71737 Towards Drinking Water Security In India Lessons from the Field Towards Drinking Water Security In India Lessons from the Field Contents From Dreams to Reality Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................5 Foreword ......................................................................................................................................................................................7 Improved Rural Water Supply Service ........................................................................................................................ 11 • 24x7 Water Supply: Saving People Time, Water and Energy Cost....................................................................................12 • Metering Household Connections: For Equitable Distribution of Water and Financially Self-Sustainable Water Schemes............................................................................................................................13 • Efficient Collection of Water Taxes and Operation of Water Supply Scheme by Women’s Self Help Groups.............................................................................................................................................................16 • An Independent Society to Manage Water Supply Service with Greater Authority and Efficiency....................19 • 24x7 Water Supply with Cluster Storage: Increasing Incomes and School Attendance and Reducing Health Expenditures.....................................................................................................................................................21 • Three Taps, One Toilet, One Bathroom for All: Inclusion, High Level of Services and Long-term Support Ensure Sustainability................................................................................................................................23 • Enhancing Ownership and Access to Water and Sanitation with Swajal......................................................................27 • An Efficient System to Recover Water Taxes.............................................................................................................................31 • Community Contracting for Cost Efficiency, Transparency and Accountability in Construction.........................32 • Successful Implementation of Sector Reform Pilot Project: Panchayati Raj Institutions can Do it! ....................35 • Successful 24x7 Water Supply in a Small Town.......................................................................................................................38 • Use of Solar Energy for Dual Pump Scheme: A Boon for Women....................................................................................42 • Peer to Peer Learning: Training of Communities by Communities..................................................................................45 Multi-Village Scheme Innovations ............................................................................................................................... 47 • Public Complaint Redressal System: Increased Consumer Voice and Service Provider Accountability............. 48 • Operation and Management of Regional Water Supply Scheme by Joint Village Water Supply Committee......................................................................................................................................52 Water Quality .......................................................................................................................................................................... 55 • Sustaining Nirmal Gram Status.....................................................................................................................................................56 • Status of Arsenic Mitigation Schemes in West Bengal.........................................................................................................59 • Community Empowerment for Efficient Hand Pump O&M...............................................................................................62 • Ensuring Good Safe Water with the Water Safety Plan........................................................................................................65 • A Village Model for Water Supply and Sanitation..................................................................................................................68 • Defluoridation of Water: A Public Private Partnership Initiative.......................................................................................70 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Source Sustainability .......................................................................................................................................................... 73 • Water Harvesting to Augment Water Resources: Traditional Technology and Communities are Part of the Solution...........................................................................................................................................................................74 • Source Protection to Enhance Multiple Uses of Drinking Water......................................................................................77 • Achieving Sustainable Aquifers through Community Participation, Sciences and Demand Management....................................................................................................................................................................78 • Water Conservation – An Innovative Process..........................................................................................................................84 • Community Managed Demand-side Ground Water Management.................................................................................86 • Renovation of Traditional Water Bodies (Oorani) to Sustain Access to Drinking Water for Rural Communities......................................................................................................................................92 Waste Water Management ............................................................................................................................................... 95 • Combining Water Supply and Sewerage and Recycling of Waste Water for Irrigation: An Interesting Example ..................................................................................................................................................................97 Communication for Water ................................................................................................................................................. 99 • Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project............................................................................................................................ 101 • Engaging the Community........................................................................................................................................................... 103 • Successful Model of Public Private Partnership in Communications.......................................................................... 104 State Level Reforms ...........................................................................................................................................................107 • Towards a Uniform Approach for Decentralized Service Delivery ............................................................................... 108 • Uttarakhand Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project: A Flag-bearer of the Sector Wide Approach.......... 111 4 Lessons from the field Acronyms and Abbreviations AFPRO Action for Food Production HDPE High Density Polyethylene AKRSP-I Aga Khan Rural Support Program-India HRD human resource development APFAMGS Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed HUN Hydrological Unit Network Groundwater Systems ICPP Integrated Child Protection Programme ARWSP Accelerated Rural Water Supply IDA International Development Agency Programme IDP Internally Displaced People AWMAs Aquifer Water Management Associations IEC information, education and AWMS Aquifer Water Management Sabha communication BG Beneficiary Group IVR Interactive Voice Response BPL below poverty line KL kilo litre CCDU Communication and Capacity KRWSA Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Development Unit Agency CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation lpcd litres per capita per day CWB Crop Water Budgeting lpm litre per minute CWS Center for Water and Sanitation m 3 cubic metre DIA District Implementing Agency MANTRA Movement and Action Network for the DSMG Demand Side Groundwater Transformation of Rural Areas Management MEDA Maharashtra Energy Development DSU district support unit Agency DWSM District Water and Sanitation Mission M-DAWS Multi-District Assessment of Water DWSS Department of Water Supply and Safety Sanitation MDG Millennium Development Goal ESR Elevated Storage Reservoir MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene FAO Food and Agriculture Organization mg/l milligram per litre FFS Farmer Field School MJP Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran FWS Farmer Water School MoU Memorandum of Understanding GIS geographic information system MSEB Maharashtra State Electricity Board GMC Groundwater Monitoring Committee MTBF Mean Time Between Failure GP Gram Panchayat MVS Multi Village Scheme GPOBA Global Partnership for Output-Based MWS multi-village water scheme Assistance NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural GPS Global Positioning System Development GSDA Groundwater Surveys and Development NGP Nirmal Gram Puruskar Agency NGO non-government organization GVRT Gram Panchayat Volunteer Resource NREGS National Rural Employment Guarantee Team Scheme ha hectare NRDWP National Rural Drinking Water ha m hectare metre Programme 5 Towards Drinking Water Security in India ODF open defecation free SNK Shikayat Nivaran Kendra O&M operation and maintenance SRP Sector Reform Pilot Project PHED Public Health Engineering Department SSF Slow Sand Filter PRI Panchayati Raj Institution ST Scheduled Tribe PRWSSP Punjab Rural Water Supply and SVS Single Village Scheme Sanitation Project SWAp sector wide approach PSU Project Support Unit SWSM State Water and Sanitation Mission PWS piped water scheme TBS Tarun Bharat Sangh RGNDWM Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water TSG Technical Support Group Mission TWAD Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage RMDD Department of Rural Management and UFW unaccounted for water Development UJN Uttarakhand Peyjal Nigam RO reverse osmosis UJS Uttarakhand Jal RSPMU Reform Support Project Management UV ultra violet Unit UWSSC User Water Supply and Sanitation RTI Right to Information Committee RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation VCA Vanvasi Chetna Ashram SC Scheduled Caste VWSC Village Water and Sanitation SDF Sikkim Development Foundation Committee SHG Self Help Group WASMO Water and Sanitation Management SIRD State Institute of Rural Development Organization SLSSC State Level Scheme Sanctioning WSP Water and Sanitation Program Committee WUG Water User Group Numbers 1 lakh=1,00,000 1 crore=10,000,000 6 Lessons from the field Foreword India being a vast and diverse country, we face many challenges in ensuring reliable, sustainable safe drinking water supply to rural households of the country. Though, in terms of provision of safe drinking water, we have covered more than 90 percent of the rural households, according to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) 65th round survey 2008-09, we have to recognize that much remains to be done to improve levels of service delivery, water quality and sustainability. Though chemical contamination of drinking water is being tackled today in the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP), bacteriological contamination, which is more dangerous and also more prevalent, has to be systematically measured and tackled. This requires convergence with the Total Sanitation Campaign to ensure an open defecation free and clean environment. Slightly more than 30 percent of rural households obtain their drinking water supply through taps which are more convenient, saving time and labour specially of women and children. However, this varies widely ranging from less than 5 percent in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to more than 80 percent in Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh. In the course of implementation of rural water supply schemes since the launching of the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) in 1972 and Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in 1986 and NRDWP in 2009, a large number of successful models of providing sustainable and safe drinking water have been tried out throughout the country. These are build on traditional experience and also chart out new paths using the latest technologies and innate wisdom of the people. Though conditions vary widely among the states, in today’s globalized world where countries learn from one another, there are many lessons that states and regions of the countries can learn from each other. Experts and practitioners in the field of rural water supply are aware of many good practices that have succeeded and sustained in different parts of the country. With the help of Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation has collected some models of good practices from different parts of the country. Care has been taken to ensure these are drawn from as many states as possible. In addition, the good practices identified cover a variety of areas ranging from improved service delivery, operation of multi-village schemes, efficient operation and maintenance, ensuring water quality, measures to ensure source sustainability, pioneering efforts for waste water management, effective communication practices that have been adopted and institutional reforms at state level that have been tried out. 7 Towards Drinking Water Security in India We can see from these case studies that local governments, through community participation, have been able to provide 24x7 water supply to save women’s time, water and energy cost, install household connections with meters to provide each and every one with an adequate service and achieve financial sustainability, entrust independent bodies to take care of operation and maintenance, develop efficient water tax collection, learn from one another to improve their management practice, increase consumer voices and service providers accountability, and manage multi-villages schemes. Water quality can also be tackled, by ensuring an open defecation free environment, empowering communities to develop water safety plans, protect their sources and develop partnership with the private sector for providing purified water for drinking purpose at affordable price. Achieving sustainable aquifers is possible with community participation, traditional technology, science and demand management. The ground water table can be increased by 20 to 50 feet, dead rivers could be brought back to life and dark zones brought back to white zones. It is recognized that there are many more such practices that need to be documented. We hope that different states would identify their own best practices and document them at the state level. The Department would be happy to bring out further compendia of good practices that do not find place in this compendium. To take the lessons from these good practices forward, the State Departments in charge of rural water supply are encouraged to send teams of elected panchayat representatives, engineers and grassroot level workers to see the good practices for themselves to learn from them. I wish to place on record our deep appreciation of all of the officials of the state and central governments, Panchayati Raj Institutions, non-governmental organizations, external assistance agencies, partners, and grass root level champions of all states who have worked tirelessly to find new and better ways to ensure drinking water security to rural communities. (Arun Kumar Misra) 8 Lessons from the field What Drinking Water Security Means Every rural person has adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and other domestic basic needs on a sustainable basis. Safe water should be readily and conveniently accessible at all times and in all situations. What Drinking Water Security Involves 1. Plan for improved rural water supply service, based on clear operating, maintenance and management procedures including clear operation and maintenance (O&M) cost recovery policy, measurement for equitable distribution, and transparent arrangement for renewal, replacement and expansion of the source and/or the systems. 2. Design and implement of a series of preventive measures at the basin, source, system and household levels to protect water quality and develop water quality testing facilities at appropriate levels in the field for ensuring the quality of drinking water supply. 3. Measure water availability and supply (water budgeting), implement measures to conserve, protect, enhance and manage surface and ground water resources (including construction of rainwater harvesting and ground water recharge structures), develop local self regulation for water demand management, modify agricultural practices and crop patterns and use of more efficient irrigation systems to ensure source sustainability. 9 COMPENDIUM OF RURAL WATER GOOD PRACTICES FROM INDIA 10 Improved rural water supply service Towards Drinking Water Security in India 24x7 Water Supply: Saving People Time, Water and Energy Cost Location: Jepar village, Surendranagar District, Gujarat Jepar of Chuda Taluka in is an Elevated Storage Reservoir litres per day which represents 38 Surendranagar District, Gujarat, (ESR) of 50,000 litres and one percent of the water previously is a village that embraced the sump of 20,000 litres. distributed. Power consumption decentralized community reduced too by 4.39 units per day managed water supply system Before the village adopted the or a decrease in one-third of the in 2006. It has developed a water 24x7 water supply system in previous electricity bill; an annual distribution system, which allows 2006, the supply was available saving of about Rs. 7,900. all 160 households to have tap for about two hours a day and connections and enjoy 24x7 water the average consumption of The reduction in consumption of supply. The village’s two sources water was around 400 litres per water occurred primarily because of water – a well and Narmada day per household. When each people abandoned the practice pipe water supply system – household was assured of 24x7 of storing water to cover several supplement each other to ensure supply, the consumption per days’ needs. Now, 125 villages in regular safe water supply to the household reduced to 250 litres Gujarat are successfully operating village. The total storage capacity per household, thus saving 25,000 the 24x7 water supply system. Table 1: A comparative statement of consumption of water and power per day in Jepar No. of Water Water consumption Power consumption Saving connections consumption per day (litres) per day (units) of power (Nos.) for cattle at Rs. 5/unit (litres) (Rupees) Before After Water Before After Unit Per Per 24x7 24x7 saving 24x7 24x7 saving day year (2 hrs/day) (2 hrs/day) 160 10,000 65,000 40,000 25,000 13.15 units 8.76 units 4.39 units 21.95 7,900 Inputs by: WASMO, Gujarat 12 field Lessons from the Field Metering Household Connections: For Equitable Distribution of Water and Financially Self-Sustainable Water Schemes Location : Dakshina Kannada District, Karnataka Dakshina Kannada, a coastal district in Karnataka bordering Kerala, is situated on the western coast of India, which spreads from the Western Ghats to the Arabian Sea. The major part of its length lies along the seaboard. The population is about 1.3 million people (2001 census). The district is characterized by scattered habitations, isolated households, hilly terrain and saline water in the coastal belt in the summer months. The district is made of five blocks and 203 Gram Panchayats (GPs) including 368 villages and 2,683 habitations. In 2010, 128 of 203 GPs1 adopted meters for household connections coupled with volumetric-based tariff and computerized billing and collection in Dakshina Kannada District. This is unique in rural India. In 2010, there were about 43,000 metered connections against less than 4,500 prior to adoption of this practice. Sources: Mr. P. Shivashankar, Chief Executive Officer, Zila Panchayat, Mangalore, Karnataka. 1 13 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Table 2: Taluka-wise types of schemes and the number of house connections in Dakshina Kannada Taluka No. of WS schemes by type Total house No. of metered MWS PWS HP connections connections Mangalore 402 271 1,294 31,414 16,244 (52%) Bantwal 206 213 1,123 21,332 4,401 (21%) Puttur 156 238 1,233 13,815 10,952 (79%) Sulia 49 108 682 5,259 3,466 (66%) Belthangadi 96 159 887 1,08,949 8,564 (79%) Total 909 989 5,219 82,714 43,627 (53%) MWS: multi-village water scheme; PWS: Piped water scheme; HP: Hand pump; WS: Water supply Meters have successfully is Kinnigoli GP, in 2000, under capital) or Punjab. The VWSC addressed the issue of unequal the sector reform program takes the responsibility of either distribution of drinking water, introduced by the Government replacement of the meter or repair misuse of water by advantage of India. Based on the success in of the defective meters. groups, constant complaints Kinnigoli, metering was adopted about inadequate supply of by other GPs with guidance Monthly tariff varies from GP drinking water, non-payment of from the district-level officials to GP. Most GPs have opted for water tariff due to poor services in Dakshina Kannada. District volumetric billing based on and unbalanced budget leading and Block level meetings of the consumption. There are different to huge pending electricity bills GPs’ Presidents and Secretaries slabs with a minimum charge and diversion of development were the forums for sharing the of around Rs. 50. There are funds towards maintenance of experiences, which worked very different tariffs for domestic and schemes by the GPs. Meters have well. Since then, GPs in other commercial users. saved water and energy cost. districts such as Davangere and Eventually, every household gets Shimoga in Karnataka have also Each GP/VWSC has a fixed water supply and pays according adopted meters to improve water timeframe for metering, billing to what it uses. services and save water and and collection of tariffs. The energy cost. responsibility of meter reading, The meters have also triggered issuing the bills and collection the professionalization of the The cost of the meters is generally rests with the pump operator or Village Water and Sanitation borne by the households bill collector or any other available Committees (VWSCs) . VWSCs in addition to a one-time functionaries in the GP/village. began to hire and manage connection fee and installation Recovery of water supply tariff technical staff, prepare the costs. In case of the households is more than 90 percent in annual budget, report to GP belonging to the Scheduled the district. authorities and the Gram Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Sabha, fix and adjust tariff to tribes (STs), the GPs have met the The introduction of meters helped fully cover increasing operation expenditures towards the meter the GPs, with support from and maintenance (O&M) cost, and connection from GP funds VWSCs, to fulfill Government of charge on volumetric basis, and meant for SCs/STs under various Karnataka requirements along develop a computerized billing programs. Presently, each meter with delivering a much better and collection system. In fact, costs up to Rs. 750 with proper service. Since the Karnataka VWSCs manage their water supply cover for protection. The life of Panchayat Raj Act, 1993, O&M of systems on a utility management the meter is around five years rural water supply schemes has model. depending on preventive care. been a statutory responsibility Most meters are available in the of GPs. In 2002, the Government The first GP that introduced local market and manufactured of Karnataka issued orders meters for all house connections either in Bangalore (state stipulating that GPs should also 14 field Lessons from the Field recover full O&M costs from the users only and the development grants should not be diverted to the O&M expenses. This experience demonstrates that, if properly managed, drinking water supply schemes can be made financially self- sustainable. Most VWSCs managing piped water systems with metered connections in the district are able to meet O&M expenditure. Some GPs have substantial amount of bank balance to earn a good amount of interest on the deposits, as shown from the survey in seven villages in Dakshina Kannada District in Table 3. In Tokur, for instance, the VWSC is working for the last 10 inequitable distribution of water. the system were critical steps to years. It is providing 24x7 water The benefits of meters were resolve these local issues, to built supply for the last seven years immediate and undisputable. a professional management and and maintaining a bank balance They were the best and simplest sustain the service over time. of more than Rs. 5,00,000 in the solution to the problems of Strong support from the Block VWSC account. The village also unequal distribution. The and Districts authorities was also pumps four times less water since Kannada district experience also absolutely critical to scaling up the meters were installed. Meters shows that empowerment of GPs this practice and in achieving save water and energy. to take charge of the technical impressive results. The next main and financial responsibilities for issue is to set up clear procedures Meters quickly and fully addressed O&M and the autonomy of VWSCs to ensure the quality of water the issues of poor service and in day-to-day management of distributed. Table 3: Income and expenditure on water supply of the sample villages for 2008-09 Village/ GP Income Expenditure (Rs.) Surplus/ (Rs.) Salaries Electricity Repairs Total deficit Tokur # 179,976** 28,754 19,200 21,595 62,838 + 110,427 Guthakadu # 152,660 57,557 33,000 24,872 115,429 + 37,231 Haleyangadi* 783,064 214,600 225,800 179,353 618,953*** +164,111 Amatur Keshavanagar # 29,700 10,000 31,018 300 44,018 - 14,318 Amatur junction # 104,304 24,000 52,508 6,600 83,108 +21,196 Pilatha Bettu* 716,820 - - - 617,662 +99,158 Kukkipadu* 257,273 64,200 121,703 62,838 248,741 +8,532 Note: ** including the interest of Rs. 32,547 on bank balance of the VWSC ; *** including capital expenditure of Rs. 50,000; # Single villages/schemes ; *Entire GPs covering more than one village as well as water supply schemes. Inputs by: Mariappa Kullapa and Christophe Prevost, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 15 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Efficient Collection of Water Taxes and Operation of Water Supply Scheme by Women’s Self Help Groups Location: Khambegaon Gram Panchayat, Parbhani District, Maharashtra To sustain a water supply scheme, wherein the GP retains only concern for women’s issues. collection of water tax is critical. the responsibility of heavy Empowerment of women and This is one of the major challenges maintenance, based on an 80/20 its subsequent implementation faced across the country and percent share of the water taxes boosted the women’s SHG Maharashtra is no exception. collected. This idea was developed movement across the country. Various ideas were examined in the World Bank-funded Rural development received to solve this dilemma. One was Jalswarajya Project. Khambegaon a new face in the form of adopted in Khambegaon GP, that water supply scheme maintenance active participation by women provided a new model called the is a successful model offering and women’s groups in the Khambegaon model. the fullest potential of replication decision making processes, across the project villages implementation of schemes The model is based on entrusting where the SHGs are strong and projects at the GP level. Self Help Groups (SHGs) with and empowered. The slogan of the project the responsibility of water tax was lokancha pudhakar tyat collection and day-to-day O&M Since 1980s, the Government shasanancha sahabhag (peoples’ of the water supply scheme, of India has shown increasing leadership and governments’ 16 Lessons from the field participation). The paradigm shift role in village development of Rs. 100 and regular monthly from ‘demand driven policy’ to activities, including water supply collection of Rs. 30 per ‘supply driven policy’ saw a major and sanitation. O&M of the water household. They achieved a breakthrough in the sector and supply scheme is an innovative successful 90 percent collection. yielded overwhelming response activity started by the SHGs of The innovation was successful from communities. SHGs in the Khambegaon GP. and the Gram Sabha decided Jalswarajya project initiated to enter an agreement with the over 27,000 income generation Sailani Women’s SHG took up SHG for tax collection. activities within the state. the innovative work of water tax collection in May 2008. The On May 17, 2008, a meeting of Khambegaon has a population SHG first undertook the exercise the Sarpanch and officers was of 1,500 people and got a new of understanding the reasons organized in which the SHG piped water supply scheme behind poor tax collection. They members shared their ideas about to manage. The Jalswarajya decided that the communities the O&M of the water supply project identified women as an should pay the water tax in scheme which were appreciated important stakeholder in this advance so that the habit of by senior officers. A detail circular process driven approach and paying for services is developed. was issued stating that the incorporated various measures maintenance of water supply for their active participation, The SHG’s women adopted schemes must be carried out by taking into consideration the various methods for tax SHGs and the model must be amendment in the Mumbai collection. First of all, in a replicated in the state. The circular Village Panchayat Act 1959. meeting, they decided to pay included detailed guidelines For formation of constitutional regular tax. Secondly, they regarding expenses such as the committees in Gram Sabhas, a carried out door-to-door visits salary of waterman, TCL powder 50 percent women’s quorum is to explain the importance tax and minor repairs. The SHG would statutory, 50 percent women payment. The results were seen get 80 percent of the annual must be in various committees, in a month’s time. With the help total collection of tax to cover and a separate sub-component of the GP, a separate women’s regular operation and 20 percent for women’s development is gram sabha was organized. It would be given to the GP for its the key step to address the was unanimously decided to maintenance fund. The SHGs save empowerment issue. These pay tax for the sustainability their profit and utilize it to build a components aimed to empower of the water supply scheme. corpus and to provide loans to the women to play an effective This SHG collected an advance its members. 