84210 TECHNICAL NOTE ON RURAL TRANSPORT IN MULTI-SECTORAL AND COMMUNITY DRIVEN PROJECTS THE WORLD BANK, WASHINGTON, DC March 2003 This Note provides practical guidance on rural marketing. This tends to be met by households transport interventions in multi-sectoral and community employing more efficient means of transport, in- driven projects. It is targeted at people and agencies cluding both motorized and non-motorized modes, involved with physical access issues at the community and not by significantly increasing the total time and local government levels. spent on transport. The Note starts with questions related to the type Rural communities feel the constraint of the large of the interventions and moves through to implementa- travel and transport burden but, as improved access is tion stages. Links to detailed references are given a derived demand and not an end in itself, the problem after each sub-section. The final sub-section on Key may be articulated in a wide range of different Issues is a checklist. ways. Moreover, certain transport burdens, particularly those concerned with women, children and related UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM AND FINDING to domestic duties, may not be perceived by communi- THE SOLUTION ties as an issue worthy of mention or susceptible to improvement. For these reasons, a good participatory Transport in rural areas planning process, combined with an awareness of of developing countries Studies in two areas of rural access issues, is required when planning rural consumes a great deal Tanzania found that, on transport interventions. average, each household of time and effort. A spent a total of 40 to 50 Lessons from efforts to improve rural transport lack of good access to hours per week on transport. underline the need for a planning process that takes a economic and social Women undertook about 80 holistic view and is facilities is a constraint percent of this and men 20 highly participatory. on development as well percent. The range of as a contributory factor potential solutions to high levels of poverty. Isolation sustains poverty and to rural transport accentuates vulnerability. problems can The scale of the transport effort expended by conveniently be many rural households in developing countries has grouped under three been revealed by a number of studies over the last headings: decade. The typical pattern to emerge is: • Improvements • An average adult spends between 1 and 2.5 hours to transport every day purely on travel and transport. A large infrastructure: part of this is associated with domestic tasks such This comprises not only roads but also paths as collecting water and takes place in and around tracks, trails and footbridges (and water transport the village on local tracks and paths. in some cases) that are important for many local • Because women are usually responsible for journeys as well as being feeders to the road net- domestic tasks, they often carry a disproportion- work. ately high part of • Improvements to the means of transport: Good the transport Makete, Tanzania infrastructure yields no benefit without the means burden. of transport to use it. Improvements to transport • The proportion of 7% services or the encouragement of a greater use of total time and intermediate means of transport are examples of effort spent on solutions that can often be the key to addressing marketing crops is rural access problems. relatively small. • Non-transport interventions, for example the Most other travel 93% relocation of facilities, can be the most effective outside the village means of improving access by reducing the dis- is for social, internal trips external trips tance between people and the services that they cultural and busi- want to access. This is primarily an issue of plan- ness reasons. ning and specialized tools such as Integrated Ru- • Local people of all cultural and economic back- ral Accessibility Planning (IRAP) can assist this grounds consistently rate good access to health process. facilities as one of their highest priorities. It can often be appropriate to address all three • There is a substantial jump in transport needs categories of solution, particularly in multi-sector when moving from subsistence agriculture into programs. Examples of the range of possible solutions 2 Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development are given in the table at the very end of this note. ment and community development. It should be part of ³Key Point: Improving rural transport needs an a national transport sector policy and support any understanding of the nature of the household transport strategies for rural development, decentralization, burden and data on the existing rural transport social action programs, and poverty reduction. The infrastructure network. Solutions to transport needs essentially local nature of rural transport requires can draw on a broad range of possible options and strategies to be developed with a high degree of local should not be restricted to road improvement alone. consultation. The strategy should spell out the roles Sustainable solutions require good participatory and responsibilities of the key stakeholders and methodologies. establish a clear system of classification of the Remember: A large number of trips made by rural network. people are in and Ownership of roads and other rural transport around their village Between Dharan and infrastructure must be defined in the national rural area on footpaths and Dhankuta in