A RESOURCE GUIDE FOR MUNICIPALITIES: COMMUNITY BASED CRIME AND VIOLENCE The World Bank Department of Finance, PREVENTION IN URBAN LATIN AMERICA Private Sector and Infrastructure Latin American Region A RESOURCE GUIDE FOR MUNICIPALITIES: COMMUNITY BASED CRIME AND VIOLENCE The World Bank Department of Finance, PREVENTION IN URBAN LATIN AMERICA Private Sector and Infrastructure Latin American Region 3 This guide is also available in Spanish and in Portuguese. For more information or comments write to: Bvanbronkhorst@worldbank.org. November, 2003 Latin America and Caribbean Region LCSFP--Urban, Disaster Management, Water and Sanitation Group. World Bank The photographs illustrating this publication were taken by the young participants of the Human Rights Observatory Project in several low-income neighborhoods in Sao Paulo, Brazil The Human Rights Observatory Project Engaged 30 young inhabitants in low-income neighborhoods in Sao Paulo, Brazil. They were trained to work as observers of the human rights situation in their comunities. The project was developed and coordinated by the NGO "Sou da Paz" and NEV-Nucleo de Estudos da Violência, University of Sao Paulo. Design and Production by: Fisher Design 4 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America Preface: We are most grateful and indebted to the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and Institute for Security Studies in South Africa. In our search for Best Practice in community crime and violence prevention around the world we came across the excellent and practical hands-on manuals that institutions developed in the area of community based crime preven- tion. We immediately felt that their clear and step-by-step approach might also be immense- ly useful to practitioners grappling with similar issues in the Latin American context. Part II of the present manual was directly adapted from the publication Making South Africa Safe--A Manual for Community Based Crime Prevention, developed for the South African Department of Safety and Security by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Institute for Security Studies (ISS). The original document can be accessed at http://www.csir.co.za/shs. we are very grateful to the authors of the manual for waiving their copyrights in the interest of disseminating their work. This publication would not have been possible without the generous support of the Bank- Netherlands Partnership Program (B-NPP). In addition, we also gratefully acknowledge the work of many individuals and groups--from both Latin America and around the world-- whose research, experiences, and Best Practice we have used extensively. In particular we would like to mention the work on crime and violence prevention of: the World Health Organization (WHO), PAHO, the Inter American Development Bank (IDB), the Safer Cities Programme of UN-Habitat, and the International Center for the Prevention of Crime. This manual was assembled by Bernice van Bronkhorst under the guidance of Marianne Fay, and greatly benefited from extensive background research by Veronique Staco. 5 I: Setting the Stage I: Setting the Stage 1. Foreword The purpose of this Resource Book is to Habitat, WHO, and the International provide Latin American Mayors with Center for the Prevention of Crime information on how to design violence and crime reduction programs. It brings Our goal, when putting together this together the best information we could find Resource Book, was both very modest and on best practice principles, step-by-step very ambitious. Modest, because we did not approaches, and examples of international attempt to do any original research--rather While not municipal crime and violence prevention to synthesize useful information. Ambitious, and reduction strategies. because it is our sincere hope that it can be a new useful to mayors and city officials tackling phenomenon The bulk of the report simply reproduces difficult problems of crime and violence. in most of the "Manual for Community Based Crime Thus, our goal is that this guide--whether Prevention" developed by the Government followed in full or just piecemeal--can Latin America, of South Africa, which we adapted to the provide municipalities that are devising their crime and Latin American context mostly by adding own crime and violence prevention violence have examples from the region. We also draw strategies with some helpful--and above all, increased on the work of many other agencies such practical--advice, resources, and inspiration. as the Safer Cities Programme of UN- dramatically in recent decades 2. Brief overview of urban crime and violence in Latin America While not a new phenomenon in most of trafficking are often cited as root causes of Latin America, crime and violence have this increase. Crime and violence affects all increased dramatically in recent decades levels of society: the rich and--even and are now recognized as a serious more--the poor, women and men, and economic and social problem, particularly young and old. The economic costs of crime in the urban areas of the region. Rapid and violence are high. It is estimated that urbanization, persistent poverty and homicides in Latin America cost inequality, political violence, the more approximately USD $27,737 million each organized nature of crime, and the year and that the region loses 14% of its emergence of illegal drug use and drug GDP to violence (Guerrero, 1999). Urban 8 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America I: SETTING crime and violence also generate a climate of In 1993 the World Bank estimated that rape THE fear. The fear of crime and violence are and domestic violence caused 9 million ST `serious threats to the stability and social disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) to be AGE climate of cities, to sustainable and economic lost annually in the world, more than the development, the quality of life and human total for all type of cancers affecting women, and more than double the total rights'. (UN-Habitat Safer Cities, 2002). DALYs lost by women in motor vehicle accidents. (Reference?). In El Salvador The costs of crime and violence are often 178,000 DALYs were lost in 1995 because of divided into four categories: direct /indirect violent death (Cruz and Romano, 1997: 30); costs, non-monetary costs, economic 60,792 in Peru (Instituto Apoyo, 1997:16), multiplier effects, social multiplier effects. 163,136 in Rio de Janeiro (ISER, 1998: 42), and 57,673 in Mexico City (Fundación Mexicana para la Salud, 1997: 14). Direct and indirect costs Direct costs of crime and violence measure the value of goods and services spent Economic multiplier effects A 1997 study dealing with the effects of and/or The economic multiplier effects measure the showed a preventing crime and violence through the overall impact that crime and violence have significant use of scarce public and private resources on on the macroeconomic situation of a difference in the criminal justice system, incarceration, country, the labor market, as well as inter- medical services, housing and social services. generational productivity impacts. For labor earnings The indirect costs include lost investment example, victims of domestic violence have amongst opportunities, foregone earnings of higher rates of absenteeism, are more likely women who criminals and victims of crime and violence. to be fired from their jobs, and the domestic violence affects their earning power. do and do In Colombia public spending on security and not suffer criminal justice was 5% of the country GDP in A 1997 study showed a significant difference physical 1996 and private expenditures on security in labor earnings amongst women who do 1.4% of GDP. El Salvador spent over 6% of and do not suffer physical violence. In violence 1995 GDP to cover expenses on government Managua, Nicaragua, women victims of institutions, legal costs, personal injuries and severe physical violence earned only 57% as prevention programs. In Mexico City the much as their non-abused peers, while in economic costs of violence amounted to US Santiago, Chile, the percentage was only 39%. $1.9 million, representing 0.7% of the Lost earnings for all women represented country's 1995 GDP or 2.7% of the nation's about 1.6% of 1996 GDP in Nicaragua, capital 1995 GDP. whereas in Chile it was more than 2%. (Morrison and Orlando, 1997) Non-monetary costs Non-monetary costs measure the non- Social multiplier effects economic effects on the victims of crime The social multiplier effects measure the and violence. It is evaluated by taking into impact of crime and violence in such areas consideration: increased morbidity (diseases as: the erosion of social capital; the inter- resulting from violence like disability, generational transmission of violence; the mental injuries), increased mortality via reduction in quality of life; and effects on homicide and suicide, abuse of alcohol and citizenship, and confidence in and drugs, depressive disorders. functioning of the democratic process, government and its institutions. 9 Conceptual frameworks and Risk factors associated with urban crime policy response and violence Various frameworks to understand crime Crime and violence may be triggered by a and violence and to develop corollary series of factors which can be classified in policy responses have been developed. One three groups: individual factors, domestic/ prominent approach comes from the field household factors, and societal factors. of public health and is based on the Individual factors identification and addressing of risk Individual factors are inherent to a person factors.1 This model is widely used such as gender, age, biological and throughout the region. The WHO/PAHO physiological characteristics, and family framework of violence is an example of this environment. These can increase an approach. individual's predisposition to violence. Brain Dealing with crime and violence in urban projects Throughout Latin America examples can be found of crime and violence affecting urban projects such as slum upgrading, water and electricity supply, health and education, and integrated `neighborhood upgrading' projects. For example, the Favela Bairro project in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, reported active opposition--even sabotage--by gangs and organized crime in some communities to the activities of the project. Whilst better infrastructure and more integrated, functioning and organized communities are priorities for most people living in them, they can undermine the power of these criminal organizations over the neighborhood, and facilitate better access for state and law-enforcement institutions. 1Whilst looking at risk factors is very important, various authors have highlighted the need to also look at the strengths and assets of individuals and communities, not just their problems. See International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, 2000; Moser, 1998, 2000) The World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of violence: "The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal development or deprivation." Violence can be divided into three broad categories: · Self-directed violence covers physical harm inflicted by oneself; this category is subdivided into suicidal behavior and self-abuse. · Interpersonal violence relates to injury or harm caused by one individual to another, related (domestic violence) or unrelated (community violence). · Collective violence focuses on harmful acts committed by a group ; these acts can be of political, economic or social motivations. Violence may manifest physically, psychologically, emotionally or sexually. The WHO's recently launched World report on violence and health (October, 2002) is an excellent and exhaustive resource on the definitions of, and public health approach and policy responses to various manifestations of violence around the globe: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention 10 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America I: SETTING Moser Violence Continuum THE The Moser Continuum of violence is an alternative model to understand and `map' crime and violence. (Moser and Shrader, ST 1999; Moser and Winton 2002). AGE Road map of types of violence in Central America Primary Category of Types of violence by Manifestations Secondary direction of violence perpetrators and/or direction of violence victims violence continuum continuum Political/ Institutional violence of the Extra-judicial killings by police institutional state and other `informal' State or community directed social State institutions Including the cleansing of gangs, and street children institutional private sector Lynching violence resulting in lack of trust in Institutional/ Organized crime Intimidation and violence as means of police and economic Business interests resolving economic disputes judiciary system Kidnapping Armed robbery Drug trafficking Car and other contraband activities Small arms dealing Trafficking in prostitutes and USA headed immigrants Economic/ Gangs (Maras) Collective `turf' violence; robbery, theft social Delinquency/ robbery Street theft; robbery Intra- Economic Street children Petty theft household (boys and girls) social Economic/ Domestic violence between Physical or psychological male-female violence social adults abuse results in Social Child abuse: boys and girls Physical and sexual abuse youths leaving the Social Inter-generational conflict Physical and psychological abuse home and at between parent and children risk to Social (both young and adults, variety of particularly older people) street Social Gratuitous/ routine daily Lack of citizenship in areas such as violence violence traffic, road rage, bar fights, and street confrontations. 11 abnormalities, neurological dysfunctions, Moser Violence Continuum learning disabilities, prenatal and perinatal The Moser Continuum of violence is an complications, and head injuries can be alternative model to understand and `map' responsible for violent conduct. In terms of crime and violence. (Moser and Shrader, gender, in Latin America--as in the rest of 1999; Moser and Winton 2002). the world--violent behavior is much more common among (young) men than women. The overarching typology distinguishes between political/institutional violence, Domestic/Household factors economic violence, and social violence. This Domestic risk factors include the following: threefold typology forms a continuum with household size and density, history of family overlapping and interrelated reinforcing violence, poor monitoring and supervision linkages between different types of of children, ineffective parenting skills, violence. (Moser and Winton, 2002). The school drop-out, and unemployment and table above shows the `roadmap' as poor socio-economic background. applied to different manifestations of crime The Following global trends, survey data from and violence found in Central America. traditional Mexico City indicate that children victims of response to domestic abuse have a greater disposition Policy responses for acting violent in their adult lives; increasing The traditional response to increasing levels suggesting an inter-generational transfer of of crime and violence has been one of levels of crime violence. (F. Knaul and M. Ramírez, 2002). control or repression. This approach focuses and violence Alcohol and drugs are identified as inciters on addressing the problem after the crime or `facilitators' to violence. has been one or violent act has been committed. It is usually related to `toughening' up the legal of control or Community and Societal factors and justice system, increasing policing repression. Community and societal factors are resources and capacities, and introducing situations and events at the societal level harsher penalties in an effort to deter and that may trigger crime and violence. repress crime and violence. In this Income inequality may cause economic approach, crime and violence are seen as frustration, which may lead to economic the responsibility of the police and the violence. Media violence is often cited as courts. Most countries battling high levels an important influence on violent behavior of crime and violence, however, find that not only among children (youth violence, these measures are not sufficient to have a gangs) but also among adults (domestic significant impact on crime and violence. violence, rape). Easy access to firearms is This is often accompanied by a loss of also a significant risk factor. Data indicates confidence in the criminal justice system, that most homicides in the region are gun whilst public concern about crime and related. Weak police and legal systems and violence remains high. (ICPC, 2000). widespread impunity also affect levels of crime and violence. Cultural norms may A second --and complementary--policy also be a risk factor, particularly where response is one of crime and violence corporal punishment of children and a prevention. The basic premise is to stop the husband's right to control his wife through crime or violent act from occurring in the any means are widely accepted. (M. first place by understanding and addressing Buvinic, A. Morrison, M. Shifter, 1999). the causes of crime and violence, the risk 12 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America I: SETTING THE Trends in policy approaches to crime and violence ST · A shift from a relatively narrow focus on crime control to the broader issue of AGE community safety and security as a public good. · A developing consensus about the need to tackle the social and economic conditions that foster crime and victimization. · A shift from seeing the primary responsibility as that of the police, to recognizing that governments, communities and partnerships at all levels need to be actively engaged. · A recognition of the crucial role which local municipal leaders play in this process through organizing and motivating local coalitions. · Increasing consensus that interventions targeting risk factors do reduce crime, violence and other social problems. · Prevention is cost effective compared with criminal justice solutions. Source: ICRC, 2000, p15. factors associated with them, as well as This guide is about crime and violence The basic constructing safer communities by building strategies for local government. However, premise is to on their strengths (e.g. level of community effective local government action requires stop the organization), rather than exclusively focus all the municipal services to work together, crime or on a community's problems. Furthermore, rather than in isolation. It requires support prevention is a much more cost effective from the different sectors in the violent act option than repression. community such as justice, health, from education, media, police, social services, occurring in The approach adopted by this guide is one NGOs and religious organizations. And of crime and violence prevention importantly, it requires support from higher the first place. combining law enforcement--ensuring that levels of government and links between order is maintained in the day to day the national level, state, region or province. activities of the community and reducing the public fear of crime--with social The table below shows an operational prevention - targeted multi-agency framework for violence reduction that can programs that address the causes of crime be used to identify different violence and and violence--and situational prevention-- crime reduction interventions at different measures to reduce opportunities for levels (regional, national, municipal, particular crime and violence problems. community, non-governmental). It (CSIR, 2000). distinguishes between short term and What is a community crime and violence prevention strategy? · An instrument to prevent crime and violence and reduce public fear of crime. · A tool to bring together different actors involved in crime prevention. · A means of developing local crime and violence prevention partnerships. · A method to ensure coordination and management of crime prevention initiatives. · A way to identify priority areas and tasks. Source: CSIR, 2000 13 medium/long term interventions to reduce Central America, and is also useful to violence, improve citizen security, and demonstrate the need for integrated increase citizenship . It was developed as a interventions at various levels. (Moser and corollary to the `violence roadmap' for Winton, 2002). Moser Framework for Violence Reduction Type of violence Types of solution Reduction of Improve citizen Increase Violence security citizenship** Level of intervention Short Med/ Short Med/ Short Med/ term long term long term long term term term Organized crime State policy at * regional level State policy at * national level Central state programs * Local state * programs Civil society * programs and projects Institutional violence * by formal and informal institutions Gangs * Delinquency/ robbery Street Children * Domestic violence * Child abuse * Gratuitous random * violence * = Similar range of interventions to those identified in the case of organized crime. ** Citizenship: e.g. access to the judicial system and due process 14 II: Getting Started II: Getting Started This section of the guide is reproduced from the crime reduction manual developed by the Government of South Africa: Making South Africa Safe: A Manual for Community Based Crime Prevention, adapted for and with examples from the Latin America and Caribbean region. 