17 Towards Drinking Water Security in India The model has been successfully the Gram Sabha in SHGs, the operating for three years and clear distribution of roles and the SHGs’ income has risen from responsibilities within SHGs a mere Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 56,000 and GPs, the initial recognition yearly. This part-time profit received across the state, and making activity has boosted finally the incentives through the confidence of the SHGs. income generation for members Khambegaon has become a of SHGs. successful example of sustained water tax collection, and a Currently, the Khambegaon promising model that can be model has been replicated in replicated. 253 GPs in Maharashtra. However, there is a need for Some factors for success continuous handholding of GPs include the active participation and SHGs as the committees of SHGs, the faith shown by keep changing. Table 4: Balance sheet of the water supply scheme managed by Self Help Group in Khambegaon Total no. of households 140 Total no. of connections 135 Monthly collection per household 30 Items Expenditure Revenue Rs. Rs. Waterman payment : 750*12 9,000 MSEB light bill yearly 5,000 TCL Powder : 240 Rs. * 12 2,880 Other exp : 500*12 6,000 20% Amount to GP 9,720 Number of connection * water tax *12 months 48,600 Total 32,000 48,600 Balance 16,000 MSEB: Maharashtra State Electricity Board Inputs by: Mahadeo Jogdand, Gender Specialist, Jalswarajya Project (RSPMU) Water Supply and Sanitation, and S.N.N. Raghava, Water and Sanitation Specialist, SASDU, World Bank 18 field Lessons from the Field An Independent Society to Manage Water Supply Service with Greater Authority and Efficiency Location: Chinchali village, Belgaum District, Karnataka Chinchali has a population of about 25,000 people. Two decades ago, this village was well known in the district for water scarcity. Women and men used to carry water from a river 2-3 kilometres away. However, the situation is totally different today. The first piped water supply scheme was introduced to the village under the World Bank-assisted Integrated Rural Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Project in 1994 and subsequently augmented during 2001-02 under the second World Bank-assisted Jalnirmal project. Water is supplied every day for about two hours. The village piped water supply scheme uses a surface source, has an independent water treatment plant, pumping machinery (80 HP) and 1,100 cubic metre (m3) storage capacity, and about 49,00 metres of distribution lines. The water is supplied through private house connections as well as public stand posts. There are 810 house connections compared to only 394 in 2001 and the remaining households fetch water from the public stand post or share the private connections. What is unique is that the water supply system is operated and maintained by an independent society. In 2008, the VWSC changed its status to become an independent society, fully registered, to better manage the system. The society is comprised of 14 village leaders from different sections, who were all members of the VWSC. The GP and the independent society have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) two years ago. Basically, the GP is the owner of the assets while the society (Krishna Drinking Water Supply and Rural Development Society) is responsible for operations, repairs, maintenance, expansion, and billing and collection of tariff. The MoU details the following points: Functions of GP • The GP is the owner of the all water supply assets. It is responsible for according permissions for any new water connections • It is also responsible for fixing and revising tariff based on the budget forecast proposed by the society Functions of the society (operator) • Operation, repairs and maintenance of the water supply scheme • Any repair (to be attended to within 24 hours) • Billing and collection. • Retaining income to cover all O&M charges • Placing money collected as one time connection fee in fixed deposits 19 Towards Drinking Water Security in India • Monthly expenses such as all wages, electricity bills, O&M expenditures • Submitting details regarding income and expenditure to the GP every month and sharing with the community once a year • Financing extension of the distribution line to facilitate new house connections • Testing water quality on a regular basis Initially, while planning and implementation of the World Bank assisted project, the VWSC was established in the village to mobilize the community. After the completion of the project in 2002, the GP took over the responsibility of O&M. However, the GP was unable to recover the water tariff or control illegal connections. As a result, the O&M responsibility was transferred to the VWSC in 2003. Despite the efficient and transparent management of the system by the VWSC, some households (particularly, the rich and village politicians) were resisting paying for water. The VWSC did not have legal powers to issue notices to defaulter and disconnect. This is the main reason for registering the VWSC as an independent society under the Karnataka Society Act in 2008-09 and signing an MoU with the GP for O&M of the water supply systems, with clear roles and responsibility and powers. Various training and awareness building activities have been carried out by the district support unit (DSU) of the Jalnirmal project. In addition, advice and training have been provided by DSU. The current water tariff is Rs. 60 and Rs. 10 per month for private household connections and public stand post users, respectively. The society has been able to recover the tariff and has a positive bank balance of Rs. 3,00,000; there are no pending bills. Thanks to the community’s commitment, the water supply system has been well maintained for the last nine years. Transparency is a key feature of the community’s practice. Details of income and expenditure have been published and shared with all customers in the villages for the last 10 year. Records related to financial matters, including the capital cost sharing, are available with the society. The next project of the society is to introduce metering to continue to provide good and equitable service to the increasing population, reduce electricity bills and save water. Inputs by: Mariappa Kullapa and Christophe Prevost, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 20 Lessons from the field 24x7 Water Supply with Cluster Storage: Increasing Incomes and School Attendance and Reducing Health Expenditures Location : Khintala village, Surendranagar District, Gujarat The 378 households of Khintala village in Sayla Each underground storage has a capacity of 10 m3 Taluka, Surendranagar District, used to face severe and is equipped with a hand pump on the top. It water supply problems. There is no local ground can store water to supply 20-25 households per day. water aquifer available and, therefore, no hand Two storages are constructed in the primary school pumps. The nearest source was a river about 2.5 for school children. The scheme has been running kilometres from the village. Women and men used successfully from 2004 and life of the people in to spend about three to four hours fetching drinking Khintala has greatly improved. water from this source. The village was covered by government schemes but the water seldom reached Cluster storage has many advantages. Firstly, water the village. is available at anytime; in fact, many see this as a 24x7 water service. Secondly, power consumption This changed when a new water supply scheme is reduced as there is no need to pump water to an was constructed based on the ‘cluster storage’ elevated tank. Thirdly, underground storage tanks design, proposed by the Water and Sanitation are easy to clean. Finally, it is easy to repair hand Management Organization (WASMO) and the Aga pumps on tanks. Overall, O&M costs are lower than Khan Rural Support Program-India (AKRSP-I) as with piped water supply schemes. part of the Swajaldhara scheme. The village was divided into 16 clusters. Water pumped from the It all started in 2004 when a school teacher from the intake-well was distributed to each cluster storage. village, Mr. Joru Bhai, heard about WASMO and the Swajaldhara scheme. He held discussions within the village to convince people to take up this scheme Figure 1: Cluster storage network in village to solve their drinking water problems. However, Khintala there was resistance to contributing 10 percent towards the capital cost, as the villagers felt that 25 SC their money would not be well utilized. AKRPS-I also Big Tank Devi pujak supported Mr. Joru Bhai. Finally, the people agreed 25 Kolhi patel to participate in the scheme. The villagers formed a 25 Durbar Rabari Pani Samiti (equivalent of the VWSC in other states) with 14 members, including four women. AKRSP-I 25 Devi pujak and WASMO district teams trained the Pani Samiti Well to manage the water supply system. The cost of 25 Kolhi patel Durbar the project was Rs. 14,00,000 and the community’s 25 Kolhi patel contribution was Rs. 1,35,000; the remaining 90 BO RE Durbar 25 Kolhi patel Rabari percent was provided by WASMO. 25 School The Pani Samiti is responsible for O&M of the system. School Animal In consultation with the villagers, the Pani Samiti trough 25 decided Rs. 150 per year as a ‘water user charge’ for every household. The charge for individual Kolhi Kolhi 25 connections is Rs. 450/year (about 20 households patel patel 21 Towards Drinking Water Security in India have taken connections). The Pani Samiti undertakes Figure 2: Average monthly income of regular chlorination of all tanks and monitors households (Rs.) cleansing of tanks by beneficiary households. With 7000 the savings in the O&M account, it has built cattle 6300 troughs. In July 2008, the Pani Samiti had savings of 6000 5100 5000 Rs. 41,000 in its account. 5000 4000 4000 The impact of the scheme has been outstanding as 3200 revealed by the 2008 AKRSP-I study. Both women 3000 2500 2100 and men saved about 3.8 hours with the new 2000 1500 1800 1700 scheme. Some of this time is productively used to enhance their incomes. Incomes across all groups 1000 have increased from Rs. 300/ month for landless 0 labourers; Rs. 400/month for marginal farmers; Landless Marginal farmer Small farmer Medium farmer Large farmer Rs. 700/month for small farmers; Rs. 1,100/ month for before implementation after implementation medium-sized farmers and Rs. 13,00/month for large farmers. Figure 3: Expenditure on disease (Rs.) The overall family expenditure on health has 1600 1500 1500 significantly decreased over the four years. Health 1400 problems included, beside water borne diseases, 1200 1200 headache, acute chest aches, and backache and 1000 spine ailments in women due to carrying water for 1000 900 long distances. The average annual expenditure on 800 diseases after the scheme was implemented is 600 500 500 Rs. 500 per household compared to Rs. 1,820 earlier; 400 400 300 300 a percentage reduction of 72 percent for the village. 200 The school drop out rate had reduced to 1.5 percent 0 Landless Marginal Small Medium Large in 2007 compared to 10-15 percent before the farmer farmer farmer farmer implementation of the scheme. Earlier, as women before implementation after implementation were busy fetching water, girl children were involved in domestic chores. Figure 4: Number of children being admitted to According to Mr. Joru Bhai, 50 percent credit for school higher school attendance goes to the drinking water supply system and 50 percent to the other factors 300 268 269 264 259 255 246 such as increase in awareness about education, 250 226 active involvement of teachers, developed 200 197 216 223 215 186 infrastructure and sanitation facilities in the school. 150 100 50 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Boys Girls Inputs by: Jonnalagadda V. Raman Murty, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 22 Lessons from the field Three Taps, One Toilet, One Bathroom for All: Inclusion, High Level of Services and Long-term Support Ensure Sustainability Location: Orissa Unique to Gram Vikas2 is the supply. Gram Vikas’ scheme design have really changed the adoption of the social inclusion integrates the concepts of daily lives of these poor rural approach wherein all families of a demand-led supply through communities and led to widespread habitation, irrespective of their decision making processes and behaviour change, inducing economic, social and caste cost sharing. communities with no history of considerations, are provided the fixed point defecation to adopt new same infrastructure and service. In addition, this scheme differs from habits. Gram Vikas’ Movement and Under the Gram Vikas scheme, other approaches by breaking with Action Network for the every family gets access to good the formula that equates poor Transformation of Rural Areas quality toilets and bathrooms, people with low quality services (MANTRA), as on March 31, 2010, coupled with three taps per and products. The quality, has served about 2,50,000 people in household and 24x7 piped water convenience and privacy of the 787 villages in 22 districts of Orissa. 2 Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, Mohuda, Berhampur Ganjam, Orissa; www.gramvikas.org; gramvikas@gmail.com 23 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Gram Vikas’ core program, Vikas’ contribution is external the key features of the institution MANTRA, is a response to the material including ceramic pan, building process. As the result of abysmal quality of life prevailing footpads, doors, and cement and the 100 percent inclusion criteria, in rural Orissa. MANTRA is an steel for roof casting. However, it could take one or two years or integrated habitat development the subsidy amount is fixed at a even more for a community to program with water and limit of Rs. 3,000 per family. agree to work with the program. sanitation as the key entry-point Subsidies are released once all Capacities of men and women in activity. The MANTRA approach toilet walls are up to the roof level technical and organizational sets a new pattern for water and and the two soak pits are aspects are built over time to sanitation coverage by prioritizing complete and covered. All enable handing over to sanitation in addition to safe villagers build pour-flush twin pit communities and Gram Vikas’ drinking water. latrines. Piped water is important withdrawal. The maintenance of because it has been found, over infrastructure is the responsibility Clean water will remain a distant time, that toilets without water of the villagers. Local youth are dream until open defecation is supply are ineffective and unused. trained to undertake minor eradicated throughout the repairs and maintenance of the community. Therefore, toilets and The water supply system is pump, motor and pipelines. Since shower rooms are built first. In designed to provide 70 litres per 2009, wherever water is pumped each village, people, primarily the person per day. All households using electricity, communities landless, are trained in masonry, contribute to the building of the are installing water meters to enabling them to contribute water tank in labour and in better control water use and skilled labour. The masons lead material. The main pipeline is promote equity. the construction of the toilets and provided through the bathrooms. Investment cost per government water supply Ninety-six percent of water supply household for toilet and program, while people bear the systems constructed are still bathroom is estimated at Rs. cost of laying the distribution operational, even after more than 10,000, of which households pipes to individual households. 10 years in some instances. (The contribute two-thirds and Gram Interestingly, participation of all oldest systems are 13 years old and Vikas one third. Households households is a non-negotiable the latest two months.) That means contribute in the form of condition of the program. Equal that communities have been able collection of locally available representation and participation to cover O&M and management material – stones, sand, making of men and women in community costs through various strategies, bricks and unskilled labour. Gram decision-making and control are such as: (i) collecting user fees to 24 Lessons from the field pay the monthly electricity bill; and as in western Orissa, ground water case of metering, the tariff is half (ii) using the income from recharge is implemented in about paise per litre (Rs. 5 per m3). community horticulture patches, 30 percent of the schemes to raise Assuming that the monthly fish rearing in community ponds the water table and prevent household budget is Rs. 3,000, and social forestry according to springs from drying up through water expenditure represents context-specific resources. If this is watershed management about 1-2 percent, which not enough, the villages contribute activities. The area around the compares favourably to another 0.5 or 1 percent of the source is kept clean to prevent acceptable standards. gross product at harvest time. pollution of the water and ensure Since the inception of the the pipes are not blocked by The water source is physically and program, five pumps have been debris. The tree cover around the chemically tested before the replaced by the community with source of the spring is maintained water supply is connected. Once their own funds at a cost of at the watershed level to slow the supply is connected, water is Rs. 25,000. down surface water run-off. tested every three months in the dry season and almost every On the other hand, to cope with In case of gravity flow water month in the rainy season as, after the population growth, the supply systems, though the initial a heavy downpour, it is most interest on the corpus fund is investment can be high vulnerable to the infiltration of used for extending support to (depending on the length of contaminants. In some areas, it new families, thus ensuring 100 pipeline and size of storage tank), was found that contaminants percent coverage of all families at the recurring costs are low. On the such as arsenic, fluoride and all times in the future. Nearly 300 other hand, tube wells and dug nitrates in the tube well water families have benefited from this wells require water to be pumped, have increased. arrangement since 1996. thus raising the cost of O&M. To meet operations cost, a monthly Gram Vikas educates people Source and environmental fee per household of Rs. 30 to 50 about health and hygiene, hand sustainability is also addressed. In is fixed to pay the electricity bill washing and the importance of some drought-prone areas such for pumping (Rs. 800 to 1,500). In cleanliness in general. The impact 25 Towards Drinking Water Security in India on people’s health is impressive. self-reliant. Communities drive having to walk to potentially Data for 2006 show that of 81,000 the program and bear a large unsafe places in the hours of villagers, where the water and proportion of the work and costs. darkness just to perform basic sanitation program is The Government of Orissa plays bodily functions. Bathing rooms implemented, the majority were the role of a facilitator in this eliminate the need to bathe fully free from diseases. An internal particular scheme and provides clothed and often in the analysis by Gram Vikas of their the bulk of financing for the presence of men in contaminated health data for a sample of 4,976 water supply infrastructure. ponds in which animals wallow. people shows an 85 percent There is clearly a “willingness reduction in water borne This experience shows that very to pay� for this improved level diseases/illness overall after poor and small communities can of service. implementation of the water and manage and take charge of the sanitation program, with 88-90 O&M cost. High levels of service Long-term technical and percent reduction in incidence of along with the community’s institutional support provided by diarrhoea, jaundice and malaria. long-term support are key factors Gram Vikas to build capacity of for sustainable service delivery. the community to take care of the Program rules have evolved over The high level of services makes system, develop norms for O&M time but key principles have a real difference in people’s life. and undertake other remained the same: “all or none� Household connections and 24x7 development activities is also and “toilet before water� means service spare women the critical. Incorporating livelihoods that the village becomes free of drudgery of fetching and training (fish farming, social open defecation soon after the carrying water, and gives them forestry, masonry, plumbing, etc.) facilities are built and health more time to pursue productive as an integral part of the long- benefits are experienced at the activities. Toilets provide privacy term support program helps the early stage. Gram Vikas enables and convenience to women, community to meet capital and the community to become sparing them the indignity of O&M costs. Inputs by: Christophe Prevost and Dr. Suseel Samuel, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 26 Lessons from the field Enhancing Ownership and Access to Water and Sanitation with Swajal Location: Kumbhrora village, Mahoba District, Uttar Pradesh Kumbhrora is located in the drought hit area of Mahoba District, on a hilly slope, and is inhabited by 1,619 people. Before implementation of the dug well-based piped water supply scheme, the village suffered from lack of water; the three open wells and eight hand pumps were inadequate to meet demand. The hand pumps, installed by Jal Nigam, dried up during the dry season as the ground water levels dropped. The minimum discharge available in summer was 10 to 15 litre per minute (lpm). The open wells were not protected; their surroundings were unhygienic, leading to the threat of water borne diseases. People were unaware of healthy sanitation practices and open defecation was rampant, leading to a serious environmental threat for the village and also the water source. The small tank in the village used by villagers for bathing, animal washing, washing clothes and other daily work, was the source of disease and infection as the majority of households was dependent on this highly polluted water. The other water source was situated far from the village and inaccessible in the rainy season. The project objectives were to improve the quality of life of the villagers through interventions in water and sanitation to enhance access of the community to water and sanitation by involving the government and the GP and enhancing people’s ownership of the scheme, which were achieved to a greater extent during the project period. Kumbhrora was selected in 1996 as part of the Swajal project in phase one. The planning phase took nine months. A demand driven approach was the criteria for village selection. The community played a leading role in planning and implementation activities through decision making. Support organizations such as Gramonnati Sansthan provided support in community development activities as well as construction work. Women’s development activities were undertaken for women’s empowerment with an emphasis on behavioural change. A systemic learning approach was followed throughout the scheme. A balanced approach to hygiene and sanitation awareness; a choice among different water and sanitation technologies; strong emphasis on water and sanitation approaches; the strengthening of environmental catchment protection, water shed management and water security plan for the village; systematic use of the participatory method; a 27 Towards Drinking Water Security in India community-based approach to service delivery; and community-based O&M of the water supply scheme were the project priorities. Mobilization of resources included: Swajal project Rs. 9,02,551, WaterAid India Rs. 1,30,000, and government and community contribution Rs. 2,10,000. At present, the scheme runs on electric power supply. WaterAid provided further support to implement integrated water resources management activities such as roof water harvesting with recharging pit and mini check dam near the water source, which has contributed to making the scheme sustainable. Traditional thinking hampered the progress of the project in the beginning. The elders from the villages were not ready to accept the simple facts related to water and sanitation. Certain innovations such as integrated water resource management did not receive support from the community. The community, with its prejudices and biases about new technology and its usefulness, could not put a few changes into practice. The fact that hand pumps are safer sources of drinking water than open wells was also not accepted in the beginning. The age-old methods of storage, handling and using water and food were first discussed and their pros and cons were also explained to the community. After demonstrations and rigorous discussions, the community began to be convinced. Because of lower levels of literacy, the exposure of the villagers was also limited and hence awareness generation took more time than expected. Drought was the biggest hurdle during the project cycle. Around 40-50 percent of the villagers migrated because of consistent drought for four years. The program received a set back in some villages, where the migration was higher. In these villages, community action and individual responses were slow. People had other priorities rather than construction of toilets. Another difficulty was the collection of local contributions; the VWSC had difficulties in collecting the required money. O&M also took a back seat sometime. The VWSC worked hard to persuade people and encourage them into common action. But once they understood the importance of water and sanitation in improving health, activities gained momentum. Thanks to the project, people have realized the importance of safe drinking water and are using hand pumps rather than wells for drinking water purposes. The incidence of water borne diseases has reduced leading to improved status of health and less expenditure on illness; hygienic practices related to water and food have considerably improved; the villagers have understood the importance of the quality of water and take necessary measures to maintain it; the community now has local skilled persons for O&M; and, finally, the attitude of dependency either on the government or organizations has reduced. 