Eastern Nepal transport policy. There are at least two important foot traffic was measured at tracks away from the about 600,000 journeys per categories relevant to rural transport infrastructure road network. year on the porter trail with (RTI): Remember: In some about 7,000 tonnes of goods parts of the world, for imported annually. Responsible example, Sub- Authority Type Saharan Africa, women spend two to three times more hours per day than men in transport activities. District Local authority Roads connecting aCaution: Improved access can have negative (“Government”) villages with the district impacts for example, increase in illegal logging or headquarters other natural resource exploitation, displacement of Minor waterways and local industry, increase in traffic accidents (especially associated ferries to pedestrians), increase in crime. Links: Community Village Council / Roads*, tracks, paths Community within the village and • 1993. Dawson & Barwell. Roads are not Enough. Based those providing access IT Publications. Organization from the village to farms • 1996. Barwell. Transport and the Village, World (“Communal or and other socio- Bank Discussion Paper #344. Private”) economic activities http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp/Working%20P apers/SSATPWP23.pdf *For roads, also read rivers, waterways, canals and associated • 1996. Doran. Rural Transport. IT Publishing. jetties and wharves in certain situations • Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning District level RTI is the lowest level managed by http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/reco government. Government has tax authority and relies n/eiip/asist/index.htm on the budget to cover required expenditures. With Community level RTI is meant the structures that RURAL TRANSPORT POLICY AND STRATEGY directly serve a community and is owned by the Efforts to improve rural transport at the community and community, or association of villages or users . Such local government levels needs to take place within a associations are an integral part of the institutional national framework set by a rural transport policy and arrangement for managing roads in Sweden and strategy. Most countries, however, do not have rural Finland, and can usefully be explored also at the transport policies and strategies, and a common village level in developing countries. problem encountered with community level transport The role of the community in both district and infrastructure, particularly roads, is a lack of clarity community level transport infrastructure needs to be over ownership and the responsibility for managing spelled out in the rural transport strategy in respect of and, especially, maintaining the infrastructure. This identifying, planning and implementing improvements absence of policy and strategy is detrimental to the and future maintenance. Institutional arrangement sustainability of investments. including roles and responsibilities will differ by activity The rural transport policy should give the overall and level of the RTI network as illustrated in the table direction within the broader context of local govern- below: Identification Planning Implementation and maintenance Labor District Engineer or Local authority leads, District roads By contractors or force account Paid local people community consulted Community roads, Community leads, Often by community effort with limited Often Local people tracks and paths local authority supports outside support unpaid Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development 3 Remember: and effort spent on transport by households and can Ungazetted (unclas- Zambia Road contribute to increased economic activity. sified) roads usually Network Increased use can be achieved by a range of constitute the largest 7% measures such as credit schemes to encourage wider part of the road 8% ownership of means of transport, technical innovations network in terms of that introduce or adapt means of transport that are length. Their exact more efficient and suitable for local needs and 20% length and location community ownership or management of transport is rarely well services. Innovations such as introducing cycle trailers 65% documented. together with the training of local blacksmiths in their aCaution: Interven- trunk main fabrication and repair has been successfully carried tions made in the district ungazetted out in, for example, Sri Lanka where over 500 cycle absence of an trailers were purchased in one pilot scheme, many for overall policy and strategy have a high risk of being use by petty traders. fragmentary and lacking in the elements necessary for Households’ IMTs tend to be owned and operated sustainability. by men, thus vehicle ownership is an important issue aCaution: Often, due to a lack of clear ownership when assessing benefits. Where women control IMTs arrangements and lack of local government capacity, they are generally empowered by greater mobility and communities are given the task of managing roads access to transport services. Where men control IMTs, that belong to and should be taken care of by govern- women may still benefit indirectly if household tasks ment. All work on district roads should be paid. such as collecting water are taken over by men or Links: boys, resulting in a shift in the transport burden from • Howe. 1997. Transport for the Poor or Poor women to men. Transport. ILO. Motorized transport services are operated by both • Malmberg Calvo. 