2017/78 Supported by k nKonw A A weldegdeg e ol n oNtoet e s eSrei r e ise s f ofro r p r&a c t hteh e nEenregryg y Etx itcrea c t i v e s G l o b a l P r a c t i c e The bottom line Minerals and Metals to Meet the Needs of a Meeting the requirements of the Paris Agreement to keep Low-Carbon Economy the global average temperature from rising more than 2ºC Why is this issue important? and 6º (6DS). From that data, we then extrapolated what minerals above pre-industrial levels would be required to manufacture each of the three technology will mean vastly expanded The technologies essential to the effort to limit groups (wind, solar, and batteries) to meet the three scenarios. use of low-carbon sources of climate change will affect demand for minerals The technologies and transmission systems implicated in each of electricity, such as wind and used in their manufacturing the scenarios will cover a much wider range than that reviewed here. solar power, as well as advanced For example, in the 2º scenario the overall share of renewable energy technologies for long-term As nations strive to meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on generation in the energy mix would likely rise from the present level energy storage. These demands climate change, which calls for “holding the increase in the global of 14 percent to 44 percent and would include carbon capture and will increase demand for many average temperature to … below 2ºC above pre-industrial levels,”1 storage, hydropower, biomass, and nuclear technologies. But this minerals, including a range of solar power, wind power, energy-storage systems (batteries), and other brief and the larger work behind it are intended to engender a wider base and rare earth metals. technologies will become a much larger part of the globe’s energy discussion among experts and policy makers around the material By planning ahead, resource- systems. Countries that have the capacity and infrastructure to supply implications of a carbon-constrained future. rich developing countries can the minerals and metals required for these technologies have an prepare themselves to meet the opportunity to benefit from this growing market, but only if they do so in a sustainable manner—one that takes into account the impact of What effects will green energy have on the use of challenges and opportunities afforded by increased demand operations on local communities, water and ecosystems, energy use, specific metals and minerals? for minerals. and greenhouse gas emissions. The World Bank can support client Wind, solar, and storage technologies all countries in this endeavor and, in so doing, help them meet the twin Kirsten Lori Hund is a goals of ending extreme poverty and promoting shared prosperity. have a range of demand implications senior mining specialist in The World Bank commissioned an analysis to investigate the The accompanying figures present estimated mineral demand for the World Bank’s Energy key role minerals and metals will play in supplying a low-carbon each of the three technologies covered in this study. Figure 1 shows and Extractives Global economy. This Live Wire is a summary of that analysis (World Bank the wind energy technology production curves for the 2º, 4º, and Practice. 2017). As a starting point, we used climate and technology scenarios 6º warming-limit scenarios. In all three scenarios, electricity Daniele La Porta developed in the International Energy Agency’s Energy Technology production from wind power (particularly onshore wind) will rise is a senior mining Perspectives 2016 to estimate the technologies that would have to rapidly through 2050. Figure 2 presents an estimate of the increase specialist in the same practice. be deployed to meet warming-limit scenarios of 2º (2DS), 4º (4DS), in demand for key metals that would be created by deployment of wind-power technologies sufficient to meet the 2º and 4º scenarios. John Drexhage is a consultant in the same The impact is expressed as increases through 2050 over deployment 1 The Paris Agreement was adopted in December 2015 by the Conference of the Parties to practice. the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The 2º warming limit appears in under the 6º scenario. Figure 3 illustrates increases in the generation article 2 of the agreement. 2 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Figure 1. Electricity generation from wind power under the 2º, 4º, and 6º warming-limit scenarios, 2013–50 8,000 7,000 Yearly production (terawatt-hours) Precise estimates of 6,000 Wind (onshore): 2DS demand for metals hinge Wind (offshore): 2DS 5,000 Wind (total): 2DS on (1) the degree to which 4,000 the global community Wind (onshore): 4DS Wind (offshore): 4DS actually succeeds in 3,000 Wind (total): 4DS meeting its long-term 2,000 Wind (onshore): 6DS climate goals, as laid out Wind (offshore): 6DS 1,000 Wind (total): 6DS in the Paris Agreement, and (2) intra-technology 0 2013 2018 2023 2028 2033 2038 2043 2048 choices. The question is not only how many wind Source: World Bank (2017). turbines, solar panels, and low-emission vehicles will of electricity from solar photovoltaic energy under the 2º, 