28 Lessons from the field The community’s sense of ownership has increased and people depend on themselves for O&M of water resources. At the beginning of the project, it was observed that it was difficult to communicate information to adults. Children proved to be the best change makers. They have the inquisitiveness and a desire to learn. They can pass the information onto their parents and other elders once they understand it. The activities related to the hygiene program were based on these facts and were successful. Parents, especially women, started saying that they had been pressurized by their children to follow safe and hygienic practices related to food and water handling and they were trying to change their behaviour. Bundelkhand is infamous for its socio-cultural traditions that provide hardly any space to women in the public sphere. Women initially need some support to come out and learn and share information and start actually participating in decision making processes. This boosts their confidence and gives them status in the family and the village. It takes months to create a conducive atmosphere for women to come out and participate. Once they become part of various committees, they are exposed to an array of issues and this, in turn, encourages them to speak their mind. This strategy has helped the project and now women as caretakers, as hand pump mechanics, as members of VWSC, are performing well. For sustainability, the government has to be a part and parcel of the program. Knowing this, Gramonnati, from the first day, involved various government departments in the project. Departments such as education, Panchayat Raj, health, and rural development were involved from time to time. The resources of the government at Panchayat, Block and District levels were mobilized. The officers were also invited for various community programs throughout the project period. These officers were also informed about the progress of the project and their guidance was sought. 29 Towards Drinking Water Security in India This continuous inflow of information and sustained efforts to create awareness paid off in terms of change in behaviour of 60 percent of the population. However, the task was indeed a difficult one. People, with their own convictions, always tried to follow old patterns of behaviour. Senior citizens argued with village workers and it took time for them to understand the reasons to change their existing behaviour. An initial survey showed that 90 percent of the population was unaware of healthy practices of handling food and water. During initial meetings, people did not show interest in these topics. After much deliberation with the VWSC, it was decided to conduct healthy home competitions in each village to create interest and awareness among the people about healthy behaviour. The community monitoring teams visited houses and selected the winners on the basis of pre-decided criteria. The houses with maximum marks were given gifts at a community function. This strategy proved beneficial as family members gained status and recognition and were self motivated to follow hygienic behaviour. In the beginning, when hygiene educators started talking about quality of water and its relation to various diseases, no one believed them. People argued that they have been drinking water without testing for generations and did not feel the need to test it. Through a series of meetings with community-based organizations, people were convinced to undertake this activity in their villages. They were given information about various salts, impurities in water and diseases they cause. Water from various sources was tested and results were discussed with them. After seeing the results, people started using water hand pumps for drinking purposes rather than open wells. When this change happened, the percentage of water borne illnesses decreased. This fact was brought to their notice. Since then, testing of quality of water has become a regular feature of the program. All these efforts helped the community as well as the government to become active in delivering improved services. People have also become aware about different schemes related with water and sanitation and have pressurized the GP for their implementation. It helped to establish a direct communication channel between the concerned officers and people. The VWSC was also strengthened to use a convergence approach. Inputs by: Dr. Arvind Khare is a social worker working with the NGO Gramonnati Sansthan, Mahoba. E-mail: gramonnatiup@yahoo.co.in 30 field Lessons from the Field An Efficient System to Recover Water Taxes Location: Shiraguppi village, Belgaum District, Karnataka Shiraguppi, the GP headquarters, is situated at a distance of 150 kilometres from the Belgaum District centre and lies at a distance of 60 kilometres from the Taluk centre, Athani. River Krishna flows close to the village. The population of Shiraguppi is 9,186. Sugarcane is the prominent commercial crop. Shiraguppi has a piped water system with 740 homes having tap connections. Home connections are charged a monthly fee of Rs. 41.50. Households getting water from the public tap are charged a monthly fee of Rs.10. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Committee gets a monthly electricity bill of Rs. 35-40,000, paid every two-three months. After most of the sugarcane growers of Shiraguppi harvest their crop, they pay the water bill between the months of January to March. In Shiraguppi, the method for payment of water bills is unique. Door-to-door collection of water tax has been stopped. The water users themselves pay the annual water tax. Defaulters are incentivized to pay by excluding them from GP meetings and not issuing them civic or legal documents. Three Challan System The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Committee has an account in Shiraguppi’s Karnataka Vikasa Grameena Bank. All waters users have to pay water tax into this account. There is a challan system to pay the water tax. It is a tri-copy (carbon copy) challan. The year of payment of the water tax, property number and name must be filled in the challan, along with the bill amount, and paid to the bank. Of the three challan copies, the bank retains one, another is given to the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Committee. In this manner, after paying the water tax, the challan number, bill number, bill amount are all recorded in the Committee’s records. One of the copies is retained by the water user. Non-payment of Water Tax means Non-issue of Documents Those who do not pay water tax or other bills are not issued any documents or certificates by the GP. Only after paying the bills are they allowed to attend the GP meetings. In 2007-08, a person from the village paid thousands of rupees as water tax at one go. Along with water tax, this person had not paid his other GP taxes for many years. When the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Committee meeting was held in village community hall, this issue was discussed. It was suggested that a notice be sent or procession or jatha go marching to homes of people who do not pay their dues. However, in a few days, the person paid all his dues together, and has been prompt with his payments since. Awareness levels among the people of Shiraguppi are so high that they pay their water tax of their own volition. Inputs by: S.N.N. Raghava, Water and Sanitation Specialist, SASDU, World Bank 31 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Community Contracting for Cost Efficiency, Transparency and Accountability in Construction Location: Jalanidhi Rural Water Supply Project, Kerala Instead of engaging contractors Community contracting resulted supply schemes completed and to build the water supply in substantial reduction in the commissioned are now being systems, Beneficiary Groups (BGs) construction costs (about 15 operated and maintained (many directly procure materials and percent less than the approved of these now for more than five construct the schemes on their estimates), ensuring good quality years) by the BGs. Water tariffs own, employing local workers – construction and transparency. have been fixed appropriately, both skilled and unskilled. The The average capital cost per capita corresponding to O&M community contracting system is about Rs. 3,000. This approach expenditures, and are being levied adopted in the implementation of also helped in mobilizing local and collected in all the schemes. the Jalanidhi Rural Water Supply resources, especially manpower Project in Kerala has successfully for construction, and making the The objective of the adoption demonstrated the value of beneficiaries actively involved in of the community contracting empowering communities the entire process whereby their approach was to ensure to be responsible for the ownership and sustainability transparency and accountability implementation and management of the schemes are enhanced. in the construction activities of the water supply systems. Equally important, the water and eliminate contractors and 32 Lessons from the field associated problems. The project To ensure transparency in and quality of the construction funds were transferred to the bank purchases and payments, regular undertaken and of the other accounts of the BG. All payments meetings of the Executive services provided during project were made from that account by Committee and General Body implementation. the office-bearers of the BG. The of the BG were held, in which risk in entrusting the construction quotations were presented and The Jalanidhi Project funds with the BGs and their lack decisions taken collectively for implemented by the Government of technical capacity in building all major expenses. In order of Kerala with World Bank the infrastructure was overcome to facilitate proper selection assistance adopted the through intensive capacity of construction materials like community contracting system, building programs for the office- pipes and their specials, product wherein the entire construction bearers of BGs, close monitoring demonstrations were organized in responsibility was vested with and supervision from the staff of GPs in which manufacturers were the Executive Committee of the the support organizations and invited to present their samples. BG. Members of the Executive Kerala Rural Water Supply and Independent Construction Committee responsible for the Sanitation Agency (KRWSA) and Quality Monitoring consultants construction activities were given putting in place necessary systems were engaged to help ensure training in various aspects of for checks and balances. the appropriateness, timeliness construction management such as procurement procedures, quality assessment of materials, fund management, record keeping, accounting, quality checks, etc., by the training division of KRWSA. The support organizations employed at the GP level provided handholding support to the Executive Committee of the BG in construction management. Jalanidhi Project was implemented in 122 GPs in Kerala during the period 2001-08 by KRWSA. The project implemented about 3,700 micro water supply schemes mostly in remote and water scarce locations, which benefitted about 1.8 million people in the rural areas of 13 districts of Kerala. A typical Jalanidhi scheme provides piped water to about 50 households, on an average, using a ground water source (open wells or bore wells), storage tank and pumping and distribution lines. The beneficiary households are provided with yard taps which 33 Towards Drinking Water Security in India supply about 70 litres per capita This cost sharing approach has The success of the community per day (lpcd) of drinking water. been considered as an effective contracting method depends The schemes are owned and means of “ownership� and as mainly on : (i) the capacity operated by the BGs. O&M costs, a demonstrable commitment building for the leaders of the BGs including power charges, wages towards the maintenance of the in the construction processes; of the pump operator and repair assets created under the project (ii) the handholding support to the costs are borne fully by the BGs by for the beneficiaries. BG during the construction phase collecting monthly water charges through support mechanisms; from every beneficiary household. The success of the community and (iii) the checks and balances The monthly water charges are contracting approach is evident in place through appropriate generally around Rs. 40-50 per in the good quality of the systems in fund and procurement household. infrastructure constructed, cost management. savings, timely completion of The GPs facilitated the the work, community ownership The community contracting implementation of the schemes of the assets, etc. The majority method is replicable. It will help in by providing 10 percent of the Jalanidhi schemes were a big way to get the community contribution towards the completed below the initial fully involved in the project capital cost and the necessary estimated costs. The community processes and develop a sense technical support through contracting resulted in 15 percent of ownership towards the assets support organizations. The savings in the capital costs of created. It will bring down costs beneficiaries contributed 15 water supply and sanitation and win the confidence of the percent of the capital cost and schemes. There was transparency people and build their capacities are responsible for O&M costs. in the entire construction work, to successfully manage the The balance 75 percent of the with the community choosing systems by themselves. capital cost was provided by the and procuring the materials Government of Kerala using the and employing the required This experience shows that the World Bank credit. There was labour. Payments were made myth that the villagers cannot reduced beneficiary contribution through transparent processes build engineering projects was in the case of marginalized which resulted in beneficiaries proved erroneous by the fact that communities (ST) and within a BG getting convinced about the thousands of small water supply there was cross subsidization to expenditure and the utilization schemes were built successfully ensure inclusion of the poorest of the resources at their disposal. using the community contracting households in the villages. Out The project also showed that the method. Indeed, people can of the total project funding involvement of poorly educated implement and manage water of Rs. 392.2 crore, Rs. 52.96 or technically unqualified local supply projects and meet the crore had come as community people in the planning, design, O&M needs of the resultant contributions and Rs. 26.82 crore contracting and management water supply schemes if they are from the GPs. Even the tribal phases has not adversely affected properly trained and authorized populations, who hitherto had the quality of the infrastructure. to do so. Transparency and only received free services, have On the contrary, the majority accountability can be ensured accepted the change in thinking of the schemes have been if the roles and responsibilities and contributed Rs. 83.6 lakh completed well in time and with of the different stakeholders in cash and labour towards superior construction quality are balanced through well their capital cost contributions. standards. defined powers. Inputs by: Dr. Suseel Samuel, Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org; R.R Mohan, Social Development Specialist, World Bank; Martin P. Gambrill, Senior Water and Sanitation Specialist, SASDU, World Bank; and Ghanasham V. Abhyankar, Consultant 34 Lessons from the field Successful Implementation of Sector Reform Pilot Project: Panchayati Raj Institutions can Do it! Location : Kasaragod District, Kerala The Government of India initiated participation and ownership in transparency and accountability the reform program in rural developing and maintaining in project implementation. drinking water supply through simple and sustainable water the Sector Reform Pilot Projects supply schemes which can ensure The state government decided (SRPs) in 67 selected districts affordable and safe drinking to entrust the responsibility for across the country in 2001. In water. The SRP in Kasaragod implementing this SRP with Kerala, the districts of Kasaragod District has come out with the Panchayati Raj Institutions and Kollam were included in flying colours in demonstrating (PRIs). The District Panchayat this reform initiative which the feasibility and viability of was made the implementing aimed at facilitating demand community managed water agency. The GPs were the given driven, community based micro supply programs in the rural the responsibility to identify water supply schemes in rural areas. This decentralized the water scarce areas, mobilize communities, suffering due to approach generated tremendous the communities, and plan and scarcity of proper drinking water enthusiasm and confidence implement the drinking water facilities. The reform philosophy among the people towards supply schemes. Support was was to promote community the project. It also ensured provided by the Project Support 35 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Unit (PSU) and Gram Panchayat training at various stages of connections through a yard tap, Volunteer Resource Team (GVRT). implementation by the PSU and according to people’s demand. The PSU had a multidisciplinary GVRT. The BGs were actively The total expenditure is about team of professionals with involved in the identification Rs. 343 million of which the qualifications and years of of the source, designing community contributed about experience in management, the scheme, mobilization of Rs. 33 million (10 percent) and community development, the 10 percent beneficiary the rest was contributed by the training, engineering and contribution towards capital cost, Government of India. finance. The GVRT also was a construction supervision, etc. The multidisciplinary team with entire construction was carried These schemes are now fully qualified persons in engineering, out through the community managed by the BGs under the community mobilization, contracting method in which guidance of the GPs. The entire accounts, etc., and many of them were residents of the respective GPs. While the PSU operated from the District Panchayat office, the GVRT operated from the GP office. The GPs in Kerala are quite large compared to other states with a population of about 25,000, on an average. The water supply schemes are implemented through BGs of households interested in becoming beneficiaries of the project. These BGs were registered under the Charitable Societies Act with a General Body of member households and an elected Executive Committee. On an the BGs were responsible for O&M cost including the power average, each BG had about 40-50 procurement of materials, charges, wages to the pump member households. employing skilled and unskilled operator and the repair expenses labour, etc. The SRP funds were are paid from the monthly Five GPs were selected for the transferred to the bank accounts collection of water charges from initial phase and later it was of the BG. All payments were beneficiary households, which is extended to 12 more GPs. The made from that account. The on an average Rs. 50 per month selection of the GPs took place progress was monitored by the per household. A majority of these through a transparent process GVRT and PSU. schemes (more than 90 percent) using well defined criteria. In are still functional, quite well every GP, about 25 water supply In all, 439 community managed managed by the BGs with their schemes each were taken drinking water supply schemes own resources and no subsidy up after a detailed resource and 97 school water supply from the government or PRIs. mapping and community schemes in 32 GPs were mobilization process. The completed under SRP and the The dedicated and efficient water scarce areas within a subsequent Swajaldhara Project. leadership of the PRIs in the GP were identified through These water supply schemes district is the major reason Gram Sabhas and BGs were benefit about 1,50,900 people behind this success story. The formed. The office-bearers of in 23,627 households, who leadership of both the District the BGs were given intensive have been provided with house Panchayat and the GPs exhibited 36 Lessons from the field a deep sense of commitment and help the BGs to manage various locally. It is cost effective and worked hard in implementing aspects like procurement, finance, can provide satisfactory levels this difficult new initiative which book keeping, O&M, monitoring of service. is different from the conventional and evaluation, etc., are good subsidy oriented programs. examples of an effective capacity The project has proved that The maturity shown by the development strategy. The rural communities are willing to PRI leadership in rising above project implemented several contribute to developing facilities narrow political considerations capacity development programs for their betterment. The general and cooperating in successfully for the PRIs to capacitate perception that people are implementing this project is a the PRI representatives to unwilling to contribute for water good model for decentralized play a facilitating role in the facilities is now an old story. Here, development administration. implementation of the project. a majority of the beneficiaries are the poor – below poverty line The transparency with which (BPL), SC/ST and other backward the entire process was carried classes. They contributed 10 out is an important feature. The percent towards the capital cost community contracting process and are now sharing the O&M adopted in construction of the cost without hesitation. The schemes helped in eliminating management of the O&M aspects malpractices. This enhanced by the BGs, especially their control the faith of the people in this in regulation of water supply program which maximized and collection of monthly user their participation. It also charges, is an indication of their helped in reducing the costs level of ownership and capacity. which is reflected in the completion of schemes at The enthusiasm and momentum about 85 percent cost of the created by the SRP in developing approved estimates. a culture of participative development in the rural The capacity development The success of the project has communities of Kasaragod is activities undertaken made demonstrated that, to a large tremendous. The success of this substantial contribution in the extent, solutions to drinking approach is now motivating effective implementation of water problems in the villages can people in uncovered areas the project. It educated the be found locally by harnessing to put pressure on their local user groups on the philosophy local resources under the aegis government leadership to initiate of community managed water of the local governments. The similar programs in their localities supply programs and capacitated initial support for information, also. At the end of the project them to take up the challenging education and communication period, it has emerged as a good tasks of building a water supply (IEC), capacity building and model for PRI led, demand driven, scheme by themselves. The capital cost can empower people and community managed water various systems and procedures to mobilize themselves and act supply program in the state and developed by the project to collectively to find solutions the country. Inputs by: Dr. Suseel Samuel, Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 37 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Successful 24x7 Water Supply in a Small Town Location: Malkapur town, Satara District, Maharashtra The water supply system in Malkapur town is the first initiative in India where the entire town is operating on 24x7 basis. The initiative at Malkapur has led to remarkable efficiency improvement: i) per capita daily consumption reached an average of 110 litres; ii) water requirement reduced by 30 percent; iii) operational cost requirement reduced by Rs. 75,000 per month; iv) revenue collection efficiency increased from 60 to 80 percent; v) sufficient pressure in the distribution network has reduced electricity consumption of the Municipal Council as well as for the consumers to the extent of 27.528 kilowatt (KWH) per month; and, finally, unaccounted for water (UFW) represents between 8-12 percent, which is an extremely good performance. The water supply system is operated by the technical unit under the supervision of the Municipal Council. The Malkapur area is well known for its enterprising farmers and an efficient co-operative sector managing sugar mills, lift irrigation systems, milk production, and collection and selling. It is fast growing town because adjoining Karad does not have space to accommodate a growing population. The growth rates between 1981-91 and 1991-2001 are 58 percent and 275 percent, respectively. The population in 2009 was around 35,000 while the 1991 census population was 5,976. In 2007, Malkapur got the status of town. A piped water supply scheme, commissioned in 1988, was designed for an expected population of 14,000 in 2010 on the basis of 40 lcpd. In 2001, the population was already about 23,000 surpassing the initial forecast, which resulted in poor service levels. The GP could not meet minimum requirement for water even after operating the system for all those hours of the day when electricity was 38 Lessons from the field available. There was no fixed time high quality technical support manufacturer of polyethylene for water supply to the citizens; to the GP to ensure this 24x7 pipes allowed the elected it was usually two or three hours initiative succeeded. representatives and engineers every alternate day. People had of MJP to visit the factory and to resort to tanker and bore In January 2007, the GP met explained manufacturing and well water. The GP was under and resolved in the Gram Sabha quality. The after sale support pressure and also depended on to effectively implement 24x7 from M/s. ARAD Meters, Israel, 11 bore wells with power pumps, water supply. The elected is notable. in addition to the piped water representative and MJP engineers supply system. With no fixed formed teams and conducted The main outcomes of shifting to schedule for water supply, people ward wise meeting of consumers a 24x7 water supply are: had to wait day or night. The poor, and women in particular and unreliable, untimely service led to explained the benefits of • Improvement in delivery non recovery of water charges for 24x7 water supply. It was also time and services. 24x7 the GP. Trying to provide service explained that telescopic rates supply has totally removed under the given constraints, the would help them in avoiding the constraints of waiting for GP incurred additional expenses wastage of water. The charges irregular water services and on energy for bore well pumps would be only for the water people have more time for and tankers. they used as read by a meter as productive activities. Women against the earlier flat rates. To are especially appreciative of Augmentation of the water supply curb excessive utilization of water the 24x7 supply as they do not system was approved in June by the consumers, the elected have to fetch the water from 1999 but started in December representatives, supported by long distances. 