1998. Options for Managing public and private companies or individuals. The major and Financing Rural Transport Infrastructure. constraint to their introduction is often the lack of a World Bank Technical Paper #411. critical mass of demand to ensure a profit can be http://www.worlbank.org/afr/ssatp/techpaper/TP4 made. Motorized transport services tend to be more 11.pdf sensitive to the condition of infrastructure, as • Developing Rural Transport Policies and Strate- operators are reluctant to use routes where their gies. World Bank (forthcoming). vehicles risk damage or where they may periodically http://www.worldbank.org/transport/rural_tr/p&s_ get stuck. Loop roads are often better than dead end docs/ruralp&s.pdf roads for transport operators as they offer a greater • The Rural Transport Policy Toolkit. 2002. possibility for picking and dropping passengers and www.transport-links.org/PolicyToolkit.htm loads. Transport services can be encouraged by effec- tive regulation to support the provision of safe, reliable RURAL TRANSPORT SERVICES transport that is environmentally friendly and provided Rural areas are often characterized by relatively low in sufficient service quantity. Such regulation needs to transport density with few existing motorized vehicles. balance liberalization, which encourages entry into the In these situations the active promotion of rural market and active competition, with controls to ensure transport services can be as important as, or more minimum safety standards and to guard against the important than, the improvement of RTI. Almost formation of cartels that collude on prices and routes. invariably, the affordability and reliability of transport Rural communities are often captive markets due are more important to local people than its speed. to a lack of choice of transport service providers. The pre- Communities can B ang l ad esh T r af f ic M ix - dominant vehicles R ur al R o ad increase their in many rural Mot or bargaining power Bicycle areas are 47% vehicle by establishing bicycles, animal 7% user groups to carts, and pack negotiate with animals with a Ped- operators and typical range of est rian lobby govern- about 2 to 20 46% ment. More kilometers. These efficient services are often referred to as intermediate means of can be provided transport (IMTs). Promoting the increased use of where a good communication system exists. This can IMTs, either as a personal means of transport or as a promote efficient transport broker services for both low-cost, commercially operated transport service, can long-haul freight and the irregular needs of rural be an effective way of reducing the amount of time communities. Good communications (telephones, 4 Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development radio, e-mail) can also reduce the need for travel. For community-managed infrastructure an esti- aCaution: There are many examples of improved mate has to be made of the likely resources, primarily rural roads that carry little or no motor traffic due to a labor and/or cash, a community will be able to raise on lack of adequate transport services. Transport a continuous basis for future maintenance. This should services should always be assessed alongside rule the extent and level of any rural transport infra- investment consideration in roads and other RTI. structure improvement. Links: ³Key Point: Do not improve infrastructure beyond • Starkey et al. 2002. Improving Rural Mobility. the limit of what can be maintained in the future. World Bank Technical Paper #525. ³Key Point: Securing a steady source of mainte- http://www.worldbank.org/transport/publicat/twu- nance financing can generate significant local em- 48.pdf ployment for poor people. • I.T. Transport Ltd. 1996. Promoting Intermediate Links: Means of Transport. World Bank SSATP Working • Malmberg Calvo. 1998. Options for Managing and Paper #20. Financing Rural Transport Infrastructure. World http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp/Working Pa- Bank Technical Paper #411. pers/SSATPWP20.pdf http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp/techpaper/TP4 11.pdf MAINTENANCE FINANCING • Heggie, Ian G. and Piers Vickers. 1998. Commer- cial Management and Financing of Roads. World Establishing the source and amount of financing for Bank Technical Paper #409. future maintenance is key. Typically the government http://www.world- can only provide resources for maintenance of a part bank.org/afr/ssatp/techpaper/tp409.pdf of the main road networksometimes referred to as the “core network.”’ A guiding principle is that infrastructure improvements should only be carried out THE PROVISION OF BASIC ACCESS up to the limit of what can be maintained in the future. Design Standards Unless this principle is followed, improved There is a tendency to promote standards that are too infrastructure is likely to fall back into a state of high for low volume disrepair within a few years. infrastructure. This Road surface Suitable for The box below summarizes the potential sources is often because standard vpd of finance for rural transport infrastructure mainte- engineers have nance. For improvement works the same applies with little experience Earth 0 to 50 the addition of donor support. with, or confidence Gravel 20 to 500 in, the design of The potential sources for maintenance funding are any one very low trafficked or a combination of the following: Bitumen Over 200 infrastructure and • Central government sometimes organized through a are reluctant to vpd = average motor vehicles per