment opportunities or skills needed to self-employment as first preferences, recognizing the obtain jobs, coupled with the fact that most young increased accessibility of these occupations to those women’s job aspirations concentrated on only a with both less education and less flexibility to spend few professions with very limited labor demand, time away or travel from the home. This is especially implies that young women’s employment is partly true as after marriage domestic duties and childcare constrained by insufficient guidance and information. supersede other responsibilities. In-school and higher educated girls were more likely to name occupations such as teacher, nurse, and doctor, which involve Aspirations and preferences high skills levels and offer regular wages in positions The need for tailored economic empowerment that are considered to offer dignity and safety. Only strategies is further reinforced by differential 2% of girls (ages 11-24) said that they would prefer preferences as to the nature of work. Among all to be a full-time housewife in 5-10 years. Over one girls (ages 11-24), 40% said they would prefer to in ten girls did not know what her preferred job do work for pay from their homes, compared to would be, reinforcing the importance of information 57% preferring to do work outside of the home, and the rest remaining unsure. However, the share of girls preferring to do work for pay from the home is significantly higher among those married (51% for married vs. 34% for unmarried girls). Similarly, unmarried girls were more likely than married girls to want to leave the community for work (56% vs. 46%). As expected, government jobs were strongly preferred over private sector jobs (82% vs. 15%), with girls 16-24 having at least a class 10 education showing an even stronger preference for government jobs than counterparts with less education (91% vs. 73%).    Employment  43 Figure 26: Occupations girls (ages 11-24) prefer 5-10 years into the future (circle size proportional to frequency of reported preference) Doctor Dentist Labourer Agr. Don,t know Acct. Cook Con Housewife Leg. Comp./IT Dom. work Acad. S Eng./Tech. Pil Mgt CS J Ath Beaut. F Nurse A&C Sldr. Tailor Banking SM Entr. Police CW Teacher Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Note: (light green—low-skilled work) agr=agriculture; con=construction; dom. work=domestic work; entr=entrepreneurship, businesswoman; sm=small manufacturing; (dark orange—creative/recreation) a&c=arts and culture, dance, singing; ath=athlete; (light orange—helping profession, public service) cs=civil service; cw=community worker, Asha, Anganwadi; sldr=soldier, military; (dark pink— other skilled work) acad=academia, lecturer, scientist, university student; acct=accountant; eng/tech=engineer, technician, mechanic; f=flight attendant; leg=legal professional, lawyer, judge; mgt=management; pil=pilot; s=secretary and exposure to help young women explore and more favorably—such as going outside of the district develop aspirations for goal-setting. In focus groups, or state for work or driving auto-rickshaws. young women were also asked to give examples of The data indicate gender sorting into traditionally good and bad work for their age group. There was female areas of work with practical as well as cultural a lot of agreement overall (with examples given in reasons cited. Cultural reasons were sometimes cited Figure 27), but there were also a few examples that for women’s exclusion from certain types of work. some participants considered bad and others viewed As one young man explained, “Girls don’t work in the 44  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 27: Young women shared views on “good” and “bad” jobs for young women “Good Jobs” “Bad Jobs” Brick kiln work is not good because so many people Bank officer Brick kiln worker drink there and have bad relations with others. Cooking for schools Construction worker – Komoli, female youth Doctor Domestic worker Some girls work under contractors and often they Factory worker Driving auto come late in nights. Villagers consider these jobs Health worker Labor worker bad jobs. If we come with a boy or any other male, Mushroom production Municipality worker they take it in a wrong way. Nurse Selling liquor –Anita, female youth Opening a shop Selling tobacco products Women can be equal to men in every facet of life. Police officer Tilling, ploughing We don’t see there is anything that a man can do Railway worker Working with contractors and a woman can’t. But yes, a woman will not Social worker sell liquor to make money. This is not a matter of Tailor, stitching capacity; this is a matter of principle and choice. Teacher – Maghi, female youth Source: WB focus groups 2015, team’s analysis. fields and they don’t work as guards. God made it so officer, and factory worker, which offer predictable that all such works can be done by their husbands. hours in known settings and a dependable wage—and Ladies take their heads down to their husbands.” But are often close to the community. Married young these views were not universal. Many young men and women commonly preferred more flexible jobs such young women did not exclude occupations for women as stitching, tailoring, or basic income-generating on principle alone—for example, as “men’s work” activities that they could do from or near home and or as jobs in which women are viewed as inherently when they had spare time. These jobs were also less capable. When one focus group of young men considered more accessible to women who had low was asked about the types of work and businesses literacy and education. that they believed women could pursue, the men While income was valued, girls’ job aspirations suggested that women should pursue the jobs in were frequently justified based on a commitment which “she gets the most benefit” and that “all types to the public good. From law enforcement, to of business were good for women.” While underlying medical practice, to teaching, to local government biases emerged, gendered occupational sorting was leadership, girls constantly described how their often explained by the unique constraints that young occupations of choice would allow them to serve women face. Namely, women’s lack of time, need for their country and the communities. In fact, many flexibility, difficulties with mobility, and safety, were of these girls disparaged how the same jobs had often raised as reasons for why certain occupations been occupied, in their view, whose motives might be easier for young women to pursue. For were more self-interested. These qualitative example, young women often preferred stable regular findings reinforce the value-added to the public wage jobs, such as teacher, nurse, doctor, police that young women could bring to the world of    Employment  45 Many girls are motivated to do jobs to make a difference I want to be a good lawyer in the future. Because there are so many lawyers in our country who do work for money. They don’t think about others and ignore cases for so long. I want to help those people who are poor and whose financial status is not good. – Sriti, female youth My dream is to be a social worker so that I can help society to forget old generation thoughts. I feel so bad when I see 15-16 years girls get married. I want to become a social worker after my education so that more and more girls will be motivated to be self-dependent by themselves. This is my dream. – Partima, female youth I want to become a police officer. I want to protect my country and to punish those who do wrong. But now-a-days police no longer want to protect the country; rather, they want to become a police officer for money. – Sarojni, female youth I want to be a sarpanch (village head) and to develop our village. There is no electricity in our village. So I want to be a sarpanch. – Kishun, female youth work if given better opportunities, and they also as belonging to the bottom three asset quintiles). imply that highlighting and supporting an ability International research has shown wide-ranging to contribute to public welfare through specific benefits of mobile phone ownership and usage to jobs—over and above the opportunity to earn women in developing contexts—including, among income—can be useful to attracting and retaining others, feelings of greater safety, connectedness, young women. and independence; access to information to support greater economic productivity; and having a tool Technological and financial which could support greater information on, and access to, programs and services.27 Increasing access inclusion to mobile technology among adolescent girls, and Survey results signal promising opportunities making more innovative use of mobile technology to leverage Information and Communication among girls that already have the access to support Technologies (ICT) to support young women’s their empowerment, could be useful areas for socio-economic empowerment. The use of mobile policy action. However, access to Internet was phones was fairly common, with 66% of girls ages much poorer. Only 2% of girls ages 11-16 and 4% 11-16, and 83% of those ages 17-24, reporting use of those aged 17-24 reported at least occasional of mobile phones at least weekly. Weekly or higher use. Almost all of those reporting Internet use usage of mobile phones among girls ages 11-24 were in the non-asset- poor group. Among the few was higher for tribal than non-tribal (78% vs. 66%), using the Internet, two-thirds accessed the Internet urban than rural (85% vs. 72%), and non-asset-poor through mobile phones with the remaining primarily than asset-poor (84% vs. 66%—asset-poor is defined relying on cybercafés or home-based computers. 46  A Window of Opportunity   In a global and digital era, a lack of access to the Bank of India (RBI) in May 2014announced that Internet constrains girls’ access to information and banks are at liberty to allow minors above 10 years networks which could help facilitate their social old to independently open and operate savings and economic empowerment. Promising activities, bank accounts. While 38% of young women ages such as the Government of India’s Digital India 15-24 in Jharkhand have an account at a formal program, and Google’s Helping Women Get Online financial institution, they lag behind young men and Internet Saathi initiatives, aim to expand access (62%) and all women ages 15 and above (43%) to the Internet with particular emphasis on women. in India overall. On this indicator, young women in Such efforts could be leveraged to increase girls’ Jharkhand are on par with the average for young empowerment. women in the same age group nationally (see Figure 28). However, their rates of saving and A lack of financial inclusion can also pose borrowing are much lower than their female peers a challenge to young women’s economic nationally. Young women not having a financial empowerment. When women have savings and account cite lack of money to use or open one as access to credit, they can better afford to take top constraints. Governmental of India efforts— productive risks and invest in capital for more such as Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)— productive entrepreneurship. Indeed, to foster to expand financial inclusion, including with zero financial inclusion from a young age, the Reserve balance accounts, will likely help going forward, but Box 3: What it takes to succeed in the world of work: The case of lady rickshaw drivers In 2013, the Jharkhand Traffic Police started an initiative to facilitate women-for-women auto-rickshaws. The rickshaws are distinguished by their pink color. The objective was two-fold: increase women’s access to safe transportation while simultaneously providing a job opportunity for impoverished women. The following excerpt is from a focus group in Ranchi with lady rickshaw drivers between the ages of 20 and 24 conducted by this study team. It illustrates the importance of certain enablers which emerged across a range of focus groups—particularly, courage, persistence, self-confidence, opportunity, and support. Challenges also increase our courage. When we started to drive auto-rickshaws—it has been a year now—people used to say that we wouldn’t be able to do it. We had a challenge with the men. They said that we would never