2002. The system was designed MJP, agreed on the telescopic • Quality of water. The quality to provide 55 lpcd of water for rates tariff structure and decided of water is now guaranteed a population of 67,196 people on three slabs with the following as the pipes are continuously projected for the year 2030. The rates: up to 70 lpcd at Rs. 4.50 per pressurized. Krishna Medical bulk water system consisted of 1,000 litres; 70 to 120 lpcd at College, Karad, carried out a water abstraction from perennial Rs. 7.00 per1,000 litres and above study on the quality of water river Koyna, and pumping it to the 120 lpcd at Rs. 10.00 per 1,000 after the commissioning of water treatment plant. The treated litres. Rates for commercial the 24x7 system, and reported water is pumped to the master connections were decided that 100 percent of the balancing reservoir located on the as Rs. 9, 14, and 20 per 1,000 samples were potable and free hill. The treated and disinfected litres depending on the type of from contamination. water is transferred to the five activity. The actual work on the • Decrease in water borne service reservoirs covering distribution network started in illnesses in children. The six zones of distribution. The March 2008. survey carried out by system up to the ESR was ready Anganwadi Sevika indicated by January 2005. Water supply The GP and MJP pursued the that the water borne diseases distribution was done through initiative as a single team. The in children have reduced the earlier system. Government of Maharashtra remarkably to near zero level. provided complete support to • Reduction in wastage of water. The next phase for improving the the initiative through funding Wasteful use of water has water supply in Malkapur focused under the Accelerated Rural Water reduced by about 30 percent. on the distribution network. Supply Programme (ARWSP). The Demand management by Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran Member Secretary, MJP, helped IEC and the telescopic tariff (MJP) suggested the concept of in imparting education for using structure contribute to this 24x7 water supply. The engineers the software, WaterGems, and performance. All zones are of MJP provided “the� critical designing the system himself now getting 24x7 supply input, extensive mobilization and when he was Chief Engineer. The and pumping requirement 39 Towards Drinking Water Security in India has decreased to 13-14 hours compared to 19-20 Box 1 : Key principles followed in Malkapur to hours before the demand management exercise and implement 24x7 water supply implementation of the The consumer shall get water whenever he opens the tap. telescopic tariff. Consumers need water at different times of the day. This makes • Shifting control of the redundant the concept of storage of water and throwing it away distribution system from the the next day when fresh water is received. The investment in valve man to the consumer. storage vessels/tanks also comes to an end. Valves are no longer required to be operated in the Consumers pay as they use: This principle of consumers distribution network and paying as per their usage provides the incentive for resource consumers do not depend conservation. The metered water supply system provides an anymore on the valve opportunity to charge as per the volumes of water consumed, operators. unlike in un-metered flat rates, where the quantity consumed is • Meter reading and billing not the criteria. This encourages consumers in a metered system are simplified. The type of to minimize the use of water, close the tap when they do not water meters installed can want water. This helps the pressure in pipes to be maintained be read remotely by driving and consumers located at higher elevation do not suffer as through the streets using lower elevation consumers try to close the tap as soon as their handheld devices and radio requirement is fulfilled. This provides equity amongst consumers. frequency. Data are free from errors compared to manual Pay at higher rate when using higher per capita water: The handling. The readings are telescopic rates adopted require the higher per capita usage of downloaded from the i-paq water to be paid at higher rates. The minimum required water is (a handheld device) to the provided at affordable rates. Thus the poor are catered to while computer and monthly bills they also enjoy the benefit of 24 x 7 water availability. The higher are generated immediately. rate in slabs for higher consumption recycles the wealth from the Thus the earlier annual billing rich to the poor. procedure is now carried out on a monthly basis. As a result, The service to work on no loss basis: The water supply service the cash flow of the Municipal was advised not to be run at a loss. Tariff rates were determined Council has improved. The accordingly. Great care was also needed to keep operational system makes it easier for expenditure to its minimum. Efforts should be made to automate consumers to pay at the end as many components of the system as possible. of each month compared to earlier when a large sum had pumps on bore wells for in the atmosphere. to be paid once a year. At the supplying water. This has • Reduction in operation cost. same time, revenue recovery saved electricity to the tune A simple automation such as has improved from 60 percent of 3,30,336 KWH a year, basis operating raw water pumps earlier to 80 percent and is actual electricity billing from the water treatment improving day by day. data pre- and post-project. plant using GSM technology • Saving in electricity. Huge This exercise was carried has reduced the cost of savings in electricity have out to submit a proposal for operation as the raw water been made as water in no the Energy Conservation pumping station is now un- longer required to be pumped Award to the Maharashtra manned. This has eliminated by people living in two or Energy Development Agency the requirement of two pump three storey buildings and (MEDA). The energy saved is operators there. the Municipal Council also equivalent to a reduction of • Reduction in UFW. Using stopped using its 11 power 450 tonnes of carbon dioxide AMR type bulk meters has 40 Lessons from the field made it possible to take all possible at any point of time and plumbing have been removed, the readings remotely and to 100 percent accuracy. Fourthly, leaking taps have been changed with these snap readings it the successful implementation and there has been a positive is possible to carry out day of the telescopic tariff is another change in habits of people to day water audits. The innovative aspect of the initiative. measured UFW in the system is Its successful implementation is The initiative is replicable where between 8-12 percent, which possible only with greatest micro the system capacity is sufficient is an excellent performance. detailing and AMR type meters. to cater to an increased demand Fifthly, the provision of bulk in the transition phase when The project has come up with a meters at the outlet of the ESR the town is switching over to number of innovations. Firstly, and at consumer premises, and 24x7 supply and demand is the design of the WaterGems the pressure sensor at the salient effectively managed through software to design the system. point in the distribution network mass awareness and telescopic Secondly, the use of rolls of has made it possible to calibrate rate implementation. The peri- long lengths of High Density the hydraulic model and simulate urban areas where the distribution Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes that the system. This has made it network is to be laid totally afresh requires fewer joints. The joints possible to monitor the system are the best areas where the system are made using electrical fusion and determine where it has can be replicated successfully. welded couplers and specials. gone wrong by understanding The house service connections the pressure sensor reading The scheme is sustainable, both use fusion welded tapping tees transmitted to the computer, physically and financially. The fixed with brass ferrule, followed using GSM at fixed time intervals water availability in the source by compression fitting, single and comparing it with the range river Koyna is sufficient. The length of Medium Density in which the pressure should system capacity is sufficient Polyethylene (MDPE) pipe to tap normally be. Possible leakages to take care of fluctuations tee to the meter in the premises in the system are discovered in demand for another 10-15 of the consumer’s house, AMR without going to site. years. Financially, the scheme is meter and ball stop cocks sustainable as the operations cost before meter. All this material By using AMR meters, it has and revenue match closely. The of construction and jointing become possible to understand Municipal Council has decided methodology made the system the leakages in the plumbing to increase the rates every year innovatively leak proof, which is system at the consumer’s premises to retain the sustainability of the basic requirement for 24 x7 even beyond the water meter. This the system. In fact, a committee operation of any system. Thirdly, is possible by taking readings at of the ruling party, opposition the use of AMR meters for bulk different points in time in a day or party, experts and those who metering to measure the flow night. Those meters which show were opposing the initiative or leaving service reservoirs and on abnormally high consumption requesting for lower rates has all consumers connections has at night can be investigated by been constituted. The committee made it possible to read them approaching the consumer and has been tasked to propose using a handheld device while confirming where the leakages rates in such a manner that there driving along the street for 10 are in the plumbing system. This will be no loss in operating the minutes for each zone. This has exercise has made consumers system. The recovery levels are made effective water auditing aware and the leakages in also increasing. Inputs by: Rajendra Holani, Chief Engineer, Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran; Manohar Shinde, Vice President, Malkapur Nagar Panchyat; U.P. Bagade, Sectional Engineer, MJP; Basugade, Sectional Engineer, MJP; Bhopale, Sectional Engineer, MJP 41 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Use of Solar Energy for Dual Pump Scheme: A Boon for Women Location: Maharashtra More than 75 percent of India’s despite water being present in the In this scheme, a single phase 1 population lives in rural areas bore well. In rural areas, generally HP powered submersible pump and 85 percent of the rural water women have to face all these is installed in the existing high supply is ground water based. problems. The patriarchal society yielding bore well having a hand Hence bore wells with India holds women responsible for such pump. Pumped water is stored Mark II hand pumps are the most routine tasks hence these women in a 5,000 litre tank and water important elements of rural water crave for a tap water supply. supply is provided to each house supply. However, it is also a well through a tap. Roof top rainwater known fact that, during summer The Groundwater Surveys and harvesting is mandatory to make when the water levels deplete, Development Agency (GSDA) of the scheme sustainable. Hence, accessing water becomes that the Water Supply and Sanitation water supply is restored by either much more difficult. If pumping Department of the Government one of the pumps. levels deplete below the lifting of Maharashtra, realized the plight capacity of the hand pump, 36 of rural women and came forward After implementation of 1,000 metres, it stops working and water with an innovative solution called such schemes, due to huge scarcity is declared in that area Dual Pump Scheme. demand, the Government 42 Lessons from the field of Maharashtra decided to schemes differ from the previous bore well/tube well (yield not implement these schemes schemes which are bore well less than 2,800 litres per hour); using renewable sources of based. Earlier, submersible ii) installation of solar energy energy such as solar energy in pumps were installed on the powered submersible pumps difficult hilly habitations, where high yielding bore wells without with required photovoltaic arrays; electricity supply is not available taking care of artificial recharge. iii) HDPE storage tank of 5,000 near the source. The scheme has Hence, shifting of pumps was litre capacity and arrangement become one of the most useful, common when the ground water for elevating it to 3 metre economical, eco-friendly and availability decreased. House height to give sufficient head popular schemes in the state. to house tap connections were for the distribution system; iv) not provided. Pumps installed distribution system for 30 houses These schemes have now been were also of higher capacity. with individual tap connections; implemented in Left wing Electricity charges were beyond and v) rainwater harvesting affected blocks of Gadchiroli the financial capacity of the end structure. District. These villages are users. Removal of the hand pump situated in deep forests and cylinder and riser pipes for regular As per demand, individual tap mostly inaccessible due to the maintenance and repairs, without connections can be provided by hilly terrain where the collection removing the submersible pump, the GP. Generally, two to three of recovery of the maintenance is appreciated by the hand pump stand posts are provided at the of the hand pump scheme is a mechanics and village artisans, beginning to supply water to serious problem and repairing now possible due to a special all habitats. The GP can decide hand pumps is a great problem water chamber developed by the rate of recovery for O&M of due to difficult road conditions the GSDA. the scheme, which is negligible and inaccessibility, particularly as the first five years’ annual during the rainy season. This is a demand driven scheme maintenance of solar water with several IEC activities carried pumping system is provided If the solar pump does not out at the Block and Zila Parishad free by the supplier according function due to cloudy weather, levels. A numbers of workshops to the terms and conditions of people can restore the water with audio video and power point contract. supply with the help of the presentations were conducted. hand pump, as usual. These Habitations with high yielding The solar water pumping system bore wells and totally dependent is promoted by the Ministry of on hand pumps made aware New and Renewable Energy, of the scheme with the help of Government of India. Hence, printed material. A documentary subsidy at the rate of Rs. 70 per was screened in the workshops watt is reimbursed if the system and meetings. Junior engineers without battery back up is from the Zila Parishad were procured. Generally, 5,000 litres imparted training. Progress of water is stored in a tank so was reviewed at state, regional battery back up is not required. and District levels through However, if required, the same video conferences to save time solar photovoltaic arrays can be and money. All schemes are used for other purposes such implemented by GPs only, under as street lighting if the energy the guidance and supervision of is stored in the batteries. In engineers of the department. this case, the subsidy is Rs. 90 per watt. The GP has to submit The scheme comprises five major necessary reimbursement forms components: i) high yielding along with a project report. 43 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Basically, this 900 watt water for bore wells for 900 and 1,800 other household chores; regular pumping system is very small, watts, which made procurement school attendance of girls; and having a pumping capacity of easy for the GP. Man power is sustainability of the scheme 5,000 litres per day. During hot available with the Zila Parishad and source. sunny days, the 5,000 litres tank and GSDA for the supervision. In takes two to three hours to fill. very few places, some contractual There is a high demand for this engineers were engaged for the technology as initially only 66 Due to this innovation, both the project period. schemes were implemented system and source have become on conventional energy based sustainable. Hence, funds received Generally, a scheme can be dual pump schemes. Then it was under the National Rural Drinking completed within a week if replicated on pilot basis in 200 Water Programme (NRDWP) for techniques developed by habitations. Then 1,000 schemes sustainability are used for these GSDA such as pre-fabricated are demanded by the Konkan schemes. Making this scheme steel structures, pre-cast RCC Region (four districts) and 1,500 by compulsory for habitations foundation blocks, are used. the Nashik Region (five districts). which are totally dependent on Monitoring is carried out from the Of these, three schemes have hand pumps is currently being regional and state level offices been implemented on solar considered. of GSDA. energy based dual pump schemes, 139 solar energy based dual pump First the yield of the bore well / Dual pump based water supply schemes were demanded by all tube well is checked with the help schemes, either powered by the districts of the state during of a yield testing unit provided conventional electricity or on 2010-11. The state government with the submersible pump and solar energy, proved to be the has issued a resolution for generation set. If this pump test best ever solution to the drinking guidelines of these schemes on gives the yield not less than the water problems of habitations August 21, 2010. MEDA made desired limit of 2,800 litres per dependent on hand pumps. a rate contract of solar water hour, the scheme is proposed. pumping systems of 900 and 1,800 Estimates are prepared by the Key factors of success of this watts suitable for bore wells only. Junior Engineers of the Zila scheme include: effortless Parishad for all these components. pumping; assurance of 24x 7 Lesson learned include that: any Technical sanction is accorded water supply; no electricity new scheme requires IEC to be by the Executive Engineer of charges; five years’ free accepted by the end users; any the Rural Water Supply Division maintenance by the contractor; innovation by the departmental working under the Zila Parishad security of water due to 5,000 team members should be and administrative sanction by litre storage tank; arrangement rewarded and appreciated; every the Gram Sabha. GPs are provided of special water chamber for suggestion should be considered funding through GSDA. The state easy removal of hand pumps for and if it strengthens the scheme, government’s energy department maintenance without disturbing should be incorporated; and field made a rate contract for the solar the submersible pump; availability visits and feedback are water pumping system suitable of spare time for agriculture and most important. Inputs by: S.V. Deshpande Chief Drilling Engineer, and R.S. Cherekar, Senior Drilling Engineer, Directorate of Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency, Government of Maharashtra, Bhujal Bhavan, Pune 44 field Lessons from the Field Peer to Peer Learning: Training of Communities by Communities Location: JALMITRA, Maharashtra The Maharashtra Rural Water Supply and Sanitation that it was decided to develop capable VWSCs as program’s Jalswarajya Project, was implemented Master Trainers and sustain the process of capacity with World Bank assistance in 3,008 GPs of 26 building at the GP level. districts of the state. This project was based on the principles of a demand driven approach and The objectives of initiating the program were to: implementation based on participative mode by the i) prepare community members and GP committees GPs and VWSCs. to conduct training for capacity building of the other GPs on various aspects of O&M of the water Some of the VWSCs have mastered the technique supply schemes; and ii) to develop capable GPs well and were found to be in a position to guide the as key resource centres as agents of capacity less developed VWSCs in project activities. Therefore, building in future programs in the water supply and an innovative initiative was taken to develop these sanitation sector. VWSCs as Master Trainers who will then train the remaining GPs in a scaled up scenario. These Master The strategy consists of ascertaining the training Trainers were called JALMITRA (meaning friend needs of the members of GP/Sarpanch, Gram of water). Out of 3,021 GPs, 228 VWSCs and their Sevak, committee members, and SHG members 1,380 members were selected and trained as Master to assume their roles; and develop a training Trainers. They, in turn, trained 10,500 members of plan based on need assessment of GPs for the the community. community to understand the importance of O&M, preventive maintenance, regular disinfection of As the responsibility of carrying out 100 percent water, adoption of self monitoring mechanisms, the O&M of the water supply schemes rested on the concept of rational tariff setting of the water taxes, community and the GP, it was necessary to devise and judicious use of water. mechanisms to involve these two stakeholders in the process. Capacity building mechanisms were Training methodology developed included: i) developed for district and village levels. At the adequate use of power point presentations and district, a capacity building consortia carried out audio visual media such as film clippings, short the task which also included guiding the village documentary films, role play technique to simulate processes. At the GP, support organizations took up training situation; ii) a special short film produced the task. However, both had limitations and it was in-house covering the major aspects of O&M; and also necessary to continue the process beyond the iii) a trainers handbook prepared in simple, easy to project period. understand, local language Simultaneously, due to poor experience of capacity The district teams identified the trainer GPs. GPs building at the GP level, there was a pressing need targeted were those which have exited or are in to find suitable functionaries for performing the the O&M phase. Willingness on the part of the GPs task. Under the newly launched NRDWP, the task to carry out the training process was also a prime has assumed huge proportions. It was required to consideration. The trainees selected were VWSC/GP sustain the process in 28,000-odd GPs of the state members, Gram Sevaks, women members of SHGs, by providing credible institutions for the process of and members of the youth groups. Six trainees were capacity building. It was against this background selected from each GP. 45 Towards Drinking Water Security in India The training schedule developed for water and mechanism for effectiveness as it was “learning by for the Master Trainers included: ensuring effective disinfection; doing�; iv) simple, non technical i) training of members of the management of household local language acted as a good district team; ii) actual training of connections and judicious use vehicle; and v) a short film on Master Trainers -- the community/ of water; and rational tariff O&M specially made for the GP; iii) hands-on training, including setting and issues related to the program helped in increasing training of the community on the collection of water taxes and its the impact. various sub works of the scheme effective utilization. for understanding the working, The learnings until this stage can defects and their remedies and This practice worked well. The be summarized as: i) members the preventive maintenance; iv) training sessions were carried of the community were willing eight to 10 days of role play of the out by the community at the and interested in the training trainers; and v) training of other level of the GP. Factors of success process as seen from the average GPs by the Master Trainer GPs. are: i) the trainer community attendance; ii) the community had an experience of actually is ready to disseminate the Topics covered included O&M of implementing O&M activities and knowledge gained from the the components of water supply hence had clarity on the process; project and prepare plans for it; schemes such as water source ii) the community which was iii) the training process gave an (dug well/bore well), pumping trained identified themselves opportunity for cross learning machinery, pump house, rising with the trainers and peer to peer within communities; and iv) to main pipeline, storage tank learning played a large role; iii) scale up the process, sustained (ESR/GSR), distribution pipeline hands-on training on the water hand-holding by the district team in detail, disinfection practices supply scheme increased its is essential. Inputs by: N. K. Jejurka, Capacity Building Specialist, Reform Support & Project Monitoring Unit, 1st floor, CIDCO Bhavan, CBD, Belapur, e-mail: nkjejurkar@hotmail.com; and S.N.N. Raghava, Water and Sanitation Specialist, SASDU, World Bank 46 MULTI-VILLAGE SCHEME INNOVATIONS Towards Drinking Water Security in India Public Complaint Redressal System: Increased Consumer Voice and Service Provider Accountability Location: Department of Water Supply and Sanitation, Punjab The Punjab Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (DWSS) set up a unique public complaint redressal system called Shikayat Nivaran Kendra (SNK) in Mohali in December 2009. Rural consumers can call a toll free number (1800-180-2468), and lodge complaints as well as retrieve the latest updates through a unique complaint number provided to them and make requests for other customer services. The call centre is operated on a 24x7 basis with the help of an advanced Interactive Voice Response (IVR) system. 