user-financed Road Fund. depart from the day. • Local government from locally raised revenues. norms set for • Communities sometimes in the form of contributions in higher level roads. kind, for example, labor or as community road funds, Some guidelines for surface types for roads and tracks financed through local fund raising initiatives. are given in the adjacent table based on average Central government revenues are typically inadequate for tropical climatic conditions. Very wet or very dry the full maintenance needs of the lower end of the transport climates could modify these guidelines, and in those network, and they are often tied to specified roads or road areas where gravel is scarce, the use of alternative classes. surface treatments should be explored, for example, Local government revenues are often undeveloped and amounts are low in comparison to the maintenance needs of stone pitching, bituminous surface dressing, or leave the transport network. as earth surface and accept higher maintenance Community efforts are important but: requirements. The guiding principle is that the engineering stan- • Voluntary community efforts work best on infrastructure that communities own and for which they are responsi- dard of a road, track, path, waterway, footbridge or ble. wharf should be determined by the type and volume of • The community needs to be clear on why it should traffic that uses the infrastructure. Infrastructure that is provide resources (including its own labor) for road over-designed is not only more expensive than maintenance on certain roads when other roads are necessary to build, but also more expensive to maintained with government funds, i.e., there should maintain. be a clear and consistent policy. The running width of transport infrastructure • External support may be required in the form of should be the minimum necessary for the safe training, technical advice, and materials and equipment passage of traffic. Some guidelines are given below: not easily available at the community level. Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development 5 Width of a waterway, and (e) installing ramps to ease entry (metres) Type and Level of Traffic /exit to jetties. A key issue to consider in deciding the level of 1-2 Suitable for footpaths and routes for bicycles intervention is what level of access is the minimum desirable. Frequently people seek “all-weather” access 2.5 Minimum width for a track with animal carts and without defining if this is essential or even what it occasional motor vehicles strictly means. For example, a high level bridge at a river crossing may not be necessary if flash floods only 3 Minimum width for a single track road with passing places. Suitable for low volumes of cut the route for a few hours at a time. In a rural traffic situation in a developing country, “all weather” access usually means passable all year round to most 4.5 – 6 Narrow roads permitting two way traffic. vehicles, although there may be temporary closure Suitable for small rural roads with <100 vpd from time to time after heavy rain. The tolerable level of disruption should be established and may be >6 Two way roads permitting large vehicles to pass comfortably, and with >100 vpd affected, for example, by the need to move crops such as tea, which need to reach the factory quickly, or by the presence of a hospital accessed by the road. Why consider spot improvements? • Communities are often more concerned with improved “access” (or improved safety) than with smoother or faster routes. Access can be achieved cheaply and easily by focusing on the improvement of the main bot- tlenecks in the system (for example, where traffic is interrupted in the rainy season). • Traffic levels on the lower end of the transport infrastructure network are often so low that full rehabili- tation is not economically justifiable. Examples of Some Typical Width Standards for RTI • Spot improvement allows a fixed amount of investment Although there is usually only a marginal difference in cost to be spread over a wider geographical area giving between roads of slightly different widths, for example, 6 greater impact. meters and 4.5 meters, roads that are wider than necessary for the expected traffic should be avoided due to their tendency to • The highest economic return per unit of investment is lose shape quickly and higher future maintenance costs. usually gained by carrying out the minimum works nec- essary to open up access on a route to more efficient forms of transport. Levels of Intervention • The scale of work required for spot improvement is more achievable through voluntary community efforts The strategy adopted by many engineering depart- than full rehabilitation. ments is to carry out a program of full rehabilitation or improvement of transport infrastructure as part of a national program of steady expansion of the maintain- Appropriate Methods able network. However, there are strong reasons for As a basic principle, maximizing the use of local considering partial or spot improvement in the context resources for local infrastructure improvement has of community driven development and rural transport practical and economic benefits. In particular the use infrastructure. Some of the key reasons are given in of labor-based methods1 offers opportunities for the the box below. involvement of communities either as paid labor or as Spot improvement implies that only a small sec- part of a community contribution in kind to the invest- tion or sections of