succeed, but we said that we will prove that we can do it. Finally, we proved it. And we will keep doing it in the future. I will keep driving my auto-rickshaw, no matter if I have to lose my life. - Kanija It wasn’t always easy. In the beginning, we had an accident. Seriously, we had an accident. On the very first day, on the road. During training, our vehicle toppled over twice. By the grace of God, nobody was hurt and the driver escaped with minimal injury to her hand. After facing such an incident, they expected us to give up. But one of the men helping us encouraged me and advised me not to give up. ‘If it has happened once, it won’t happen again,’ he encouraged us. That’s how we moved ahead. - Meena When I used to ride a cycle, I was very fond of it. Once there was no air in the tires and I dragged it for three kilometers and filled air into it. In spite of so many ditches, I used to ride. People would watch me and laugh, but what could I do? - Sona When I drive on the road, if a guy tells me that I’m not allowed to do something or go somewhere, I will scold him and tell him that I can. We can’t continue to fear. There are no benefits of fear. If I don’t get out of home, I am called a housewife. I never felt this way until I started driving the auto-rickshaw. Now that I know a lot of things, I have lost fear. - Pinki    Employment  47 Figure 28: Financial exclusion can be a barrier to economic empowerment Young women (ages 15-24) Reasons for no account (Jharkhand young women) Don’t have enough money to use it Borrowed in last Another family member 12 months has an account Too expensive Saved in last Lack of necessary 12 months documentation Don’t trust financial institutions Account at Too far financial institution Not interested/needed 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% Religious reasons India Jharkhand 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Source: Team’s calculations using WB survey 2015 (Jharkhand) and Global Findex 2014 (all India). it is important that young women have adequate Figure 29: information and financial literacy education on the Girls commonly cited soft skills as the most availability of these accounts— how to open them, critical to getting the jobs they wanted and how to use them —so as to optimize their What is the most important skill or abillity you would economic empowerment. need to get your job of choice? Skills and training 16% While nine out of ten young women ages 16-24 42% reported that they would like to participate in a skills or training course, only one in ten had done so, and only two girls out of the entire sample had obtained a 38% vocational training certificate. Of those young women who participated in training, the vast majority received training in tailoring (63%), followed by IT skills (12%) and beautician skills (9%).These trainings were mainly provided by government institutions (generally with Technical skills Soft skills Academic skills no fee) and private institutions (generally with fee). Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Soft skills included those such as hard work, communication skills, and self- Fifty-eight per cent of young women trained were confidence; academic skills included those such as good grades, employed at the time of the survey in the trade that she literacy, and English language skills; and technical skills included was trained in. These top subjects of training reflect those such as job-specific skills and computer skills. young women’s stated training preferences; when asked what subject(s) young women would like to be trained beautician skills (20%), IT skills (13%), and handicrafts in, their first preferences included tailoring (29%), or embroidery (10%). Tribal young women were 40% 48  A Window of Opportunity   less likely to have participated in skills or training courses that almost all districts have at least one training than their non-tribal counterparts (7% vs. 11%). provider present and admitting female trainees. Yet it also depicts the extent to which training providers A little over two-thirds of girls (68%) expected are largely concentrated around urban centers and that, considering their current situation, they the east and central regions of the state. Many would be able to get into the occupations they districts, including most of those with high shares of desired, and they commonly cited soft skills as tribal populations, boast little presence of training important to helping them get there. When asked providers. Given the remoteness and concentrations what skills and qualities girls believed would be of many tribal communities, this mapping most important for them to be able to get the underscores an access constraint that could make occupations they desired, it is illuminating that it more difficult for girls from these communities to soft skills—or social-emotional skills—such as hard participate in training. Similarly, in the survey, tribal work, communication skills, persistence, and self- girls were less likely than non-tribal girls (ages 16- confidence came up most frequently, even above 24) to say that they had opportunities to develop job academic and technical skills (see Figure 29). This skills (54% vs. 64%). is consistent with the strong emphasis placed on these types of competencies that emerged in the The mapping underscores the need for partnerships focus group discussions. and incentives on the supply-side to expand more training opportunities to all districts and closer to Institutional mapping shows uneven density of skills remote communities. Across the state, 156 Industrial training providers across the state, leaving access Training Institutes (ITIs) and Industrial Training in many areas particularly challenging. Figure 30 Centres (ITCs) were identified and mapped, which shows a map plotting different types of training had a combined total of 14,297 trainees enrolled in providers across the state. On the one hand, it shows the last academic year, of which 8,089 had graduated. Many girls expressed demand for training We have to first go for training in any work. If we succeed in that training, then only we can do that work. – Rupa, female youth I want to become a nurse and, for that I need training… I should know how to cure fever and all. – Parwati, female youth For example, if someone wants to be a nurse, then there should be a public training center for that… everyone should get information regarding that training. – Rita, female youth For tailoring I will need a machine and where training is done I will need to gain that knowledge. There is only one machine with my sister. So we will have to buy one more machine, and my sister doesn’t know tailoring completely, so from a training center we would learn the necessary skills. – Jyoti, female youth    Employment  49 An additional 169 vocational and technical training female. Training eligibility is generally at least providers were identified and mapped. A combined 15 years of age and 8th or 10th class pass. Some total of 31,524 trainees were enrolled in the last training providers are financed by the government academic year, of which 25,564 had graduated. while others charge in the range of INR 2,000-5,000 Fifteen micro/small business development or (USD 30-75) per month per student. Importantly, enterprise skills providers were identified and mapped, there are promising supply-side efforts afoot. The which aggregately enrolled 2,344 trainees and Jharkhand Skills Development Mission (JSDM) has graduated 1,469 in the last academic year. Finally, 12 recently completed the empanelment of 22 training traditional/craft skills providers were identified and providers for the Saksham Jharkhand Kaushal mapped, which aggregately enrolled 441 trainees in Vikas skills training scheme and plans to empanel the last academic year (all female) and graduated 324. additional providers under each of the 40 sector skills councils. JSDM expects to train 25,000 additional Total current enrollment for all mapped training youth per year. providers combined is 79,355 of which 36% is Figure 30: Training providers are concentrated in urban areas and more heavily in certain parts of the state Source: WB mapping 2015. Darker colors indicate a higher share of people belonging to scheduled tribes as percentage of the overall district population. VTI=vocational training institute; ITI=industrial training institute; CET=crafts and embroidery training provider; MSME=micro, small, and medium enterprise training institute. 50  A Window of Opportunity   Agency Challenges are many [to participating in training or employment]. In the family, in-laws, children, husband.... after handling everyone, she then has to go there and get on the right time-table. These things stop her—the person can’t think; she gets stopped with her children; she gets stopped with household chores. As for the woman’s goal, she thinks to drop it. This is the biggest obstacle. –Fulmani, female youth We are apprehensive that more education and more mobility will give a girl more social exposure to the outside world. This will provide her a scope to come in touch with boys from other communities and might encourage her to choose her spouse on her own. We see this as a downside of allowing our girls for higher education and employment. We don’t want our values and traditional law to be defied or compromised. – Guddu, mother of adolescent girls Highlights ƒƒ While poverty and weak institutions affect young men and young women’s educational and economic opportunities alike, deprivations in agency help to explain gender disparities. ƒƒ One in three young women, ages 18-24, reported having married before her 18th birthday, and early marriage shortly after turning age 18 is also a concern for many girls. ƒƒ Girls’ ability to act on educational and employment aspirations are ubiquitously hampered by time constraints, with strict gender roles strapping them with heavy domestic responsibilities. ƒƒ Violence, and the fear of violence, is a common fact of life for young women and girls. 38% of married young women (ages 15-24) had experienced intimate partner violence and 65% of girls (ages 11-24) reported abuse or violence against young women and girls in public places as at least somewhat common in their communities. ƒƒ Psychological empowerment—including self-efficacy and positive mental health—appears to play important roles in giving young women the resilience to work against life constraints. At the same time, mental well-being diminishes considerably as girls age into older adolescence and youth, with a quarter of young women ages 18-24 being screened for depression.    