48 Lessons from the field The objective of SNK is to improve the service delivery system by Box 2: Enhanced accountability monitoring O&M of the rural water supply schemes more For efficient operation of the complaint redressal system, detailed efficiently. In order to achieve information about the field officers who are handling the rural the best results with minimum water supply schemes in 9,851 habitations (as on March 31, 2010) inputs of men, machine and has been made available. E-mail ids and names of Divisional material while utilizing the latest Offices, mobile numbers of Executive Engineers, Sub Divisional e-governance methods and Engineers and Junior Engineers who are handling the rural water techniques, it was decided to set supply system have been fed into the software. At the time of up an independent monitoring registration, the names of officers relating to the complaint system by outsourcing the work village pop up on the screen and the complaint is forwarded to to an to outside agency which them through sms and e-mail for immediate redressal. would register the complaints as well as monitor their timely redressal. The aim was to improve service delivery of existing the controlling officer. The officer Information about SNK is also systems, to enhance efficiency checked the registered complaint inserted in the quarterly news and financial sustainability when he visited the particular magazine which is circulated in of the water supply system site during his occasional project villages. operations by reaching out to the inspection. Now, every official beneficiaries. is directly connected to the A large number of rural water online complaints system supply schemes are located in Online registration of complaints through telephone, e-mail and remote areas where DWSS was through SNK has helped in sms immediately upon the finding it difficult to monitor the achieving sustainability and registration of the complaint. absenteeism of staff deployed efficiency in service delivery, If the problem is not rectified for O&M. Substantial delays reduction in closure/downtime within the prefixed redressal were caused by the field staff days of water supply schemes, time, the complaint is escalated in rectifying minor defects and check on absenteeism among to senior officials for their leakages in the distribution lower ranks of operational staff intervention. system and, at some schemes, and field staff of DWSS in villages, operational staff did not supply time bound delivery of services, SNK is an easily accessible water after its disinfection. As a and higher O&M standards. All grievance redressal system result, quality of water suffered. these factors have ultimately which allows consumers to At many schemes, the timings helped in the availability of demand quality service, and their fixed for the supply of water clean water, improved efficiency confidence in the rural water were also not adhered to by the and enhanced the financial supply system has grown since operational staff. sustainability of the rural water its initiation. At the same time, supply infrastructure in the state the accountability of the DWSS Keeping in view the shortage of Punjab as a result of increased staff responsible for O&M can be of staff to monitor O&M of customer outreach. clearly targeted and assessed. rural water supply schemes, it was decided to set up an Before the implementation of To make villagers aware about independent monitoring system the system, the consumer had to SNK, advertisements were placed by outsourcing the work to a either enter the complaint in the in print and electronic media. local information technology complaint register maintained at Apart from this, the toll free company which would register each water supply scheme or go number was painted on walls at the complaints as well as monitor to the distantly located office of prominent locations in villages. their timely redressal to improve 49 Towards Drinking Water Security in India the service delivery of the existing hand over O&M of all completed by departmental officials. The systems. water supply schemes to GPs/ following system has been VWSCs as, at present, DWSS is adopted: There are 14,111 habitations in facing difficulty in operating Punjab. As on March 31, 2010, and monitoring the existing • A unique number is issued to 9,851 habitations were provided systems due to shortage of staff. every registered complaint with water supply, 8,600 with However, to turn over the water which is also issued to piped water and 1,251 with supply system in all habitations the complainant during hand pumps. Traditionally, water to communities will take time. registration supply services are operated and DWSS has been progressively maintained by the DWSS through transferring O&M management • Time to redress complaints the field offices located at sub- responsibility of schemes to has already been prefixed divisions/Block level. However, GPs. In addition, DWSS is also for different categories of since the 73rd constitution utilizing private sector service complaints amendment, O&M of single contracts for O&M of single and village piped water supply multi-village schemes. • The nature of typical schemes in 876 habitations has complaints is provided in Table been handed over to GPs. Overall, The operation of SNK has been 5 and the concerned officials the performance of GPs was rated outsourced. Outsourced services are expected to rectify /correct from average to poor. Presently, include designing of software, the system within this fixed the Government of Punjab deployment of operators for timeframe and report back annually spends around Rs. 1,500 the receipt of complaints and to SNK through phone/sms million on O&M of existing 5,205 their further transmission to so that SNK can update the water supply schemes (as on the concerned official at an complainant April 1, 2010) and had deployed annual cost of Rs. 9,00,000. A operational staff of more service standard was prepared • In case a complaint is not than 12,000. to redress various types of rectified within the stipulated complaints and DWSS was period, it is escalated to Currently, three different models restructured so that authorized the next level senior officer are followed for O&M of water persons who provide redressal (Superintending and Chief supply schemes in Punjab: DWSS are located no further than 5 to Engineer) for his intervention through its own operational 10 kilometre from habitations. after every 48 hours staff; GPs; or outsourcing to The Junior Engineer is in-charge local contractors from the at the lowest level and has been • The complainant is informed village/agency. For the schemes delegated adequate financial by the operator deployed at implemented under the state powers to redress routine the complaint centre regarding government’s Medium Term complaints. For the redressal redressal of the complaint Programme (being funded by the of major complaints, the and it is not closed till the World Bank aided Punjab Rural Junior Engineer has to seek consumer is satisfied Water Supply and Sanitation prior approval from the Project and through Governments competent authority. • Consumers can also check of India and Punjab funded sector the status of their complaints wide approach – SWAp), O&M Registered complaints are through the unique of all single village schemes and forwarded to concerned field complaint number provided intra-village works for multi-village officers through sms and e-mail to them schemes is done by GPs/VWSCs. for immediate redressal. The information regarding the Though the redressal system is In the long term, the status of various complaints very successful, the following Government of Punjab intends to registered at SNK is monitored problems still persist: 50 Lessons from the field Table 5: Common complaints received at SNK Comp. Complaint description Maximum days allowed for Code redressal of complaints 1 Failure of water supply due to electrical or mechanical fault in the machinery 2 2 Failure of water supply due to absence of operator 1 3 Failure of water supply due to large-scale leakages in pipes 2 4 Failure of water supply due to bad quality of water 2 5 Failure of water supply in some specific area, may be due to uneven topography or some other reasons 3 6 Others types of complaints may be due to non laying of Redressal time may differ distribution system or insufficient discharge at source according to situation • At times field officers do previous complaints and about This experience shows that not provide the status of the receipt of new complaints an easily accessible grievance the complaints within the is sent to the highest level, that redressal system can change prescribed time period is, Secretary, Water Supply and the participation levels of the • Information is not provided in Sanitation. In case of complaints beneficiaries and increase the prescribed format to SNK of a serious nature, Secretary, accountability. People are • Genuineness of the complaint Water Supply and Sanitation, behaving more responsibly cannot be ascertained in the immediately issues instructions with the tool in their hands to absence of consumer number/ to the concerned Chief Engineer ask for quality service and their connection number which is for speedy action and timely confidence in the rural water required to minimize receipt of redressal. As such, functioning of supply systems has increased. fake complaints the department is assessed at The accountability of the DWSS • SNK is not provided immediate the government level on a day-to- staff can be clearly targeted information about the transfers day basis. and assessed. The Government of the officers of Punjab has decided to retain • Schemes handed over to Over the last nine months, SNK by renewing the annual GPs are usually not restored with the increase in awareness contract with the outsourced in time due to non-availability amongst villagers about SNK, agency and continue to provide of adequate funds with the participation of consumers funds from its annual non-plan the GPs. in registering complaints has budget. The state government’s increased and consumers are Health, Electricity and DWSS is providing water supply enthusiastic about getting their Education departments are also to 9,851 habitations. It is worth complaints redressed through exploring the idea of providing mentioning that 5,720 out of a SNK. By and large, consumer a similar service centre for the total of 5,827 complaints have experience with SNK has been benefit of their consumers. already been attended to the good as consumers’ complaints A team of Public Health satisfaction of the complainants are redressed to their satisfaction Engineers from West Bengal since SNK’s inception (December and DWSS too takes preventive visited Punjab on September 1, 2010) . A daily progress measures to avoid the complaints’ 30, 2010 to understand the report pertaining to redressal of recurrence. working of SNK. Inputs by: Department of Water Supply and Sanitation, Punjab, and Shyamal Sarkar, SASDU, World Bank 51 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Operation and Management of Regional Water Supply Scheme by Joint Village Water Supply Committee Location: Baragaon Nandur and 14 villages, Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra The Ahmednagar District in western Maharashtra The canal from this dam provides water for agriculture. is known for its excellent culture of co-operatives. Fifteen villages along the bank of Mula downstream The western part of Ahmednagar District is a canal of the dam developed salinity in the drinking water irrigated area, growing sugarcane to a very large sources, as the sources were extracting ground water extent. One of the major rivers is River Mula, with a from the river. The heavy salinity posed problems of large dam (capacity 26,000 million cubic feet) on it. health, particularly abdominal diseases. 52 Lessons from the field A multi-village water supply scheme for these design by the MJP worked together in such a way 15 villages using water from Mula Dam was that the power requirement is very low; 150 HP implemented by MJP and the system is operated pumps are sufficient for a 162,000 population. The and maintained by the Joint Village Water Supply salinity in the drinking water brought all these Committee of the beneficiary villages. villages together in the form of a joint committee under the leadership of Mr. Shivajirao Gade, resident The committee has been operating the system of Baragaon Nandur, who continues to be chairman for the last eight years in a sustainable manner. of the joint committee for the last eight years. It provides good quality water in the service reservoirs to each village, and thereafter the village Sustainability, both physical and financial, was operates the system within its area. The water rates addressed. The source of water is Mula Dam, which for individual connection holders are decided by is close to these villages with a large storage and the committee. The revenue is collected by the good quality of water. From the financial point individual GP and 80 percent of the collection is of view, the dam is located upstream of these transferred to the account of the committee while villages and therefore the pumping requirement 20 percent is retained by the village. This model has is low compared to other multi-village schemes. created a corpus of Rs. 113,00,000. The design of the system was strategically created in such a fashion that an individual village can be Before the implementation of the rural regional isolated from the main line in case of non-payment water supply scheme for Baragaon Nandur and of water charges. the other 14 villages, all the local sources of these villages fell within the saline track hence most The water supply system was commissioned villages were tanker fed for most of the days temporarily in the year 2000 by pumping the water in a year. The District Public Health Laboratory, from Mula Dam to the villages without treatment, Ahmedangar, confirmed the salinity of local sources by chlorinating and disinfecting the water. This of these villages. Considering all these problems of water was far superior to the earlier saline water quantity and quality of local sources in villages, the and therefore people could feel the change even District Co-ordination Committee made a resolution during the temporarily commissioning. Their mindset to implement a single regional piped water was therefore prepared for the system. Prior to supply scheme for all these 14 villages and nearby commissioning of the system, many villagers who habitations, with Mula Dam as an assured surface sold milk at Rahuri town would fill their empty milk water source. It was also decided that the scheme containers with water from the ESR at Rahuri town and should be implemented by MJP, a state level agency take it to their villages for drinking. On commissioning working in the water supply and sanitation sector. of the scheme, this practice has totally stopped. The topography of the area and the location of The earlier drinking water had total dissolved solids villages as well as the administratively manageable ranging from 1,230 to 3,020 milligram per litre (mg/l) as against the accepted norms of 1,000 mg/l. The total hardness ranged from 400 to 960 mg/l as against the norms of 300 mg/l. After the operation of the new system, the total dissolved solids stand at 344 mg/l and total hardness is 136 mg/l. As a result, abdominal diseases have reduced to a minimum, according to government dispensaries and private doctors. The operation of the system was taken over by the Joint Village Water Committee within three months of the trial run of the completed scheme in May 53 Towards Drinking Water Security in India 2002. The Block Development Officer and the source at a higher elevation which lowers Mr. Shivajirao Gade, Committee Chairman along with operating expenses and the distribution network MJP engineers held meetings in every village from from which a defaulter village can be isolated and the construction stage and informed the villagers disconnected; iv) low manpower requirement and about the system and its benefits. They were also shared responsibility between an individual GP for informed about the water tariffs and running the village water distribution and collection of revenue system sustainably by generating adequate revenue. and the Joint Committee for the operation of the In the temporarily commissioned stage itself, the bulk system and providing water to each village people could understand the value of good quality has made it manageable; and v) active involvement water due to reduced expenses on health. They were of all village leaders under the leadership of Mr. therefore prepared to pay for water and save on Shivajirao Gade. health expenses. This project is being operated by the joint Current charges levied are Rs. 800 per year per committee for the last eight years. The Mula Dam is connection and the number of connections are large enough to feed the system, and has provided 3,680. The individual village collects this revenue and water every day to every village in the system. The passes on 80 percent to the joint committee. From financial situation is strong. Every year the system this revenue, the joint committee meets the expenses could generate revenue over and above expenditure. on electricity, chemicals, man power, maintenance The corpus is Rs.113,00,000 as in March 2010. The and testing of the water including payment for raw annual expenditure in 2009-10 was Rs. 15.08 lakh water. The accounts of the joint committee reveal that and the sale of water brought in Rs. 18.48 lakh. presently it has a surplus of Rs. 113,00,000. Other receipts such as interest on fixed deposits and incentive grants from the state government are The joint committee consists of the Sarpanch of additional sources of funds. each village and one person from each village nominated by the Gram Sabha, totaling 30. The joint That good leadership can bring like-minded committee has the Block Development Officer as its people together to run a system in a physically and secretary. However, due to his busy schedule, the financially sustainable manner is the lesson learnt authority has now been vested in one of the Gram from this experience. This management system and Sevaks of Manjri village. The monthly meeting of the institutional arrangements for operating a multi- committee takes place regularly in which the status village water supply scheme can be successfully is reviewed. In each review, village wise complaints, replicated in areas that have faced drinking water village wise receivables due, and problems in problems and therefore know the value of good system maintenance, monthly expenditure, etc., are quality water. The problem itself brings the people discussed and better services attempted. together and grooms a good leadership which can sustain the outcomes of a viable project. The success of the joint committee has resulted from: i) drastic change in the quality of the water The replicability is certainly also there in the and its positive impact on the health of the citizens; areas which are located in a geographically ii) the capacity building of the operators who disadvantageous position and therefore require have been properly trained in the Research and larger expenditure for bringing safe drinking water. Training Centre of MJP at Nashik; iii) the strategic The government needs to provide grants for O&M design of the system which helped in achieving for these systems to assist the project to become financial sustainability, thanks to the location of sustainable in the long term. Inputs by: R.G. Holani, Chief Engineer, MJP Region, Nasik; P.R. Nandanware, Executive Engineer, MJP Works Division, Sangamner; N.M. Longani, Sub-Divisional Engineer, MJP Sub-division, Shrirampur; R.S. Thorat, Sect. Engr., Rural Water Supply Sub-division, Rahuri, Zila Parishad, Ahemednagar; and Suryanarayan Satish, Social Development Specialist, World Bank 54 WATER QUALITY Towards Drinking Water Security in India Sustaining Nirmal Gram Status Location: Gunderdehi village, Rajnandgaon District, Chhattisgarh In the tribal dominated village of Gunderdehi of Ambagarh Chowki Block of Rajnandgaon District of Chhattisgarh, capacity building and awareness generation efforts have resulted in demonstrating that communities can sustain the responsibility of village sanitation and drinking water sources. This has helped the village to sustain its status as a Nirmal Gram. Water security is not complete without water safety. Providing adequate and safe water on a regular and sustainable basis continues to be a challenge within rural water supply systems. Chemical contamination of water requires technical mitigation measures. However, biological contamination is completely 56 Lessons from the field Box 3: Clean habitats and safe water for all In Rampara habitation of Gunderdehi village, after a drain which was silted for several years was cleaned, the problem of stagnant water is under check. The problem of waste water entering the nearby houses of residents such as Saraswatibai is taken care of. Similarly, when the cistern of the piped water supply system near the Anganwadi was cleaned after almost two years, people were able to access safe water from it. Ramotinbai, an elderly woman residing in the vicinity, is very happy. She no longer faces the problem of water-borne diseases caused by drinking the water from the nearby open well, as safe piped water is available in the vicinity of her home. She has planted a small kitchen garden to utilize the waste water from the cistern and keep its surroundings clean. in the control of the users and results from the practices that communities observe. Gunderdehi GP was selected for development as a model village, based on findings of a follow-up of the Multi-District Assessment of Water Safety (M-DAWS) carried out in 20 GPs of Mohalla and Chowki blocks of Rajnandgaon District in November 2009. As a part of the follow-up program, 461 hand pumps and 23 piped water sources were surveyed by Action for Food Production (AFPRO) with UNICEF’s support in collaboration with the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED). The follow- utensils and bathing near the source, inappropriate up reiterated that biological contamination occurred drainage of the waste water, free access to animals, mainly due to human induced activities such as stagnation of water, and poor handling of water. washing, bathing, free access to animals, improper disposal of waste water, etc. People were found to be The program was introduced to the village leaders unaware about water quality issues and showed no and functionaries such as the Sarpanch, the concern for keeping their water sources clean. The Panchayat Secretary, Anganwadi workers, teachers need of the moment was an intervention focused on and members from the Nehru Yuva Kendra and bringing about a change in community practices to the women’s SHGs. Street plays were performed to prevent risk factors at the source as well as creating capture the interest of the community on issues of a sense of ownership and establishing a community- environmental sanitation. Source-wise meetings based system for monitoring of sources. were held to generate interest and create a closer contact with the community. This motivated the The Gunderdehi GP comprises village Kilargondi community to maintain its Nirmal Gram status. and has a population of around 1,835. The people depend on 15 hand pumps and two piped water Convinced about the need for clean and safe supply systems for their daily water supply. This sources, people immediately got together to initiate was one of the most vulnerable villages with all its corrective action. Water User Groups (WUGs) were sources in the medium to high risk category. The formed for every source and people took up the follow-up survey showed that all the sources were responsibility of maintaining clean water sources. prone to risk factors such as washing clothes and They repaired the hand pumps, fenced them using 57 Towards Drinking Water Security in India no longer a distasteful task for the village women. Appropriate drainage of waste water prevents stagnation of water and breeding of mosquitoes. It is not just the water sources that the community has cleaned up. Earlier, the area leading to the Anganwadi and the primary school always had stagnant water, caused due to seepage from a nearby canal. This made it very difficult for the children to reach the Anganwadi and the school. It also led to a very unhealthy environment for the children. The community locally available material, constructed platforms and sorted out this problem by excavation of a made arrangements for drainage of waste water. temporary drain along the canal to connect to a Kitchen gardens were cultivated by diverting the nearby nallah so that seepage water could drain waste water from the hand pumps. Choked drainage off easily. lines were cleaned which now prevents stagnation of water. Rules were laid down for use of the sources. The WUGs in Gunderdehi collect contributions Activities such as washing clothes/utensils and as and when required for small repair works bathing, etc., are now prohibited and fines fixed for and to meet the costs of cleaning the sources. breaking these rules. They meet every fortnight to take stock of the situation and take necessary action to maintain These proactive steps taken by the community good sanitary conditions near the sources. They have resulted in many benefits. Today, there is a report to the GP once a month to address larger drastic improvement in the status of the sources. issues such as choked drainage lines, disposal All the sources that were earlier either medium or of solid waste, etc. The formation of source- high risk now fall under the low risk category. The wise WUGs has decentralized the process to the water sources near the two primary schools and the lowermost level within the village. It has created Anganwadi too have been cleaned and safe water the space for the involvement of more users in to the children ensured. According to the Sarpanch the entire process. With a little bit of facilitation, and other members of the community, the incidence the community realized that it is well within its of water-borne diseases has gone down. Even the own means to maintain clean water sources and Anganwadi worker of the village reports that the adopt good sanitation and hygiene habits to number of diarrhoeal cases among children below ensure safe water and improved health. For this five years of age has gone down. The efforts of they need not depend on the government or any the people have resulted in achieving Millennium other external agency. The people of Gunderdehi Development Goal (MDG) 7 of ensuring sustainable have demonstrated that the community in even a access to safe drinking water. remote, backward tribal village can take ownership and assume the responsibility for safe water supply Since all the sources are well maintained, and improved health. It provides motivation to the access to the water point has become easier other villages in the cluster where it is planned to and getting water from the hand pump is upscale the intervention. Inputs by: Rushabh Hemani, UNICEF, Raipur 58 Lessons from the field Status of Arsenic Mitigation Schemes in West Bengal Location: West Bengal In West Bengal, arsenic contamination of ground water was first detected during the early 1980s in different districts adjoining Bhagirathi/Hooghly rivers. Investigation showed that arsenic beyond permissible limit of 0.05 mg/l existed in the ground water. The arsenic problem was found to be geogenic, i.e., due to the presence of excessive arsenic in the geological formation. Ground water was the main and staple source of drinking water in such areas due to its easy, inexpensive and location- specific abstraction. Therefore, the drinking water supply system in the affected areas received a serious setback owing to arsenic contamination of ground water. Ground water in 79 Blocks (out of 341 Blocks in the state) in the Districts of Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly and Bardhaman is at risk of arsenic contamination. Basis the 2001 Census, the population of these blocks is 166.54 lakh (of the state’s rural population of 577.35 lakh). Similarly, 2001 Census of population of urban areas at risk of arsenic contamination in the ground water is 120 lakh (out of state’s total urban population of 224.86 lakh). In order to tackle the arsenic menace in West Bengal, three types of mitigation measures have been taken up so far: 59 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Short-term Measures in the long run these units have failed to serve the purpose due to O&M and sludge disposal • Hand pump fitted tube wells at deeper aquifers problems • Ring wells • Deep aquifer replacement tube wells, in some cases, turned out to be ineffective due to leaching Medium-term Measures of arsenic to the deeper layer from the top • Arsenic treatment unit with existing hand pump • Tube wells of some of the ground water based fitted tube wells piped water supply schemes, though sunk in deeper arsenic free aquifers, showed the presence • Arsenic removal plants for existing ground water of arsenic in time due to leaching action based piped water supply schemes Considering all these facts, a master plan • Large diameter deeper aquifer tube wells for was prepared on future mitigation measures existing/new piped water supply schemes in consultation with the Arsenic Task Force, Government of West Bengal. The master plan was • New ground water based piped water supply prepared in order to cover all arsenic affected schemes habitations identified on a long-term basis. The following strategy was adopted : Long -term Measures • All arsenic affected villages to be covered by • Surface water based water supply schemes piped water supply schemes So far, the state government has provided arsenic • Areas covered by existing short-term and mid-term free potable drinking water supply to a population measures such as arsenic treatment units attached of 106.43 lakh (Census 2001), which constitutes hand pump tube wells, replacement tube wells, 63.91 percent of the total population at risk, through etc., to be included within the future plan of action various short, medium and long term measures. • Attempts to be made to cover the affected areas Though various measures have been adopted in the with surface water wherever available past, as an immediate and intermediate intervention, surface water based water supply schemes have • Affected areas, which cannot be covered under been found to be the only permanent solution. the existing / proposed surface water based piped water supply schemes, should be served by After so many years of experience in arsenic ground water based piped water supply schemes mitigation measures, it was essential to review the entire situation to implement future mitigation • All proposed ground water based new piped programs in a more judicious and organized manner. water supply schemes should have provision for Some facts about the efficacy of the various short- an arsenic removal plant unless a safe aquifer well, and medium-term measures that has been observed separated from the contaminated layer by thick over the years are: impermeable barrier, is available • Ring wells are