the road or waterway will be ment cost. Use of local stone masonry, or timber for improved. As these “spots” are likely to be the most structures can minimize costs and employ existing difficult sections of the route, quite a high unit cost of local skills. Collecting materials such as stone, improvement may be required at the spot. It is aggregate and sand by hand can provide income- essential to ensure that untreated sections are earning opportunities for local communities. adequate for the prevailing conditions and transport Using labor-based methods can produce a types, or the spot may quickly appear somewhere quality of work equal to that of machines for most road else. Typical examples of spot improvements are (a) building activities whilst potentially engendering a adding a gravel or stone pitched surface to a steep sense of local participation and ownership. However, section of an earth road; (b) installing a culvert at a low spot in the road; (c) replacing a ford on a footpath with 1 a footbridge; (d) clearing and dredging a short section Labor-based methods use labour supported by some light equipment, for example, for haulage and compaction. 6 Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development for good results these methods require good organiza- and costly to maintain. tion and strong supervision. A summary of the main Links: pros and cons of using labor-based methods is given • Lebo & Schelling. 2001. Design and Appraisal of in the following table. Rural Transport Infrastructure. World Bank TP No. 496. Advantages of labor-based Disadvantages of labor- http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp/techpaper/tp49 methods based methods 6.pdf • Keeps funds in local • Requires good • Dennis. 2002. Footpaths & Tracks: A Field Manual community organization for their Construction and Improvement. ILO. • Develops local skills • Requires strong • Longman. 1986. Building Roads by Hand. (which can be used later supervision for maintenance and repair • Requires available local • Hindson. 1986. Earth Roads their Construction of infrastructure as well as labor that is preferably and Maintenance. IT Publications. other income earning either unemployed or • Numerous references and links to labor-based opportunities); under-employed. construction can be found via the following Web • Develops sense of • Where labor is paid, page: ownership in the commu- requires timely payment nity of wages http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employ- • Good for small and • Risks of labor exploita- ment/recon/eiip/asist/index.htm dispersed parcels of work tion • Creates local employment • Risk of bias in commu- MAINTENANCE EXECUTION • Saves foreign exchange nity for or against • Raises consciousness and infrastructure as devel- Arrangements for maintenance of the improved commitment to continuing opment priority depend- infrastructure need to be clearly established before maintenance ing on whether labor is proceeding with any improvements. This is important paid or not. as any delay in establishing maintenance, especially on an improved earth or gravel road, can lead to rapid Where labor is unpaid, there are a number of issues to deterioration and loss of the investment. be considered: There is often an inadequate understanding of the • Is the work being carried out predominantly by concept of “maintenance” in many countries. It is one group from within the community, for exam- sometimes perceived as a one-off activity rather than ple, women or the poor? a continuous responsibility. There is also a distinction • Is it possible to exercise sufficient discipline in the between “routine maintenance” activities needed on a unpaid workforce to be able to provide effective very regular basis and “periodic maintenance” supervision? activities” needed • Is the principle that labor is unpaid biasing the only at intervals of decisions of communities away from selecting several years. projects involving a high labor element? Moreover, mainte- One way of avoiding any possible bias for or against nance is frequently labor intensive solutions on cost grounds is to ensure confused with re- that cost sharing habilitation. Rehab- arrangements are ilitation becomes based on “total necessary when costs,” with the maintenance is not value of unpaid done. labor included Communities have a vested interest in good main- based on the tenance. They can carry out the work as they are on market wage rate. the spot and the work necessary is generally straight- Using labor- forward requiring a minimum of training and resources. based methods, For the district road system, the work should be the labor content in supervised and paid by the local authority. On road construction and improvement costs is typically in community roads, tracks and paths, community efforts the range 30 to 50 percent of construction cost. For on periodic “work days” are more usually applied. maintenance work the percentage labor cost can be in Although with community maintenance funds it is the range 50 to 80 percent. Corresponding percent- possible to set up conventional routine maintenance ages for equipment based work are 10 percent or less. approaches using paid local labor. ³Key Point: Provide infrastructure suited to future Training of village-based road foreman in road needs. Use local resources and labor-based methods maintenance and repairs has proved a good invest- as much as possible. ment in some cases. They can be employed on the aCaution: Avoid over-design that is