Agency  53 Deprivations in young women’s agency and social in neighboring Bihar, there was a reduction from empowerment are stark. While there is ample room 60% to 39% of young women ages 20-24 reporting for improvement on human development outcomes having married before age 18 from NFHS 2005/6 for both young men and young women, gender to 2015/16.30 While the child marriage trends are disparities can largely be traced to deprivations in very positive, we cannot know how much of the agency, which impose additional constraints on statistical decline reflects actual progress related, young women and girls. While agency includes for instance, to policies and interventions, and how multiple deprivations, this study was best suited much might reflect lower reporting of child marriage to shed light on the following: (i) marriage and in the context of a more stringent legal framework. sexual and reproductive health, (ii) gender roles and Nonetheless, even with some possible reporting bias, time burdens, (ii) safety, (iii) social support, and this trend likely represents at least some genuine (iv) psychological empowerment and resilience. We progress on child marriage. also looked at the cross-cutting role of social norms What explains declines of child marriage? Stronger and attitudes. legislation, an emergence of campaigns and programs focused on girls’ empowerment and a Marriage and sexual and substantial increase in girls’ education have likely reproductive health played key roles. It is likely that a more stringent legal framework that came into effect during the last Data point to significant progress on reducing child decade has played an important role. The Prohibition marriage. While still alarmingly prevalent, there of Child Marriage Act of 2006, which came into appears to have been significant progress on child effect in November 2007, addressed gaps to previous marriage in Jharkhand. According to NFHS 2005/6, laws and increased penalties for men over age 18 36% of adolescent girls ages 15-17 in Jharkhand marrying girls under 18, as well for those conducting were reportedly married, and 63% of young women child marriage ceremonies. However, laws on child ages 20-24 reported having married before age 18.28 marriage alone do not appear to have been the only A decade later, estimates from our survey for the important factor. According to a 2014 field survey same indicators are 4% and 35%, respectively. Using commissioned by the Planning Commission, only a comparable indicator to the Annual Health Survey 24% of parents in Jharkhand were aware of the Child (AHS) 2011-12, we find virtually equal estimates Marriage Prohibition Act (though it is possible that of currently married young women, ages 20-24, many were aware that marriage under age 18 was who had married before age 18 (48% in AHS and illegal without having knowledge of the specific 50% in the WB survey). Very large declines in child 29 law).31 Jharkhand has also had a number of schemes marriage indicators have been found in other surveys and programs addressing risk and protective factors as well. For example, Census 2011 recorded an 11% for child marriage, though there is little systematic marriage rate among girls ages 15-17 in Jharkhand; evidence available on their impact or contribution at this rate of reduction from 2005/6 to 2011, a 4% to state-level prevalence estimates.32 A recent level of child marriage for girls ages 15-17 by 2015 study by the International Centre for Research on would be plausible. Additionally, although NFHS Women (ICRW) and UNICEF found that certain 2015/16 data are not yet available for Jharkhand, socio-economic characteristics of districts were 54  A Window of Opportunity   correlated with larger district-level changes in child groups was correlated with lower age of marriage. marriage rates over a 10-year period.33 For example, Taking these findings into consideration, we expect districts that have made progress in closing the that a combination of a substantial increase in gender gap in literacy rates over a 10-year period girls’ education and a high tribal population have have also seen significant declines in female child also contributed to a reduced prevalence of child marriage. At the individual level, education is the marriage in Jharkhand. According to ASER data, the strongest predictor of higher age of female marriage percentage of girls, ages 11-14, out-of-school has followed by household wealth.34 Additionally, declined from 16% in 2005 to 6% in 2015.35 From belonging to Scheduled Tribes was correlated NFHS 2005/6 to our survey, the share of girls ages with higher age of marriage whereas belonging 15-17 attending school has more than doubled from to Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Castes 27% to 68%.36 Figure 31: Most girls are quickly married after reaching the age of majority 100% 80% Females married 60% 40% 20% 0% 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Age Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Yet early marriage remains a prominent concern Parents fix our marriage when we are 13 or 14 among adolescent girls. Despite progress on reducing years. That’s the accepted norm of our society for a girl. It’s customary. Some of us resist against marriage before the legal age of 18, as focus groups it, but the parents and elders won’t listen. Early raised repeatedly, the significant marital constraints marriage puts a full stop to our studies and career and pressures on young women apply not only to mobility. All of us have accepted it. child marriage but also to early marriage. According – Mahas, female youth to our survey, 37% of urban and 53% of rural young women ages 18-22 were married. Moreover, of those Parents think: even if a girl gets educated and gets young women ages 18-22 and married, 68% had a job then she will still go to her in-laws family and won’t stay in the house. So they don’t see the point. already given birth. Many girls described pressures to marry shortly after turning age 18 and against – Jhahida, female youth their own preferences. The rapid increase of marriage    Agency  55 among girls after age 18 is evident in Figure 31. after marriage and only sons would remain to help The shares of girls reporting ever having married provide for the household. They described cash- (this includes gauna not performed) by age group strapped parents opting to use resources to pay are less than 1% for ages 11-14, 4% for ages 15-17, for girls’ dowries rather than invest in her human and 40% for ages 18-21, and 81% for ages 22-24. capital. They also lamented about the difficulties Girls’ anxieties towards early marriage underscore that came with the event of marriage itself that are potential pitfalls of a great deal of emphasis being specific to girls. These include, for example, leaving placed on the legal requirement of reaching age 18 local familiarity and support systems—leaving girls at the expense of a broader focus on ensuring that far more dependent on her husband and husband’s young women have the support and freedom to family after marriage—and the immediate pressures decide on whether and when to marry, in a way that of housework and childbearing that often curtailed is consistent with their own aspirations. their ability to pursue further educational and economic opportunities. Girls’ common lack of voice Girls described early marriage as constraining in the selection of a partner (see Figure 32) also on multiple levels. They expressed how families leaves them additionally at risk of finding themselves perceived less incentive in investing in daughters in a marriage that is both unsafe and unsupportive of as compared to sons, since daughters would leave their aspirations. Figure 32: Most girls have little say over partner selection If never married, who will decide on the selection of your husband? 100% 80% Other relatives Parent with self input 60% Self with parent input 40% 72% 61% 56% 63% Parents alone 20% Self alone 0% SC ST OBC General Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. There is no value of the work done by us women at homes. Nobody sees that. We do work from dawn to dusk. – Rupa, female youth This is the lean season for farming and we have no work available in the village or in the surrounding locality. So most of the men of the village have migrated to West Bengal state in search of work leaving us women alone at home to take care of the home and children. We, our daughters or daughters-in-law cannot move out of the home for work, but should there be an opportunity we can take up some home based business to make some income. –Punia, mother of an adolescent girl 56  A Window of Opportunity   Gender roles and time burdens and at more flexible hours, and providing better transportation options so that girls can spend less Social norms that strap girls heavily with housework time in transit). As the WDR 2012 found, time responsibilities make it very difficult for them use, social networks, and agency can be closely to allocate time to educational, training, or linked. In many countries, as we see in Jharkhand, employment activities. As Figure 33 reveals, even adolescent girls tend to dedicate a significant unmarried girls between the ages of 11 and 16 spend amount of time to unpaid domestic work, while nearly half of their time on domestic responsibilities, boys focus more on paid work or recreational time. and this comes to consume nearly all of their time As a result, girls’ social networks can be more once married and older. The constraint of housework limited than those of boys (and can weaken around and time poverty is a very gender-specific one, and it adolescence).37 This negative externality can came up frequently in the qualitative research. compound the consequences of strict gender roles and time burdens for young women’s exclusion. In order to support girls’ education and employment outcomes, this reality for girls necessitates interventions to either alleviate some Safety of their time burden (e.g., providing child care services, improving access to electricity or clean The threat and fear of violence against young water supply (to increase efficiencies of household women and girls is widespread. Girls in Jharkhand are activities that are primarily the responsibilities of exposed to multiple forms of gender-based violence, women, such as cooking and water-fetching) or including domestic violence, school-based violence, encouraging households to reallocate domestic harassment and assault in public places, and exposure responsibilities among its members—for instance, to human trafficking and sexual exploitation. by encouraging men’s participation in caring Traditional forms of gender-based violence also leave and housework) or to accommodate their time young women vulnerable. “Witch hunts” and “dowry burden (e.g., providing educational, training, deaths,” for example, continue in parts of the state. and employment opportunities closer to home Jharkhand crime statistics show 48 reported “witch Figure 33: Girls’ average time allocations over a one-week period Unmarried, ages 11-16 Married, ages 11-16 Unmarried, ages 17-24 Married, ages 17-24 2% 4% 2% 3% 33% 24% 46% 52% 66% 72% 95% Market work Education Domestic responsibilities Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis.    Agency  57 deaths” and 293 reported dowry deaths for 2015.38 neighbor) rather than formal sources (e.g., law Local news, for example, reported five women enforcement, lawyer, health authority, NGO, etc.). lynched in August 2015 by a community mob on the This is perhaps unsurprising given that our mapping basis of witchcraft allegations.39 Young women who identified only 13 support centers for survivors of advertently or inadvertently offend local neighbors or human trafficking or gender-based violence across norms may be at risk of such acts of retribution being the state—nine of which were located in urban areas; used against them. six were in Ranchi. Out of 13 providers, 12 reported that they provide services to girls and women who The latest data available on domestic violence were victims of trafficking, followed by 10 providers (NFHS 2005-6) show that 38% of married young to rape victims and nine providers to domestic women (ages 15-24) had experienced physical violence victims. Our survey, which focused on or sexual Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in her perceptions rather than direct experiences, also lifetime (see Figure 34). In focus groups, young found considerable levels of concern with violence women frequently described alcohol abuse as against women and girls in homes, schools, and both widespread in villages—especially in tribal public spaces. Urban young women were particularly communities—and a major contributor to men’s concerned with the latter (see Figure 35). Indeed, perpetration of domestic violence. Moreover, the with 1,211 cases of rape recorded by Jharkhand vast majority of young women are left to deal with police in 2015,40 the concerns appear to be well- domestic violence on their own. Only 27% of young founded—and police reports typically significantly women who had been exposed to IPV reported underestimate the actual incidence levels of gender- seeking help, and this was almost entirely from based violence. informal sources (e.g., family member, friend, or Figure 34: Exposure to physical or sexual IPV among married women in Jharkhand 38% All (15-49 years) 28% 39% 25-49 years 27% 38% 15-24 years 30% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% Married women in Jharkhand reporting IPV Ever Last 12 months Source: NFHS 3 (2005-6), team’s analysis. 58  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 35: Violence against women and girls was commonly seen as a problem across different settings How common of a problem would you say that abuse or violence against young women and girls like you is in the following places of your community? 