not well accepted by the people • All existing ground water based piped water and prone to bacteriological contamination supply schemes in the affected areas should have a provision for arsenic removal plants, • Arsenic treatment units attached to the hand except where safe aquifer wells separated from pump tube wells have been found to be very the contaminated layer by a thick impermeable effective as an intermediate intervention however, barrier are available 60 Lessons from the field Table 6: Summary of the master plan Sl. Type of Scheme No. of No. of Census Design Estimated No. Schemes Mouzas Population, Population Cost Covered 2001 (lakh) (lakh) (Rs. crore) 1 Surface water based 12 1,378 35.902 63.310 1,511.78 scheme 2 New ground water 338 1,479 40.412 65.850 974.32 based scheme with/without acqifer recharge 3 Acqifer recharge in existing ground water based scheme 165 663 28.840 36.620 82.69 Total 515 3,520 105.154 165.780 2,568.79 Mouza: Administrative district Meanwhile, the Government of West Bengal decided observed that arsenic contamination in ground to prepare an action plan which aims to cover all water is dynamic in nature which spreads both arsenic affected villages of West Bengal with a long horizontally and vertically, depending on the term solution of potable drinking water supply. hydro-geological condition of the area. Presently, Towards this end, all public hand pump tube wells the village boundary has been considered (1,32,000) in the 79 arsenic affected blocks were as the extent of horizontal spread of arsenic tested in laboratories with active participation contamination of the local GP. Safe hand pump tube wells were painted blue, and the community was involved in • While formulating a multi-village piped water generating awareness among the people. Tube supply scheme, non-affected contiguous villages wells were located by Global Positioning System had to be taken within the command area of (GPS) instruments and the test results were plotted the scheme, because of the nature of arsenic on geographic information system (GIS) maps. contamination in ground water (point above) Based on these GIS maps, hydro-geological studies conducted by various other departments of the • The provision for an arsenic removal plant has state government, and the efficacy of the various been made in all the newly proposed ground mitigation measures already implemented by the water based schemes government, a master plan was prepared to cover all the 3,229 villages with a long-term solution • The total number of the proposed schemes has been arrived at based on the present data on Based on the present data on arsenic affected arsenic affected habitations habitations and on the recommendations of the Arsenic Task Force, the Government of West Bengal, piped water The state government is now poised to implement supply schemes have been prepared to cover all arsenic the master plan and it has taken ambitions steps to affected habitations with a long-term solution. cover all arsenic affected and surrounding villages with arsenic free, potable drinking water under the The following considerations have been kept in Bharat Nirman program by 2011. The action plan mind while formulating the water supply schemes: envisages 515 piped water supply schemes in order to cover 3,520 villages benefitting a population of • Any village where there is an arsenic affected 165.78 lakh at an estimated cost of Rs. 2568.79 crore. habitation has been covered under the present A summary of the master plan for arsenic mitigation scheme. From previous experience, it has been is presented in Table 6. Inputs by: Public Health Engineering Department, West Bengal 61 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Community Empowerment for Efficient Hand Pump O&M Location: Kanjipani village, Dantewada District, Chhattisgarh Kanjipani is a small village located and the government. Poor road Programme (ICPP), a partnership in the interiors of the civic strife connectivity and the prevailing between the Tribal Welfare affected district of Dantewada conflict make access to and from Department and UNICEF. The of Chhattisgarh. Although the villages very challenging and this intervention was supported at the people here face uncertain times has resulted in a slow pace of field level by a team from AFPRO due to the situation, today, they development in the area. It was and Vanvasi Chetna Ashram collectively own the responsibility under such adverse circumstances (VCA), a local non-government of O&M of their water sources that an intervention for capacity organization (NGO). It was (hand pumps) and ensure that building of the local community modelled on the initiative taken water safety is not compromised. for O&M of hand pumps and up in four camps of Konta Block of for improved sanitation and the district for Internally Displaced Dantewada is predominantly a hygiene practices was initiated in People (IDPs). tribal district with major parts a group of 30 remote villages, 17 under thick forest cover and from Sukma Block and 13 from Kanjipani lies about 30 kilometre many villages are located deep Chhindgarh Block, including away from Sukma and has a total within these forests. Over the Kanjipani. population of 1,000 people. The past decade, Dantewada has people depended on 13 hand remained at the heart of civil The intervention was supported pumps installed by the PHED. conflict between the Maoists by the Integrated Child Protection However, lack of understanding 62 Lessons from the field Given the background of the the hand pumps by community conflict and insecurity, at members, thus restricting the the village level, the general entry of cattle at the sources. As environment was one of soak-pits were not feasible due to suspicion and trepidation. Hence, hard rock strata, the spillage was it was decided to first take into diverted through channels for confidence the PRI and other making kitchen gardens. Washing functionaries of Kanjipani such and bathing near the hand as the Sarpanch, Panchayat pumps were strictly prohibited. on the issues of water quality Secretary, Anganwadi worker, Thus the community took the and water safety had led to very and inform them about the initiative to address all the major poor upkeep of the water sources. purpose of the intervention. risk factors to their water sources. Washing and bathing practices They, in turn, assisted with The hand pumps near the primary at the hand pump and animals mobilizing the community school and the Anganwadi too straying near the drinking water and convincing them to come were fenced and protected from sources were common. At many together for collective action. contamination to make safe places, this had lead to water Gram Sabhas and habitation water available to children. At the stagnation within 2-3 metres of level meetings were held to Anganwadi, the waste water is the source and even foul smell. get the people together. The being used to develop a kitchen People would have to cover their community organizers from VCA garden, where banana trees noses to avoid the repressive were instrumental in establishing were planted. The children at the smell. According to some, the a rapport with the community. Anganwadi now get fresh fruit water would even turn brown During the meetings, people were from their own garden which after storage for a couple of explained the relation between supplements their daily hours in the pot. The incidence of safe water, improved sanitation nutrition needs. diarrhoeal cases was high. With practices and health, the need access to limited water, personal for protecting water sources from Madvi Kosa, Sarpanch of hygiene was also poor among contamination, handling and Kanjipani, is proud to state, the community. storage of safe drinking water, “Every morning, we clean the importance of hand washing, surroundings of the drinking Before the intervention, most chlorination of sources and water water sources and on the wall water sources came under the testing through field test kits. nearby we write a message for all high risk category as per the Steps for mitigating the problem stating that washing and bathing sanitary surveillance results. and ensuring water safety were is strictly prohibited. Everyone The women and girls faced a also discussed. WUGs for each respects this message. We are difficult time in dealing with these source were formed to create proud that gradually our village unsanitary conditions every day, a mechanism for community has come to be known as a while fetching water. Being a ownership and initiate a model village.� village in the interiors of a conflict community-based monitoring prone area, linkage with the system. As a part of the training imparted hand pump technicians of the by UNICEF on basic repairs and PHED was difficult for the people After a few meetings for maintenance for local care-takers of Kanjipani. As a result, even awareness generation, the people and WUG members, two persons minor repairs of hand pumps could see for themselves the risk from Kanjipani have also been would often take a very long that they were causing to their trained, one for the O&M of time and cause inconvenience to own health. Once the community hand pumps and the other for the people. In case a hand pump understood the need for water quality testing. Following became inoperable, the women maintaining cleanliness around the training, the hand pump and children would have to walk the water sources, they got to technician, Mr. Shanker Negi, to the next closest hand pump work immediately. Bio-fencing has repaired four hand pumps and fetch head loads of water to with locally sourced wooden which were in disuse and the meet their household needs. logs was constructed around all community has now started using 63 Towards Drinking Water Security in India them. He ensures that all hand the quality of the water that their have taken up this task whole- pumps are in good functioning family members consume. heartedly. Effective and efficient mode and, if there is any major management of their drinking fault, he promptly informs the WUGs have been formed for all water sources has contributed to PHED about it. Earlier, when the the sources and people have the MDG of sustainable access to hand pump was defunct, basic started contributing for O&M safe drinking water to all bringing repairs would sometimes take of their sources so that they get about improvement in the habitat almost a month and would cost basic repairs of hand pump done of the community and the lives about Rs. 500. The absence of from their own resources leading of women and children. In one an operable local hand pump to provision of safe water round of the most backward districts also meant increased burden on the year. The WUGs meet every 15 of Chhattisgarh, this is a major women of having to fetch water days at the habitation level and achievement. From being mere from a distant hand pump. People meet the GP once every month to spectators of the deteriorating would also resort to using unsafe discuss larger issues, if any. water supply systems of their sources. However, now with the village, the people have become trained care-taker available within The training has helped the performers by taking local action the village, the repair is speedy community to familiarize in making the village self-sustained and cost minimal. Butki Nagi of themselves with the different and capable of managing its own Kanjipani says, “Earlier we faced parts of the hand pump and even affairs, with minimum dependence lots of problems whenever the if major repairs are required in on any external agency. hand pump broke down. Now the below ground hand pump the in-village care-taker repairs assembly, they are able to While this is the story of Kanjipani, the hand pump immediately and describe the problem accurately things have progressed in the water supply is restored within a to the concerned PHED officials. other 29 villages too. The concept day.� For the women of Kanjipani, Thus they have been empowered of safe water sources has gained quick repairs mean having a to raise O&M issues with PHED favour with the community regular, almost uninterrupted at Block and District levels in and people have started taking supply of water, saving them from case of a major repair. A general precautions to keep their drinking the drudgery of having to walk to observation has also been that water sources clean. In almost all a distant hand pump in case of a the training has helped people the villages, source-wise WUGs break-down. to understand how to operate have been formed and they have the pump properly (e.g., avoiding accepted the responsibility of Mr. Buddu Ram carries out rapid pumping) and as a result O&M of their sources, some very the chlorination at all 13 hand breakdowns are also actively while others still need pumps, tests the water quality less frequent. handholding and motivation. regularly, and reports the results Kanjipani has demonstrated that, to the PHED every three months. The people of Kanjipani in spite of the civil unrest and the According to him, ever since the have completely altered the impending sense of insecurity, sources have been protected from surroundings of the their sources with some capacity building and contamination and chlorination is and have taken ownership of facilitation, the user community being done regularly, the water at O&M of the hand pumps as well can effectively manage its water all hand pumps is safe for drinking as regular water quality testing sources and ensure efficient purposes. With the area around to ensure water safety. O&M of services. The positive role played the hand pump now being hand pumps, including minor by the community has enhanced cleaned and maintained regularly, technical repairs and chlorination its self-image and self-confidence accessing the water point is no by the local level care-taker, is and, in a tense environment, longer an unpleasant task for the not a common sight. However, provides inspiration for other women. They are also confident of in Kanjipani, the local volunteers villages to follow. Inputs by: Rushabh Hemani, UNICEF, Raipur 64 Lessons from the field Ensuring Good Safe Water with the Water Safety Plan3 Location: Sikkim In Sikkim, the government has introduced a comprehensive drinking water and sanitation program that includes Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) to achieve open defecation free (ODF) villages, village drinking Water Safety Plans to ensure potable water, and a Springs-shed Development Program (Dhara Vikash) to ensure source sustainability. This note describes the water safety planning initiative. It provides lessons about the demonstration and implementation approach, policy issues and institutional arrangements, and key success factors. The main project partners were the Department of Rural Management and Development (RMDD), Government of Sikkim; the State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD); a local NGO, the Sikkim Development Foundation (SDF); and the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP). 3 References and key resources: Water Safety Plans for Rural Water Supply in India, Policy Issues and Institutional Arrangements. DDWS and WSP, 2010. Sikkim Village Water Safety Planning Training Manual and Planning Templates (RMDD and WSP, 2010) Dhara Vikash - http://sikkimsprings.org/ 65 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Safe drinking water is key to fourfold: i) better management were conducted in two GPs ensuring improved public of water quality by preventing (Kamling and Chisupani). This health. In Sikkim, in the period contamination before it happens; was followed by workshops in 2002-07, as many as 2.77 lakh ii) it is a ‘learning by doing’ South and West Districts to get persons were infected with water mechanism to achieve improved consensus and commitment borne diseases like diarrhoea, operational management; to action and carry out cholera and gastroenteritis out iii) it provides an approach to activity mapping. Then a of which 25 people lost their prioritizing improvement programs state workshop was held with lives4. The number of actual (physical and operational) based RMDD in Gangtok to agree on cases of diarrhoeal diseases is on health outcomes which policy issues and institutional probably even higher as many emphasize customer services; and arrangements cases go unreported. Between iv) it provides a concrete means of • Phase two (2009, scaling up 2006 and 2007, RMDD with linking sanitation and hygiene to to all districts): At RMDD’s support from WSP, conducted water supply. request, pilots were then a ‘Sector Assessment’ for rural held in eight GPs in all four drinking water and sanitation. The approach adopted was based on districts in Sikkim. Training Subsequently, further support an “action research� methodology, of trainer workshops were was requested for CLTS and water which was subsequently rolled out held for SIRD field facilitators, quality management. in three phases: RMDD Junior Engineers and Panchayat Inspectors, and state The objectives of the water • Phase one (2008, initial piloting): workshops on district planning safety planning initiative were Initial pilot demonstrations coordination were held to 4 Comptroller and Auditor General, Government of India, August 2009. 66 Lessons from the field orient district officials. In Figure 5: Institutional arrangements addition, support was provided to prepare water quality testing Verification of Awareness raising Baseline surveys for water quality protocols and recommend drinking water quality Prepare water Preparation of Checking the training options for district operation of drinking safety plans operating plans laboratory technicians, and water safety plans SDF provided support to RMDD Management of Training for a state IEC initiative water supply systems • Phase three (2009-10, establishing a state program): District planning Establish WQM programme In the final phase, a State Rural coordination Water Policy was drafted by RMDD and training programs Audit/reporting on management Overall policy and of drinking water quality standards for all VWSCs rolled out by SIRD. In December 2009, a State Rural Water Policy was drafted by The institutional arrangements are Lessons learnt regarding RMDD. The key policy issues shown in Figure 5. Overall policy implementation show that there identified were as follows: and standards are those set out are advantages in adopting at national level under the new water safety planning, including: • Adoption of the drinking Water NRDWP. Establishing a water quality preventing contamination Safety Plan approach (with the management program before it happens, improving Springs-shed Development is a state responsibility. Districts are operational management, Program this can provide responsible for planning coordination prioritizing investments on the comprehensive drinking water and water quality testing basis of public health outcomes, security) laboratories. Training is provided and linkages to hygiene and • Establishing new roles and by SIRD. Planning, implementation, sanitation. In addition, by responsibilities to support O&M and management is taken up identifying the functions decentralized planning and by the GP and VWSC. required to support water implementation safety planning, it is possible • Using Water Safety Plan A number of factors of success to articulate activity mapping improvement programs as the were identified during the (roles and responsibilities), basis for investment implementation process. Most and improve needs based • Convergence of funding at important is to create ownership training programs. Also the district level to integrate with and commitment to action. In preparation of Water Safety programs that address protection Sikkim, the process was led by the Plans (and associated operating and conservation of drinking government (RMDD) and work was plans and service improvement water sources, e.g., National Rural carried out by local partners (SIRD plans) becomes a transparent Employment Guarantee Scheme and SDF) with technical support means for developing results (NREGS), Backward Regions from WSP. In addition, it is critical based financing. Importantly, Grant Fund (BRGF) to build on the existing situation, it is recognized that this • Conjunctive use of ground water, for example, to dovetail to existing requires long-term political surface water and rainwater government programs and work commitment to implementation harvesting, especially to ensure with the existing institutional of the recommended policy and robustness to natural calamities arrangements and stakeholders. institutional framework. Inputs by: Yangchen D. Lepcha, Assistant Director, State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD), Karfectar, Jorethang, South Sikkim - 737121 67 Towards Drinking Water Security in India A Village Model for Water Supply and Sanitation Location: Nauni Majhgaon Gram Panchayat, Solan District, Himachal Pradesh Nauni Majhgaon GP is situated about 15 kilometre. from Solan town in Solan District of Himachal Pradesh. The GP is a Nirmal Gram Panchayat with a population of about 1,500 persons (129 families). The Total Sanitation Campaign was taken up in 2006 and now the GP is fully ODF. The water sources have been conserved by constructing rainwater harvesting tanks and underground tanks in every household. Water sources are properly covered and protected against pollution. Check dams have been provided on nalahs under the rainwater harvesting system. Tanks have been constructed for collection of rain water and this water is used for irrigation. 68 68 Lessons from the field A drainage system provides for sewage disposal The GP has won the following awards: throughout the GP. Vermicompost units have been set up and incinerators installed for waste 1. National-level Nirmal Gram Panchayat award management along with the construction of waste (Rs. 1 lakh) by the then President of India water pits and the waste disposal system. Dustbins Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (2006-07) have been provided to every household, shop and 2. Maharishi Valmiki Total Sanitation Award office. Kitchen and bathroom waste water drains (Rs. 5 lakh) in 2008 have been laid for waste disposal. Solar lights (82) 3. State Maharishi Valmiki Total Sanitation Award have been provided for streets. Every street has been (Rs. 10 lakh) in 2009 given a concrete floor with covered drains. 4. First Bima Gram Panchayat in the state Inputs by: Hemant Tanwar 69 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Defluoridation of Water: A Public Private Partnership Initiative Location: Andhra Pradesh Drinking water quality in rural areas has emerged as a key policy concern for the Government of India. It has been estimated that, at the rural household level, access to drinking water is as high as 90 percent, but most households still have to make do with poor quality water. Bacteriological contamination due to poor sanitary conditions remains the major cause of concern, but other widely reported causes of contamination include: (i) fluoride; (ii) arsenic; and (iii) high total dissolved solids. Intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture also results in contamination of surface water bodies (run off ) and ground water (seepage). 70 Lessons from the field Andhra Pradesh is among the SSFs (absence of management plants on the other end. Some of worst fluoride affected states in capacities among the GPs); iv) the technologies adopted in the the country, with an estimated scarcity of funds with the GPs state are: 1,881 habitations reporting (financial); and v) lack of storage fluoride incidence in addition to capacities and improper handling • Roof water harvesting other types of contaminations practices by the poor at the methods promoted by both (physical and bacteriological). The household level. Government of Andhra incidence and intensity of water Pradesh and some NGOs pollution is higher among poor The situation is no different even households. Provision of safe in the case of defluoridation • Household deflouridation drinking water in a sustainable plants installed in six districts. methods promoted by some manner, therefore, is crucial for Institutional (people’s NGOs as well as Government improved quality of life in the participation, awareness, of Andhra Pradesh rural areas, in general, and that of etc.), financial and technical poor households, in particular. problems are identified as major • Private enterprisers selling reasons for the failure (PRED, water in rural areas particularly The existing water purification 2007). Alternative mechanisms in coastal districts and process, under the rural water such as provision of surface Nalgonda supply schemes, involves water, rainwater harvesting accessing water from surface and distribution of household • Water treatment plants with (tank, river, canal, etc.) sources; defluoridation filters are being ultra violet (UV) and reverse processing it through Slow Sand explored. While the adoption osmosis (RO) technology with Filters (SSFs), chlorination and of household defluoridation public private participation pumping to an overhead tank filters failed to take off6, other for subsequent piped supply to two mechanisms (surface • Micro filter technologies the community or households. water provision and rainwater promoted by some of In the case of fluoride affected harvesting) need strong the organizations to the areas defluoridation plants are institutional backup. government and other established at the community agencies or village level. In some areas, There is growing evidence that domestic defluoridation filters5 some of the public initiatives Though different technologies were provided to the poor involving private parties are were adopted by different households. Despite a number of effective in addressing the water agencies to mitigate water quality initiatives towards providing safe quality issues in the rural areas. problems in the state, water drinking water in rural During the mid 2000s, some treatment plants with RO coupled areas, water related health NGOs such as Byrraju Foundation, with UV technology which problems seem to persist in a Water Health International, can treat both chemical and significant way. Naandi Foundation, Center for bacteriological contamination Water and Sanitation (CWS), have gained momentum. The Some of the reasons identified Smaat Aqua, etc., established capital cost ranges from Rs. 3.5 in the delta regions of Andhra water treatment plants in lakh upwards depending on the Pradesh include: i) poor quality different parts of the state. These type of civil structures opted by of raw water at source (lack of NGOs worked in collaboration the villages/ agencies. source management); ii) power with technology providers like shortages resulting in mixing Water Health International and Funds are provided by different of treated and untreated water TATA Projects for developing agencies such as NGOs, (lack of awareness and control technologies at one end and with communities, philanthropists, over local management); iii) poor the communities and PRIs for politicians for setting up of water condition and maintenance of establishing and the running the treatment plants. It is made clear 5 These filters are distributed to the households for filtering drinking water at the individual household level. 6 The active aluminium filter needs thorough cleaning every two weeks, which the households find difficult to maintain. 