4º, and 6º Precise estimates of demand for metals hinge on (1) the degree be deployed, but which warming scenarios through 2050. Figure 4 is analogous to figure 2, to which the global community actually succeeds in meeting its technologies will come out but for solar PV. long-term climate goals, as laid out in the Paris Agreement, and (2) on top in each category. Finally, with respect to batteries, figure 5 projects the energy intra-technology choices. The question is not only how many wind storage required (in gigawatt-hours) for each of the three climate turbines, solar panels, and low-emission vehicles will be deployed, scenarios to 2050. Storage demand spikes sharply under the 2º sce- but which technologies will come out on top in each category. nario owing to substantial increases in the use of electric vehicles, With respect to wind, geared turbines, mostly land based, cur- as shown in the top panel of the figure. In this scenario, documented rently predominate; they contain coil-driven generators that require in IEA (2016), 140 million electric vehicles would be in operation by significant amounts of copper. By contrast, direct-drive wind tur- 2030, versus approximately 25 million in the more pessimistic 4º and bines—mostly used for offshore operations—are less maintenance 6º scenarios. The projections for automotive battery energy storage intensive but require certain costly rare earth metals. The same after 2030 are based on assumed annual growth rates of approxi- can be said of solar, where there are four competing technologies, mately 20 percent per year. The bottom panel of figure 5 shows the evolution of demand for other forms of energy storage capacity each of which carries different implications for minerals and metals under the three scenarios. demand. The implications of increased use of storage batteries on demand Intra-technology choices will probably be most important in for certain metals are remarkable. Figure 6 charts the increment in transportation. For example, electric, hybrid, and hydrogen have very demand under the 2º and 4º scenarios over the 6º scenario, showing different implications for metal demand: electric vehicles require increases in the range of 1,200 percent. lithium; hybrid, lead; and hydrogen, platinum. 3 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Figure 2. Increased demand for key metals occasioned by deployment of wind-power technologies sufficient to meet the 2º and 4º scenarios, expressed as increases over deployment under the 6º scenario 300 250 The technologies and transmission systems 2DS 200 4DS Change (percent) implicated in each of the scenarios will cover a 150 much wider range than that reviewed here. 100 For example, in the 50 2º scenario the overall share of renewable energy 0 Aluminum Chromium Copper Iron Lead Manganese Molybdenum Neodymium Nickel Zinc generation in the energy mix would likely rise from Source: World Bank (2017). the present level of 14 percent to 44 percent and would include carbon Figure 3. Electricity generation from solar photovoltaic energy under the 2º, 4º, and 6º warming-limit scenarios, 2013–50 capture and storage, 5,000 hydropower, biomass, and 2DS 4,500 nuclear technologies. But 4DS 4,000 6DS this brief and the larger Yearly production (terawatt-hours) 3,500 work behind it are intended 3,000 to engender a wider 2,500 discussion among experts and policy makers around 2,000 the material implications 1,500 of a carbon-constrained 1,000 future. 500 0 2013 2018 2023 2028 2033 2038 2043 2048 Source: World Bank (2017). 4 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Figure 4. Increased demand for key metals occasioned by deployment of solar photovoltaic technologies sufficient to meet the 2º and 4º scenarios, expressed as increases over deployment under the 6º scenario 350 300 The most notable finding is the global dominance of 250 2DS China in the base and rare 4DS Change (percent) 200 earth metals that will be required to manufacture 150 low-carbon technologies. 100 China’s production and reserve levels often dwarf 50 those of others, even resource-rich developed 0 Aluminum Copper Indium Iron Lead Molybdenum Nickel Silver Zinc countries such as Canada Source: World Bank (2017). and the United States. What should mineral-rich developing countries be Africa is also potentially significant given its reserves of platinum, doing to prepare for changes in demand? manganese, bauxite, and chromium ores. Most of these reserves and production activities are in southern African, with the exception of Resource surveys, market intelligence, long-term Guinea. The lack of data and information on metals outside the south plans, and capital outlays will be necessary may reflect survey gaps more than the actual absence of those A long-term trend toward greener energy and a low-carbon future metals. For example, it is a relative certainty that Africa does, in fact, will create global opportunities with respect to a number of metals contain rare earth metals. What has not occurred is any comprehen- and minerals. sive survey of its potential resources and how difficult it might be to This has implications for resource-rich developing