costly to build maintenance of the district roads in their locality as Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development 7 and when required by the local authority. They can Design appropriate to enable local maintenance also be the specialists in their own community on the (skills, technology, materials available etc.). repair and maintenance of local roads, tracks and paths. Approach The cost of maintenance is not insignificant. A rule Approach maximizes resource concentration for of thumb is that approximately 5 percent of the capital the local community. cost of RTI is required annually for maintenance. For Framework for future decision making regarding an earth or gravel road, routine maintenance costs the infrastructure includes users. would typically be in the range USD200 to USD1,500 Maximization of skills transfer. per kilometer per year. Equitable distribution of paid and unpaid work ³Key Point: Formal agreements with owners respectively. concerning responsibilities for future maintenance Good supervision of work (time /quality). should be a precondition for investment in infrastruc- Community involved in monitoring progress and ture. quality of work. Remember: USD1 invested in timely maintenance Community contribution and ownership acknowl- can typically save USD4 in future repair or rehabilita- edged and publicized. tion costs and additional vehicle operating costs. aCaution: Studies in the 1980s in sub-Saharan Maintenance Africa estimated that for every kilometer of road being Responsibilities and roles in maintenance clarified built or rehabilitated, three kilometers were falling into and publicized: formal agreements in place. disrepair due to a lack of maintenance. Funds and other resources for maintenance Links: secured and agreements signed. • ORN 1 and 2 Maintenance Management for Training/awareness raising provided in planning District Engineers. and managing maintenance, budgeting and fi- • International Road Maintenance Handbooks nancing maintenance, civic care, etc. Volumes I-IV (PIARC). Maintenance plans and program in place. • Guidelines on Community Participation in Road National/regional maintenance systems fair and Maintenance. consistent. • Refer to standard texts such as the “Overseas Road Note” series or PIARC Manuals for explana- Evaluation tions of good practice. Social and economic impacts assessed. i. http://www.transport- Community involved in monitoring and evaluation links.org/trans- of process and impact. port_links/publications/publications_search.as Quality standards adhered to. ii. http://www.piarc.lcpc.fr/pub/03-05-e.htm;. p Maintenance program operating. Short term economic benefits through labor intensive methods assessed. KEY ISSUES: CHECKLIST Appropriateness of design for the need. Ownership Rural Transport Policy and/or legal framework in place specifying ownership and responsibilities. Where community assumes responsibilities: Owner of infrastructure (for example, local government or community) identified in all cases. Community selection of access points for im- provement. Community approve design. Community contribution fully acknowledged. Planning and Design Community priority (a priority for access reasons, not short term employment generation). Clear articulation of access issues (disaggregated by users; poor/non poor, gender, age). Participatory review of alternative solutions (which is documented and justified). Designs shared with and endorsed by users. Designs 'good enough' for the purpose. Potential negative impacts assessed. 8 Technical Note on Rural Transport and Community Driven Development Some alternative solutions to access problems Improvement to physical Improvement in transport Non-transport interventions infrastructure services • Construction / Upgrading / • Community owned or • Relocation or improvement/upgrading of services into Rehabilitation managed buses community e.g. health posts, informal education, resident agri-extensionists, water provision, fire wood cultivation • Spot improvements/spot • Ferries repairs • More fuel efficient stoves • Bicycles/bicycle trailers • Road maintenance • Improve telecommunications • Motorcycle ambulances • Improved footpaths – safer / • Crop diversification - less perishable/subject to damage, low made accessible to bicycles • Animal carts volume/weight but high value crops and carts • Improved collective • Improved services/facilities at collection points/service points • Improved waterways – better transport arrangements outside community, for example, proper storage, waiting wharves/jetties out of community for area/accommodation/sanitation facilities/secure parking for example, access to trucks/bicycles etc for drivers/head loaders, boarding ac- • Footbridges – for example, collection points for commodation for students/ those accompanying the sick etc on routes to school crops/people • Agro-processing in situ - reduces perishability/volume and • Steps, handrails, stepping • Capacity building of allows transportation in season when access easiest and stones, (for headload- transport operator and value higher ing/draught animals) user groups. This Note has been prepared by the Rural Transport Thematic Group in collaboration with the Social Develop- ment Department, the Social Funds Thematic Groups, and the Agriculture and Rural Development Department, with the assistance of Intermediate Technology Transport Ltd. For additional copies of this Note or queries, please contact the World Bank Transport Help Desk, transport@worldbank.org