3. The Role of Local Government There are several reasons why local · Local governments are working on governments need to take the lead in developing their communities. If building safer communities. Crime and crime is one of the main obstacles to violence prevention is not about one improving the quality of life, the agency or organization acting on its own: local government must take responsibility for local safety. several groups must work together in a partnership. But partnerships are not How can local government get involved Elected always easy to set up and maintain. Solving in preventing crime? crime through partnership requires representatives The core functions for local government can make the · Leadership and coordination typically include the delivery and needs of their · Sustained involvement maintenance of services and · Contact with the community infrastructure, such as roads, water, community sewerage, and electricity; the known. Local government can meet these needs management and planning of the town's · It is the level of government closest development; and the protection of the to the people. Elected representatives infrastructure and facilities, including can make the needs of their parks and recreational assets as well as community known. Projects can be buildings and properties. In some cases, designed to target these specific local government also delivers health, needs. Such local solutions are most education, and welfare services. likely to solve local problems. · This is where the day-to-day delivery Many of these core functions can play a of services happens. These services critical role in reducing crime and violence. improve people's quality of life and However, several important elements of build better living environments. Many of these services are also the crime and violence prevention are not basic elements of crime and violence always core functions of local government prevention. (e.g. health, education, police). These 16 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING remain within the domain of Level 1: Building on existing functions: e.g. ST state/provincial/national departmental by-laws, traffic policing. AR services. This means that involving these at Level 2 Aligning local government TED levels of government is key to the success functions with crime prevention principles. of an integrated plan. Because crime occurs Level 3: Beyond local government activities the local level, it will be necessary for local towards partnerships. government to initiate action and engage Effective crime and violence prevention with the other levels. Crime and violence needs activity on all three levels. prevention can take place at three levels: Level 1: Building on existing functions: by-laws, traffic policing, providing local security. The easiest place to start is with the functions and could be started by local traditional activities of local government. governments that already have the By-law enforcement, traffic policing and necessary resources. When promoting a local security are core functions of most strategy, these activities will be easy to sell The task is to local governments. Municipal community and find support for. make local policing initiatives can involve all these government activities work A few examples towards · Enforcing municipal by-laws: street trading, littering, noise pollution, alcohol sales, land invasion. reducing · Traffic policing: enforcing traffic laws, providing visible policing. crime. · Providing security: protecting local government staff and assets, rapid response, patrols. · Assisting police: joint operations, patrols, searches. · Municipal community policing: by-laws enforcement, targeted patrols, arrests, penalizing traffic violations, school truancy. · Reducing public disasters by enforcing by-laws Level 2: Aligning local government functions with crime prevention principles The task is to make local government government to work together and to activities work towards reducing crime. This consider crime and violence prevention will require realigning and re-integrating principles in their activities. functions, getting departments in local Level 3: Start new projects involving community partners Level 3 includes activities beyond typical and 3 are more challenging because you local government functions. These require will have to develop broad strategies the involvement by external partners. This involving a number of approaches, areas of level poses the greatest challenge as it calls expertise and actors. for extra vision and commitment. Levels 2 17 A Few Examples Human resources · Training and skills transfer to increase crime and violence reduction capacity Urban design · Designing and implementing Crime and violence Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) guidelines in urban planning · Improvements in physical environments (retro-fitting) Marketing · Addressing skewed perceptions of crime and victimization · Marketing nightlife in deserted areas of the city Emergency services · Providing emergency counseling to victims · Making referrals or disseminating information to victims · Providing SOS Stations Local economic · Incentives for job creation programs for at-risk groups development · Support for business start-up programs for at-risk groups Purchasing and · Conducting audits to identify corruption finance · Overseeing correct tender processes and contract awards Licensing · Tackling corruption and trade in stolen cars Transport, roads, etc. · Improving bus shelters' location and safety of `after hours' commuters · Acknowledge problems related to rapid transport routes · Designing transport modal interchanges with Crime Prevention through environmental design principles · Physical intervention to reduce car hijackings at certain locations Parks and public · Ensuring visibility in areas used by pedestrians as short cuts (e.g. by lighting, open space landscaping and maintenance, etc.) Town planning · Building regulations that are compatible with CPTED principles · Reducing areas of vacant/under-utilized land by identifying appropriate land uses · Contributing to and ensuring the planning, implementation and management of local CPTED strategies, planning/design guidelines and pilot/future projects · Improving lighting where levels of rape/street crimes are high Housing · Minimum safety requirement for new or low-cost developments Sports, culture and · Facilities/programs targeting youth and children recreation · Community drama projects which address violence · Appropriate sports/recreational facilities in deprived areas Social welfare · Parenting education programs · Life skills programs for adolescents · Programs to support children with special needs 18 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING A few examples ST AR · Work with state/provincial/national education department and local police to secure TED school environments · Develop community dispute-resolution mechanisms · Implement Closed Circuit Television Schemes (CCTV) · Help low-income households to secure their homes and prevent burglary · Develop diversion programs for young offenders · Develop services for victims of crime · Design school completion programs for high-risk youth · Develop parenting programs for young at-risk families · Introduce municipal by-law courts, e.g. traffic courts · Introduce alternative sentencing community service programs for petty or first-time offenders · Control the sale of alcohol and drugs to children and youth or during specific hours · Control and regulate the sex-work industry · Develop programs to reduce gun ownership and illegal firearm trade It is important to tackle Where should your crime prevention office violence prevention is a strategic priority crime across a be based in local government? of local government, a system can be whole Local governments vary. Some are one small developed that gives higher priority to metropolitan town, others large metropolitan areas with components of a departmental budget that area. several municipalities. Departmental meet crime and violence prevention aims. structures and functions differ widely. Is crime and violence prevention a There is no set recipe of where to locate metropolitan or municipal function? crime prevention in local government. Solutions need to be found that best suit It is important to tackle crime across a whole your local council and priorities. Most metropolitan area. This means that important, there should be a very senior coordination is best situated at a metropolitan local government official--for example, the level. Where a metropolitan area comprises mayor--who is the `champion' for the crime more than one municipality, the municipalities and violence prevention program. This will can still carry out programs and provide ensure that it does not become bogged infrastructure and resources to the broader down in bureaucracy or in turf battles. crime and violence prevention strategy. Crime prevention could be located in one of Resourcing and financing your strategy the following: Line function; support function; or strategic function. See table Funding and the availability of finance are above for the strengths and weaknesses of crucial to the success of the strategy. From these various options. the start of the program it is essential to consider how to raise these finances and Elements of each model can be used in what items to budget for. Many good deciding where to situate a crime projects fail because of poor project prevention office. For example, it could be management. An essential cost will be that linked to the senior strategic function and of project management. The costs of the to a `safety' line function. If crime and planning phase will also need to be 19 Options of Where to Locate Strategy Location Line function Support function Strategic function (Public safety, protection (Planning, urban strategy (Office of the CEO, city services, community safety, units) manager or mayor) Factor metro police) Degree to Strengths + Weaknesses - Strengths + Weaknesses - Strengths + Weaknesses - which local governments + Links to a `safety' line + Can be useful as this is + Elevates the importance can implement function are good for usually the level where of crime and violence the full range municipal/community processes such as Integrated prevention and provides of crime and policing and law Development Plans, spatial high level leadership violence enforcement. planning frameworks, prevention economic development + Easier to provide activities + Officials' networks with plans and community direction to a range of policing structures will be consultation processes are different departments. well developed. constructed. + Good for projects that - Other activities may be + Useful for influencing and cut across traditional marginalized. assisting different enforcement functions, departments in developing as well as other local - If officials of this their crime and violence government functions. department relate to the prevention capacity. enforcement approach, + Better for interacting much reorientation will be + Officials probably have and negotiating with needed to broaden their better networks and external partners. vision of crime and violence experience of working with prevention. non-policing partners than - Competition with other officials in `safety' strategic priorities such as - Success depends to a departments. sustainable development, greater extent on the poverty alleviation, local commitment of the + External coordination may economic development etc. departmental head to issues be easier. beyond enforcement. - The council may want to minimize activities that are - If this commitment exists coordinated at a strategic the department head will level (antagonistic to need considerable influence mayoral office). to encourage prevention work in other departments. Ability to get + Direct access to a local + Easier to fund processes + Can develop separate resources and authority budget and an like drawing up line department budgets sustain entry point to lobby for development plans. by directive. activities increased provisions in future. - Cannot ensure that other + Can create additional departments allocate funds discretionary budgets for + Increased sustainability, as within their line budgets for crime-prevention work. getting funds depends less crime and violence on changes in political or prevention - Sustainability more strategic commitment to dependent on the electoral crime and violence cycle. reduction. 20 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING considered, as well as what the 3. The costs of project management ST monitoring and evaluation will costs It is important to have project management AR after the projects are in progress and support. This is particularly necessary if you are TED when they have been completed. implementing programs that cut across a num- ber of line departments in local government. The following six items are likely to require financing and are dealt with separately. It is unlikely that the coordinator will be able to manage projects and fulfill all his or her 1. Crime and violence prevention other functions. You could subcontract proj- coordinator ect management for specific projects. This Having a dedicated coordinator is critical. means that project management need not be To follow all the steps in this manual will a fixed cost, but could be a variable cost in take some time. You will need at least one relation to individual projects. coordinator and one or more assistant coordinators. 4. The costs of conducting the analyses It is unlikely See chapter 7 for details on how to and why The primary functions of the coordinator there's a need to conduct a crime audit and that the would be to socio-economic and physical analyses of the coordinator · Set up partnerships local government area. Funding to carry out will be able to · Interact with partners these activities will be required. manage · Assist local government departments and other departments to 5. Implementing the actual crime and vio- projects and - undertake the crime audit and strategy lence prevention projects fulfill all his or development process Some crime and violence prevention activities her other - design and develop projects and programs can be funded through existing local govern- - drive functional planning process across functions. ment departmental budgets. Additional different local government departments resources will be needed for projects that do - advise on local government crime and not fall within the functions of departments. violence reduction strategies The balance of programs that can be funded - maintain a reporting system through existing budgets and those that - mentor project leaders need additional resources depends on the results of your strategy development process. What you will need to look for in a (see chapter 8). During this process, partners coordinator: will decide what needs to be done. · Established networks 6. Monitoring and evaluation assistance · Knowledge of working in partnerships of your strategy · Project management skills It is essential that you consider the financing · Knowledge of local government · Knowledge of crime and violence of this stage of your project at the start and prevention therefore include this item when you draw · Political skills up your budget requirements. See chapter 10 for further information. 2. Secretarial and administrative support Possible sources of finance You will need this, especially if local government is active in coordinating a local Crime prevention activities that overlap existing crime prevention partnership. local government functions can be funded by 21 local government. Those that depend on a skilled fundraiser's time, or it could external partners will have to look beyond become part of the project the public sector for financial assistance. coordinator's/manager's job. The This fundraising might be an ongoing advantages of different funding option are activity and can occupy a major portion of shown in the table below. Experience shows that raising funds from local business although time consuming, is possible --especially if projects are based around a specific issue. For example, pharmaceutical companies can be approached to fund projects to counter violence against women. Similarly, donors in a specific geographic area could be approached for funds--for example a mining or oil company active in that particular area. Local business or chamber of commerce might also be more interested if they gained some mileage from a donation--for example, sponsorship of sports fields in poor neighborhoods or publicity for sponsoring a victim support center. Advantages of Different Funding Options Items to be Local Government External funding In-kind support funded Project Preferred option: this post should be Local business, Fixed term coordinator established by the local government. state/provincial or secondment from national government, or local business sector donor agency. Analysis of Preferred option: The local Local business, crime in your government can show commitment state/provincial or area by investing in initial research. national government, or Existing budget allocations within the donor agency. local government budget could be the source. Projects Some projects might require a Some crime and Some activities could redirecting of existing budgets and violence prevention be undertaken by allocations with the local projects might need community members government. It is possible that no additional funding from and could be classified additional costs will be required for outside sources. as `in-kind' support some projects from local businesses. Monitoring Preferred option: Shows commitment This item can be viewed Local business might and from the driving agency (the local as a separate phase but assist with developing evaluation government). This commitment can a proposal will need to a monitoring system. gear extra funds (for projects) from be developed at the external sources. Monitoring should planning phase of be seen as a management function. developing the strategy. 22 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING ST Example: Centro de Atención y Prevención de la Violencia Intrafamiliar, AR Santiago, Chile TED The first municipal center for women victims of domestic violence in Chile. It is a branch of the National Women Service (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, SERNAM) a government service created in 1991. The center developed a series of interventions through therapeutic, legal and social services, focusing on women experiencing domestic violence. Since 1993 the center also works with male aggressors. Objectives: Promote preventive activities against intra-family violence in the community, amongst others through dissemination of information and sensitization to the issue and the creation of networks. Activities and achievements: · Launch of information and sensitization campaigns on intra-family violence · Provision of support and assistance to other institutions and organizations working on Crime and the issue of intra-family violence violence are · Training of social workers, social agents in preventing and assisting victims of intra- family violence the product · Offer integral and interdisciplinary assistance (psychological, legal, social) to women of many victims of domestic violence as well as programs for violent men. different Outcomes, Impacts: factors. · The center has helped 7,400 women, men, and children, and receives approximately 650 new cases every year. · The male aggressors program represents 25 % of all cases. · In total, women and children represent nearly 75 % of the total cases. Interestingly, the center reports that their male aggressor programs receive more attention than the ones aimed at women and children. SOURCE: Boletin de la Red de Alcaldes Contra la Violencia ­ Programa de Prevención de la Violencia, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo ­ División de Desarrollo Social, Número 2, Abril 2000 4. Partnerships: The key to structuring crime and violence prevention Crime and violence are the product of What is a partnership? many different factors. All organizations The nature of partnerships and their role in that can influence these factors must take preventing crime are often misunderstood. part in projects to make a community safe. Before you think about setting one up, Because these organizations all have clarify what is meant by `partnership'. different perspectives and skills, their crime Partnerships are a way of using the and violence prevention activities need to resources and skills in a community in such be formalized and coordinated. a way that all partners benefit and crime Partnerships are the key to making such and violence are reduced. multi-agency approaches work. 23 Partnerships against crime and violence Who should set up partnerships? make the most of the benefits that No specific agency is responsible for setting different actors bring to crime and violence up crime prevention partnerships, but prevention. This is done in a way that responsibility is shared. The lead agency supports all those concerned. By taking could be local government, the mayor's into account both the strengths and office, local councilors, the police, or other weaknesses of the public, commercial, community organizations. private, and non-governmental sectors, their strengths can be developed to help to Two principles should guide you prevent crime and violence. At the same · Demand is key: if other levels of time, their potential inefficiency caused by government are slow to take up the their weaknesses can be minimized. 