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Home School Public Not a problem Rare cases Somewhat common Common Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Some courageous women take a stand against violence and draw help from peers In my village, there was a man who used to beat his wife everyday. I used to study in the evenings. I would get stressed because why they were fighting. We didn’t usually interfere in others’ affairs. One day, I told my family, “I am going to their home to talk to them.” “They will say something nasty and you will feel insulted,” my father and brother told me. I said, “I can’t tolerate it.” Instead of going alone, I took other women to their home. The women asked me why. I said, “He comes home drunk and beats his wife.” We went and threatened him, “If you come drunk like this and create a nuisance, then we will put a case against you. You hit your wife everyday. What do you think of her? She works all day long and you come and beat her?” He said, “I respect you; I will not drink this much and will not create a nuisance.” I said, “The future of your children is also getting wasted by hearing all of that [fighting]. And the environment is also getting polluted. You speak loudly; so everyone will get frightened by you or what? Nobody comes near you because you talk filth.” From that day, that man has changed. – Roshni, female youth Social support to address young women’s socio-economic empowerment and also strengthen support from Social supports were a prominent theme that their broader environment. Interactions at the family emerged from the focus group discussions and were level can either be a crippling constraint or a positive reinforced by analysis of survey data. Key aspects of enabler of girls’ ability to pursue educational and social supports included the nature of interactions economic opportunities. As shown in Figure 36, with families, peers, and wider communities and few girls reported themselves as the main decision- networks. These findings underscore the importance makers regarding important matters in their lives. of policy interventions that go beyond the individual For younger girls, parents—especially fathers—were    Agency  59 the main decision-makers, whereas for older girls, the large part a greater disconnect from broader support husband assumed this role. Consequently, the success systems in the event of marriage, especially for those of programs in engaging girls depends very much girls leaving their communities. Indeed, unmarried on the extent to which they succeed in facilitating girls were more likely than married girls to report buy-in and support among girls’ families. When that they had friends (55% vs. 40%) and local adults asked who girls first went to for help for a range of (49% vs. 43%) who cared a lot about them. needs, unmarried girls most commonly indicated their mothers while married girls overwhelmingly Focus groups with young men highlighted named their husbands (see Figure 37). The reliance paradoxes. On the one hand, most young men on husbands post-marriage, however, may reflect in expressed a view that they, and their communities, Figure 36: Engaging families is essential Who usually mainly makes decisions about important matters in your life like decisions about education, working, or participating in programs? (select all that apply) 80% Share of Respondents 60% 40% 20% 0% Self Husband/partner Mother Father Others in family Ages 11-17 Ages 18-24 Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis Social networks and supports are important enablers As much as teachers can share knowledge, it will be helpful for us. And we can also learn from our friends. There is much knowledge that teachers can’t give us; we can get it from our friends. – Leela, female youth To move forward, we have to have a proper social environment. We have to make good friends and we should get full support from family. From them, we learn many things and from elders also. – Rajni, female youth I have never shared anything with my mother and father. I share with my brother or sister or my brother’s wife. My husband doesn’t listen to me, so what is the benefit in talking to him? – Kanchan, female youth 60  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 37: Girls most commonly rely on mothers (if unmarried) and husbands (if married) first, for a range of needs To whom do girls go first for help? 6 5 Number of needs (average) 4 3 2 1 0 Father Husband No one Friend Mother Sibling Other relative Neighbor Community Leader Unmarried Married Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Needs included: money, health advice, work-related problems or career advice, spousal abuse, family abuse, institutional abuse, peer teasing/bullying, discussing future plans, and transportation to work/school afforded young women greater respect when they young women’s education and employment up until continued education and employment. As one young marriage but not necessarily thereafter. man stated, “We give [women] respect if they have good education and a job.” Some also noted how There is power in numbers. When asked how girls young women’s employment brought economic most liked to spend any spare time, a common benefits to the household and the wider community. response was being with friends and family (see At the same time, most young men in the same Figure 38). Girls relying on friends and community groups felt that girls’ domestic responsibilities leaders to support different needs, controlling for increased substantially upon marriage and felt other factors, were significantly more likely to aspire that these responsibilities should be given priority. to paid work after marriage.41 This relationship was Furthermore, many young men focused on the not observed with seeking help from other sources. marital benefits of young women’s education and The relationship may reinforce the importance of employment rather than the intrinsic or empowering broader social networks in increasing girls’ exposure value that education and employment can offer to and notions of what she can do. Additionally, girls in women themselves. An illustrative statement from focus groups frequently described the importance of one young man, Chotu, was the following: “This will groups and peers to participate in social, educational, also help unmarried girls in their marriage. If the training, and employment activities, as well as to girl is educated and doing some job then she can collectively raise issues that are adversely affecting get a good candidate.” This type of understanding girls in the community, with their families and of benefits could reinforce tendencies to support community leaders. As a member of one group of    Agency  61 Figure 38: Providing safe spaces for time with friends, reading, and recreational activities can make programs more attractive to girls Favorite things to do with spare time? Reading Be with friends/family Games/arts/dance/singing Television/radio/computer Studying Sports Stitching/handicrafts 0% 20% 40% 60% Ages 11-16 Ages 17-24 Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. young women explained, “[Our families] are happy were very likely to say that daughters should stay if we are coming together. They shouldn’t have at home or do what their in-laws want them to do. any wrong notion in this case, like, ‘Only my wife is Parents were also less ambitious in their educational going.’ Others are also going. For this reason, we have goals for their daughters. The same is true for the formed this group so that we can progress.” This is teenagers themselves. However, after about seven consistent with a recent experiment which found that years of exposure to a female politician at the local a business counseling intervention for Indian women level (due to a policy in India which forced villagers to only had positive effects on participants’ business elect a woman as the village head), the gender gap activities and income when they were trained in the in aspirations was very sharply reduced. Moreover, presence of a friend. Peer support was particularly 42 despite no investment by local leaders in educational powerful for women belonging to more restrictive facilities, the educational achievement of teenage social groups. girls also increased. The most likely explanation, since little else changed in terms of actual policy or career Recent studies in India suggest the salience of role opportunities, is that seeing a woman achieving models in unleashing the potential of women in the position of local head provided a role model, public life and the workforce. In recent work in West which affected aspirations, which in turn affected Bengal, Beaman et al. found an example of the role of educational choices. aspirations and role models in shaping real behavior.43 Teenagers and parents were asked what type of job and what type of education they hoped to attain Psychological empowerment and themselves (teenagers) or for their teenage children resilience (parents).  Generally, parents (both mothers and fathers) were much less ambitious for the careers A salient aspect of capabilities that emerged of their daughters than for those of their sons; they through both quantitative and qualitative research 62  A Window of Opportunity   was psychological empowerment and resilience. (Figure 39 illustrates the difference in depression This is rarely explored with youth in India, especially screening scores between in-school and out-of- in surveys and as it relates to other educational and school girls). In other words, while marriage likely economic empowerment outcomes; Box 4 further contributes to girls’ distress, the main reason for this discusses the introduction of these types of variables is probably the stopping effect that early marriage into the study. Psychological empowerment and has on girls’ education prospects. resilience appear to play a very important role for These findings are especially significant in light young women. In fact, the single most frequently of the fact that the World Health Organization cited enabling factor for young women to achieve estimates that suicide is currently the leading cause their aspirations cited in focus group discussions of death among adolescent girls and young women was self-confidence and belief in one’s ability to in India45. Indeed, our survey found that a staggering achieve tasks and overcome challenges. Accordingly, 41% of young women (ages 18-24) in Jharkhand attributes such as work ethic, persistence, reported having had thoughts that they “would be determination, resolve, and resilience were better off dead or of hurting [themselves] in some prominently highlighted. way” in the last two weeks (prior to the survey). Symptoms of depression increase sharply as girls Mental health is a serious public health issue, and leave school and enter young adulthood. This this study suggests that it is closely linked to the study included a validated mental health screening distressing situations, including lack of supports instrument commonly used both in India and and opportunities, in which many Jharkhand young internationally (the Patient Health Questionnaire-9). women find themselves. Meanwhile, the mapping Like international studies, we find high rates of 44 identified only 11 certified mental health treatment psychological distress among young women, which the qualitative research suggests are strongly related Figure 39: to stringent gender roles that put a great deal of Young women (ages 16-24) show higher depression symptoms scores if out of school stress on young women and curtail their ability to pursue their aspirations. The results also highlight Depression cut-off 0.1 notable patterns. Rates of screened depression increase significantly as girls get older. Only one in 0.08 ten girls ages 11-14 (10%) screens for depression 0.06 while the share jumps to nearly a quarter for young Density women ages 18-24 (24%). This appears to reflect 0.04 the distress imposed on girls as their educational 0.02 and career aspirations become elusive in the face of marriage, economic and social constraints that 0 set in during older adolescence. Indeed, married 0 10 20 30 young women ages 16-24 are significantly more Patient Health Questionnaire-9 Scale likely to screen for depression than their unmarried Out of school In school peers, though the marriage effect washes out Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Higher scores indicate when controlling for attending education, which higher levels of depression symptoms; a score of 10 represents the has a robust negative correlation with depression clinical cut-off for depression screening.    