countries. Latin translate those resources into reserves. America is in a relatively strong position to become a supplier for the With respect to Asia, the most notable finding is the global climate-friendly energy transition, with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and dominance of China in the base and rare earth metals that will Peru being the best-positioned countries. Bolivia is also potentially be required to manufacture low-carbon technologies. China’s set to benefit should it be able to translate its resources, such as production and reserve levels often dwarf those of others, even lithium, into recognized reserves. Particular metals for which Latin resource-rich developed countries such as Canada, the United America holds a key strategic advantage include copper, iron ore, States, and, to a lesser extent, Australia. India is dominant in iron, silver and lithium; the region is also active in the aluminum, nickel, steel, and titanium, and Indonesia has opportunities with bauxite and manganese, and zinc sectors. nickel, as does Malaysia, though to a lesser extent. In Oceania, the 5 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Figure 5. Global energy storage capacity scenarios Top panel shows electric vehicle scenario only; the impact of the 2º scenario on demand for electric-car batteries is evident. Bottom panel shows all degree/storage combinations 200,000 180,000 Under the 2º scenario, 160,000 140 million electric vehicles Gigawatt hours of storage 140,000 would be in operation by 120,000 2030, versus approximately 25 million in the more 100,000 pessimistic 4º and 80,000 6º scenarios. … The 60,000 Energy storage (automotive): 2º scenario implications of increased 40,000 Energy storage (grid scale): 2º scenario Energy storage (decentralized): 2º scenario use of storage batteries on 20,000 Energy storage (automotive): 4º and 6º scenarios demand for certain metals 0 2013 2018 2023 2028 2033 2038 2043 2048 Energy storage (grid scale): 4º scenario are remarkable. Energy storage (decentralized): 4º scenario Energy storage (grid scale): 6º scenario 10,000 Energy storage (decentralized): 6º scenario 9,000 8,000 Gigawatt hours of storage 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 2013 2018 2023 2028 2033 2038 2043 2048 Note: 2DS = 2º scenario; 4DS = 4º scenario; 6DS = 6º scenario. Scenario data obtained from IEA (2015), International Electrotechnical Commission (2009), and IEA Energy Technology Perspectives (2016). 6 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Figure 6. Percentage change in demand for metals for energy storage technologies under 2º and 4º scenarios through 2050, expressed as percentage increase over demand in 6º scenario, 1,400 1,200 To make the most of the opportunities, developing 1,000 2DS countries will have to 4DS Change (percent) forge long-term strategies 800 and make appropriate 600 investments. Those investments, however, 400 imply significant upfront 200 capital spending based on assumptions about 0 Aluminum Cobalt Iron Lead Lithium Manganese Nickel the value of relevant commodities a half- Source: World Bank (2017). Note: 2DS = 2º scenario; 4DS = 4º scenario. century ahead, given the typical life span of mines. Countries will also have massive reserves of nickel to be found in New Caledonia should not In its concluding section, the report provides a set of recommen- to be flexible enough to be overlooked. dations for future work related to policy and technology. meet evolving demand To make the most of the opportunities, developing countries will Policy-related areas of inquiry include the following: for individual metals and have to forge long-term strategies and make appropriate invest- Achieving balance between opportunity and sustainability. ments. Those investments, however, imply significant upfront capital Studies on the commodity implications of a carbon-constrained minerals as the component spending based on assumptions about the value of relevant com- future typically focus on current reserves and the relative level mix of low-carbon modities a half-century ahead, given the typical life span of mines. of availability and access to materials needed to produce clean technologies changes with Countries will also have to be flexible enough to meet evolving technologies under various scenarios. However, there is a growing economic and technical demand for individual metals and minerals as the component mix awareness that clean technologies may pose new challenges for the of low-carbon technologies changes with economic and technical sustainable development of minerals and resources. What is needed developments. developments. To position themselves well, they will need reliable in resource-rich developing countries is dialogue between the mining sources of economic data and market intelligence, as well as the and clean-energy constituencies to balance the opportunities offered capacity to turn that information into plans, investments, and by a growing market for key commodities with concern for equity sustainable operations. and environmental sustainability. 