3 challenge and a local government is actively driving crime and violence Partnerships are not a short cut to prevention, the local government community involvement. You will still should coordinate the partnership Compare a need to put a lot of effort into: itself. Communities, business, and crime and · Getting all relevant groups to local government have initiated participate; partnerships throughout the world. violence · Consulting with your community; · A well-thought-through partnership is prevention · Setting up structures to engage local more important than who initiates it. partnership to people; · Balancing the competing interests of Who should the partners be? one in the powerful groups; and There are vital members of any partnership. field of · Responding to groups who may feel If any of these are missing, a critical part of housing. excluded. crime and violence prevention information, resources and action will be missing. They The key challenge for crime and violence are the: prevention partnerships · The police services (in many countries Compare a crime and violence prevention there are various different services that partnership to one in the field of housing. need to cooperate to be effective Housing is a core competency of various partners). levels of government. It is also an · Local government and state/provincial departments of Safety and/or Security. important issue for local government and a · Government departments; particularly vital sectoral interest for the private sector. Ministry of Justice, correctional/ penal But, in the case of community safety - in services (but also consider Welfare, most locations - no government Health, and Education). department other than the police has crime · Local/community police. and violence prevention as its main · Civil Society. function. This means that crime and · Business. violence are usually a peripheral concern for all agencies, and a truly core activity for Remember to involve non-government none (other than the police). people from your area. Your community must be a member of the partnership so that those who are most affected by crime make contact and share ideas with those who are managing the project. 3CSIR/ISS; UN-Habitat Safer Cities. 24 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING Example of a partnership: DESEPAZ Cali ST AR In the case of DESEPAZ, Cali, Colombia, a permanent working group, the Municipal TED Council of Public Safety, was made up of: the mayor, representatives of the Metropolitan Police Force, the District Attorney's Office, the Forensic Medicine Institute, the municipal government, and the municipal departments of traffic and public health. Representivity · Coordinate crime and violence A more difficult question is who should prevention activities. · Lobby other institutions to get represent these different players. Should you involved in preventing crime and involve church and women's groups? If so, violence. This can include putting which ones? Will you need assistance from pressure on institutions that are not the police at national, provincial/state, area, fulfilling their potential to reduce or station level? Which units from these crime. services? Representation can become a sensitive issue. Here are some suggestions: The following are essential: Share information · Make it clear at the outset that not all · Joint setting of priorities. stakeholders can be accommodated about crime · Joint planning and action. Without and don't raise expectations that the agreement on joint priorities, partners and violence partnership will be the vehicle for can still deliver projects together but and how to participation. this will be in an ad hoc manner. · Start a partnership with the most reduce it. · Joint resourcing. Each organization can important and committed members. fund its own activities within the · Consider creating a two-tier structure partnership, or funds can be raised that includes general and executive jointly for collaborative projects. members. · Select members in relation to their How do you manage the partnership? influence, leadership and links to stakeholders who are not partners. To work effectively, a partnership must · Select partners according to the level agree on: at which partnership operates. · how to set joint priorities; What is the role of a partnership? · what to do to implement them; · who does what, and by when; and A partnership must agree on its roles and · how the coordination will be managed responsibilities. These can evolve with time as working relationships develop and Who provides the leadership and coordi- cooperation becomes easier. Partnerships nation? can be built around specific crime problems as well as specific solutions. They The question of who leads the partnership can also organize around specific issues. can be controversial. If this is a problem, it may be useful to rotate the chairperson What a partnership MUST and CAN do and the responsibility for organizing meetings. The leader of the partnership · Share information about crime and should have: violence and how to reduce it. This · a good understanding and vision of means identifying information gaps crime and violence prevention; and lobbying for research to fill them 25 · the ability to arbitrate and stimulate At what level should a partnership operate? agreement and consensus; There are no hard and fast rules about this. · political skills; and Ideally, the level of the partnership should · access to decision makers and be determined by the type of crime/violence resources. problem. However, it is not only the crime/violence type or the area that If resources are available, a small secretariat determines the type of partnership; there can administer the partnership's business. are also benefits in organizing partnerships An existing local government department around issues like the reduction of violence can, for example, provide this service. It against women. The main levels are: may be useful to employ a coordinator for · (national)/state/provincial managing the affairs of the partnership · metropolitan and fulfilling the responsibilities that arise · municipal between meetings. · neighborhood The importance of a strong leader Experience from many countries has shown that there needs to be real commitment and leadership from someone at a high level who takes responsibility for putting the issues of crime and violence on the policy agenda. This has often been the mayor, Chief Executive or another key person at the local government level. (International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, 2000.) Benefits and limitations of different partnerships Neighborhood Partnerships Neighborhood Partnerships Strengths Most responsive to local needs Involve partners that might otherwise be excluded Maximize participation Often fall within police station area Can assist with project implementation Poor access to local and state/provincial government Weaknesses Limited power and access to resources Require extra effort to get decision-makers' support Few full-time dedicated personnel available Hard to influence different state/national police services 26 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING Neighborhood Partnerships Municipal or metropolitan partnershipsStrengths ST AR TED Strengths Crime prevention can be aligned with local government delivery and planning Can organize delivery of projects at local level Have information on what local needs are, via elected representatives Have access to local political processes Have access to decision makers Can align projects with a manageable number of policing areas Weaknesses Links to state/provincial departments and decision makers can be weak Ability on the agenda of the police services can be difficult Access to state/provincial political process is less easy Neighborhood Partnerships Provincial/State partnerships Strengths Strengths Have access to state/provincial departments Have access to state/provincial police structure Weaknesses Limited access to local political processes Limited access to local government delivery Selection of projects might not reflect priorities of affected local community Structure of partnerships (which could be created through a Partnerships can operate formally and local government resolution); and · individuals who formally represent an informally. Experience has shown that both agency or group. can be successful but that the formal structures are more sustainable. To whom are partners accountable? Partnerships can become formal over time as roles and responsibilities become clearer. Partners should be accountable to one Informal partnerships another and to the political and democratic process. Government departments, the These are loose networks of interested and police services and local government are affected parties and organizations that meet accountable to political structures. periodically and often at short notice. They can respond easily to changes and demands. Partnerships need to interact with and They also lessen tensions between partners consult political structures to make sure about leadership and roles. On the other that there is consensus on decisions that hand, they depend on individuals to function, are taken. There will be times when a and could suffer if key people leave. partnership disagrees with a particular political structure or position. In such a Formal structured partnerships case the partnership could actively lobby These might include the political structure. · a designated crime prevention group 27 Example: Viva Rio, a non-governmental partnership, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1993, amidst political tensions, economic and social crisis, the population of Rio de Janeiro was profoundly shaken by a series of kidnappings, the murder of eight street children in front of the Candelaria church, and the killing of 21 people in the Vigario Geral favela. In response to these events, residents of Rio organized a city-wide demonstration for peace. On December 17, 1993 thousands of people dressed in white and paused for two minutes in a silent call for peace and Viva Rio, a non-governmental non-profit organization, was created to build a more democratic and just society. Viva Rio has organized peace campaigns and social projects with widespread 5. Communication and Community Participation. Communication and community implications, which will have to be taken participation are essential elements for the into account when you prepare the budget. Critical to the successful development, planning, success of your implementation, and monitoring of your Community participation strategy is an crime and violence prevention strategy. To involve the community in all the aspects effective of developing and implementing your crime Communication and violence prevention strategy is vitally communication Critical to the success of your strategy is an important. Community participation is not program. effective communication program. This simply one of the steps in the process that provides publicity to promote the aims of has to be completed before you move on the crime prevention strategy as well as to the next step. It is an integral part of the being an information channel to the public entire process as it should be the underlying about the successes of the different approach that governs all aspects from projects that in turn encourage further inception right through to implementation participation by the community. and monitoring of the different projects that make up your strategy. The need to keep all stakeholders informed of progress can not be Do not confuse community participation overemphasized. Ongoing feedback with consultation. Real participation should be provided at regular intervals. means that people are actively involved This can be done through meetings, the in making decisions about the planning media (including community radio and implementation of the processes, stations), publications, etc. programs and projects that affect them. A communication strategy that deals with Often, community participation is seen as a all aspects of communication, including the time-consuming `necessary evil' that media, public meetings, functions, posters, consists of the consultation of all pamphlets, etc., should be developed from stakeholders, so that everyone is kept the start. Trained communication experts happy. If this is the attitude, it will certainly should form part of the team or be be a waste of time and money. Community consulted from the time when you begin to participation involves far more than consider your crime and violence prevention consultation. It implies the active strategy. This will have time and cost involvement of the actual beneficiaries as 28 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America II: GETTING partners, and not just getting their Community participation is a complex ST opinions and feedback on the strategy. concept. This guide's intention is not to AR describe in detail all the aspects of TED When community participation ensures community participation as it is aimed at that people are equal and active partners examining the process of preventing crime in the decision-making process, they will and violence. It is extremely important, have a better understanding of the issues though, to have a clear understanding of and difficulties associated with their what community participation entails and particular problem or need. They will also how it can be effectively utilized for the share the responsibility to develop benefit of all those involved. Numerous practical solutions to the issues raised. publications on the topic are available and it is suggested that further information be Community participation is an important gathered through such publications, as well and valuable tool to assist in the process by consulting a community participation of changing perceptions, empowering expert. For more on tools and people and developing a common methodology for community assessments It is important understanding. and consultations see for example: that all www.worldbank.org LAC Region: Civil stakeholders It is important that all stakeholders are Society homepage. Included on the invited to participate in the process, website is a a methodology guide in are invited to especially those who are directly affected. Spanish. participate in This could include NGOs, churches, the process. schools, businesses, trade unions, civic The benefits of spending time and money organizations, sports groups, community on participatory processes should not be police, community-based organizations, underestimated - these could mean the residents' associations, informal trading difference between success and failure. It associations, etc. The elected local is worth getting assistance from experts counselor should always be included in the on participation to ensure that the process, but this elected official should not process is run effectively. Remember to be expected to act as the sole take the time and cost implications of representative of the different groups this into account during the planning and within his/her district. budgeting phase. Example: Medellin: Neighborhood Committees for Coexistence, Colombia Background information: Like many Colombian cities, Medellin has suffered high levels of communal violence particularly among young men between the ages of 18 and 25. Indeed, as with Colombia overall, violence has been the leading cause of death in Medellin for the last 15 years and around 200 armed groups have been identified, the vast majority of them engaged in delinquency. Armed militia - though represented in the count - make up only a small portion. 29 Example: Medellin: Neighborhood Committees for Coexistence, Colombia Objectives: To confront the problem the city proposed a two pronged strategy. On a wider level community mobilization to plan, coordinate, manage and follow-up on a framework for peace promotion through the creation of the Neighborhood Committees for Coexistence (NCCs). On a narrower level, direct attention to the incidence of violence and those affected would entail educational efforts, response services and clear policies for the rehabilitation of offenders [all at the municipal level]. The main community challenges to effective action included a lack of leadership; the negative influence of armed conflict on youth; lack of an integrated qualified formation of state [and other relevant] institutions; weak or incipient organization and participation on the part of community members; and the ease with which arms and drugs can be acquired. Factors that influence the level of violence and also need to be addressed include alcoholism, prostitution and unsupported single parenting. Activities and achievements: The project is enshrined in several cross-sectoral structures: Human Formation, the NCCs, the network of NCCs, the Center for Conflict Mediation and Resolution and a program of support for small productive units. · The human formation is made up of over 300 people from 40 neighborhoods including social promoters and inspectors (see below) for the purposes of forming leaders to spearhead efforts in each neighborhood. It is formed through capacity building workshops, conferences and panels. · The structure of NCCs consists of a community leader, an inspector (a liaison between the community and the government agencies), a social promoter (providing a link between the municipal projects and the community), a priest (providing spiritual and morality support) and community NGOs with a track record of working in community development. Main goals include: · Collective creation of two manuals for action: one to combat domestic violence and the other to improve community relations. These accords are meant to serve as blue prints for the NCC to analyse and intervene in cases of conflict. · Promotion of sporting and cultural events as forums to encourage coexistence and disarm youth. · Creation of Communal Coexistence Zones to promote healthy relations among community members. · Sensitization and motivation of community to participate in the process · Promote healthy values in children and engage and sensitize violent actors to cease hostilities and respect their communities. · The NCC network, composed of a representative from each NCC, facilitates exchange of experiences and other information, proposes the direction NCCs should take, systematizes decision making, and coordinates activities among communities. · The Center for Conflict Mediation and Resolution is charged with engaging and mediating with armed groups. Some of the key activities include establishing contacts, field engagement and reconciliation, creation of a mediation manual and study workshops. It is also in charge of a disarmament campaign and youth outreach. · Support of small productive units is meant to be away to optimize resource allocation among the neighborhoods and provide resources to those communities engaged in worthwhile activities and in need of funding. 30 6. The four stages of planning and implementing a crime prevention strategy. 