Agency  63 providers, of which seven were located in two urban it appears to be a critical first step towards district centers. educational and employment achievement—that is, the ability to aspire to it. Our quantitative analyses also suggest an important role played by psychological An optimistic outlook towards the future was a empowerment in shaping education and key predictor of girls’ education aspirations, but employment aspirations. The most consistent and the impact washes away once key household robust predictor of girls’ aspirations, controlling for characteristics like parental age, education and a range of other variables, was self-efficacy (see income are controlled for. For 15-24 year olds, the Figure 40). The survey included the 10-item General effect of optimism is driven primarily by higher Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), the most commonly 46 self-efficacy scores, which are robust to controlling used and validated international measure of general for household characteristics (see Annexure 2 for self-efficacy, which captures optimistic self-beliefs details). Optimism is a key predictor of employment in one’s ability to cope with difficult demands and aspirations, for all age groups. Higher reported achieve objectives. Self-efficacy can be considered depression scores are also correlated with higher to be a variant of self-confidence and is commonly aspiration to be employed in the future. A potential theoretically associated with psychological explanation for this might be that depression can empowerment. Regardless of the type of aspiration stem from unhappiness or dissatisfaction with current used as the dependent variable—intention to work life situation, and hence this finding may represent after marriage, ideal age of marriage, aspiration to a desire for many young girls to have a better future achieve higher levels of education—positive self- relative to their present. Finally, for 15-24 year olds, efficacy consistently predicted higher aspirations. inclusion of self-efficacy measure washes away the While psychological empowerment might not be optimism effect but not the depression effect. Adding enough to ensure girls’ achievement in the face household controls does not change the results of multiple constraints and lack of opportunities, qualitatively. Common sources of distress include inability to achieve aspirations, household pressures and alcohol abuse Alcohol is a very bad tension, sister. When [my husband] comes home drunk, he isn’t in his senses and, even though I would be tired because of working, he will bother me by ordering me to fetch water and food. He won’t bother if there is something in the house or not. Would that not cause tension? – Sabra, female youth That problem is within myself, that I was not able to achieve anything. There is a lot of tension due to this. So, if today, since I have no job, if I go to ask my husband for some money, he says angrily, “Has your father given it?!” – Abid, female youth If we have self-confidence within us, then we can do the most difficult of works. If we have self-confidence, then we can do anything. We shouldn’t be weak. – Asha, female youth 64  A Window of Opportunity   Figure 40: Self-efficacy is a significant predictor of girls’ aspirations 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 Density Density 0.02 0.02 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 General Self-Efficacy Scale score General Self-Efficacy Scale score Don’t aspire to class 12 plus Aspire to class 12 plus Don’t aspire to work Aspire to work Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis (young women ages 15-24). Box 4: Innovations in study design: inclusion of psychosocial measures Experimental evidence is accumulating on the effectiveness of psychologically informed development policies and program interventions, as underscored by the World Development Report 2015. With growing interest and recognition of the role played by socio-emotional factors in mediating decisions related to program uptake and human capital investments, recent evaluations in India have attempted to capture psychological characteristics of target populations in Haryana,47 West Bengal,48 and Tamil Nadu.49 The study in Jharkhand complements these efforts through the use of a mixed-methods and mixed-variables approach for a more well-rounded and in-depth assessment from multiple perspectives. In particular, the survey aimed at including psychometrically sound social- emotional instruments to enable a rigorous and better-rounded examination of the aspirations, needs, outcomes, and constraints of adolescent girls and young women in the state of Jharkhand. Qualitative work further allowed for in-depth examination of the ways that young people think about social-emotional outcomes and the roles that they play in their day-to-day lives. Psychosocial variables assessed included aspirations, self-efficacy, mental health, optimism, hopes, subjective well- being, and gender-related attitudes. Many measures for social and emotional outcomes exist, but we should be suspicious of their suitability for populations like vulnerable Indian youth. Most instruments come from what some cultural anthropologists refer to as “WEIRD” (Western-educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) societies.50 As the label implies, these settings are often highly unrepresentative of the large majority of the world’s people—this includes how people respond and relate to psychosocial measures. Preparations for this study included an extensive review and assessment of psychosocial instruments used in Indian contexts along with piloting of those chosen for this survey. The survey used standardized instruments deployed globally as valid and useful across a range of cultures. Two key measures that were included, following the review and piloting, were the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES)51 and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9).52 The GSES is a 10-item global measure of self-efficacy which measures optimistic self-beliefs in one’s ability to cope with difficult demands and achieve objectives. It is an aspect of psychological empowerment. The instrument’s advantages are brevity, simple language, validation and use across many countries, and available translations in 31 languages including Hindi. Sample items include, “I can manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough” and “it is easy for me to stick to my goals and reach them.” Responses involved a Likert-style scale of five options ranging from “never” to “very often.” On the mental health side, the PHQ-9 screens for symptoms of depression and anxiety. The instrument’s advantages are brevity, validation across several countries and cultural contexts, and common use in India. User guidance and clinical cut-offs for different levels of problem severity make this instrument useful for both research at the population level and treatment, and referral decisions at the individual level. Respondents were asked to indicate how often they felt bothered by certain problems over the last two weeks and had four response options ranging from “not at all” to “nearly every day.” Example items include, “Little interest or pleasure in doing things” and “feeling down, depressed, or hopeless.” In order to mitigate the known problems of using Likert-style response options with low-literacy and non-Western populations, the survey included piloted visual aids which increased respondents’ comprehension and response times. Data for both instruments indicate high internal consistency for the Jharkhand survey sample (α = 0.89 for GSES and 0.78 for PHQ-9).    Agency  65 Policy Implications Skills training for young women] is worthwhile, because if they devote time to participate in these kinds of trainings, they will become self-reliant and can stand on their own feet. – Manoj, male youth In our village, if a girl attained a 10th or higher level of education and has a job, then she is respected. – Krishna, male youth We will allow and encourage girls to participate in group activities. Because we believe that this will create an opportunity for them to learn new things. They will receive skills trainings and organize to take new initiatives to build their future. – Jatin, mother of an adolescent girl Highlights ƒƒ Prioritizing public investments in adolescent girls and young women in Jharkhand is warranted. ƒƒ Demand-side and supply-side interventions to support education and skills training completion are needed, especially for out-of-school girls. ƒƒ Strengthening girls’ social-emotional skills could boost educational and employment aspirations and girls’ resilience in the face of multiple constraints. ƒƒ Young women need supports and opportunities for both self-employment and wage employment options, along with assistance and information to support safety among those who migrate for work. ƒƒ Engaging families and communities in support of girls’ socio-economic empowerment is critical to relaxing significant social constraints to participating in education, training, and employment.    Policy Implications  67 Overall Although adolescent girls and young women’s stark vulnerabilities underscore a significant need for a The diagnostic underscores a substantial range of supports, access to services and programs justification for priority and tailored investments to among this group is extremely limited. While there support adolescent girls and young women’s social are some small scattered initiatives, there is no inclusion. To leverage the under-realized potential of state-level program that systematically addresses young women in the labor market and for Jharkhand’s adolescent girls and young women’s specific needs economy, targeted policy interventions for this for education, employment, and agency. Despite population are warranted. At present, education 95% of adolescent girls and young women (age 11- and employment outcomes are too poor compared 24) declaring interest in participating in relevant to several other low-income states, and market and programs, only 5% reported participating in any institutional failures too pervasive, to expect that activities, groups, or programs meant for young measurable progress could be made otherwise. women and girls on a monthly basis. Overall, when Investments should be informed by evidence, both asked what types of programs or services girls would local and international, to increase the likelihood of most like to see in their areas, they most commonly success. Box 5 includes examples of lessons learned indicated business or vocational training and support from international experiences and resources for (71%) and educational support programs (57%) (age further information. group breakdowns are shown in Figure 41). Figure 41: Girls expressed high demand for training and education programs What types of programs/services would you most like to see in your district or community for young women and girls? 58% Business/vocational training and services 84% 69% Education support 57% 28% Clubs/sports 34% 18% Health education 19% 11% Support for those facing violence/abuse 12% 2% Child/elderly care 3% 1% Computers 1% 2% None 1% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Ages 11-16 Ages 17-24 Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Girls could select or name up to three. 