7 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Mapping minerals in developing countries. There is a significant Going forward, the World Bank will work with these constituen- Make further gap in mineral mapping and data reporting in many developing cies to further define the minerals and metals implications of the connections country regions, particularly Africa. Capacity in this area is critical if shift to green energy and to develop policies and other measures resource-rich developing countries are to make the most of global that will ensure that the transition is managed in a way that com- Live Wire 2016/58. changes in demand for their resources. plements the full array of sustainable development priorities, from “Mining for Inclusive Predicting technology choice based on supply constraints environmental and resource concerns to equitable economic growth Growth in Odisha, India,” and demand patterns. Much of the uncertainty about potential in developing countries. by Sridar P. Kannan and demand for many metals arises as much from choices within given Peter Van Der Veen. technologies as it does from choices between them. Knowing where References supply constraints may lie and where prices are most likely to rise Live Wire 2017/72. IEA (International Energy Agency). 2016. Energy Technology will certainly affect some of these intra-technology choices, which, in “What Drives the Price Perspectives 2016: Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems. turn, will help clarify demand. of Solar Photovoltaic Paris. Developing networks and raising awareness. One of the out- Electricity in Developing ———. 2015. Energy Technology Perspectives 2015: Mobilising comes of this analysis is the realization that the implications of this Countries?” by Zuzana Innovation to Accelerate Climate Action. Paris. work go far beyond the minerals and metals community as narrowly Dobrotkova, Pierre Audinet, International Electrotechnical Commission. 2009. Electrical Energy construed. Linkages should be pursued and facilitated with research and Gevorg Sargsyan. Storage White Paper. Geneva. http://www.iec.ch/whitepaper/pdf/ organizations, business associations, and civil society (including iecWPenergystorage-LR-en.pdf. public-interest groups). Morris, Lindsay. 2011. “Direct Drive vs. Gearbox: Progress on Both Technology-related areas of inquiry pertain mostly to Fronts.” Power Engineering (online), March 1. http://www. expanding the scope of future clean technologies. Areas to be power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/ covered may include electrical cabling and high-efficiency electric direct-drive-vs-gearbox-progress-on-both-fronts.html. motors; ways to reduce vehicle weight; increasing the energy effi- USGS (U.S. Geological Survey). 2016. Mineral Commodities Summaries ciency of buildings and technologies; new options for transmission 2016. Reston, VA, USA. and distribution; and the metal intensity of traditional and next-gen- World Bank. 2017. The Growing Role of Minerals and Metals for a Low eration fossil fuel plants and nuclear facilities; differences between Carbon Future. Washington, DC. June. key rare earth metals; and recycling. Key rare earth metals differ widely in how they are isolated (rare The report summarized in this Live Wire was developed as a collaboration earth metals are typically not economically or physically retrievable between the World Bank’s Oil, Gas, and Mining team of the Energy and as discrete ores but are often enmeshed with other base metals) and Extractives Global Practice (GEEDR) and the Climate Change Group (CCSA). in where they are found. The team was led by Daniele La Porta and Kirsten Hund, with Michael McCormick and Jagabanta Ningthoujam. John Drexhage is the primary author. The recycling of metals from end-of-life products can improve the future availability of those metals, but data on both current and future metal recycling rates are often poor and should be improved. This report on which this Live Wire is based is a first step in examining the implications of changing material requirements for the mining and metals industry as the world contemplates a low-carbon energy future. It is intended to engender a broader dialogue between the clean energy, climate, and extractives communities on their roles in shaping that future. 8 M i n e r a l s a n d M e ta l s t o M e e t t h e N e e d s o f a L o w - C a r b o n Ec o n o m y Get Connected to Live Wire Live Wires are designed for easy reading on the screen and for downloading The Live Wire series of online knowledge notes is an initiative of the World Bank Group’s Energy and self-printing in color or “Live Wire is designed and Extractives Global Practice, reflecting the emphasis on knowledge management and solu- black and white. tions-oriented knowledge that is emerging from the ongoing change process within the Bank for practitioners inside Group. For World Bank employees: and outside the Bank. Professional printing can Each Live Wire delivers, in 3–6 attractive, highly readable pages, knowledge that is immediately It is a resource to relevant to front-line practitioners. also be undertaken on a customized basis for share with clients and specific events or occasions