6. The four stages of planning and implementing a crime prevention strategy. Successful crime prevention programs are Step 10: Obtain support for the programs based on simple solutions that target a few you select. problems. The key is planning. Approach your community's problems systematically: Product: A crime and violence prevention find out what the main problems in your strategy. area are, develop programs that address specific needs, and evaluate these to make STAGE 3 sure that they are working. Managing and implementing your strategy. Stages and steps of your strategy Step 11: Develop project plans to implement your solutions with STAGE 1 goals and objectives. Identify the Step 12: Ensure you have resources for A community safety audit to identify crime and good project management: many problems and understand your community violence good ideas fail because of poor Step 1: Identify the crime and violence project management. problems in problems in your community by your collecting information (from the Product: The ability to implement your Police, surveys and the community). community by strategy. Step 2: Identify who is already involved in collecting crime and violence prevention STAGE 4 information activities in your community. (from the Step 3 Analyze the social and physical Monitoring and evaluating your strategy. characteristics of your area. Police, surveys Step 13: Make sure you have planned and Step 4: Decide which problems are most budgeted for monitoring and and the important (priority problems). evaluation. community). Step 5: Analyze these priority problems in Step 14: Make sure you have well-defined your community. project objectives. Step 15: Identify ways to evaluate the Product: Clarity regarding the crime and project's performance. violence problem and organizations/people Step 16: Establish a framework for who are already involved in crime evaluation and carry it out. prevention in your area. Product: An indication of what works, STAGE 2 what does not work, and what could Developing a Strategy possibly work. Step 6: Select and group the priority problems into focus areas. There are four phases to this problem- Step 7: Identify and approach possible solving approach. These are shown as partners in your area to assist in stages in the planning model. Make sure reducing crime and violence. you have covered these four stages when Step 8: Identify possible solutions. you design and carry out your crime and Step 9: Select the most suitable programs violence prevention strategy. Each of the (solutions) and refine them. stages is discussed in more detail below. 32 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Program DESEPAZ, Desarrollo, Seguridad y Paz (Development, Security and ST AGES Peace) in Cali, Colombia. OF Background information: From 1983 to 1993, the annual homicide rate in Cali increased by 366 %, from PLANNING 23 to 90 per 100,000 habitants. Homicides and motor vehicular deaths were the primary causes of deaths in the city. Added to the significant rise in the crime and violence rate was the public perception of violence and insecurity as the most serious problem in the city; so serious that running mayor Rodrigo Guerrero put AND violence reduction and improvement of public safety as the central issue of his political campaign. On election, DESEPAZ was created, an acronym for the Spanish words Desarrollo (Development), Seguridad IMPLEMENTING (Public Safety) and Paz (Peace). Objectives: · Strengthen democratic institutions · Empower the Community A · Assess and address priority needs CRIME · Promote peaceful conflict resolution through a communication strategy resolution PREVENTION Activities and achievements: 6 strategic areas were targeted by the program: · Monitoring. A series of epidemiological studies and opinion polls were conducted in order to fully investigate and study violence, thus facilitating the implementation of strategic solutions. STRA · Institutional improvements. Police forces were improved by ensuring secondary education for all police TEGY officers and the precincts were refurbished; Legal services were also ameliorated by creating 10 Mediation Centers, 20 Legal Aid Offices, creating and improving the Family Violence Intake Centers, . developing the concept of houses of peace (which would include all these legal services). The judicial system was computerized. · Community enhancements. Several programs aimed at citizens' education for peace, were created : the Community council for governance, where secretaries of the office and the Mayor of the City of Cali met with all the community representatives to talk about the problems that these communities were facing, discuss plans of actions, and revise the accomplishments of previous projects; the Children Friends of Peace, a campaign in which children were asked to bring their gun toys in return for passes to amusement parks; Teaching tolerance and community coexistence between citizens through televised commercials which were broadly accepted and had a positive impact on the public · Promoting equity. The city ameliorated the education programs, the public services, and housing in the at-risk zones. · Youth programs. The city implemented the PARCES program: PARticipación, Convivencia, Education, Superación (Participation, Coexistence, Education and Overcoming) which attracted 1400 youths and offered them psychological orientation, support for recreational activities and support in job searches. The mayorship of Cali also created the Youth Houses, which are recreational areas for youngsters; the Intercommunal Olympic games; and the Program "Entering Generation", which is a Youth Organization of Small Businesses. · Special Policies. The implementation of the "semi-dry law", aimed at prohibiting the sale of alcohol after 1:00 a.m. on weekdays and 2:00 a.m. on weekends and holidays; the prohibition of bearing arms on special days; and the traffic accidents prevention program. 33 Program DESEPAZ: Outcomes, impacts: · Between 1994 and 1998, the number of homicides in Cali reduced by 600 per year. · Unemployment reached 7 % in 1994 but increased the following years. · Since 1993, DESEPAZ has been publishing weekly data. SOURCES: R. Guerrero, Programa Desarrollo, Seguridad y Paz, DESEPAZ de la Ciudad de Cali, Programas Municipales para la prevención y atención de la violencia. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo- Prefeitura do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 29-30 Julio 1999. www.prevencionviolencia.org.co/quienes/quienes.html R. Guerrero, A. Concha-Eastman, An Epidemiological approach for the prevention of urban violence: The case of Cali, Colombia, Journal of Health & Population in Developing Countries, Vol. 4, No.1, 2000; http://www.jhpdc.unc.edu/Journal41/rgart.htm program aimed at strengthening self-regulation of collective and individual behavior by closing the gap between these two types of behavior and the law. Resources are always 7. Stage 1: A Community Safety Audit/Security Diagnostic. limited: an audit helps The first stage of developing your strategy crime and violence has happened and what the nature of the problem is, it you identify requires research. It is a critical area that can not be bypassed. Ideally, your will be impossible to assess the impact the most community safety audit will consist of five of your programs later. serious steps. Remember that violence is normally the problems to Why you need to conduct a community most serious problem, but a lot of it (such ensure you safety audit as domestic violence, rape, and child and don't waste elder abuse) is hidden. A safety audit helps you focus crime and time, effort violence prevention where it is needed Even if the problems in your area seem and money. most. There are four reasons why you must obvious, it is worth finding out as much conduct a safety audit: as possible about their extent and nature. Remember that community · Resources are always limited: and audit helps you identify the most members whose voices are most loudly serious problems to ensure you don't heard are not necessarily those who are waste time, effort and money. most affected by crime and violence. You · Different stakeholders in your need to identify correctly who is most at community will want to focus on risk. Also a good analysis of the problem different problems: an audit helps to will be useful when you look for the resolve these conflicts by providing most effective crime and violence factual information on which problems prevention programs. If you understand are most serious. when, where and how a particular crime · The efforts of different organizations or act of violence takes place, it is easier can be coordinated to avoid to think of ways to prevent it. duplication and make the best use of available resources. · Unless you know at the start how much 34 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Who can help you to undertake the · Community groups or NGOs who ST audit? work on crime, violence and related AGES issues. You could get help or advice from: · Members of a local university or OF college. · Police or other officials in your area PLANNING · National/State/Provincial government who have collected and used statistics might have an agency that may be on crime and violence and are familiar able to advise or assist you. with the local problems. AND IMPLEMENTING Some of the following websites offer various resources that can assist at the different stages of developing the strategy: http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org http://www.ncpc.org http://www.who.org A http://www.iadb.org CRIME http//www.unchs.org/safercities Police or http://www.cdc.gov/ncipchm other officials PREVENTION Also see list of resources at the end of the guide. in your area who have STRA collected and STEP 1: Identify the crime problems in your community by TEGY collecting information used statistics on crime and . What is your community? involvement of drugs and alcohol, may violence and You will need to decide which people to only become necessary later when you are familiar include in the process. The group you have selected particular problems. It is not with the local choose may coincide with geographical necessary to collect all these details about boundaries such as a metropolitan area, all crime and acts of violence in your area. problems. municipal boundary, or a particular Nevertheless, a sound knowledge of what neighborhood. information is available and what you might need throughout the planning In some cases, you may only be concerned process is important. with a particular problem and thus include interest groups that are not tied to a 1. Information about the nature of crime geographic area like women, youth, Diversity of crime types: You will need schools, small business, or the elderly. sources that tell you about all categories of crime and violence. What information will you need? Where crime and violence occurs: Crime To identify problems and to decide which to and violence patterns are often linked to prioritize, you need certain types of informa- particular places so your data should be as tion about crime and violence in your area. location-specific as possible. Victim/target information: Factors like Detailed information like the profiles of race, age, sex, occupation, type and victims and offenders, the way in which location of home or business, type of crimes are committed, and the stolen property. 35 Offender characteristics: Factors like age, many violent crimes have been linked to a race, sex, distances traveled to commit the high intake of alcohol. crime /act of violence, previous criminal history and probable motivation for 2. Information about the amount of crime. committing the crime. This information is When crime occurs: You need information hard to find because many offenders are about how much crime occurs in a given not caught. You can, however make period, such as per year, month, season, educated guesses. day and even time of day. This helps you Details about how crimes are calculate whether particular crimes are committed: This information is useful for increasing or decreasing. It is always better trying to prevent crime. to work with data over a long period of time: several years, months, days, etc. If your analysis tells you most murders in a local neighborhood are committed by These data also help explain crime: levels young men and the victims are known to of crime and violence often increase on Involvement them, the solution will be very different certain days of the weekend, after sport of alcohol than if you found that most murders events, and during holiday periods such occurred during the course of car and drugs: as in December every year. hijackings committed by organized crime Many street groups. Crime rates: Rates are more accurate crimes, as than numbers if you are comparing areas. well as violent Involvement of alcohol and drugs: Many street crimes, as well as violent crimes like crimes like Impact of crime: This information is assault, rape and child abuse, involve drugs helpful, especially if several types of crime assault, rape or alcohol. Crime may be committed to are high in your community and you cannot and child obtain drugs, and many crimes are decide where to start. Remember that committed while offenders, victims or both abuse, involve crimes with the greatest impact are not are under the influence. In Latin America, necessarily those that occur most often. drugs or alcohol. Example: `Dry-laws' in Latin America The DESEPAZ program in Cali, Colombia, showed that 56 % of all homicides took place on one of the three days of the weekend and that a quarter of these occur on Sunday. Moreover, a disproportionate increase in homicides takes place on special celebrations or holidays such as Christmas, New Years Eve, sports events etc. Based on the above, restrictions on the sale of alcohol in public places were deemed an effective measure in reducing crime, violence and accidents. The `semi-dry' laws of Cali and the `carrot' law of Bogota, Colombia, established curfews (between 1 and 2 AM) for the sale of alcohol, and made a significant difference in reducing violence in these cities. (Guerrero, 1999). In recent years, other cities in Latin America have started to experiment with `dry-laws' in order to prevent violence, for example in Diadema, Brazil. Example Murder may occur less frequently but have a more severe impact on victims than car theft. Measures of impact include the number of injuries, loss in financial terms, the ability of people to respond (are victims insured?), and how well the criminal justice system responds. For example, shoplifting generally has a much higher conviction rate than does murder. 36 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Sources of information Police records are limited because ST Many different sources provide information AGES about crime and violence. The two main · Only reported information is recorded: statistics on sexual violence, petty sources of information are the police and OF crimes like mugging, crimes against PLANNING the community. The key is to be creative. children, fraud, corruption and drug- Talk to people who are affected by crime related crimes are less certain. and violence. The table below shows that · Statistics at neighborhood or street there are many potential sources in your AND level are not always accurate and are community. The positives and negatives in hard to get hold of; and IMPLEMENTING each case are given as well as an indication · Details about crimes (such as how of the type of information that each source crimes are committed, weather will provide. weapons are used, types of injuries, relationship of victim to offender) are often missing. A CRIME 1. Police Statistics 2. Community: victim surveys The police can be a good source of PREVENTION information about crime, although in many Victim surveys are the most systematic locations, people are skeptical about the method of gathering information from accuracy of police figures. There are several your community. They not only fill in the reasons why police records should be used, gaps in police data, but also tell you STRA despite this source's limitations. what people think about the crime problem and about existing services, like TEGY Police records are useful because they the police. Your community's perceptions . are as important as how much crime · Record all reported crime; happens - community consultation is a · Record crime across your whole area vital step in the planning process. and not just some parts of it; and People's ideas about local crime and · Are a good source of information over violence problems often differ from what time - you need a consistent source the official statistics suggest. with which to assess the impact of your strategy after one or more years. Information about sources of crime and violence Neighborhood Partnerships Police Statistics Interviews · National, state/provincial, · Your local station chief(s) local figures · Local head(s) of crime prevention · Local police station · Local head(s) of detectives · Area chief(s) of police Your Community Victim Surveys Other Community Sources Tell you about the · Interviews with key people · Extent of the crime · Group interviews/focus groups · Most serious crimes · Agencies, institutions, business, NGOs, local · Degree of fear of crime government departments, private security · Community concerns, etc. firms, hospitals, schools, etc. · Newspaper, radio and TV reports 37 Victim surveys are useful because they This process often encourages community participation and cooperation because · cover all crime, including what is not people feel part of the process. reported to the police; · provide information to help assess the You could get good information about risk from crime; crime and violence from · provide data on the fear of crime: fear can have negative consequences for · Municipal departments housing, utility your community and, because it does companies, or schools not always match actual crime and · Shops and small businesses violence levels, people need to be · Insurance companies asked why they fear and what they · Private security companies and banks fear, so that something can be done; · Hospitals, clinics, social workers and and doctors · show what the public thinks about the · Victim support agencies like those police, victim support agencies, private specializing in domestic violence Using other security, etc., and how these services · Prisons sources is could be improved. · Women's organizations, youth groups, necessary street children organizations Victim surveys are limited because · Civic organizations because · Trade unions. police · they can be expensive and time- Most information gathered from these consuming; statistics and sources will not be in the form of numbers, · women are often reluctant to talk but will come from interviews and, victim surveys about sexual or domestic violence; meetings, or group discussions. · they may not provide data on crimes have their against children (usually only people limitations. · Interviews with key people: These over 18 years of age are interviewed); could include local leaders of political and parties; women's groups; church · they usually do not provide groups and leaders; non-governmental information about offenders (although organizations working on related you can ask about this when you issues; victim support agencies; legal design the survey). resource centers; school heads or counselors; social workers; police chiefs in your area and heads of local 3. Other sources in your community crime prevention units; magistrates; Using other sources is necessary because judges; prosecutors; neighborhood police statistics and victim surveys have watch members; tai drivers; informal their limitations. Information about your traders; trade union and civic leaders. community as well as the views of its · Group meetings: If your community people can be gathered in several ways. is a small town or neighborhood you Safer Cities Tools The UN Habitat Safer Cities programme has, in collaboration with its partners in the different projects and through international cooperation developed a set of tools. These include assessment tools, crime prevention planning tools, implementation tools, and institutionalization tools. For more information go to: http//www.unchs.org/safercities/tools 38 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR can arrange meetings with residents or you may get more detailed community organizations to discuss information. You can organize general ST AGES community problems. Unlike formal community meetings or meetings with surveys, the views presented will not specific groups like women, or taxi OF represent the whole community, but drivers. PLANNING STEP 2: Identify who is already involved in crime and violence AND prevention activities in your community IMPLEMENTING An important part of the community safety · Maximizing scarce resources, skills, and audit is finding out which agencies and capacity by teaming up with existing organizations are already involved in crime initiatives; and A and violence prevention activities. · The time you spend meeting with CRIME The benefits of this step are the following these organizations can be used to tell them about the strategy. Community You will need consultation also helps encourage PREVENTION · Making the coordination of activities in to gather participation. People are more likely to your area easier; information get involved in programs that meet · Avoiding the duplication of programs; their needs because their views have about the · Identifying the gaps in service delivery: been considered. STRA for example, an audit might show a physical and lack of shelters for victims of domestic social features TEGY violence; of your area. . STEP 3: Analyze the physical and social characteristics of your community You will need to gather information about implemented alongside social and law the physical and social features of your enforcement projects that target a specific area. This will help you analyze and crime problem in your area. Some of the understand the causes