68  A Window of Opportunity   For intervention purposes, it can be useful to If girl is educated then the next generation is segment adolescent girls and young women. educated. While this constitutes a specific and vulnerable group as a whole, it is not a homogenous one with – Rashmi, female youth undifferentiated needs. For instance, it may be particularly important to consider segments of girls according to age groups and school status. As shown Education in Figure 42, younger adolescent girls in Jharkhand For girls still in school, promote retention and are largely unmarried, and with more than three- learning through secondary levels of education. quarters in school, it is important to help those Major factors behind girls’ attrition include early in school to continue, help those out of school to marriage (which reduces households’ incentives to re-integrate, and begin helping both to develop invest in girls’ human capital), economic pressures foundational life skills and experiences that will on the household, and accessibility of schools. Taking strengthen their future employability. Meanwhile, these issues into account, the government should older young women are far more likely to be married continue and expand efforts to extend safe and and out of school. For this sub-group, it becomes affordable access to upper primary and secondary increasingly important to focus on engaging young education. The lack of school facilities in or near the men (husbands) in support of young women’s village and direct and indirect costs of continuing opportunities, and thereby strengthening young education are likely to have a greater impact on women’s options through flexible skills training and girls than boys. Additionally, the government could employment and entrepreneurship supports. Both consider further incentivizing change with girls young and older girls can benefit from life skills and their families. Conditional cash transfers, for training, group and community activities, but these example, have been effective tools in many settings might need to be tailored to girls’ developmental for increasing school enrollment—especially for stages and life circumstances in order to maximize girls and at the secondary level.53 Typically these participation and results. transfers have targeted parents in the household Figure 42: Age and gender-based segmentation can stimulate effective targeting and program design Ages 11-16 Ages 17-24 72% of age group (1.56 million) 16% of age group (0.36 million) (approx. 0% married) (approx. 5% married) In school Support school retention, life skills, delayed marriage, Support continued education or transitions to training and engaging parents. and employment, life skills, delayed marriage, and engaging parents. 28% of age group (0.61 million) 84% of age group (1.87 million) (approx. 2% married) (approx. 67% married) Out of school Support educational re-integration, life skills, delayed Support entrepreneurship or vocational training, marriage, and engaging parents. life skills, healthy marriage and family planning, and engaging husbands and in-laws. Source: WB survey 2015, team’s analysis. Population numbers based on Census 2011    Policy Implications  69 (assuming that their decisions, rather than the closer to the community can be a game-changer girls’, impede girls’ school attendance), but in in the skills landscape within Jharkhand. It is clear some cases governments in and out of India are that, to help young women complete training and experimenting with transfers directly to girls to boost find sustained employment, both demand-side and their empowerment directly. Further, particularly supply-side interventions and incentives will be where norms reinforcing child marriage are deeply required. For example, community mobilization and entrenched, broad-based social policy, media and cash stipends could encourage girls’ participation in advocacy initiatives to build an agenda and foster skilling activities. At the same time, carefully devised, public opinion supporting delayed marriage are likely performance-based contracts with training providers, needed.54 and coordination with potential employers, could encourage more localized, flexible, and market-driven For out-of-school girls, support second-chance re- skills training and subsequent job opportunities while integration through expanded, flexible, and low- addressing young women’s unique constraints. A cost open schooling and bridge education. Given World Bank experiment of a training program for the high number of out-of-school girls who still adolescent girls and young women in Nepal involving aspire to secondary education, consider expanding carefully crafted performance-based contracting the use of non-formal education through open with a training provider and strong employer linkages schools and bridge education to re-integrate girls, showed large effects on participants’ employment as well as scaling up innovative programs like Mahila and earnings outcomes.55 Samakhya Kendras (MSK). Open Schooling through NIOS provides an important existing channel for Increase youth-specific interventions to help out-of-school girls’ reintegration into education, but young women enter, and increase productivity current uptake and completion—especially among in, paid self-employment and micro-enterprise. girls—are very low. Greater efforts should be taken The majority of young women participating in the to increase girls’ access and well as the quality of the labor force are self-employed, especially in rural contact classes offered by the NIOS study centers. areas. This remains the most realistic labor market The majority of the Special Training Centres (STCs) entry point for most young women in Jharkhand— especially those married—yet they lack the support under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) scheme are and opportunities for pursuing flexible, income- currently operating from KGBV schools. Scaling up the number of STCs particularly in rural areas could help in mainstreaming of the out-of-school girls Girls can do every work that a boy can do. It from vulnerable groups. Open Schooling provides an is not the matter of capacity; it is rather the important existing channel for out-of-school girls’ re- issue of mobility. Girls cannot move out of the integration into education, but the current uptake and community or migrate out for a job and there completion—especially among girls—are very low. is no job available here in the neighborhoods. If there is opportunity for skills training and good employment through job opportunities or home- Employment based entrepreneurship, girls will definitely participate. Interventions aimed at bringing skills training –Urmila, mother of an adolescent girl opportunities and business and placement services 70  A Window of Opportunity   generating on-farm and off-farm self-employment a growing demand for semi-skilled labor supply in close to home. Interventions targeting young women the state and a willingness of young women to work in rural communities have shown very positive (e.g., food processing, tourism, hospitality, financial results for increasing paid employment and earnings, services, and healthcare). particularly through self-employment, through a combination of safe spaces with group-based training Provide young women with structured guidance and and supports and access to liquidity. Successful information to increase uptake of opportunities and interventions often involve local market assessments tackle gendered occupational sorting. Young women with flexible skilling and supports to help young commonly cited a lack of guidance and information women thrive in sectors and value chains that are as impediments to accessing training and jobs. Indian most relevant for their communities. Broader efforts and international evidence shows how improved to support young women’s access to technology information can play a potent role in young women’s and financial services are also likely to facilitate economic empowerment. For example, a recent greater opportunities through self-employment and experiment in rural areas around Delhi found that, by microenterprise. providing information at the village level, recruiters were able to significantly increase young women’s Simultaneously, prepare young women with greater take up of employment opportunities in the business mobility and requisite education to meet the unmet process outsourcing industry, and this in turn skill demands of the organized sector. A Jharkhand improved aspirations and human capital investments skills-gap study commissioned by the National in younger girls in the same communities.57 Research Skills Development Commission (NSDC) estimates in Kenya has found that simply providing young that, over the period of 2012-2017, there will only women with better information about labor market be a demand for 890 thousand skilled and semi- opportunities and differential earnings reduced skilled workers against an overall labor pool of 2.3 gender sorting into training for traditionally feminine million workers.56 The NSDC study also highlights a job types.58 Yet the study also indicates that that substantial gap between the incremental demand of, information alone is insufficient because the study and supply for, skilled and semi-skilled workers. In participants did not actually enter the non-traditional other words, while wage jobs in the organized sector trades in which they were trained. Beyond simply would not be able to employ all of the young women providing information, guiding young women through who aspire to paid employment, market-driven structured goal-setting and individual planning, skilling can still help a significant number of young especially with peer support in the process, can lead women fill human resource gaps. Targeted human to more positive economic empowerment outcomes capital investments could result in higher female for young women.59 wage employment in some sectors where there is More than anything else, we need career guidance Agency for our daughters. That is the top priority. We Analysis related to psychological empowerment don’t know what avenues are available and what outcomes—such as self-efficacy and mental health— is good for them. highlights the important role this plays in young – Rachna, mother of adolescent girl women’s aspirations and capabilities. Investment in    Policy Implications  71 creating a cadre of mentors; providing safe spaces for practiced by BRAC’s adolescent girls programs), girls to interact, expand their networks, and develop (b) expanding entertaining and effective programs foundational life skills; and offering counseling that engage young men and boys in fostering more support through schools and training facilities can gender-equitable norms (e.g., ICRW’s Gender start to relax social-emotional constraints faced Equity Movement in Schools [GEMS] curricula by young women in pursuing their potential and and Promundo’s curricula and programs for remaining resilient in the face of multiple constraints. encouraging more equitably-minded youth and Importantly, an increasing evidence base shows the fathers), and (c) statewide, multi-media, and high- potential of interventions to increase youth self- profile initiatives to build broad-based support and efficacy and mental health. An impact evaluation 60 respect for girls (e.g., as is a focus for West Bengal’s of a program designed to increase the non-cognitive Kanyashree Program for girls). skills of adolescents in poor slums around Mumbai not Facilitate the formation of adolescent girls’ groups only found that the intervention had positive effects with high-quality facilitation across the state. on young people’s self-efficacy and self-esteem, but Girls described the importance of doing things in also that those outcomes were positively related to groups and through collective action. Alone, girls success in school-leaving examinations and initial find it hard to participate in programs, training, or labor market outcomes.61 Additionally, a randomized jobs. They are concerned for their safety and have evaluation of a life skills curriculum with adolescent difficulties persuading spouses, parents, in-laws, girls in Bihar recently showed positive impacts on and others to allow them to pursue educational girls’ self-efficacy, soft skills, and health and nutrition and employment opportunities. In numbers, knowledge.62 girls believed their participation in programs and opportunities was more likely to be supported, Go beyond the girl to promote families and and, as groups, they have a greater ability to communities’ support for gender equality and girls’ contribute to changing mindsets. Moreover, beyond empowerment. Young women overwhelmingly the instrumental value of groups, girls simply find articulated desires to marry later, stay in school them more fun and more meaningful than doing