71 Towards Drinking Water Security in India that the communities/ GPs share additional charge of Rs. 1-2 is change among the communities part of the capital cost in addition charged per can towards the where the water treatment plants to providing space and raw water transportation cost depending are established. In many villages, for treatment. on the distance. Some of the local people carry purified water to unemployed youth are engaged the work places or farmers are The participation of Global in transportation of water cans to expected to provide purified Partnership for Output-Based supply at the door step. water to the labour force they Assistance (GPOBA) provided engage for any work. assistance worth US$ 1 million Water quality tests are carried out to Naandi Foundation to set up by the agencies established at the Though this initiative started in a water treatment plants to improve plants, using private laboratories, few villages in 2005, currently it access to safe water for the poor. on a regular basis and the results is estimated that such treatment are displayed near the treatment plants have been established in Water treated in the treatment plants for the public. more than 1,000 villages in Andhra plants is supplied through jerry Pradesh. In addition to the NGOs, cans of 10-20 litre capacity at fixed Some rapid studies by different many women’s SHGs and GPs point, i.e., near the treatment agencies have revealed that the have set up treatment plants. The plants or sometimes different penetration level varies from Government of Andhra Pradesh sale points. The water tariff is Rs. 30- 90 percent depending on has identified some agencies 2-3 for a 20 litre can if supplied at the extent of the water quality through a bidding process to the treatment plant. If the water problems in the village. It is also expand similar initiatives to more is supplied at the door step, an indicated that there is behavioural villages throughout the state. Inputs by: Mariappa Kullapa, Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org Source Sustainability Towards Drinking Water Security in India Water Harvesting to Augment Water Resources: Traditional Technology and Communities are Part of the Solution Location: Alwar District, Rajasthan Indian agriculture and rural life arguably the highest priority use Solutions to ensure drinking are today heavily dependent on of water, it is actually a very small water security, however, exist. This ground water. Approximately consumer of water resources. has been amply demonstrated 80 percent of the total water In the absence of a system by the successful experience resources withdrawn are utilized that safeguards the meagre of local communities in Alwar for agriculture. Further lowering quantity required for drinking District in Rajasthan, supported of ground water tables can water first, there is a high risk by the NGO Tarun Bharat Sangh seriously threaten India’s hard- that big consumers of water will (TBS) and its founder Mr. Rajendra earned food security at a time significantly deplete the water Singh7. It is possible to harvest when India will need to produce resources, depriving the drinking and augment water resources more food to feed its growing water sector of the small quantity through the construction of small population. In addition, whilst that people need to drink to water harvesting structures called domestic water for drinking is survive. Johads and the implementation 7 Mr. Rajendra Singh , Tarun Bharat Sangh, Tarun Ashram, Bhikampura, District Alwar, Rajasthan, India ; www.tarunbharatsangh.org ; info@tarunbharatsangh.org 74 Lessons from the field of local water governance. Since open wells, built and maintained ensures water availability in wells 1985, 8,600 Johads have been by the villagers themselves, or boreholes used for drinking built in 1,086 villages. This has without any input from outside. water supply and irrigation, even resulted in the rise in water levels As the percolation process takes for several successive drought in the shallow aquifer, increase in some time, depending on the soil, years. Also, during the dry season the area under single and double depth of water, etc., during this when the water gradually recedes crops, increase in forest cover and temporary period (sometimes in the Johad, the land inside the drinking water supply security. several months), the water in Johad itself becomes available for the Johad is directly used for cultivation. This land periodically The water collected in a Johad irrigation, drinking water by receives silt and moisture, and during monsoon penetrates into animals, and other domestic that allows crop cultivation the sub-soil. This recharges the purposes. without irrigation. So the Johad ground water and improves the does not take away valuable soil moisture in vast areas, mostly The other advantage of this arable land from cultivation. downstream. The ground water structure is that it checks soil can be drawn from traditional erosion, mitigates floods, and After conservation, the main issue that surfaces is the management of water. TBS is a community- based organization which works on demand-side water management. The villagers have also formed an Arvari Sansad to frame rules of water use. These include the compensatory agricultural crop pattern, under which a farmer can devote only 25 percent of his land to water intensive crops while the balance must be cultivated with non water intensive crops. Rainwater harvesting through small structures revived five rivers – Bhagani-Teldehe, Arvari, Jahajwali, Sarsa and Ruparel which had been reduced to seasonal rivers – benefiting some 250 villages in 1995. The area was subsequently declared a ’white zone’ by the state government. In agriculture-dominated villages, the change in surface water and ground water availability, especially in winter, has increased significantly. Since the Rabi crop is the main cash crop in this region, this has translated into significant 75 Towards Drinking Water Security in India economic gains. In some villages, The cost of structures built has use and about its equitable and farmers have diversified into been low in most cases, thus distributed access. The paradigm crops such as onion, vegetables allowing village communities of water management will have and flowers (in some cases) due to be able to mobilize their to be reworked, so that it is to assured water availability. contributions, accounting for designed to harvest, augment This has led to an increase in about 30 percent of the capital and use local water resources, agricultural income. cost. Seventy percent of the rain leading to drinking water supply harvesting structures cost less security and inclusive growth Communities now enjoy the than US$ 1,000 and 10 percent at all levels. In this context, benefits of sustainable drinking more than US$ 2,500. traditional community-based water supply, thanks to the revival water management systems of traditional water harvesting Johads are a prime example of the pave the way for identification structures which have improved ingenuity of inexpensive, simple, of appropriate adaptation and ground water recharge and, traditional technology that is quite mitigation strategies to address consequently, significantly remarkable in terms of recharging the implications of climate increased the water table level in ground water of the semi-arid change on economy and ecology. all wells and boreholes. A study regions leading to the eradication The exemplary integrated carried out in the project area of rural poverty itself, generation water resources management shows that the water table in of massive rural employment and interventions of communities in wells has increased by 20 to 50 reduction in distress migration Alwar District show the potential feet, and that even after severe from rural areas to urban areas. adaptation and mitigation droughts in 2003 and 2006, water measures at local/regional level levels remained sufficiently high Thus the issue of water, as have to address the global to provide adequate water supply shown in Rajasthan, is not about challenges of climate change for the population. scarcity but about its careful impact on water resources. Inputs by: Christophe Prevost, Senior Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 76 Lessons from the Field Source Protection to Enhance Multiple Uses of Drinking Water Location: Khasi Hills, Meghalaya Rural communities in hill regions such as the North East of India are dependent largely on natural sources for drinking water. However, in recent times, natural sources such as springs have begun to dry up due to deforestation in the upper reaches of watersheds. Deforestation has been driven by a number of factors including timber trade, mining and cultivation of hills slopes. Under the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) sponsored North-Eastern Region Community Resource Management Project for Upland Areas, Spring Trap Chambers (STCs) have been promoted with the objective of protecting natural sources of drinking water. Lands from where natural sources of drinking water, such as springs, originate are under three forms of ownership in Meghalaya: i) individuals; ii) clans; and iii) community-based organizations. The IFAD project selected lands under community-based organizations on which STCs were established. The STCs are managed by Natural Resource Management Groups (NAMGs) which focus on preservation of the environment, development of agricultural potential and address social issues such as representation of women in decision making. Women are not part of decision making in traditional institutions in the Khasi hills that are known as Dorbors (equivalent of village Panchayats). IFAD supported the project from 1999 to 2008 in Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur. In Meghalaya, project villages are organized into 19 clusters; selection of village clusters was based on criteria such as distance from roads, relative poverty, presence of community catchment lands, etc. Two STC designs have been developed by the project in consultation with PHED staff: i) design for the plains; and ii) design for hill locations. Protection of drinking water sources that serve a population of approximately 7,12,500 has been enhanced as a result of the IFAD project. Existing rules relating to catchment protection (such as timber felling, ban on hunting and fire control) have been enforced more effectively. Multiple use of water from STCs has been emphasized (drinking water, clothes washing, livestock rearing and kitchen gardens). The average annual household economic benefits derived from the use of STCs are in range of Rs. 84,550,000 in Meghalaya alone. In addition to economic benefits derived from livestock rearing, households also derive non-economic benefits through enhanced food security provided by kitchen gardens (mustard leaves, beans and cabbage). Inputs by: Mariappa Kullapa, Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 77 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Achieving Sustainable Aquifers through Community Participation, Sciences and Demand Management Location: Pune, Buldhana and Aurangabad Districts, Maharashtra The hydro-geological features of Maharashtra (93 percent hard rock, variability in rainfall) impose limitations on ground water availability. Competing demands on ground water, particularly for agricultural purposes through indiscriminate pumping, have led to an unsustainable situation, warranting innovative solutions through community partnerships. The aquifer pilots implemented in Pune, Buldhana and Aurangabad Districts through the Jalswarajya World Bank-assisted project are a step forward in achieving sustainable aquifers through community participation. 78 Lessons from the field The project took up the challenge to lead the path the importance of collective action for management through piloting management of ground water at of natural resources, such as ground water, was aquifer level, by motivating the village community ignored or neglected which resulted in under- or living on certain designated aquifers, to think, over-utilization of such resources. plan and implement sustainable ground water management solutions. This was actively facilitated The concept of managing ground water resources by the state agency GSDA, monitored by the DWSS at aquifer level, through community participation, Reform Support Project Management Unit (RSPMU) was piloted for the first time in the country under of the Government of Maharashtra. the Jalswarajya project, facilitating the adoption of a holistic approach to problem solving. The pilot is Three aquifers were chosen that had reasonable interesting because of: i) its size and diversity – it challenges and diversity for ground water covered about 60 villages, in five aquifers in the management, on a scientific basis, by GSDA in Districts of Pune, Buldhana and Aurangabad, in a consultation with the community and RSPMU. total area of about 430 square kilometre, in five Ground water recharge measures, including river basins (Godavari, Purna, Bhima, Manjra and various management options, were planned and Patalganga); ii) it brought the community together implemented by the community in a participatory – Aquifer Water Management Associations (AWMAs) manner taking into consideration the entire aquifer’s were formed amongst the villages, facilitated by the rain water collection, run-off and storage potential. district teams and GSDA; and iii) it adopted holistic This was guided by the district units of DWSS, GSDA management approaches – through simple and and support organizations. innovative physical works with technical support from GSDA and demand management practices The pilot experiment has proved that the facilitated by the district units. community at aquifer level can be brought together for participatory ground water management, Maharashtra receives 85 percent of its precipitation and therefore it has emerged as a rational tool in from south-west monsoon from June to September. ensuring the sustainability of ground water to meet Rainfall is highly variable between years and the needs of the village community. The additional droughts are recurrent. There is wide variation in quantity of ground water retained in the aquifer the spatial distribution of rainfall across the state, translates to an availability of about 1,690 kilolitre ranging from 3,000 to 6,000 millimetre a year in of water per household per year; or it can irrigate an the Western Ghats to 600 millimetre a year in the additional area of 3,900 hectare per year, in addition Eastern rain shadow/drought prone areas of the to providing round-the-year drinking water security state. Ground water development and management to the villagers. The pilot has also resulted in cost is a major challenge because of the occurrence savings of Rs. 88 lakh per year for the Government of of heterogeneous and comparatively low water Maharashtra by avoiding tanker supplies to villages. yielding hard rock formations (basalt and gneiss) comprising the main ground water bearing horizon, Similar pilots are being implemented in another which occupy about 93 percent of the geographical World Bank-assisted project -- Maharashtra Water area of the state. In addition, ground water sources Sector Improvement Project. Based on the lessons in relatively small patches have been affected by sea learned, as of November 2010, the Government of water encroachment in the coastal areas; excessive Maharashtra is considering scaling up the initiative. fluoride concentrations in Nanded, Yeotmal and Chandrapur Districts; and salinity in the alluvial area. Sustainability of ground water resources is possible only when the village community understands the Cultivation of crops like sugarcane, fruit, etc., which dynamics of the aquifer and learns how to manage require large quantities of water in the water scarce it. Until the recent past, a village or block was areas, is heavily depleting ground water sources. considered as a unit for developmental activities. Large numbers of bore wells/tube wells are the main However, since these are only administrative units, source of irrigation in all the parts of the state. For 79 Towards Drinking Water Security in India about 80 percent of the villages, ground water is District Technical Committees to appraise plans the main source for domestic needs as well. About and do overall monitoring of progress on behalf 22 percent of the total 2,316 sub-watersheds are of the district. To provide field implementation categorized as semi-critical, critical or overexploited support, Technical Support Groups (TSGs) were with declining water table trends. Though this formed, headed by a senior geologist. The AWMAs percentage is not worrisome in itself, it is aggravated are executive bodies at the aquifer level, formed by low rainfall, high percentage of water guzzling out of VWSCs, to work on behalf of the Aquifer commercial crops and an alarming and progressive Water Management Sabha (AWMS) – the collective deterioration of ground water and soil quality. In this group of beneficiaries at aquifer level – which context, management of ground water resources makes decisions in a participatory manner (Table at the aquifer level through the involvement of the 7). Support organizations and technical service community seemed to be the way forward. providers were hired to support AWMSs/AWMAs on an ongoing basis in planning and implementing the The objective of the aquifer management pilot interventions. component was to develop and test approaches for holistic and sustainable management of water The process was facilitated by the district and state resources with the involvement of stakeholders. The teams. The committees, with technical facilitation main elements of the strategy were: from districts, support organizations and technical service providers, have analyzed the present • Build capacity of stakeholders in the pilot area situation, visualized the future scenario, collectively for sustainable management of ground water decided and implemented the measures that would resources be taken to manage the ground water sustainably. • Analyze the current state of ground water Structural Measures: Low-cost structural measures availability and use-patterns and their (with improvements suggested by GSDA) were implications to source sustainability within the implemented to arrest the additional available run- pilot area off, which otherwise would have been wasted. As in the main project, each community has to contribute • Provide information to stakeholders on ground 10 percent against the capital cost of these water availability and sensitize them on the need measures. Actually, 630 aquifer strengthening civil for adoption of community-centred demand works (71 percent) out of a total of 891 cost less than management options Rs. 1 lakh, and 228 works (25 percent) cost between Rs. 1 and 5 lakh. Only 33 works (4 percent) cost more • Develop and implement a sustainable ground than Rs. 5 lakh. The actual civil works started during water aquifer management model early 2009. At the state level, the pilot was coordinated by an The supply-side interventions have been planned Aquifer Management Pilot coordinator. The three taking into consideration the run-off calculations districts – Pune, Buldhana and Aurangabad – formed in a particular aquifer. Rainfall, acreage, number of Table 7: Village/aquifer level institutions No District Number of Number of Number of Number of Aquifers VWSCs AWMSs AWMAs 1 Auangabad 03 30 03 01 2 Pune 01 09 01 01 3 Buldhana 01 20 01 01 Total 05 59 05 03 80 Lessons from the field dug wells and geo-morphological parameters were replace it with local crops in Pune, switch to drips / actually computed and considered for calculations. sprinklers for horticultural crop in Aurangabad and All existing structures have been considered along Pune, and prohibit drilling of new bore wells. They with the ongoing and proposed works under are ready for implementing the Groundwater Act. different schemes by different departments, bringing convergence so as to avoid overlapping. The interventions bring in additional ground water The recharge potential that can be accommodated storage of 475 hectare metre per year, an additional in the aquifer was estimated scientifically by GSDA. area of 3,900 hectare per year under irrigation, and Recharge measures were planned through various provide round-the-year drinking water security to types of locally relevant structures, with technical the villagers. This has also resulted in cost savings improvements by GSDA, such as taking into of Rs. 88 lakh per year for the Government of consideration their recharge efficiency. Maharashtra by avoiding tanker supplies to villages. The cost of structural measures is extremely low at The thinking of the community was reflected in the Rs. 1,477 per capita. number and types of recharge measures taken up. The actual site selection of the civil works was a joint The pilot proved to be useful and has emerged as a exercise of the community, support organizations, rational tool in ensuring the sustainability of ground technical service providers and TSG. Site selection water to meet various needs such as drinking, was done based on the findings on the ground of domestic, and agricultural. What is interesting and recharge and discharge areas in the watersheds. encouraging is that this model can be replicated Aquifer geo-hydro-topological features were also elsewhere. considered while deciding the final measures to be undertaken. The issue of sustainability of Strong support from the Government of Maharashtra groundwater resources and the cost sharing of the and GSDA, practical implementation approaches interventions proposed by the community were based on experiences from the main project discussed in the AWMSs. Jalswarajya, and continued support and follow-up are the main factors of success. Demand Management Option: At the aquifer level, non-structural measures such as change in The pilot took time to kick-start, with the energies cropping patterns, controlling and monitoring of and resources of the government teams focused ground water withdrawals have been conceived on the main project in the beginning. The post and implemented. The demand management was of coordinator was vacant for some time during carried out by the AWMAs with the support of implementation. Therefore, in order to expeditiously AWMSs. Communities were trained by the support implement such interventions, dedicated teams are organizations and district teams to carry out the required all through implementation. The pilot also monitoring of rainfall with rain-gauges installed in all had included development of legal and regulatory GPs, and pre and post monsoon water budgeting. framework that the Government of Maharashtra could put in place for scaling up ground water Although the pilot is too recent to measure its resource management on a sustainable basis – impact, the evidence is showing in the sense that which probably could have been an ambitious goal communities have decided to ban sugarcane and to address under a pilot component, in retrospect. 81 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Table 8: Statement of benefit from the pilot work No Particulars Details Districts Total Aurangabad Pune Buldhana I Technical details Area covered in sq km 178.25 95.74 159.68 433.67 Area in hectares 1 sq km 100 ha 17,825 9,574 15,968 43,367 Average rainfall in mm 630 394 795 1,819 per year Total run-off in hectares Area x rainfall 11,230 3,772 12,695 27,697 meter per year II Groundwater availability (ha m)8 Availability of ground 410 218 354 982 water before AWMP Additional availability due 175 75 225 475 to AWMP Total available ground 585 293 579 1,457 water after AWMP III Net available water from run-off [based on item I above] 15% of total run-off (ha m) 15% of run-off 1,685 566 1,904 4,155 80% dependability (ha m) 80% above 1,348 453 1,523 3,324 Net available water in 1 ha m = 10,000 KL 13,480,000 4,530,000 15,230,000 33,240,000 KL per year IV Benefits per head/family Project population in the Pop 2001 x 1.5 40,371 15,626 42,238 98,235 aquifer areas Gross availability of water Total run-off9/ 2,782 2,414 3,006 2,819 per head (KL)/year population Net availability of water per Net available 334 290 361 338 head (KL)/year water10/population Net availability of water per family (KL)/year 1 family = 5 persons 1,670 1,450 1,805 1,690 V Area that can come under irrigation based on groundwater (item II) Area under irrigation before AWMP (ha) 588 4,661 3,642 8,891 Additional area after AWMP (ha) 2,000 500 1,400 3,900 Total area (ha) 2,588 5,161 5,042 12,791 Contd. on next page 8 Water that would have percolated to ground from run-off. Based on assessments by the GSDA. 9 From item (I). 10 From item (III). 82 Lessons from the field Contd. from previous page No Particulars Details Districts Total Aurangabad Pune Buldhana VI Irrigation potential for crops (area in hectares that can be irrigated, based on groundwater (Item II) Jowar OR 900 KL/year 14,978 5,033 16,922 36,933 Wheat OR 1,800 KL/year 7,489 2,517 8,461 18,467 Cotton OR 3,300 KL/year 4,085 1,373 4,615 10,073 Sugarcane 11,500 KL/year 1,172 394 1,324 2,890 VII Indirect benefits (through reduction in tanker usage)11 No. of tankers/year for 49 54 4 107 last 5 years Expenditure on tankers 37.9 3.9 2.1 43.9 (Rs. mil) in the last 5 years Cost saved on tankers/year 7.6 0.8 0.4 8.8 (Rs. mil) since they are no longer required in the aquifer areas KL: kilo litre; ha: hectare Inputs by: Deerajkumar (IAS), Project Manager, Jalswaraja, Department of Water Supply and Sanitation, Government of Maharashtra, and S.N.N. Raghava, Water and Sanitation Specialist, SASDU, World Bank 11 Some of the villages in the aquifer areas were being provided with water by mobile tankers in summer. 