of crime and main physical characteristics are listed violence. It will also help you to devise below. crime and violence prevention programs · Population density: This may that take into account the characteristics of contribute to crime if people are living your community and its physical in very over-crowded conditions. environment. · Layout and housing type: Factors like zoning for allocating land for specific uses, layout of neighborhoods, Physical characteristics the type of housing and the size of plots can encourage criminality. This information will be useful for Improvised dwellings in informal designing situational crime prevention settlements are often easier to break projects. Some of these are known as into and harder to secure with burglar `crime prevention through environmental bars or door locks. Large plots or design' (CPTED)4 or `place-specific crime smallholdings reduce the number of prevention'. Projects like this should be pedestrians using the streets, making 39 for fewer `eyes on the street'. The or facilitate crime. For example, a public areas of some and multi -floor concentration of pawnshops may buildings are unsafe, with dark and provide an easy way to sell stolen long corridors and stairways that offer goods shortly after committing a refuge to potential criminals. crime. · Image and infrastructure: Graffiti, garbage, broken windows and Social characteristics neglected yards create the impression that an area is unsafe and may mean Social characteristics are important because that residents will be less interested in crime and its prevention is about people. improving the area where they live. Each person in your community will be able Also note which parts of your to relate to crime--whether as a victim or community are electrified and have potential victim, someone who fears crime, infrastructure and services. Poor street lighting encourages criminality and a an offender or potential offender, or a lack of infrastructure and services participant in prevention activities. Social makes people vulnerable to crime. Important social factors are: · Transport routes: The layout and characteristics nature of roads and railway lines can · Age: This can be an important factor are important provide opportunities for crime and in understanding and anticipating because crime hinder crime prevention efforts. crime levels in your area. Changes in Highways bring non-resident traffic crime levels in countries like the United and its and provide easy routes for criminals States have been linked to the number prevention is to enter and escape from an area. of people between the ages of 15 and 24 - the age of most offenders. about people. · Vacant land: Large areas of vacant or underdeveloped land are often poorly maintained spaces and provide · Gender: Women are vulnerable to opportunities for committing crime, certain types of crime, such as render people walking in these areas domestic violence and sexual assault. vulnerable to attack and make police Young men are most at risk of other patrols more difficult. violent crimes and are most likely to · Commercial and industrial facilities: commit crime. Certain types of business may attract Situational Crime Prevention; CPTED - Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design The notion that the physical environment can either increase or reduce opportunities for crime is not new. Internationally it has been studied extensively over a number of decades. There is a general consensus that if the environment is planned, designed and managed appropriately, certain types of crimes can be reduced. Environmental design has formed an integral part of many crime prevention initiatives in countries such as the U.K., U.S.A., Canada, the Netherlands, Australia, and South Africa. The environment can play a significant role in influencing perceptions of safety. Certain environments can impart a feeling safety, whilst others can induce fear, even in areas where levels of crime are not high. In this regard, planning and design measures can be utilized very successfully to enhance feelings of safety in areas where people feel vulnerable. 40 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR · Socio-economic status: Poverty and crime and violence prevention unemployment can cause crime and activities. ST AGES need to be considered in your planning. · Security of tenure: Crime tends to OF · High levels of inequality: High levels be higher in communities where there PLANNING of crime and violence are often linked is a high degree of change of to high levels of economic inequality. occupancy of property. Residents who Many Latin American cities are rent may have less interest in securing AND characterized by rich and poor people their communities than do living side by side. This is often where homeowners. Different types of land IMPLEMENTING crime is highest. tenure can affect the ability and inclination of residents to invest in · Youth activities: Many types of their houses. Rapid turnover of crimes and violence are committed by housing also affects the social young unemployed or unoccupied cohesion of the community. A adults and adolescents. It is important CRIME to find out what recreational, sport Sources of information about your Information and social facilities exist in your area community about the PREVENTION and whether there are any organizations to which young people physical Information about the physical can belong. You should also characteristics of your area can be obtained characteristics investigate the schools in your STRA from city planners in your local of your area community and the extent to which government. Many municipalities have land TEGY they can be involved in crime and can be development plans, urban upgrading plans, violence reduction activities like raising obtained from . awareness, providing after-care or integrated development plans that facilities, staying open later, etc. incorporate planning for land use, city planners transport, infrastructure and the promotion in your local · Communication and participation of economic development. government. in community activities: It will be easier to implement crime and These plans and related documents may violence prevention programs in provide much of the information needed to communities where there is good analyze the physical nature of your communication among residents and community. You should also get to know high levels of participation in local your area by visiting and observing relevant organizations and activities. Initiatives places. General Household Surveys, census like neighborhood watches and street data, and other statistical sources will also or block committees are also indicators be able to help you with statistics about of people's willingness to participate in your area. STEP 4: Decide which problems are most important Your crime prevention strategy is likely to and 3 to decide which problems are most succeed only if you focus on a small serious. You will then be able to target number of manageable problems. In this crime prevention programs where they are part of the planning process you should use most needed and where they are most the information you collected in Steps 1, 2, likely to succeed. 41 For example, how would you select one of the following problems for urgent attention? Neighborhood Partnerships Domestic Violence Occurs at moderate levels, results in injuries and deaths; poor response from the criminal justice system; low short- term potential for reduction. Mugging Occurs at moderate levels causing high levels of fear; results in few injuries although disinvestment from affected areas; moderate reduction potential Car theft Occurs at high levels across the community; results in no injuries, few property recoveries are being made; moderate reduction potential. Setting priorities means you will have to · Rate of change: consider which choose. You will probably have to choose problems are increasing the fastest between several serious crime or violence · Fear and concern: consider which problems and between geographical areas problems people are most concerned in your community. about · Impact: consider which problems will have the greatest impact 1. The most serious crimes · Reduction potential: consider which problems will be easiest to prevent. You will have to choose the most serious crime and/or violence type on the basis of: You might want to list each problem on a large piece of paper and fill in as much · Volume: consider how much crime information as you have for each of the and violence occurs considerations above. A matrix for setting · Rate: consider which problems have the highest rates of occurrence priorities could look like this: · Risk: consider which problems pose the greatest risk Table x: Matrix for choosing the most serious crime types* Neighborhood Partnerships Problem Type Domestic Assault Residential Burglary Car hijacking Size of the problem Frequency: 6,575 Frequency: 10,300 Frequency: 2,775 Rate: 1,315/100,000 Rate: 2,060/100,000 Rate: 555/100,000 Risk: 1 in 30 Risk: 1 in 15 Risk: 1 in 60 Rate of change 9% increase 2 % increase 7 percent increase Fear 32 % of respondents 70 % of respondents 56 % of respondents Injury (impact) 12 deaths 6 serious injuries 2 deaths 130 serious injuries 15 minor injuries 4 serious injuries 8 minor injuries Loss in $ Not known $ 532,000 $ 437,882 Criminal Justice System 22% arrested 10 % arrested 10 % arrested response 42% of arrestees 30 % of arrestees 51 % of arrestees convicted convicted convicted Reduction potential Low in short term moderate moderate (* All figures are hypothetical, based on a city with a population of 500,000 and calculated p/a) 42 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR 2: Places in your community that are 3. Victims at high risk, affected by and in ST most affected fear of crime AGES The information you collected in steps 1-3 Steps 1-3 should provide profiles of victims OF should show which areas are most affected of different crime types as well as PLANNING by crime and violence in general. You will information about the impact of crime on also need to identify the places where victims and the community. You may also specific crimes are most likely to occur. If have access to information about the AND an analysis shows that certain parts of your extent of repeat victimization (whether IMPLEMENTING community are crime/violence prone you people are victim of a crime more than might decide to prioritize those areas for once). Also consider which crimes victims intervention. tend to fear the most, and why. These details may point to a particular group of A CRIME Example: All Female Police Stations, Sao Paulo, Brazil If an analysis Background information: In 1983 the State Council on the Status of Women reported that a shows that PREVENTION large number of Brazilian women were victim of violence whilst the offenders escaped sanctions due to ongoing under-reporting and police inaction. This finding led to the certain parts creation of police stations run fully by women officers. The project was mostly financed by of your the state government, but the municipal government of Sao Paulo provided physical plants STRA community and personnel. There are now over 100 such `Delegacia da Mulher' in Sao Paulo and the TEGY project has expanded all over Brazil. are Objective: Reduce and prevent violence against women by deterring offenders and crime/violence . providing assistance services to victims. prone you Activities and achievements: · Offer victim assistance by writing official and detailed reports and complaints might decide · Provide social and psychological services to victimized women to prioritize · In some cases, provide women with emergency shelter · Organize courses/workshops for abusive male partners aimed at making them develop those areas respect for women and their legal right to safety for Outcomes, impacts: intervention. · The first women's police station, in Sao Paolo, experienced an increase in the number of reports of violence against women, from 2,000 complaints in 1985 to 7,000 in 1989. (There is often a sharp initial rise in reported acts of violence with this kind of initiative, as women feel more comfortable to come forward). · Rio de Janeiro's police station saw, in the two years following its opening (1987-1989) a decrease by 65 % in the number of reported threats against women and a decrease by 37 % in the number of reported rapes. SOURCE: INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR CRIME PREVENTION, 2000 Website: http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/english/programs/index.html Example. Research and data throughout Latin America shows that most victims of violent crimes such as murder and assault are poor. They have poor access to victim support, receive less effective service from the police than people in richer neighborhoods, and tend to fear crime in their neighborhood more than those living elsewhere in the city. 43 victims that could be prioritized by your apply to a range of crime types or to the crime and violence prevention strategy. most serious crimes. Many programs neglect to target offenders. This is a 4. Categories of people most likely to mistake and can reduce the offend effectiveness of your strategy. You will have collected information about who commits crime in your area. This could Example. Research and data throughout Latin America and the Caribbean show that young men between the ages of 16 and 30, are most likely to be arrested for committing violent crime. If this is the case in your community, your group may want to develop a program which deters young men from offending. For example, education and awareness programs might be considered, as well as programs that work with ex-offenders Once you have decided what your Step 5: Analyze the problems that you have prioritized in community's your community main Once you have decided what your You will then be in a position to move on problems are community's main problems are you will to the second stage of the strategy- you will have have to analyze them in detail. Remember planning process. In this phase your group to analyze to take into account the social and physical will put forward a range of programs most characteristics of your community, identified likely to prevent these problems. them in in Step 3 in your analysis. A single crime detail. type can be committed in various ways, in 8: Stage 2: Developing a Strategy. various settings and by different kinds of offenders, on different types of victims. To After completing Stage 1, several crime effectively reduce the crime, you will need and violence problems will have been programs that respond to these variations. identified. In Stage 2 programs will be Consider the examples in the following selected to solve these problems and your table. This step is important. It helps you to strategy document will be drawn up. You find the right solutions for your should follow the next five steps: community's main problems. Step 6: Select and group the priority If you select `assault' in your community as a problems into focus areas. priority, you will need to find out who the Step 7: Identify and approach possible victims and offenders are, where and when partners in your area to assist in assaults happen, and what circumstances reducing crime and violence. characterize these offences. Step 8: Identify possible solutions. Once you have collected as much information Step 9: Select the most suitable as possible about the problems to target, you programs (solutions) and refine should compile a detailed description of them. them, and how they relate to the social and Step 10: Obtain support for the programs physical factors in the community. you select. 44 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Variances within crime types ST Neighborhood Partnerships AGES Factors Assault type 1: `domestic violence' Assault type 2: `gang violence' OF PLANNING Targets/victims Women (28 and 45 years), mixed Young men (17 and 30 years), poor socio-economic background, mixed socio-economic back- ground, employment status unemployed, some under the influence of alcohol or drugs, members of gangs AND Offenders Men (25 and 50 years), spouses, Young men (17 and 30 years), poor IMPLEMENTING partners, acquaintances of victim, socio-economic back-ground, mixed socio-economic background, unemployed, some known to victim, mixed employment status, many under the influence of alcohol, some under the influence of alcohol, assault members of local gangs from argument A When Between 17:00 and 8:00, weekends, Between 18:00 and 2:00, Fridays and CRIME holiday periods and month-end Saturdays, and some weekdays Where In the home and/or yard of the victim In bars or on the streets in the victim and PREVENTION offender's neighborhood How Fists, various household objects, Guns, knives knives STRA Opportunity Absence of restraining factors like the Poor street lighting, little or no police TEGY Factors public, police, neighbors, and presence, high levels of intimidation increased vulnerability of victims mean that victims and witnesses don't . through other factors like economic report crimes or cooperate with police dependence, etc. Step 6: Develop a range of focus areas A focus area describes a particular crime or Tip 1: Let the community safety audit violence problem or group of problems guide you In each focus area, several prevention projects may target the problem. You will constantly need to refer back to the safety audit. It provides objective, The process of developing focus areas from factual information. The initial ideas for your community safety audit is not selecting focus areas must come from technical and cannot be prescribed in a the audit and the programs chosen at the manual. Often practical and political end of Stage 2 should relate to the audit. considerations in your community will shape the process. Some tips may help you. A good safety audit will not just describe Examples of possible focus areas · Addressing domestic violence · Addressing crime prevention through spatial planning and physical design interventions · Addressing crime and violence problems in a specific location/neighborhood · Developing the capacity of local government officials to implement crime reduction programs 45 your community's problems. It will also identified by the community safety audit. analyze the problems and point to those But you can start by selecting more, rather most in need of action. All role-players than fewer, options because some will be taking part in Stage 2 should be familiar eliminated in Steps 8 and 9. with the results of the audit. The best way of ensuring this is by involving them Your initial selection could include a in the development of the audit itself. number of focus areas. Ideally, after narrowing down the options, your strategy How many focus areas should be should have no more than four focus developed? areas. Trying to do too much may result in: A review of Step 4 of the safety audit, · a lack of focus `decide which problems are most · spreading resources too thinly important', will provide a framework for · having too much to manage selecting focus areas. It may not be · working in areas where you lack skills Meeting with or capacity possible (or wise) for your team or local groups partnership to tackle all the problems can help you begin to Step 7: Identify potential local partners identify possible Meeting with local groups can help you · allow the strategy to reflect the begin to identify possible partners to views of the fullest range of interest partners to involve in your crime and violence groups. involve in prevention plan. Bringing local · review debate around the main crime and violence problems your crime stakeholders together allows you to · ensure support for the strategy understand what their concerns are and and violence · identify who can help what skills they can bring to the table. It is prevention · identify gaps in the strategy essential that this process commence at an · allow for a participatory approach plan. early stage of designing your strategy. and formalize this process Communicating and establishing relations with likely partners can help to: See the chapter on partnerships for further information and examples of the different · create publicity around the strategy types of partnerships that have been · broaden the forum to include a successfully developed. bigger range of interest groups Step 8: Identify possible solutions Before reducing the number of focus areas, Determine the level of intervention you will need to decide on the level of the intervention, the types of solutions needed You must decide who can help deal with and who the target groups might be for the problems described in the focus areas each solutions. Focusing not only on that you have selected. Crime and violence problems but also on solutions helps prevention programs can operate at planners to be practical. national, provincial, city, town or neighborhood level. The level you choose 46 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Car theft: an example of how to match problems and solutions ST AGES Car theft is a major problem in many Latin American cities. For these offenses to take place there needs to be a supply of cars to steal. This requires a motivated offender and an OF opportunity to steal. There will also be a demand for stolen cars, either by the public or by PLANNING organized crime syndicates who export stolen vehicles or `chop-shop' owners who dismantle cars to sell as parts. To tackle this problem, potential solutions include: AND · Improving systems at police and licensing departments to limit the issuing of false IMPLEMENTING certificates and license plates and to make corruption more difficult · Harsher sentences for corrupt licensing and police officials · Improving physical security in cars · Improving surveillance of `hot-spot' areas · Improving rapid response to hijacking incidents A CRIME · Tightening border patrol · Harsher sentences for people convicted of car theft and buying stolen cars Thorough · Improving intelligence and investigative capacity to uncover organized crime research into PREVENTION · Implementing closure programs of unlicensed scrap yards and `chop-shops' various · Improving educational opportunities for youth options will STRA also help later will depend on the nature of your Use information on good and bad in the TEGY community's problem and the time and practice to plan solutions . resources that are available. assessment of Consult other practitioners and review whether the Home burglaries, for example, could be examples of other programs and projects. programs reduced through several strategies, like The more ideas you can generate at this changing building codes, forming stage the greater the likelihood that the have been Neighborhood Watch committees, using approaches you select will succeed. effective. more burglar proofing and alarm systems, Thorough research into various options will improving educational opportunities for also help later in the assessment of young men, and increasing police patrols. whether the programs have been effective. Various websites have good practice examples in crime and violence prevention, see for example: International Centre for the Prevention of Violence (ICPC). 