longer, participate in training, pursue careers that things alone. Importantly, however, international they valued, and ultimately serve their communities experience suggests that the quality of facilitation and country. Yet despite their aspirations, and is important. Group facilitators should be carefully their willingness to work extraordinarily hard for selected and well-trained (and retrained) to provide them, young women and girls frequently cited both meaningful and engaging safe spaces for girls to economic and social constraints to achievement. come together and develop skills. Interventions should include a strong community engagement focus to foster trust and support among community elders, parents, husbands, in- There should be a club for girls. We will organize meetings at least once in a month. We can spread laws, and other influential stakeholders. In particular, the information by T.V. or acting. We can keep a promising practices to build wider support for T.V. in our club and show it to every woman. We girls’ empowerment include: (a) formation of can make our own cassette. community and family support committees for –Naz, female youth adolescent girls’ groups and programs (e.g., as 72  A Window of Opportunity   Box 5: What works for young women’s economic empowerment? Some important global evidence initiatives have pursued this very question and may yield useful insights for the Jharkhand context. Two good examples include the World Bank’s Adolescent Girls Initiative (AGI) and the Roadmap for Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment (RPWEE, by the United Nations Foundation and Exxon-Mobile). The AGI piloted and evaluated models in eight countries (Afghanistan, Jordan, Lao PDR, Liberia, Haiti, Nepal, Rwanda, and South Sudan). Each program was individually tailored to the country context, and the menu of interventions included business development skills training, technical and vocational training, targeting skills in high demand, as well as life-skills training. While results varied by context, a common lesson was that successful interventions focusing on the social and economic empowerment of this population typically employ several integrated interventions to affect measureable change in key outcomes.63 For example, the provision of safe spaces, meaningful life skills education, and community mobilization were important complements to traditional skills training parts of the programs. Additionally, while the models included skills and supports through both vocational training and business skills or self-employment training, where formal wage jobs were lacking and women faced more restrictions, the latter tended to have higher uptake and returns. Even where girl-friendly vocational training was very effective (e.g., in Nepal) many young women’s gains were still in self-employment. The RPWEE involved a systematic synthesis of global evidence on what works for women’s economic empowerment around four categories: entrepreneurship, farming, wage employment, and young women’s employment. For young women, the review found strong evidence for micro-savings, demand-driven job services, cash transfers, and livelihood programs in boosting educational, employment and earnings outcomes. It cites, for example, BRAC’s Empowerment and Livelihood for Adolescents program in Uganda, which offered a combination of safe spaces (adolescent girls’ clubs), soft skills, and hard skills training. The program demonstrated a 35% increase in the likelihood of young women being engaged in income generation and a 30% reduction in pregnancy rates. Online resources: ƒƒ AGI (note the useful “Resource Guide” for practitioners): http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/adolescent- girls-initiative ƒƒ RPWEE (note specific guidance on young women’s employment): http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/    Policy Implications  73 Annexures Annexure 1: Measures The main topics measured in the survey and instruments with sound psychometric properties. associated measures and sources for all three In several cases, minor adaptations were made for questionnaires are outlined in the tables provided linguistic and cultural validity. Wherever possible, the below. Wherever appropriate and available, measure consent of original instrument creators (e.g., for the and modules were derived from existing sample PHQ-9) was sought and provided for adaptations. surveys for comparability (e.g., NSS) and—in the case In other cases, the team constructed new measures of psychosocial measures—from internationally used informed by the broader literature and piloting. Adolescent girls and young women questionnaire Topics Source Education & training Educational aspirations and reasons for leaving World Bank - Adolescent Girls Employment Initiative (AGEI) impact school evaluation baseline in Nepal School quality and menstruation constraints Team Training aspirations and preferences Team Employment & earnings Earnings and control of income World Bank - Adolescent Girls Employment Initiative (AGEI) impact evaluation baseline in Nepal Occupational aspirations and preferences Team Uptake & perception of services Utilization of existing programs and schemes and Team constraints to access Preferences for potential programs Team Financial inclusion Access to, and use of, financial services World Bank - Global Findex survey Access to technology Access to, and use of, mobile phones and internet Pew Research Global Attitudes Project    Annexures  75 Topics Source Nutrition& health Food sufficiency & use of nutrition tablets Young Lives Questionnaire Accessing health care services and type of provider Team Social-emotional outcomes Depression and anxiety symptoms Patient Health Questionnaire-9 items (Kroenke & Spritzer 2002 – link) General self-efficacy National Institutes of Health Toolbox adapted and validated version (CAT Ages 8-12 - link) from Jerusalem & Schwarzer 1981. Subjective well-being and hope Child Trends Positive Indicators Project (link) Social networks & support Sources of help and support World Bank - Adolescent Girls Employment Initiative (AGEI) impact evaluation baseline in Nepal Positive connectedness Blum & Ireland 2004 Gender relations Marriage and childbearing information NFHS-3/DHS Marriage and post-marriage aspirations Team Family planning and mother’s background World Bank - Adolescent Girls Employment Initiative (AGEI) impact evaluation baseline in Nepal Perceptions of violence Team Gender attitudes World Values Survey Migration Perceptions and aspirations related to migration Young Lives Questionnaire; Team Time use Use of time over a one-week period NSS 2011/12 Household questionnaire Topics Source Demographics of household Social and cultural information on the NSS 2011/12 household Demographics, education & employment of all household members Age, sex, education status and information, NSS 2011/12 literacy, receipt of assistance, employment/ labor force participation status and information, and migration status of each household member Assets Brief assets module to construct asset index Socio-Economic and Caste Census 2011 Consumption & food security Brief information on basic consumption and NSS 2011/12 food security Health & social services Access to, and use of, health and social services NSS 2011/12 Shocks Brief household shocks module Socio-Economic and Caste Census 2011 76  A Window of Opportunity   Community questionnaire Topics Source Physical & demographic information Remoteness, vicinity to other towns, geography Young Lives Questionnaire type, typical uses of land, social and cultural composition Risks & shocks Shocks to community, perceptions on extent of Young Lives Questionnaire; Team gender-based violence Work & migration Seasonal fluctuations in labor and migration Young Lives Questionnaire and main types of work done by women and men Education & services Perceptions on gender attitudes towards Young Lives Questionnaire; Team education and female work; availability, accessibility, and functionality of a range of services    Annexures  77 Annexure 2: Technical Key explanatory variables specifications of analytics Non-cognitive measures: 1. Optimism about future. Preliminary findings on determinants of aspirations (education and 2. Self-efficacy (only 15-24 years group). employment) among adolescent girls 3. Depression. in Jharkhand Control variables Key dependent variables 1. Other individual characteristics, including age, NEET status, marital status. 1. Education aspiration (years of schooling she 2. Household characteristics, including parental age, would like to achieve). parental education, household size, household 2. Employment aspiration (would she like to income, caste, religion, BPL status. be employed in 5-10 years. Generated as a 3. Village characteristics, controlled for by binary variable equal to 1 if she states any paid including village fixed effects. Since cross- sectional data, these will be common for all profession, 0 if says housewife, don’t know, girls living in same village. refused to answer. Determinants of Education Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (1) (2) (3) (4) Education Aspiration Age (years) 0.23*** 0.23*** 0.16*** 0.13*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) NEET (0/1) -2.03*** -2.01*** -1.46*** -1.37*** (0.14) (0.15) (0.14) (0.13) Married (0/1) -1.53*** -1.54*** -1.45*** -1.11*** (0.17) (0.19) (0.20) (0.22) Optimistic about future (z-score) 0.22*** 0.11** 0.06 (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) Father's age (years) -0.00 0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Mother's age (years) 0.02*** 0.02*** (0.01) (0.01) Father's education (years) 0.08*** 0.06*** (0.01) (0.01) Mother's education (years) 0.13*** 0.11*** (0.01) (0.01) Household size -0.04* -0.02 (0.02) (0.02) Log annual HH income 0.35*** 0.16*** (0.05) (0.06) Caste = SC -0.33 -0.58*** (0.21) (0.21) 78  A Window of Opportunity   (1) (2) (3) (4) Education Aspiration Caste = ST -0.56** -0.61** (0.22) (0.24) Caste = OBC 0.01 -0.14 (0.19) (0.18) Religion = Muslim -0.18 0.04 (0.18) (0.22) Religion = Christian -0.22 0.08 (0.26) (0.34) Religion = Sarna -0.22 -0.32* (0.21) (0.20) Has BPL card -0.06 -0.01 (0.11) (0.11) Village fixed effects No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.14 0.15 0.26 0.33 N 3623 3145 2864 2864 Notes: The sample consists of all adolescent girls 11-24 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is number of years of education a girl reports to aspiring to if she faced no constraints. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’. Determinants of Education Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (11-14 year olds) (1) (2) (3) (4) Education Aspiration Age (years) 0.22*** 0.25*** 0.23*** 0.18*** (0.06) (0.06) (0.07) (0.07) NEET (0/1) -2.19*** -2.16*** -1.59*** -1.33*** (0.23) (0.25) (0.22) (0.23) Married (0/1) -3.17 -3.12 0.38 0.67 (2.93) (2.86) (1.18) (1.45) Optimistic about future (z-score) 0.19** 0.06 -0.08 (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Father's age (years) -0.01 -0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Mother's age (years) 0.03*** 0.02* (0.01) (0.01) Father's education (years) 0.11*** 0.09*** (0.02) (0.02) Mother's education (years) 0.09*** 0.06*** (0.02) (0.02) Household size -0.06 -0.02 (0.04) (0.04)    Annexures  79 (1) (2) (3) (4) Education Aspiration Log annual HH income 0.35*** 0.16* (0.08) (0.08) Caste = SC -0.43 -0.58* (0.27) (0.32) Caste = ST -0.51 -0.41 (0.32) (0.37) Caste = OBC -0.04 0.02 (0.28) (0.34) Religion = Muslim -0.21 0.10 (0.27) (0.37) Religion = Christian -0.18 0.38 (0.42) (0.64) Religion = Sarna -0.21 -0.31 (0.33) (0.33) Has BPL card -0.15 0.02 (0.15) (0.16) Village fixed effects No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.09 0.10 0.24 0.33 N 1487 1274 1170 1170 Notes: The sample consists of only adolescent girls 11-14 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is number of years of education a girl reports to aspiring to if she faced no constraints. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’. Determinants of Education Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (15-24 year olds) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Education Aspiration Age (years) 0.17*** 0.15*** 0.11*** 0.05* 0.03 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) NEET (0/1) -1.96*** -1.93*** -1.77*** -1.32*** -1.23*** (0.14) (0.15) (0.15) (0.16) (0.15) Married (0/1) -1.37*** -1.33*** -1.21*** -1.14*** -0.88*** (0.17) (0.20) (0.19) (0.21) (0.24) Optimistic about future (z-score) 0.24*** 0.05 0.01 0.04 (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Self-efficacy (z-score) 0.71*** 0.53*** 0.48*** (0.07) (0.08) (0.08) Father's age (years) 0.00 -0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Mother's age (years) 0.02** 0.03*** (0.01) (0.01) 80  A Window of Opportunity   (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Education Aspiration Father's education (years) 0.06*** 0.04*** (0.02) (0.02) Mother's education (years) 0.13*** 0.13*** (0.02) (0.02) Household size -0.02 -0.01 (0.03) (0.03) Log annual HH income 0.31*** 0.12* (0.07) (0.07) Caste = SC -0.24 -0.50* (0.25) (0.27) Caste = ST -0.52** -0.69** (0.26) (0.30) Caste = OBC 0.11 -0.15 (0.21) (0.23) Religion = Muslim -0.18 -0.20 (0.20) (0.28) Religion = Christian -0.26 -0.24 (0.29) (0.38) Religion=Sarna -0.27 -0.37 (0.24) (0.27) Has BPL card -0.00 -0.00 (0.13) (0.13) Village fixed effects No No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.17 0.17 0.22 0.30 0.36 N 2136 1871 1871 1694 1694 Notes: The sample consists of only adolescent girls 15-24 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is number of years of education a girl reports to aspiring to if she faced no constraints. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’. The self-efficacy variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following ten questions on: ‘can solve difficult problems if I try hard enough’; ‘can get what I want’; ‘can stick to and reach goals’; ‘can deal with unexpected events’; ‘can handle unexpected situations due to my talent/skills’; ‘can solve most problems if I try hard enough’; ‘can stay calm in difficulty’; ‘can find several ways to solve a problem’; ‘can think of a solution when in trouble’; ‘can handle whatever comes my way’. Determinants of Employment Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Employment Aspiration Age (years) 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01** 0.01** (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) NEET (0/1) -0.13*** -0.14*** -0.14*** -0.11*** -0.10*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Married (0/1) -0.03* -0.04* -0.04* -0.06*** -0.06** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.03)    Annexures  81 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Employment Aspiration Optimistic about future (z-score) 0.02*** 0.03*** 0.02*** 0.02*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Depressed (z-score) 0.04*** 0.03*** 0.03*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Father's age (years) -0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's age (years) 0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Father's education (years) 0.00 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's education (years) 0.01*** 0.01*** (0.00) (0.00) Household size 0.00 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Log annual HH income 0.01 -0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Caste = SC 0.02 -0.02 (0.02) (0.03) Caste = ST -0.01 0.00 (0.03) (0.04) Caste = OBC 0.03 0.00 (0.02) (0.02) Religion = Muslim -0.01 -0.02 (0.02) (0.03) Religion = Christian -0.02 -0.04 (0.05) (0.06) Religion = Sarna -0.04 -0.02 (0.04) (0.04) Has BPL card 0.01 0.01 (0.01) (0.02) Village fixed effects No No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.08 N 3942 3441 3441 3125 3125 Notes: The sample consists of all adolescent girls 11-24 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is a binary variable indicating whether or not a girl aspires to be employed in a job in 5-10 years’ time. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’. 82  A Window of Opportunity   Determinants of Employment Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (11-14 year olds) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Employment Aspiration Age (years) 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.02** 0.02** (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) NEET (0/1) -0.15*** -0.16*** -0.16*** -0.13*** -0.11*** (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) Married (0/1) 0.17*** 0.19*** 0.18*** 0.14** 0.05 (0.05) (0.06) (0.07) (0.06) (0.04) Optimistic about future (z-score) 0.02* 0.02** 0.02 0.01 (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Depressed (z-score) 0.03*** 0.03** 0.02 (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Father's age (years) -0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's age (years) -0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Father's education (years) 0.00* 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's education (years) 0.01** 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Household size 0.01 0.01 (0.00) (0.00) Log annual HH income 0.01 0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Caste = SC 0.01 -0.01 (0.04) (0.04) Caste = ST -0.02 -0.00 (0.05) (0.06) Caste = OBC 0.04 0.03 (0.03) (0.04) Religion = Muslim -0.02 0.02 (0.03) (0.05) Religion = Christian -0.11 -0.13 (0.08) (0.12) Religion = Sarna -0.05 -0.05 (0.06) (0.08) Has BPL card 0.02 0.03 (0.02) (0.03) Village fixed effects No No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.09 N 1517 1304 1304 1195 1195 Notes: The sample consists of only adolescent girls 11-14 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is a binary variable indicating whether or not a girl aspires to be employed in a job in 5-10 years’ time. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’.    Annexures  83 Determinants of Employment Aspiration among Adolescent Girls in Jharkhand (15-24 year olds) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Employment Aspiration Age (years) 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) NEET (0/1) -0.12*** -0.12*** -0.13*** -0.11*** -0.09*** -0.08*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Married (0/1) -0.02 -0.02 -0.03 -0.02 -0.04 -0.05* (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) Optimistic about future 0.02*** 0.03*** 0.01 0.02* 0.01* (z-score) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Depressed (z-score) 0.04*** 0.04*** 0.04*** 0.04*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Self-efficacy (z-score) 0.07*** 0.05*** 0.05*** (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) Father's age (years) -0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's age (years) 0.00 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Father's education (years) 0.00 -0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Mother's education (years) 0.01** 0.01*** (0.00) (0.00) Household size 0.00 0.00 (0.00) (0.00) Log annual HH income 0.01 -0.00 (0.01) (0.01) Caste = SC 0.03 -0.02 (0.03) (0.04) Caste = ST 0.01 0.01 (0.03) (0.04) Caste = OBC 0.03 -0.02 (0.02) (0.02) Religion = Muslim -0.02 -0.05 (0.02) (0.04) Religion = Christian 0.03 -0.00 (0.05) (0.08) Religion = Sarna -0.03 -0.01 (0.04) (0.04) 84  A Window of Opportunity   (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Employment Aspiration Has BPL card -0.00 0.00 (0.02) (0.02) Village fixed effects No No No No No Yes Adj. R-sq 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.08 N 2425 2137 2137 2137 1930 1930 Notes: The sample consists of only adolescent girls 15-24 years inclusive. Standard errors, in parentheses, are clustered at the village level. * significant at 10 percent, ** significant at 5 percent, *** significant at 1 percent. The dependent variable is a binary variable indicating whether or not a girl aspires to be employed in a job in 5-10 years’ time. The omitted caste group is General Caste and the omitted religious group is Hindu. The depression variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following nine questions on: ‘feeling little interest in things’; ‘feeling down’; ‘trouble sleeping’; ‘feeling tired’; ‘poor appetite’; ‘feeling bad about myself’; ‘trouble concentrating’; ‘moving/speaking slowly’; ‘thoughts of hurting myself’. The optimism variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following three questions on: ‘expect good things to happen to me’; ‘excited about future’; ‘trust future will turn out well’. The self- efficacy variable is a standardized z-score constructed from answers given to the following ten questions on: ‘can solve difficult problems if I try hard enough’; ‘can get what I want’; ‘can stick to and reach goals’; ‘can deal with unexpected events’; ‘can handle unexpected situations due to my talent/skills’; ‘can solve most problems if I try hard enough’; ‘can stay calm in difficulty’; ‘can find several ways to solve a problem’; ‘can think of a solution when in trouble’; ‘can handle whatever comes my way’.    Annexures  85 Annexure 3: Mapping summary List of the Total no. Mapping of service Not - Mapping the service Remarks institutes/ of service providers through covered providers through service providers providers primary data collection secondary data (physical site visit) collection Industrial training 197 156 41 0 Out of the 41 incomplete institutes (ITIs) data, 19 ITIs refused for the interview, 5 ITIs were permanently closed, 17 ITIs were not found. Vocational and 198 169 29 0 Out of the 29 incomplete technical training vocational providers, 13 providers were not found, 10 refused for the interview, in 3 no vocational courses were running, and 3 VTPs were permanently closed. Micro/small 45 15 30 0 Out of the 30 incomplete business MSMEs, 7 refused for the development or interview, 21 not running enterprise skills MSME, 2 MSMEs were not providers found. Traditional/craft 20 12 8 0 Out of the 8 incomplete skills providers providers, 4 were not found and 4 were permanently closed. Life skills 41 37 4 0 Out of 4 incomplete providers providers, 2 refused for the interview and 2 were permanently closed. Certified mental 19 11 8 0 Out of 8 incomplete health treatment providers, 4 were not centers/service found and 4 refused for the providers interview Skills or 42 34 8 0 Out of 8 incomplete employment surveys, 5 refused for the exchanges/help interview, 2 were not found centers and 1 was found to be closed. Providers of 151 2   151 Covered 2 NIOS centers Open Schooling on sample basis. The geo- education/ spatial mapping of the rest examination was done from secondary data. 86  A Window of Opportunity   List of the Total no. Mapping of service Not - Mapping the service Remarks institutes/ of service providers through covered providers through service providers providers primary data collection secondary data (physical site visit) collection Anganwadi 38,432 - -  -  In spite of a lot of efforts, Centers the department could not provide secondary data of the village-wise names of the AWCs, which constrained the preparation of geo-spatial map of the same provider. Formal support 13 13 0 0   services for survivors of human trafficking or gender-based violence Providers of 203 30   203 Out of 203 KGBVs we have Special Training covered 30 Special training to Out of School centers on sample basis. Children Tasked The geo-spatial mapping with Providing of the rest was done from Bridge Courses secondary data. Youth 160 NYKs 07 NYKs   160 NYKs Covered 7 Nehru Yuva development 1268 Girls 14 Girls Clubs of 1268 Girls Clubs of Kendra Clubs in 4 districts programs/girls Clubs of Jharkhand Mahila Jharkhand Mahila and 13 Jharkhand Mahila (Nehru Yuva Jharkhand Samakhya Samakhya Samakhya clubs in 11 Kendra and Mahila districts on sample basis and Jharkhand Mahila Samakhya the rest were done through Samakhya) census data. NGOs 60   12 48 12 NGOs addresses not found.    Annexures  87 References 1. The largest among them include Santhal, Oraon, community levels of analysis. In J. Rappaport & Munda, Ho, Kharia, Bhumji, Lohra, Kharwar, E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community Chero, Bedia, Mal Paharia, and Mahli. psychology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 2. India Human Development Report 2011 (Towards Social Inclusion)” (PDF). IAMR, 7. Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New Planning Commission, Government of India. p. York, NY: Anchor Books. 257. Retrieved 27 March 2016. 8. 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