Live Wires take a variety of forms: counterparts.” • Topic briefs offer technical knowledge on key issues in energy and extractives by contacting GSDPM • Case studies highlight lessons from experiences in implementation Customer Service Center at • Global trends provide analytical overviews of key energy and extractives data (202) 458-7479, or sending a • Bank views portray the Bank Group’s activities in the energy and extractives sectors written request to cgsdpm@ • Private eyes present a private sector perspective on topical issues in the field worldbank.org. Each Live Wire will be peer-reviewed by seasoned practitioners in the Bank. Once a year, the Energy and Extractives Global Practice takes stock of all notes that appeared, reviewing their quality and identifying priority areas to be covered in the following year’s pipeline. Please visit our Live Wire web page for updates: http://www.worldbank.org/energy/livewire e Pa c i f i c 2014/28 ainable energy for all in easT asia and Th 1 Tracking Progress Toward Providing susT TIVES GLOBAL PRACTICE A KNOWLEDGE NOTE SERIES FOR THE ENERGY & EXTRAC THE BOTTOM LINE Tracking Progress Toward Providing Sustainable Energy where does the region stand on the quest for sustainable for All in East Asia and the Pacific 2014/29 and cenTral asia energy for all? in 2010, eaP easTern euroPe sT ainable en ergy for all in databases—technical measures. This note is based on that frame- g su v i d i n had an electrification rate of Why is this important? ess Toward Pro work (World Bank 2014). SE4ALL will publish an updated version of 1 Tracking Progr 95 percent, and 52 percent of the population had access Tracking regional trends is critical to monitoring the GTF in 2015. to nonsolid fuel for cooking. the progress of the Sustainable Energy for All The primary indicators and data sources that the GTF uses to track progress toward the three SE4ALL goals are summarized below. consumption of renewable (SE4ALL) initiative C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E ENERGY & EXTRA • Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured T E S E R I E S F O R T H EIn declaring 2012 the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for energy decreased overall A KNO W L E D G E N Oand 2010, though by the percentage of the population with an electricity between 1990 All,” the UN General Assembly established three objectives to be connection and the percentage of the population with access Energy modern forms grew rapidly. d Providing Sustainable accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern energy energy intensity levels are high to nonsolid fuels.2 These data are collected using household Tracking Progress Towar services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in the global surveys and reported in the World Bank’s Global Electrification but declining rapidly. overall THE BOTTOM LINE energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement in energy e and Central Asia trends are positive, but bold Database and the World Health Organization’s Household Energy for All in Eastern Europ efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012). stand policy measures will be required where does the region setting Database. The SE4ALL objectives are global, with individual countries on that frame- on the quest for sustainable to sustain progress. is based share of renewable energy in the their own national targets databases— technical in a measures. way that is Thisconsistent with the overall of • Renewable energy. The note version energy for all? The region SE4ALL will publish an updated their ability energy mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy to Why is this important ? spirit of the work initiative. (World Bank Because2014). countries differ greatly in has near-universal access consumption that is derived from renewable energy resources. of trends is critical to monitoring to pursue thetheGTF in 2015. three objectives, some will make more rapid progress GTF uses to Data used to calculate this indicator are obtained from energy electricity, and 93 percent Tracking regional othersindicators primary will excel and data sources that elsewhere, depending on their the while the population has access le Energy for All in one areaThe goals are summarized below. balances published by the International Energy Agency and the the progress of the Sustainab respective track starting progress pointstowardand the three SE4ALL comparative advantages as well as on services is measured to nonsolid fuel for cooking. access. Accessthat they modern to are able to energy marshal. United Nations. despite relatively abundant (SE4ALL) initiative the resources and support Energy with an electricity connection Elisa Portale is an l Year of Sustainable Energy for To sustain percentage of by the momentum forthe the population achievement of the SE4ALL 2• Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency hydropower, the share In declaring 2012 the “Internationa energy economist in with access to nonsolid fuels. three global objectives objectives, andathe means of charting percentage of the population global progress to 2030 is needed. is approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of renewables in energy All,” the UN General Assembly established the Energy Sector surveys and reported access to modern universalAssistance The World TheseBank and data are the collected International using household Energy Agency led a consor- of energy intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total consumption has remained to be accomplished by 2030: to ensure Management Database and the World of theenergy intium of 15 renewable international in the World Bank’s Global agencies toElectrification establish the SE4ALL Global primary energy consumption to gross domestic product (GDP) energy the 2010 share of Program (ESMAP) relatively low. very high energy services, to double Database. measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to 1 t ’s Household provides Energy a system for regular World Bank’s Energy the global rate of improvemen and Extractives Tracking Framework Health (GTF), which Organization in the energy intensity levels have come and to double the global energy mix, Global Practice. (SE4ALL 2012). based on energy. of renewable The sharepractical, rigorous—yet energy given available calculate energy intensity are obtained from energy balances to the period 1990–2010 global reporting, Renewable down rapidly. The big questions in energy efficiency relative setting by the percentage of total final energy consumption published by the International Energy Agency and the United evolve Joeri withde Wit is an countries individual mix is measured Data used to are how renewables will The SE4ALL objectives are global, economist in with the overall from renewable energy when every resources. person on the planet has access Nations. picks up a way energy that is consistent 1 The universal derived that isaccess goal will be achieved balances published when energy demand in from energy their own national targets through electricity, clean cooking fuels, clean heating fuels, rates the Bank’s Energy and countries differ greatly in their ability calculate this indicator are obtained to modern energy services provided productive use and community services. The term “modern solutions” cookingNations. again and whether recent spirit of the initiative. Because Extractives Global rapid progress and energy for Energy Agency and the United liquefied petroleum gas), 2 Solid fuels are defined to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural will make more by the refers to solutions International that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including is pellets and briquettes), and of decline in energy intensity some t of those of efficiency energy and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed biomass (such as to pursue the three objectives, Practice. depending on their or solid/liquid fuels paired with Energy efficiency. The rate stoves exhibiting of overall improvemen emissions rates at or near other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). will excel elsewhere, rate (CAGR) of energy will continue. in one area while others liquefied petroleum gas (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). annual growth as well as on approximated by the compound and comparative advantages is the ratio of total primary energy respective starting points marshal. where energy intensity that they are able to intensity, measured in purchas- the resources and support domestic product (GDP) for the achievement of the SE4ALL consumption to gross calculate energy intensity Elisa Portale is an To sustain momentum terms. Data used to charting global progress to 2030 is needed. ing power parity (PPP) the International energy economist in objectives, a means of balances published by the Energy Sector International Energy Agency led a consor- are obtained from energy The World Bank and the SE4ALL Global Energy Agency and the United Nations. Management Assistance agencies to establish the the GTF to provide a regional and tium of 15 international for regular This note uses data from Program (ESMAP) of the which provides a system for Eastern Tracking Framework (GTF), the three pillars of SE4ALL World Bank’s Energy and Extractives on rigorous—yet practical, given available country perspective on Global Practice. global reporting, based has access Joeri de Wit is an will be achieved when every person on the planet The universal access goal heating fuels, clean cooking fuels, clean energy economist in 1 agricultural provided through electricity, biomass (wood, charcoal, to modern energy services The term “modern cooking solutions” to include both traditional and briquettes), and Solid fuels are defined the Bank’s Energy and use and community services. biomass (such as pellets 2 and energy for productive petroleum gas), and so on), processed fuels (including liquefied and forest residues, dung, involve electricity or gaseous at or near those of Extractives Global refers to solutions that overall emissions rates other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). with stoves exhibiting Practice. or solid/liquid fuels paired (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). liquefied petroleum gas