1999. "100 Crime Prevention Programs to Inspire Action Across the World". Montreal, Canada. http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org National Crime Prevention Council. 1995. 350 Tested Strategies to Prevent Crime: A Resource Guide for Municipal Agencies and Community Groups. Washington, DC. Visit: www.ncpc.org/5use.htm or store.yahoo.com/mcgruff/. National Crime Prevention Council. 2000. 150 Tested Strategies to Prevent Crimes from small cities, counties, and rural communities. Washington, DC. Visit: www.ncpc.org/5use/htm or store.yahoo.com/mcgruff/. 47 Tip 2: Consult widely: · Ignores existing experience, capacity and skills The most difficult part of selecting priorities · Has little relevance or chance of is knowing that not all alternatives can be making an impact chosen. The priorities will not be everyone's first choice but rather a mix of interests Identify target groups reflecting factual information, organization perspectives, etc. From the outset you When you have chosen possible programs should explain this to all participants. to solve the problems described in the focus Consultation is critical. It enables people to areas, it is important that target groups for raise concerns, express interests, generate each intervention are identified. These might ideas and, most importantly, move towards include victims or crime targets (like consensus. Failure to consult adequately vehicles), offenders or a particular place in may result in a strategy that: your community that needs attention. In the case of programs aimed at reducing The most · Has little support offending, several risk factors can help you select the most appropriate target groups. difficult part · Is in conflict with other initiatives or duplicates other initiatives Risk factors increase the likelihood of crime, of selecting · Is badly thought through violence and criminal behavior. They do not priorities is · Excludes vital problems or target cause crime and violence, but increase the groups knowing that possibility of these being committed. not all alternatives Example: Johannesburg, South Africa. can be In the case of the Johannesburg Safer Cities program, it took the Safer Cities team an chosen. intensive three months of consultations to move from an initial set of focus areas to a final strategy that was ratified by the city Council. During this time the strategy evolved through four drafts. Each was discussed through sector workshops, partnership discussions, public meetings, media coverage, written correspondence, questionnaires and international technical input. 48 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Selecting target groups for programs to reduce offending: examples ST of different risk factors AGES Family factors OF · Poor parental supervision PLANNING · Antisocial behavior and criminality among parent · Low family income · Family conflict AND · Abuse of substances IMPLEMENTING School factors · Absenteeism and lack of commitment to school · Learning difficulties · Disruptive behavior or conduct disorders · Low achievement · Poor school management and teaching A CRIME · Lack of support for children with special needs · Violence, crime and intimidation at school PREVENTION · School too big and children feel anonymous Individual characteristics · Alienation · Lack of social involvement STRA · Early involvement in problem behavior (e.g. gang membership, drug and alcohol use) · Peer involvement in problem behavior TEGY · High proportion of unsupervised time spent with peers . Early adulthood factors · Lack of skills or qualifications · Unemployment or low income · Homelessness Community features · Community disorganization · Availability of drugs · Opportunities for crime · High levels of alcohol consumption · Availability of firearms Step 9: Select the most suitable programs and refine them Reducing the original selection of focus You will need to carefully analyze the areas and their potential solutions to a final information about possible solutions when set of focus areas requires: selecting and refining the most suitable programs. Each option needs to be · detailed consultation (see Tip 2) assessed against a range of influencing · using decision-making tools (See tip 3) factors. A matrix like the one below that · building consensus (see Step 10) uses the example of reducing car theft, can assist in decision-making. 49 Decision-making matrix to select programs to reduce car theft Neighborhood Partnerships Solution Existing best Estimated Estimated Other Existence of Selected/ practice cost effectiveness partners' local rejected interest capacity Promoting Yes Low Medium High Yes Selected physical security in cars Punishment of Yes Medium Low Low Yes Rejected corrupt licensing officials Improving Yes Medium/ High Medium Yes Selected licensing High system Closing No Medium Medium Medium Yes Selected unregistered scrap yards Improving Yes High Low High Yes Rejected rapid response to hijacking Focus areas may not always include specific Tip 3: Use decision-making tools projects and programs. In some cases they Several factors can assist you in deciding may be more general--for example, which programs to select. As you will see developing the crime and violence below, however, these are rarely prevention capacity in your community or straightforward questions that give you making the most of a particular straightforward answers. Factors can organization's ability to reduce crime. work for or against a particular problem, depending on the context in which they The appendix provides some useful are applied. This means you should questions that can guide you in selecting carefully analyze all the factors and programs and projects. weigh up the positive and negative results of each choice. Remember to try and keep things simple. Example of a focus area typical of local government Most local governments will have a focus area that aims to develop internal crime and violence reduction capacity. This can include the following projects: · Preventing and investigating corruption within local government · Developing the crime and violence prevention knowledge skills of officials and politicians through initiatives such as training · Aligning departmental functions so that they maximize crime and violence prevention within core functions · Creating facilitating structures, staffing and resourcing for crime prevention · Developing a community policing strategy 50 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Step 10: Obtain support for the programs you select ST AGES Having carefully assessed the possible focus problems of limited resources and areas and solutions in each case, you capacity OF should be in a position to report this to · be achievable, realistic, measurable PLANNING your project partners. If you have consulted · have the potential to make a widely the chances are good that finding significant impact · add value not duplicate consensus will not be too difficult. If you · tackle the problem at the most AND do anticipate problems, or are developing suitable level: in a particular area, or the strategy on behalf of a partnership IMPLEMENTING by targeting a defined victim or rather than a single agency, the whole offender group group should be involved in choosing the · have support and the potential to final programs and their solutions. build support · be sustainable A If the steps of Stage 2 are carefully followed, · satisfy both short and long term CRIME the final focus areas and crime and violence objectives If you have prevention programs you choose should: · include solutions that are both consulted PREVENTION · be creative solutions that address efficient and effective widely the Examples of a selection of focus areas and programs for a chances are STRA municipality good that Focus area 1: Reducing youth related crime and violence finding TEGY · Develop evening sports and recreational programs at local schools consensus will . · Make schools crime and violence free environments · Enforce laws relating to under-age drinking and sale of alcohol to minors not be too · Develop school completion and business development program for at-risk youth difficult. · Keeps schools open later with supervision for pupils · Train teachers to recognize child abuse · Develop parenting programs: single-parent support and training opportunities · Ensure children with learning difficulties continue at school · Support pre-school activities Focus area 2: Reducing domestic violence · Develop and run a shelter in a neighboring town and provide a job-placement service · Develop a school-based sensitivity program · Provide victim counseling services through primary healthcare workers · Provide counseling services for abusive partners · Design community disapproval programs · Restrict the sale of alcohol and supervise bars Focus area 3: Developing internal crime and violence prevention capacity in the municipality · Train ten officials in crime prevention through environmental design principles · Initiate a functional planning process to increase departmental crime prevention work · Initiate a quarterly meeting of department heads to discuss integrating crime and violence prevention programs across departments · Agree on priorities with all departments and ensure that they are included in strategic work plans and budgets. 51 Tip 4: Suggestions for obtaining support communication and feedback with all · Consult extensively partners · Understand organizational interests · Go back to the safety audit as your and motivations main foundation for decision-making · Find gaps or opportunities to make trade-offs between differing interest Stage 3: Managing your Strategy. · Find creative mechanisms for There are many different approaches to combining interests managing and implementing your strategy. · For local government, ensure political Only the most important steps are outlined support and participation throughout here. In stage 3 you will need to come up the process with detailed plans for each of the · Ensure there is ongoing Example: There are Focus on Youth: the model of the city of Boston, Massachusetts, USA Background information: In the early 1990's, a total of 152 homicides per year were many committed in the City of Boston, an increase from an average below 100 in prior years. different Reports showed that approximately 75 % of these homicides were linked to gangs in a city approaches to where nearly 40 different neighborhood gangs were indexed (a gang population of 4,000). Objectives: Reduce teen/youth violence at the municipal level through preventive and managing controlling measures involving local authority and the local community. This program was and selected by the National Crime Prevention Council (NCPC), in the USA, as one of six leading implementing American cities with the highest crime reduction in ten years. Activities and achievements: your strategy. · Launch of the Cease Fire Operation through gun control and gang control policies: sanctions strengthened for repeated offenders; police patrolled regularly to check that offenders on probation were in compliance with their probation orders. The police reinforced the control of arms trafficking. · Creation of a coalition between the police and social workers to come up with effective measures to prevent and control gang violence illustrated by the Youth Service Providers Network (YSPN), partnership between the police and the Boys and Girls Clubs. · Implementation of the Strategic Planning & Community Mobilization Project (SP&CMP) aimed at improving the relationship between citizens and the police, increase the citizens' confidence in the police. · Promotion of peaceful means for resolving conflicts amongst youths. Outcomes, impacts: · The total crime rate declined by 29 %, or from 5,302 to 3,768 cases. · The property crime rate decreased by 31 %, or from 4,613 to 3, 187 cases. · · The rate for violent crimes was lowered by 16 %, or from 689 cases to 580. SOURCE: Mogul, J. Boston : A city's success, Boletín de la Red de Alcaldes, Programa de Prevención de la Violencia, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo ­ División de Desarrollo Social, Número 3, Julio 2000. International Center for the Prevention of Crime, 100 Crime Prevention Programs to Inspire Action Across the World, 1999. http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org 52 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR programs and projects you have developed Some successful projects will be expanded ST in Stage 2. Remember that, above all, you into programs in order to sustain or AGES should keep plans as simple as you can. broaden their impact or to extend activities to other areas and target groups. OF The difference between a program and a PLANNING project A successful project will · Projects are specific interventions · Address real problems that are usually attached to a specific · Have clear objectives AND time frame - for example, developing a · Be based on well-formulated and well- IMPLEMENTING directory of victim services. appraised plans · Programs are broader, can consist of · Be tightly managed and implemented by more than one project and can have a competent and well motivated team an open-ended time frame. An · Enjoy the support of key stakeholders example is a program to alleviate the · Be adequately resourced and capacitated A trauma of crime victims in a · Have clear leadership CRIME community. · Be measured for successful delivery Set clear objectives. PREVENTION Step 11: Develop a project plan with goals, objectives, a time Objectives schedule and budget must explain STRA why you are You will need to develop plans for each of in terms of skills and knowledge. If these doing the TEGY the projects in your strategy. The project are lacking, you will need to provide . plan should describe the activities, training and support to ensure that the project and timelines, responsibilities and costs for each activity is completed as planned. If new what you part of the project. The development of a personnel are required, an outline of the want to plan has several stages. necessary activities will help in designing achieve by the job descriptions. Make sure that it is Setting objectives very clear who is responsible for each doing it. Set clear objectives. Objectives must explain activity; therefore identify clearly who will why you are doing the project and what be doing what. you want to achieve by doing it. Only if you have clearly stated at the beginning of Establish a time frame the project what you wish to achieve can it Allocate a length of time for each activity. be assessed at a later stage. Some activities will run concurrently and some will depend on others being Planning activities to meet objectives completed before they can begin. The You will need to decide which activities will length of time that the entire project will best deliver each output. These actions take to achieve its stated objectives can should be documented in an activity plan. then be calculated. This timeframe should This plan must indicate the time needed for be constantly checked and changed to the activity and whose responsibility it is to allow for any unforeseen problems that carry it out. might arise during the course of implementation. The time that the different Allocating responsibility for activities activities and the entire project take to be completed has consequences for the costs When you allocate responsibilities, assess of the project. Scheduling is therefore seen each person's ability to complete the task 53 as both a project planning and costing tool project. Always budget for and allow some as well as a project monitoring tool. financial resources for project management costs. It should be common practice to Identifying the required inputs allocate between 5 % and 8 % for project Through the process of identifying the management costs and an additional activities and linking these to your existing equivalent amount for the project's resources, you will be able to see what evaluation once it has been completed. gaps there are in terms of personnel requirements, financial obligations that will Monitoring project implementation have to be met, and other inputs you will The objectives, together with your time need to be able to carry out the stated plan, will define what you need to do by a activities. This will assist you in particular time so that you can keep within understanding what budgets you will need your budget. Constant monitoring of these over what period of time, and when these is required, so that delays or problems that will be required, as well as highlighting could stop you achieving what you want to The best way appropriate and possible resources to pay do can be rectified before they get out of to budget for for the different activities. hand. a project is to Budgeting for your project Each project needs a detailed plan with a calculate the The best way to budget for a project is to time frame, responsibilities and funding direct cost of calculate the direct cost of each activity. options. Different projects can be each activity. Remember to factor in support costs like grouped according to their focus areas. staff time and an allocation for project These focus areas, with their respective overheads. Future operational costs must projects, together make up the strategy. also be considered at the start. It is By using the time scale you can see therefore important to understand whose which activities can be carried out responsibility it will be to maintain the concurrently and which ones are continued operation of the project. Should dependent on other actions being the future operation fall within a particular completed, and what needs to be in department's line of work, commitment place before they can commence. should be gained prior to commencing the Step 12: Project management is necessary It might be necessary to use the skills of an Depending on the type of projects you experienced project manager to manage have selected and want to implement, some of the projects. The coordination management kills might include financial function is different from the project planning and management, works management one, and different experience supervision, technical expertise, etc. Make is therefore required. The coordinator sure you have sufficient funds to pay for needs good networking and these services. communication skills, whereas the manager requires project management Draw on the expertise of some of your expertise. partners in the private sector. If they come from the construction or engineering 54 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Example: ST AGES Police and Community Cooperation for Reduction of Violence in Diadema, Sao Paulo, Brazil. OF PLANNING Background information: This project was carried out by the Fernand Braudel Institute of World Economics, which is associated with the Fundaçao Armando Alvares Penteado in Sao Paolo, Brazil. AND Objective: Develop a model program of how to reduce violence in Brazil's high-risk urban areas through community policing and community cooperation. IMPLEMENTING Activities and achievements: · Pulled together support between diverse political actors · Launched monthly town meetings in partnership with the Mayor, the City Council, Military and Civil Police Chiefs, business, religious and community leaders A · Developed contacts and in-depth knowledge on violence reduction approaches, which CRIME are transferable to other Brazilian cities · Founded partnerships between the different city community authorities and community PREVENTION residents Outcomes, impacts: · A 12 % decrease in homicide rates; 11 % decrease in car thefts STRA · Increased public awareness on the problem of violence; initiated dialogue and effective police initiatives TEGY · Founding of a Social Defense Coordinating office and a Municipal Public Safety Council . to study and implement various approaches to violence prevention · ntroduced a Municipal law regulating the functioning of bars after 11:00 p.m. · Implementation of a task force to work with parents, students and teachers in the area of violence prevention in the city; a pilot project targeting school violence · Provision of a computerized criminal mapping system · Creation of an anonymous telephone system for criminal activity report. In 2001, 65 of the 352 anonymous calls resulted in real arrests · More police and community cooperation · Increase in dialogue from other cities' officials, cities facing problems with violence such as Sao José, dos Campos and Campinas. SOURCE: Fernand Braudel Institute of World Economics, Development Marketplace Project: Police and Community Cooperation for Reduction of Violence in Diadema, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Project 802, Final report, February 2002. http://www.braudel.org.br industries they could provide valuable management skills. Remember, in most insight and information in this field. projects the most important thing is to have motivated people who work hard Don't be intimidated by the need to according to agreed and clear objectives, manage your projects properly. Do the and who regularly report back to the best you can and ask for help and advice community. from local business or others who have 55 Stage 4: Monitoring and Evaluating your When must you start the monitoring and strategy. evaluation process? Assessing your strategy is essential. Without this you will not be able to tell Although monitoring and evaluation whether your strategy has achieved its comprise the last stage in this manual, they goals, whether certain projects should be need to be planned from early in the continued or changed, and whether strategy-design process. From stage 2, resources have been well spent. This when you start to select focus areas, you information is critical if you want your should begin the monitoring process. This strategy to survive. will ensure that: · The strategy is monitored from the beginning Monitor and assess your strategy · The information you will need to measure the strategy's impact will be This is necessary to be able to collected (this information helps you to You must understand the reasons for the success · Measure whether the strategy has met or failure of your program) develop skills its objectives · You will be in a position to track · Ascertain the cost of the initiative to understand emerging crime problems and · Measure any possible cost benefit routinely scan your community to how and why · Assess whether public perceptions detect and prevent possible increases your crime have changed in crime. · Adapt the strategy according to and violence information about what works Monitoring and evaluation are key to prevention · Get a better understanding of what extending the life of your strategy the problems have been and why strategy these have hindered implementation succeeds or · Understand negative results that the You must develop skills to understand fails. strategy might have had, like crime how and why your crime and violence being displaced to another area prevention strategy succeeds or fails. · Develop an understanding of Without these, you will struggle to successful or good practices change the objectives--both of the · Use all of these lessons to develop strategy and of individual projects. It your strategy will also be difficult to justify why your strategy should continue and why you What should you monitor and assess? should start new projects. Your skills could also influence others to become You will need to assess the outcome or partners and get involved in similar impact of your whole strategy. This means projects. Furthermore, they could that each of the programs and projects that persuade partners to continue their make up your strategy need to be monitored involvement. and assessed separately. Remember that the outcome of a project is not simply less crime. 56 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Step 13: Make sure you have planned and budgeted for ST monitoring and evaluation AGES OF These must be adequately budgeted for Tip 5: Who should carry out this exercise? PLANNING within the overall program. It is not a cheap exercise that can be added on later. Monitoring is a management function. It involves continual chacking to see how AND Also remember that the results of a project the implementation of the program and can be evaluated only if they are compared its project is proceeding. This is often IMPLEMENTING to the situation before the project started. allocated to the strategy coordinator but This means that certain information must it is time consuming. You should be accepted by all project partners as the consider hiring someone specifically to base line. This information should come carry out this function. The evaluation from your community safety audit. A requires an objectives measuring of CRIME achievements. Ideally someone skilled Monitoring who has not been involved in the is a PREVENTION design or implementation of the program should evaluate your strategy. management function. It STRA involves Step 14: Make sure you have clearly and correctly defined continual TEGY project objectives checking to see . You should take time to identify broad · Reducing the impact of crime on how the aims for your whole program, specific vulnerable groups implementation objectives to help you meet these aims and outputs that will help you achieve your Your project should also have specific of the program objectives. objectives and its project is proceeding. Your project should have broad aims These could include: · Reducing domestic burglary in a These aims include: specified area by 20 percent by a set · Making your community safer date · Reducing the fear of crime · Making community policing · Reducing property crime operational in a specified area by a set · Reducing the incidence of violence date Example of matching objectives and outputs Neighborhood Partnerships Objective Outputs 100 community police officers in operation in · Community policing course developed by community X, by September 2003 February 2003 · Potential community police officers identified by march 2003 · Equipment purchased by June 2003 57 · Encouraging residents to report Make a distinction between monitoring domestic violence to the police. and evaluation Objective can be more clearly understood Monitoring is an ongoing process that and defined if you ask yourself what focuses on ongoing project activities. These actions you have to take in order to realize are often called project outputs. Evaluation the objective. The following examples, in is seeing how the project has performed, which some objectives are linked to specific once it is complete. This is often called the outputs, might clarify this. outcome. Outputs usually refer to a more immediate result that is accomplished when the stated objectives are achieved. Outcomes generally refer to a much broader idea, and come about as a result of achieving the objectives. Some examples of project outputs as opposed to project outcomes are given below. Examples of outputs and outcomesOutput Neighborhood Partnerships Output Outcome Community police officers operational/ visible Reduction of mugging by 20-30 percent policing increased by 50 percent Reduction of fear of crime Security locks fitted on 100 percent of houses in A 10-20 percent reduction in burglary in defined defined area by date area Domestic violence shelter created and leaflets Victims of spouse abuse are more prepared to distributed to all households by date report incident to police services. Step 15: Identify ways to evaluate your program and how you carried out the projects Identify indicators to measure your Identify indicators to evaluate your project's outputs program's impact You need to identify either an action that Once you have agreed on what you want has taken place or some other measure to achieve through the program and have that proves that the activity has been defined goals, aims and objectives, as well carried out. This is necessary in order to as what the outcomes are expected to be, judge whether the output that you wanted you need to decide how you are going to has been achieved. measure or judge what impact you have made. The things that help you do this are often called the `measurable' or indicators. You need to agree on the sorts of 58 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Examples of outputs and their performance indicators ST Neighborhood Partnerships AGES Outputs Performance indicators OF Increase levels of security patrols in defined area Average daily deployment as shown from duty PLANNING roster records Making community policing project operational Identified number of community police officers AND trained and equipped IMPLEMENTING Fitting security locks Agreed number of locks fitted Creating domestic violence shelter Domestic violence shelter in operation Distributing domestic violence leaflets Records kept by mailing contractor Outreach workers counseling youths about risks Number of contacts made A CRIME of substance abuse Number of information packs given PREVENTION indicators you are going to use. You can and violence prevention project use a range of indicators to evaluate the · The level of awareness of and impact of your strategy. The following satisfaction with police services STRA examples of possible indicators could help · The degree of cleanliness and you choose the most relevant ones for your maintenance of physical environment TEGY · The extent of loitering purpose. · The extent of vandalism and graffiti . · The changes in the number of · The crime and violence rates insurance claims and the premiums · The level of fear of crime or feelings of · The extent of target-hardening safety among residents measures like the number of security · The victimization rates locks · The amount and type of media · The range and diversity of users of coverage inner city/downtown areas · The level of public understanding of community safety · The extent to which local activities Identifying indicators to evaluate your involve youth strategy's performance · The number, availability and use of programs that support positive Performance indicators provide information parenting on how well the projects has been · The number of calls for police service organized and carried out. · The number of residents involved in community development activities These indicators can measure processes of · The number of residents using streets your strategy that can not be quantified. and public spaces For example, to measure the commitment · The extent of residents' interaction and `sense of community' of different stakeholders, you can use · The level of awareness of the crime attendance at meetings, contributions to-- and violence prevention project within and actions resulting from--meetings, as the community well as the level of funding from each · The level of participation in the crime stakeholder. You can also use opinion 59 surveys carried out through community · They do not compromise other meetings, and meetings of organizations, objectives (in their effort to be fulfilled focus groups or direct surveys. themselves) · They are quantitative and preferably Tip 6: Select performance indicators ratio measurements · They are easily understandable carefully so that · They are cost effective · They are credible to the police and the · They relate as directly and as public accurately as possible to the intended · Their calculations are clear outcomes · They help you learn what was done · They help focus attention on effective correctly, and what was not crime and violence prevention work Some examples of outcomes and performance indicators Neighborhood Partnerships Outcome Outcome Reduced burglary Crime survey burglary rates Burglary rates recorded by the police Attempted burglary rates recorded by police Level of expenditure on repairs to local government owned property Insurance claim rates Self-reported offending rates by known burglars Reducing the extent of violence using knives, Recorded rates for woundings/homicides caused guns, etc. by guns/knives Incidents of knife/gun attacks in hospital records Reduced fear of crime in public open Number of seizures of illegal weapons space system Rates of fear of crime measured through surveys Levels and types of street activity measured through observation Reduced substance abuse related harm among School children's knowledge and experience of teenagers drugs and/or alcohol as measured by surveys Hospital records Improved quality of victim support and response Rates of satisfaction as measured through victim to victims of crime surveys Levels of police complaints Information from local community police 60 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Example: Community policing in Hatillo, Costa Rica ST AGES Background information: In 1996, a community policing experiment was started in Hatillo, Costa Rica. The locality was selected for two reasons: 1) the high level of insecurity as OF expressed by the inhabitants and; 2) Hatillo has a high degree of community organization. PLANNING This community organization is apparent in the existence of several religious, cultural, athletic groups. Objectives: AND · Identify and resolve problems in the community related to small delinquency and public safety IMPLEMENTING · Improve the public's feeling of insecurity · Enhance the public's perception of the police · Incorporate the community in action plans targeting public safety Activities and achievements: A · Selected and trained 120 police agents in legal and interpersonal skills CRIME · Installed Police units in order to effectively decentralize police forces · Created the Monitoring and Communitarian Security Council which is an organ PREVENTION responsible for permanent consultation on the planning and execution of police actions · new forms of patrol mainly foot and motorcycle patrols to comply with Hatillo's predominantly narrow tree-lined streets and avenues · Developed special programs on issues such as intra-family violence, youth delinquency, STRA alternatives to conflict resolution and drug-prevention. TEGY Outcomes, impacts: . · The results are based on an evaluation conducted after only one year of implementation. · Assaults, the city's biggest problem, decreased. · Feeling of insecurity also decreased: 36 % of the population reported "they felt unsafe even at home" after the program only 19 % felt unsafe; 53% reported "the avoid going out at night because they felt unsafe" this rate dropped to 23 % after the program was implemented. · The program had good effects on the population's opinion of the police: before the program 49 % of the population reported that "they did not trust the police" 29 % after the program; 47 % did not believe the police to be efficient, after the program the rate lowered to 27 %; before the program 46 % did not think that the police had sufficient training, 20 % still thought that after the program; before the program 37 % believed the police gave good treatment 16 % were still convinced of this after the program. · The impact on delinquency was not significant after the first year, the decrease in the percentage was little, burglaries increased from 13 % to 14 %; armed street robbery went from 5 % to 2 %; unarmed street robbery was lowered by 1 point 9 % to 8 %; motor vehicle theft actually increased 4 % to 5 % for cars and from 3 % to 6 % for bicycles and motorcycles. SOURCE: Laura Chinchilla M., Policia de Orientación Comunitaria "Una Adecua Alianza entre Policia y Comunidad Para Revetir la Inseguridad", October 1999 61 Step 16: Establish a framework for evaluation and carry it out Designing the framework done occur in a logical manner. The example, adapted from a crime prevention This is sometimes called a logical project in Miami, Florida, USA, clarifies framework. It helps you to monitor and how this can assist you. check that what you are doing and have Example: Student crime watch to establish a school environment that does not tolerate crime or violence Neighborhood Partnerships Project element Indicator Means of verification Outcome/ Reduced levels of student 50 % reduction in criminal · Statistics from police Impact victimization and crime in incidents in year 1 and · School records and around identified high `zero tolerance' for crime · Student council records school over two-year period in year 2 · Student survey records Objective 250 students recruited and Number of trained Records of the student educated on crime students monitored crime watch club prevention methods (e.g. a monthly crime watch club) Output Month 1: educational · No. of participants on · Course records material designed; each the course · Post-course club watch member to · No. of trainees questionnaire identify 5 peer group successfully recruited · Club membership trainees per month approval Activities · Develop training · Availability of training · Club reports course manual and number · Financial statements · Provide training of students being · Monthly · Monitor and identify trained crime problems and · Reports regarding feasibility of crime types to be prevention prevented · Continuous feedback from students through surveys and recruitment campaign Input · Support from Student · Availability and Club minutes and records Security Council presence of club · Support from school executive: chairperson authorities and others · Club funding · Records of meetings · Club executive held and attendance committee's time 62 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR Carry out the evaluation been prevented from occurring. Be aware ST of the problems (identified below) and do AGES Using a framework like the one above, you not skip this important exercise. can carry out the evaluation. To be OF PLANNING workable, the elements of your projects at Bear these challenges in mind the levels of impacts/outcomes and objectives need to be specific, · Remember your objectives may be measurable, achievable, realistic and complex because they can often be AND according to a time schedule. Remember achieved in indirect ways. This is IMPLEMENTING that the aim of the impact evaluation is to especially true for reducing crime and violence. decide whether the strategy has made a · Projects with long time frames are difference in your community. You will generally hard to measure and it is need to use the data that you collected for difficult to attribute causes and effects the community safety audit to do this. A to them. The effects of crime and CRIME violence prevention programs are Tip 7: Timing Remember often only realized several years later. PREVENTION · Even if crime and violence decrease in your You should leave enough time between the your area, finding out what caused the objectives start of project implementation and the decrease is often difficult, because may be evaluation to allow the effect to take place. crime is the result of many things STRA beyond the reach of your strategy. But it must not be too long afterwards, complex · Gathering baseline data that are otherwise the effects might have because they TEGY reliable and comparable for future use diminished. . is not easy, as crime reporting can often be patterns, practices and rates and can achieved in Tip 8: Don't be disheartened change over time. indirect ways. · Replicating approaches that have Crime and violence prevention projects are worked elsewhere should be done notoriously difficult to monitor and with care as conditions in your area evaluate. Because the prevention of may be different. criminal activity is the overall goal of any · Results of your evaluation may be limited to understanding what works, crime and violence prevention program, what is promising and what does not limitations experienced in general when work. evaluating projects are made more difficult: you cannot measure something that has 63 Strategy including objectives and Targets, and approved by partners Performance Feedback loop Establish and define indicators Implement strategy Modify strategy if necessary Monitor changing crime Problems and their sources Monitor all measures Implemented Selectively evaluate outcome Effectiveness of strategies Contribute to collective body of Next major audit Knowledge about crime and violence reduction 64 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America 6. THE FOUR ST Example: community-based programs: lessons from the USA AGES In 1997, the U.S. Attorney General, presented a report for Congress, which classified OF different U.S. programs in three groups: 1) what works, 2) what doesn't work; 3) what is PLANNING promising. The programs evaluated were classified into seven local institutional settings in which these practices operated: in communities, families, schools, labor markets, and places (business, hotels and other locations); by the police and the criminal justice agencies after arrest. More details on the methodology of the evaluation can be found on the AND National Institute of Justice, Research in Brief, July 1998 at http://www.preventingcrime.org . IMPLEMENTING The key findings of the report can be summarized as follows: In communities: According to the report, there are no community-based programs that have been scientifically proven to work in preventing crime and violence. However the report has been able to list several promising programs. A · Gang violence may be reduced by monitoring gang members with the help of CRIME community workers, probation and police officers. · Increasing the number of police officers in cities may diminish crime in general. Polite PREVENTION field interrogations of suspicious persons may lessen street crimes. Police showing greater respect for crime offenders may abate the number of repeat offenses. · Community-based mentoring (an example is Big Brother/Big Sister of America) may prevent drug abuse amongst young children. Community-based after-school recreational STRA programs may decrease local juvenile crime. · Creating shelters for battered women may help reduce repeat domestic abuse. TEGY . In families: · The home visiting strategy. This program targets infants and is geared at preventing - at an early stage - the development of antisocial behavior in children and youth resulting from abuse, neglect, and bad parenting. The program sends trained nurses and other helpers to educate expecting mothers and mothers with babies aged 0-2 on parenting skills and ways to cope with issues such as depression, anger, impulsiveness and substance abuse. [Studies conducted found a 79 % reduction in cases of child abuse and neglect among poor mothers (Olds et al., 1997); adolescents whose mothers has received home visits were 60 % less likely to have run away; 55 % less likely to have been arrested and 80 % less likely to have committed a crime than adolescents whose mothers did not receive visits (Olds et al., 1998)] . · Classes complemented by weekly visits by preschool teachers constitute a successful strategy to reduce violence amongst young children. This program is similar to the home visiting strategy; moreover in this approach both child and parent are sensitized on violence prevention since the work done by the school personnel is prolonged at home, thus providing a certain continuity in the process. It has been found that providing these services to children under 5 reduces arrests at least through age 15 (Lally et al., 1988) and up to age 19 (Berrueta-Clement et al., 1985). · Family therapy and parent training about delinquent and at-risk preadolescents has been found to reduce aggression and hyperactivity, risk factors of delinquency. 65 In schools: The best way to prevent violence in schools is to change the school and classroom environment. The report found that individual programs such as counseling and peer counseling of students, drug prevention classes, and school-based leisure-time enrichment programs did not work. Four strategies have been found to successfully change school and classroom environment: · Building school capacity to manage itself · Implementing behavioral norms and enforcing school rules, policies, and regulations. · Changing classroom organization for a better classroom climate and improvement of educational processes. · Grouping students in different ways to achieve more suitable micro-climates within the school. In labor markets: · Providing job training for ex-offenders no longer on probation prevents repeat offending. · Arresting domestic abusers on the work scene has proven to be an effective way to reduce domestic violence. In places: Civil action (suit) against landlords for not addressing drug problems on the premises, reduces drug dealing and crime in privately owned rental housing By the police: Adding more police patrols in high crime areas helps reduce crime and the fear of crime in those places. The police can effectively help reduce crime through the installation of a monitoring unit aimed at tracking repeat offenders and returning them to jail faster than when they are not monitored. By criminal justice agencies: · Developing rehabilitation programs for adult and juvenile offenders has been found to reduce repeat offending. Good programs must target the offenders' specific risk factors. · Drug treatment in prison operated through therapeutic community programs also reduces chances of repeat offenses after release from prison. SOURCE: NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE, RESEARCH IN BRIEF, July 1998 Website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij also http://www.preventingcrime.org 66 Appendix 1: Useful Questions to Guide You Appendix 1: Useful Questions to Guide You Should you choose areas where crime and violence levels are high? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No Selecting an area/neighborhood with very high You may be criticized for using resources levels of crime and violence concentrates resources inequitably, particularly if people from an area with where they may be needed the most. strong lobbying power have influenced you. The impact may be more visible if resources are Some crime and violence problems that occur in focused in specific areas. Some evidence does, one area have solutions that involve intervention however, suggest that spreading resources over a beyond these boundaries. large area does not necessarily dilute benefits. This is harder to organize though. Selecting an area where few other projects are Reducing crime usually requires a multi-agency working may mean that the area has been approach. It may be wise to select areas where neglected. This will make it easier to determine others are already working. the impact of your program. Should theYesrates and impact of crime and violence be your main concern? No Neighborhood Partnerships Generally the higher the rate and impact of a Sometimes the magnitude of a crime problem is crime the higher priority it should be given. beyond the resource capacity of a particular Assessing impact is a subjective exercise, however. initiative. If gangs in a specific city are the problem For example, should violent crime rate above and there are 100,000 gang members, it is unlikely property crime? Should crime against children that this problem can be tackled without a precise rate above crime against the elderly? definition of the target groups and areas. 68 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America APPENDIX 1: Is targeted action for repeat victimization important? USEFUL Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No QUESTIONS Very often a small group of people in your In some areas, rates of victimization and repeat community are repeatedly the victims of one type victimization are so high that some of the value of of crime. Research suggests there is great potential targeting repeat victims for crime prevention - TO for reducing crime if repeat victims are targeted for gained from working with a small defined target GUIDE intervention. group-- is lost. YOU Should you only take on projects that roles and are your own institution/department's responsibilities? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No The solutions to certain crime and violence Some agencies are slow to take up their roles, for problems can be the clear responsibility of a several reasons. Sometimes it may be useful for particular agency, in which case it may be wiser to other agencies to deliver pilot projects as an leave this intervention to that agency or at least example of what can be done. lobby for its involvement. And if a problem exists due to the failure of an agency to do its job, it may be better for that institution to solve the problem itself. Addressing new areas of competency develops It is difficult to get internal support for solutions to capacity and broadens prospects of reducing crime crime problems that fall outside the traditional role and violence by an organization. But you should of an agency. But, since crime and violence not expect radical deviations in what organizations reduction is not truly a core activity of any agency, do and the resources they will be prepared to the degree to which activities deviate is probably commit. most important. Example: Safer Cities: Greater Johannesburg was at first viewed with skepticism both internally and externally, since people did not see crime prevention as a role for local government. To alleviate fears, many of the program's original activities related in some way to traditional local government activities. 69 Should you invest in developing new capacity to prevent crime and violence? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes You should carefully consider the capacity of a particular organization or partnership to solve a crime or violence problem. Lack of skills and knowledge are often associated with bad project design and poor implementation. When deciding on a program, existing skills should be audited and the potential to add capacity through employment or training should be assessed. Crime and violence reduction is new field for many cities in Latin America and there are few experienced practitioners. The availability of human capacity is often limited, as are examples of god project practice. Your only option may be to `learn by doing'. Should you follow the examples of others? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No If there are examples of projects that have The setting in which a successful project operates successfully reduced a crime problem, it may be is extremely important. What works in one case wise to follow an example, rather than construct a may not work in another. Any project that is taken new project that may not be as successful. Even from elsewhere needs to be adapted to your projects that have not worked can provide useful community. lessons. How do you balance cost with benefit? Neighborhood Partnerships In assessing a particular program you should weigh up the costs versus the benefit of starting the project. Bear in mind that available resources must be considered when you choose your program. Effective and efficient solutions are most appropriate. 1st Choice Low cost: high benefit 2nd Choice High cost: high benefit 3rd Choice High cost: low benefit Should your strategy focus on long- or short-term interventions? Neighborhood Partnerships Social crime prevention programs take longer to implement and to show results than situational or law enforcement ones. It may, for example, take years to know the impact of pre-schooling programs for children from families at risk. In choosing programs, you may need to balance immediate results with longer-term benefits. If your institution is developing a crime prevention function for the first time and some skepticism exists as to its effectiveness, you should focus on shorter-term interventions at first. 70 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America APPENDIX 1: Should you worry about displacing crime to neighboring areas? USEFUL Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No QUESTIONS If projects succeed they might cause crime to Some programs have benefits that extend beyond increase in a neighboring area, affect another their target group or areas. This type of spin-off group of victims or result in increased violence. effect can add value to your strategy. TO But remember that it is unlikely that displacement GUIDE will equal the decline in the target area. YOU Is the perception and fear of crime important? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes No Tackling the fear of crime and violence is arguably The fear of a particular crime or act of violence is as important as tackling crime and violence itself, often not proportional to the actual levels of the since living in fear affects people's quality of life. crime or type of violence. For example, men are It may be important to include strategies that more often victims of assault, but they fear assault deal with fear of crime and violence. less than women do. Also, as certain people have better access to the media or political representatives, certain fears get undue publicity. It is therefore important not to overlook actual victimization patterns. Do you need political support for the programs you select? Neighborhood Partnerships Yes Having strong political backing for a project is often vital for effective delivery of crime prevention programs - if only because it helps unlock doors to resources. Lack of political support for a project can kill it before it begins. As a local authority department, if you do not canvass your political head you may not get approval to go ahead with the project. If this happens, your partnership could try to gain political support. Other partners could proceed with the project instead. 71 Useful Resources and Contacts. Publications National Crime Prevention Council. Six Safer Cities: On the Crest of the Crime *CSIR, National Crime Prevention Centre. Prevention Wave. Washington, DC. For 2000. A manual for Community Based more information visit: Crime Prevention. Pretoria, South Africa. www.ncpc.org/5use.htm www.csir.co.za or http://www.store.yahoo.com/mcgruff/ *CSIR, National Crime Prevention Centre. National Crime Prevention Center. 2001. 2000. Designing Safer Places: A manual for From the Ground up : Municipal Crime Crime Prevention through Planning and Prevention Initiatives. Canada. Design. Pretoria, South Africa. http://www.crime-prevention.org/ www.csir.co.za english/publications/index.html *International Centre for the Prevention of National Crime Prevention Center. 2000. Crime (ICPC). Margaret Shaw. 2000. The role Models of Practice for Community Safety of Local Government in Community Safety . and Crime Prevention. Canada. http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org http://www.crime-prevention.org/english/ publications/index.html National Crime Prevention Council. 1995. 350 Tested Strategies to Prevent Crime: A National Crime Prevention Center. 2000. Resource Guide for Municipal Agencies Primer on Municipal Crime Prevention. and Community Groups. Washington, DC. Canada. www.crime-prevention.org/ Visit www.ncpc.org/5use.htm or english/publications/index.html store.yahoo.com/mcgruff/. National Crime Prevention Center. 2001. National Crime Prevention Council. 2000. The Role of Local Government in Fostering 150 Tested Strategies to Prevent Crimes CommunitySafety. Canada. from small cities, counties, and rural http://www.crime-prevention.org/english communities. Washington, DC. Visit: /publications/international/Bulletin2_e.pdf www.ncpc.org/5use/htm or store.yahoo.com/mcgruff/. Inter-American Development Bank. 1999. Technical Notes: Violence Prevention. Washington, DC. http://www.iadb.org/sds/SOC/ publication_546_e.htm 72 A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America USEFUL RESOURCES Buvinic, M. Morrison, A. and Shifter, M. Contact person: 1999. Violence in Latin America and the Rubem César Fernández Caribbean: A Framework for Action. rubem@vivario.org.br Inter-American Development Bank. AND Washington, DC. International Centre for the Prevention CONT http://www.iadb.org/sds/SOC/ of Crime (ICPC) ACTS. publication_546_e.htm 507, Place d'Armes Suite 2100 Montreal (Quebec) Institutions-NGO's Canada H2Y 2W8 Tel: [1] (514) 288-6731 UN-Habitat--Safer Cities Program Fax: [1] (514) 288-8763 Governance Unit/Urban Development e-mail: cipc@crime-prevention-intl.org Branch website: UNCHS(Habitat) http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org Room P-310 UN Compound Gigiri Contact Person: Narobi, Kenya Terrance Hunsley Tel: + 254- 2- 623208 Director-General Fax: + 254-2- 623536 thunsley@crime-prevention-intl.org e-mail: safercities@unchs.org website : http://www.unchs.org/ programmes/safercities/ World Health Organization (WHO) Department of Injuries and Violence Contact Person : Prevention Ms. Soraya Smaoun 20 Avenue Appia Social Affairs Expert CH - 1211 Geneva 27 Soraya.smaoun@unchs.org Switzerland Tel: + 41 (22) 791-3480 Or Fax: + 41 (22) 791-4332 Ms. Laura Petrella Website: http://www5.who.int/ Urban Safety Expert violence_injury_prevnetion/ Laura.petrella@unchs.org Contact Person: Dr. Etienne Krug Viva Rio Kruge@who.ch Ladeira da Glória 98 Rio de Janeiro, RJ 222211-120 Pan American Health Organization Brazil (PAHO) Tel: 55 21 285 5427 HPP/Violence and Health Fax: 55 21 558 1381 525, 23rd Street, NW e-mail: vivario@vivario.org.br Washington, DC 20037 Website: http://www.vivario.org.br/ USA Tel: [1] (202) 974-3268 Fax: [1] (202) 974- 3694 e-mail: violence-health@paho.org Website: http://www.paho.org 73 Inter-American Development Bank The Centers for Disease Control and (IDB) Prevention (CDC) Social Development Division National Center for Injury Prevention and SDS/SOC Control 1300 New York Ave., NW Mailstop K 65 Washington, DC 20577 4770 Buford Highway NE Stop W 502 Atlanta, GA 30341-3724 USA Tel: [1] (770) 488-1506 Tel: [1] (202) 623-3533 Fax: [1] (770) 488-1667 Fax: [1] (202) 623-1576 e-mail: OHCINFO@cdc.gov e-mail: sds/soc@iadb.org Website : http://www.cdc.gov/ncipchm.htm website: http://www.iadb.org/sds European Forum for Urban Safety /SOC/site_471_e.htm 38, rue Liancourt 75014 Paris National Crime Prevention Centre FRANCE (NCPC - Canada) Tel : + 33 1 40 64 49 00 Macdonald Building Fax : + 33 1 40 64 49 10 123 Slater Street, 8th floor e-mail : fesu@urbansecurity.org Ottawa, Ontario Website : http://www.urbansecurity.org Canada, K1A 0H8 Tel: (613) 941- 9306 Contact Person : Fax: (613) 941- 7863 Elizabeth JOHNSTON e-mail: ncpc@crime-prevention.org Deputy of Executive Director Website: http://www.crime-prevention.org Johnston@urbansecurity.org National Crime Prevention Council Fernand Braudel Institute of World (NCPC - USA) Economics 1000 Connecticut Avenue, NW Associated with the Fundacoa Armando 13th floor Alvares Penteado Washington, DC 20036 Rua Ceará 2 Sao Paulo, USA Brazil, 01243-010 Tel: [1] (202) 466- 6272 Tel: (5511) 3824-9633 Fax: [1] (202) 296- 1356 Fax: (5511) 3825-2637 e-mail: webmaster@ncpc.org e-mail: ifbe@braudel.org.br Website: http://www.ncpc.org Website : http://www.braudel.org.br Contact Person : Sou da Paz Noram Gall Rua Louis Hurat, 260 Executive Director 05436-050 ngall@braudel.org.br Sao Paulo-SP Tel: +55 (11) 3812-1333 CRISP-Centro de Website: www.soudapaz.org Estudos en Criminalidade e Segurança Publica Contact Person : UFMG Denis Mizne Tel: +55 (31) 3400-6310 Director Website: www.crisp.ufmg.br Contact Person: Claudio Beato Director 74 References Ayres, Robert L. 1998. 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A Safer Cities Development Department. IDB, Programme. UNCHS (HABITAT). Nairobi, Washington, D.C. Kenya. Orpinas, Pamela. 1998. "Who is violent? The World Health Organization (WHO), Factors associated with aggressive webpage: http://www5.who.int/ behaviors in Latin America and Spain". violence_injury_prevention/ Project Activa 3. Research Coordination, Health and Human Development Division. http://www.cybergrrl.com/views/dv/ The Pan American Health Organization, book/edf.html Washington, D.C. http://child.cornell.edu/army/domestic/ Rodgers, Dennis. 1999. "Youth Gangs and sect2.html Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Litterature Survey". LCR http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/ Sustainable Development Working Paper ipvfacts.htm No. 4, Urban Peace Program Series. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. http://www.media-awareness.ca 77 http://www.cbsc.ca/english/codes/ 2 CSIR, 2000, Pretoria. violence.htm (Canadian Broadcast http://www.csir.co.za Standards Council) 3 CSIR/ISS; UN-Habitat Safer Cities. http://www.ccfv.org/types~.html (The Community Coalition on Family Violence) 4 A good step-by-step guide on CPTED is the companion manual developed by the 1 Whilst looking at risk factors is very Government of South Africa important, various authors have `Environmental Design for Safer highlighted the need to also look at the Communities in South Africa'. strengths and assets of individuals and http://www.csir.co.za communities, not just their problems. See International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, 2000; Moser, 1998, 2000) 78 The World Bank Department of Finance, Private Sector and Infrastructure Latin American Region