83 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Water Conservation – An Innovative Process Location: Lapodia village, Rajasthan Lapodia literally means ‘not good’ to do something for the village; Shail Sagar village has succeeded. in the local language. Historically, he started a small school with The local talab is full up to the the residents of this village the help of his friends where brim, the wells are recharged and have been looked down upon. children from all walks of life local residents are excited. Good However, Mr. Laxman Singh’s could study free. His next venture quality water is available at a mere work on water conservation has was digging a pond (talab) along depth of 50 feet. earned international recognition with his friends. Impressed, the for the village. He is not very well rest of the villagers soon joined In 1987, Laxman Singh came read, but his thinking on water in. Since the talab, was to be up with the idea that people conservation has transformed used for irrigation, it was decided should put as much water back not only Lapodia village, but also that one member from each as possible into the ground, nearby villages. The entire state household would participate in to ensure sustainability. He was suffering from drought and the digging work. This effort at devised a new technique called water crisis, but not Lapodia. water conservation led to a series Chouka System for ground A small beginning through of other activities, as a result of water recharge. After years of community participation has which there is no water crisis in experimentation, this technique earned him the appreciation Lapodia today. has now become effective. In of the United Nations, the this technique, small rectangular Government of Rajasthan and There are three talabs in the dykes with entry and exit points, the Government of India. The village: Ann Sagar, Phool Sagar are constructed. The rectangular Dheerubhai Ambani Memorial and Dev Sagar. Every year, dykes are called Choukas. The Trust established by Reliance has during monsoon, all the talabs slope inside the Chouka is such also awarded Mr. Laxman Singh fill up to the brim. As a result, all that a maximum of 9 inches of for his efforts. hand pumps and tube wells are water stands in it, which ensures recharged and the community moisture in the soil round the The story began during the gets good quality water round year. When after years of hard Emergency; the young Laxman the year. All nearby villages suffer work, people saw the results of Singh was a student of 10th class. from problems of salinity except the Chouka System, they realized While visiting the village during Lapodia. that all the effort was worth it. school vacations, he was upset The trees inside the Chouka when he saw the condition of the Laxman Singh’s efforts have paid grow very fast, the ground village; villagers were fighting rich dividends in other villages water is recharged and there is each other and entering into also. He is also working in the no dearth of water for drinking litigation. Laxman Singh decided nearby village, Nagar. His effort in purposes. The Choukas are 84 Lessons from the field constructed in pasture land and developed the Chouka System for • A layout drawing of Choukas is people have voluntarily removed water conversation, to develop prepared encroachment from thousand of pasture land. The technology was • Micro planning inside the acres of pasture land. They have first employed in a small area and Chouka is done sowed different varieties of grass results were studied. The Chouka • The main wall of the Chouka which has resulted in adequate System was scaled up, after is constructed between fodder production for animals. confirmation of positive results. two highest points on the Even during drought, Lapodia The salient features of Chouka downstream side to arrest flow produces milk worth lakhs of System are: of water rupees. • The height of the wall is 0.5 to • It is a purely indigenous and 0.75 metre. The walls are made Today, thousands of people have natural technique for pasture up of local sand excavated joined Laxman Singh in his work. land development from inside Choukas Ram Karan Gujar has planted • The maximum benefit with • In the main wall, a small passage 2,000 trees spending from his own minimum expenditure is for exit of water is provided pocket, motivated by Laxman accrued • The length and breadth of Singh’s work. All encroachments • Moisture is retained in the the Chouka is constructed in have been voluntarily removed entire pasture land such a manner that the height by the people from catchment • Rainwater is harvested for a of water within the Chouka areas of talabs. Every year, the definite period should not increase beyond Gram Vikas Nav Yuvak Mandal • Water is stored in 10 percent 9 inches of Lapodia headed by Laxman area for ground water recharge • A rivulet or pond is Singh holds a pad-yatra (rally) • It is a good technique for constructed at the end of to create awareness on water fodder production the pasture land where the conservation. In 1994, the • A 9 inch water column is overflow from the Choukas is Government of Rajasthan maintained in the Chouka for collected recognized Laxman Singh’s 10 to 30 days • Local babool, ker, khejari seeds efforts and provided financial • All Choukas are interconnected are sprinkled on the Chouka support. The Chouka System and water flows from one to walls and Laxman Singh have received another and ultimately the • Different varieties of grass are accolades and appreciation from overflow falls into a talab grown inside the Choukas the Governments of Rajasthan • Local flora is grown in the and India as well as eminent pasture land • The entire pasture land is Impact of Chouka environmental experts and private organizations. Laxman converted into different zones System on Pasture Land Singh’s experiment with crop of moisture content seeds and organic agriculture • Different varieties of fodder • As a result of the Chouka are continuing. He has also are grown based on different System, social mobilization developed a wildlife sanctuary moisture contents has taken place and near the village, and the villagers encroachments removed from have taken an oath to protect Chouka Construction pasture land animal life. • Due to construction of the • First of all, pasture land is Choukas, the entire pasture measured land is divided into zones of What is the Chouka • The configuration of Choukas different moisture content Technique is finalized based on slope of • Due to retention of rainwater pasture land and direction of in 10 percent of the area, an Gram Vikas Nav Yuvak Mandal, flow of water. The overflow increase in ground water level Lapodia, with the help of several should fall into a rivulet or a in the entire village has international organizations pond. taken place Inputs by: Communication and Capacity Development Unit, Rajasthan 85 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Community Managed Demand-side Ground Water Management Location: Andhra Pradesh Realizing the critical link between moderating their water demand. building and improved food production and ground This involves education and management of the available water use, a number of NGOs, awareness building around key ground water resources. research institutes and national aspects of ground water, its and international programs utilization and conservation. Andhra Pradesh Farmer have been working on optional The process includes active Managed Groundwater paradigms that would encourage involvement of local communities Systems12 (APFAMGS) project has and sensitize farmers toward in data collection, capacity demonstrated that an enabling 12 Reference : Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater System Project –Project Document http://www.apfamgs.org/Default.aspx Evaluation of FAO cooperation with India, Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems (APFAMGS - GCP/IND/175/NE http://www.apfamgs.org/upload/PDF/GCPIND175NET-APFAMGS-eva-final.pdf Technology and knowledge for gender equity and justice http://www.apfamgs.org/upload/PDF/CP532006_40031.pdf The Trail of Change, Villagers View point on APFAMGS intervention, September-2006 http://www.apfamgs.org/upload/pdf/RE502006_40035.pdf Deep Wells and Prudence, Towards Pragmatic Action for addressing groundwater Overexploitation in India. http://www.apfamgs.org/upload/PDF/world_bank_rep.pdf 86 Lessons from the field strategy could support farmers using a non-formal pedagogical in reflecting on key issues and format, has helped the farmers help them generate appropriate appreciate the scientific nuances knowledge to be used in of ground water and sustainable regulating ground water use. agriculture. An important impact Reflection and self regulation has been the appreciation of encourage opportunities for farmers’ knowledge by the state internalization and sustainability. agencies which have reciprocated with physical, financial and In seven drought prone districts technological support. of Andhra Pradesh, farmers The APFAMGS project is residing in 638 habitations, spread implemented by nine NGOs over 400 GPs, have voluntarily coming together as a network taken a number of steps to reduce under a nodal NGO, supported ground water pumping to address by technical consultants offering the problem of ground water necessary technical facilitation. depletion. The APFAMGS project The prominent anchors are ground water pumping along is a partnership with farmers habitation level institutions with an increase in wealth for implementing the Demand – GMCs and the aquifer level creation; iii) enhanced recharge Side Groundwater Management federation HUN. The local initiatives and consequent rise in (DSMG) concept. institutions work closely with PRIs water level; and iv) diversified the and other SHGs, and community cropping system matching with An important component of the based organizations are coalition availability of water. project has been self-evolving partners of the project for inclusive institutions, which promoting project objectives. The APFAMGS model works on anchor the program and activities the theory of behavioral change at the ground level. Groundwater APFAMGS is an initiative designed facilitated through new learnings Monitoring Committees (GMCs) to stimulate farmers’ innovation leading to new reflexes. The at the habitation level and in the assessment and analysis project has taken advantage their federation Hydrological of ground water, and fine tune of the changing demographic Unit Networks (HUNs) offer an initiatives to optimize water profile of the country to tap the institutional platform to the based livelihoods. The knowledge large number of young adults farmers to collectively reflect, plan has been used to help the (men and women) with higher and implement the programs. farmers and other vulnerable levels of aspirations to work The participation of farmers has communities deal with the collectively for acquiring new not been in a physical sense depleting ground water and its learnings. The strategy has been alone, it has acknowledged effect on agriculture. The project to bring upfront the issues related and valued their creative uses community institutions to to ground water distress, engage potential and knowledge and take responsibility for assessing them at an intellectual plane and has facilitated their knowledge ground water availability challenge them to look for local and innovation surge. This has for a micro unit, and use the solutions to ensure sustainability followed a careful and consistent understanding to plan ground of the ground water resource. process of facilitation including water resources sustainably for helping the farmers in assessing, their agriculture and livelihood For the first time, the issue of analyzing and planning different pattern. The project, sponsored water is not compartmentalized activities related to ground water by the Food and Agriculture on the basis of individual farmers, and livelihoods – sustainable Organization (FAO), has : i) offered habitations, villages, but looked agriculture. Adopting an local solutions in managing at comprehensively at the micro- experiential learning process, ground water distress; ii) reduced basin level with all competing 87 Towards Drinking Water Security in India aids. Much of the learning makes use of explicit knowledge into their understanding of the world-view. Complementary to this form of learning are the field visits, short-term and long-term experiments, field workshops and exhibitions of the models from the neighbouring areas. Institutions have been promoted as the ideal platform to look beyond individual concerns and thus exclude selfish interest of a few. Genuine institutions represent the collective views while dissenting voices are also duly acknowledged. A multi layer inclusive institution that is vertically integrated has been built into the project. The GMCs has been conceived as a village level institution of the men and women farmers. Several GMCs within a given hydrological boundary join together to form a HUN. The institutions provide a platform for freewheeling discussions, receive local solutions that are original, not bound by any conventions, as they say rooted to the soil. As part of knowledge building, interests brought to the table and recording, classification, locally generated data are used the needs prioritized logically. No documentation, analysis, to raise the level of awareness outside solutions are presented, exchange of information, making but local home grown ideas hypothesis, testing the hypothesis on common issues related debated, considered and new in the farmers’ fields, further to ground water distress at inputs provided largely through experiments and observations. individual farm level as well as field exposures and interaction Overall, the effort has been to on the habitation and drainage with those who have ensure that there is no attempt unit level. This triggers a process adopted them. to dilute the science just because of internalization of the data and it is handled by the community. sets into motion discussions at The knowledge, capacity and The transfer of information various levels and formation of skills of the farmers are built happens through face-to-face opinions on the cause and the around several steps including communication using voice, body effects. The impact of ground observations, measurements, language supported by training water development gathered as 88 Lessons from the field data are deliberated round the being witnessed. Initially, the institution-led, knowledge-driven year culminating in a Crop Water number of crops in the project approaches in the area of natural Budgeting (CWB) workshop prior area was only 14 and now has resource management. to the cropping season to assess been diversified to 32. Crop the best crop combination that diversification has been largely in Institutions under the project can be taken up in the entire favour of low water consuming have contributed significantly in micro basin level. Based on the and low risk crops. High water initiating practices for sustainable understanding, the farmers adopt consuming crops like paddy, management of ground water suitable modifications in their sugarcane, banana, turmeric, by treating ground water as a agricultural practices that can and mulberry continue to be common property resource. lead to significant reductions in grown but with substantially Institutions have ensured ground annual ground water use. reduced irrigation (ranging from water users make efforts to 20-60 percent). Food security understand the nature of ground The decision on crop changes and improved nutrition have water occurrence, cycle, and is voluntary and no advice is never been compromised while limitations in its availability. provided by the project. The changing the cropping systems. emphasis is on improving the The farmers have worked out a Institutions promoted farmers water use efficiency (less water for number of ways to reduce ground in data collection (rainfall, water more productivity). The project water pumping through changes levels, well yields), calculating does not advocate changes in in cropping, crop diversification, ground water recharge from crops being grown traditionally or improved water use efficiency, monsoonal rainfall, and for commercial gain. The project improved pump efficiency, estimating their annual water respects the farmer’s traditional regulated construction of new use based on planned cropping knowledge and wisdom to be able wells and revived abandoned patterns, thereby building their to take most appropriate decisions. wells as recharge structures. Thus understanding of the dynamics Institutions act as pressure groups the new approach addresses the and status of ground water in the to advocate change in cropping, complex issue of ground water local aquifers. use of sustainable agricultural over pumping by articulating the practices and water saving community’s interests while not Farmer data collection also technologies. The government targeting individual farmers. facilitates access to information along with the banks provides the about water-saving techniques, necessary support for investments Governance as dictated by local improved agricultural practices, on technologies related to institutions has helped achieve and ways to regulate and manage water savings. sustainable ground water farmers’ own demand for water. development by avoiding local The project does not offer any A 160 percent change in the conflicts and territorial dissensions. incentives in the form of cash cropping system is already The most critical factor of or subsidies to the farmers: the governance is the knowledge to hypothesis is that access to understand and appreciate the scientific data and knowledge problem in all its complexity and has enabled farmers to work create the required ownership/ unitedly in making appropriate responsibility in the attitude of the choices and decisions regarding different stakeholders. agricultural practices and use of ground water resources. The APFAMGS project continues to inspire funding agencies, Independent project evaluation governments and agro- indicates that, in a majority of the based industries to adopt the project areas, the interventions 89 Towards Drinking Water Security in India expected results were largely achieved. Farmers understand the seasonal occurrence and distribution of ground water in their habitations and in hydrological units as a whole and are able to estimate seasonal recharge, draft and balance. Farmers are capable of collecting and recording rainfall and associated ground water data. They have mastered the concept of ground water as a common property resource and are willing to manage it for the collective benefit. This was achieved through strong focus and investment on capacity have succeeded in building a 7 percent have witnessed an building and through the process link between water availability increase in ground water draft of demystification of science, and water use for agriculture. during this period. This impact without compromising on the The core message of the project, is unprecedented, in terms basic scientific principles of that ground water abstraction of reductions actually being sustainable management. This over the long term needs to be realized in ground water draft, had a strong empowering effect aligned with water availability, is and in terms of the geographic on participants. taking hold. This is suggested by extent of this impact, covering the emerging positive correlation dozens of aquifers, hundreds of The project works on the supply between water availability and communities, and approximate side of the ground water resource water use in 48 out of the 58 outreach of one million farmers. through artificial ground water project hydrological units. recharge structures to improve APFAMGS has succeeded in ground water availability. The APFAMGS project design does not establishing strong community model can be usefully replicated call for sacrifices in profitability to processes by formally engaging in similar environmental reduce water use. Survey results all ground water users and using conditions under any type of show that project area farmers traditional and well-established intervention. Farmer Water have consistently improved their vehicles of community Schools (FWSs) are a platform for profitability, with the net value of mobilization. The project is rooted ground water farmers, men and outputs nearly doubling during in a strong participatory, capacity- women, that facilitate experiential the project period, with inferior building, and gender sensitive learning of different cultivation and more erratic results in similar approach. Another significant techniques and cropping non-project areas. In terms of design feature of APFAMGS is that patterns linked to the use of cumulative water abstractions, it engages the farmers around a the ground water resource. This 42 percent of the hydrological crucial element of information was achieved through intensive units have consistently reduced that is vital for planning capacity building and progressive the ground water draft over the agricultural operations. development of the Farmer Field three years of project operation, School (FFS) concept into the while 51 percent have reduced The project has been successful FWS, building on the principles of the draft intermittently, and only in meeting its challenges and non formal education. 90 Lessons from the field A key element in the FWS is the decision-making at the level of state agencies working in the area CWB session at the start of the the hydrological unit are thriving of ground water management. Rabi season, particularly as a bodies that can prove very Local governance of ground decision-making tool for farm beneficial for their members and water by the ground water users families to adopt alternative the wider population. There is themselves brings together agricultural practices, suiting the good evidence that social capital all the different stakeholders, availability of ground water. This was created and developed at the strengthens local institutions, innovation to the FFS approach different levels. makes the hydro-geological is a key decision-making tool also information fully accessible, at community level and can be Prospects for environmental, considerably reduces the considered an important element social, institutional and transaction costs, promotes in increased social and natural technical sustainability of the the concept of demand side capital. It is also important in project’s achievements and management as a viable option, light of future expansion and up- results are high. Economic simplifies the tasks of government scaling of the FWS approach. sustainability of the innovations departments in playing the proposed will depend, to a facilitation role of providing In addition, training on low large extent, on national and knowledge, skills and capacities. external input agriculture, inputs international food and energy Experience shows that promoting from the bio-agents production price policies; nevertheless, local ground water regulation centre, documentation of best farmers should be equipped is not difficult, neither costly agricultural practices and Farmer with knowledge and decision nor sensitive and can reach the Training Teams, all led to reduction making tools that allow them to necessary scale in the shortest of external inputs, with beneficial cope with external threats to a time. The APFAMGS concept can consequences on the environment good extent. be safely adopted for sustainable and health of the rural population. management of ground water Finally, the APFAMGS approach in different parts of the world The local institutions and offers a good paradigm for subjected to large scale over- platforms set up for common funding agencies and federal/ exploitation. Inputs by: Dr. K.A.S. Mani, e-mail: ananthmaniin@yahoo.com For additional details on the project contact: Mr. Paul Raja Rao, Bharathi Integrated Rural Development Society, Nandyal, Allagadda -518543, e-mail: paulrajv@yahoo.com 91 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Renovation of Traditional Water Bodies (Oorani) to Sustain Access to Drinking Water for Rural Communities Location: Tamil Nadu The Government of Tamil Nadu has been giving great importance to the rural drinking water sector by allocating substantial funds and other resources aimed at improved access to safe and sustainable drinking water supply to rural communities. Most rural drinking water supply schemes are ground water based and ground water bodies are under severe stress due to over-exploitation. Also, the sustainability of the schemes are at stake due to source failure/depletion of sources, poor O&M, non-availability of the timely power supply for pumping, and water quality problems like salinity, fluoride, etc. Most traditional water supply systems have been abandoned/are unattended by the local communities for various reasons after the emergence of pumping technology and rural electrification. The increase in demand for water by the different sectors like irrigation, industry and urbanization is the major challenge to be addressed immediately. The Government of Tamil Nadu has given priority to rainwater harvesting and made it mandatory in the entire state. Rejuvenation of tanks, ponds and other water bodies was undertaken by the government under various schemes such as employment generation, and drought relief programs to capture rainwater wherever it falls, and use it locally. 92 Lessons from the field Under the aegis of rainwater harvesting through Figure 6: Major stakeholders/partners rejuvenation of traditional water bodies, the Department of Rural Development, Government of Tamil Nadu, during 2002-03, evolved a strategy for RDD, Government supplementing water for drinking and other needs of Tamil Nadu of the rural communities through initiating a pilot project on developing the Ooranis (traditional village DHAN Anna Foundation University ponds) with appropriate technical interventions and community action. The program was designed in partnership with other professional organization Communities/ GPs consisting of NGOs, technical institutions and the communities. Partners have clear roles and responsibilities based on their expertise. The major stakeholders/partners are shown in Figure 6. The Department of Rural Development is the selected for the pilot. Detailed planning was nodal department at the state level, responsible for undertaken by all partners before taking up the providing funds, policy support, and preparation of actual renovation of the water bodies. estimates through field level officials in consultation with, and based on the inputs provided by, the Major steps involved in the entire process are: i) other partners/experts, overall monitoring and formation of the task force; ii) identification of the coordination. The Dhan Foundation is responsible Ooranis for rejuvenation; iii) planning including the for selection of Ooranis based on set principles, surveys/research/baseline studies by the group of community consultation and mobilization, securing experts; iv) community mobilization, consultation, community contributions/share through cash/ capacity building and awareness creation; v) labour/materials, capacity building, documentation designing and cost estimations and resource/fund of lessons, follow-up on O&M, and feeding lessons mobilization; vi) implementation and O&M; v) and for replication. The Centre for Water Resources, monitoring/follow-up and documentation. Anna University, is responsible for hydraulic studies, catchments assessments and technical advice The main technical aspects involved in the related to water resources, treatments, etc. development of the Ooranis are: The Centre for Environmental Studies is responsible • The catchment area of the Oorani is identified and for technical advice related to environmental checked for sufficient run-off aspects including pollution control measures, water • The Oorani is deepened/desilted by scooping the quality issues including water quality monitoring. top soil to improve the storage capacity Communities and GPs are responsible for extending • The inlet channel that allows water to the existing full support to the project including the capital Oorani is cleaned up, thereby avoiding any silt cost sharing of 15 percent through cash/labour/ deposit carried to the Oorani material, participation in planning, implementation • The filter media arrangement using slow sand and O&M. filters is installed inside the Oorani to filter turbid water To oversee the pilot project, the Rural Development • A hand pump is installed outside the Oorani for Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, formed the community to fetch clear drinking water a task force consisting of representatives from the • Fencing is provided to avoid people directly major partner organizations. Initially, 10 Ooranis entering and also from local pollution from Kancheepuram (low ground water) and • The filter media provided ensures good quality of Ramanathapuram (saline effected district) were drinking water 93 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Rejuvenation of all Ooranis in the pilot project is The Government of Tamil Nadu has expanded the completed and handed over to the communities program of developing Ooranis through the Tamil for O&M. The project has ensured clean water Nadu Water Supply and Drainage (TWAD) Board. for the communities throughout the year with These activities are undertaken/executed under minimum O&M cost being borne completely by the different program such as the Pradhan Mantri communities. The project carries out the monitoring Gramodaya Yojana, the Accelerated Rural Water of water quality, inflow of water in the pond, loss of Supply Programme (ARWSP). The National Bank water including evaporation losses, seepage losses for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and human consumption. has also provided financial assistance. So far, 511 Ooranis have been completed. The Ooranis are Communities/GPs from different districts have supplementary to the existing drinking water started making demands for the scheme. The sources and serve as standalone sources. Tests project builds partnerships and ownership indicate that quality of water, by and large, is of among the communities. In addition to increased good quality. The Government of Tamil Nadu has access to sustainable water supply, the project decided to expand the program to the entire state provides employment opportunities for the local wherever water quality and quantity problems communities during its implementation are severe. Inputs by: Dr. K. Sridhar, TWAD Board, Tamil Nadu and Mariappa Kullapa, Water and Sanitation Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 94 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT Towards Drinking Water Security in India 96 Combining Water Supply and Sewerage and Recycling of Waste Water for Irrigation: An Interesting Example Location: Hulakoti village, Gagad District, Karnataka Under the Jal Nirmal project, The water supply and sewerage constructed after the inception Hulakoti is the only village in system, completed in 2006, is of the project. In addition, a plea Karnataka that has adopted an managed by the VWSC with 24 to stop the practice of open underground drainage sewerage technical staff. A unique aspect defecation was made through the system along with the water of this VWSC is that it has four Shramadaan program. Various supply scheme. The population engineers and a doctor among its capacity building interventions on of the village is about 12,000 with members, who have been involved implementation and management 2,478 households and 1,290 water with the project since inception. of the water supply schemes and connections, 25 stand posts, and promotion of social activities 1,600 sewerage connections. The villagers took a decision that were organized. Today, 1,920 Water is available two or three toilets would be compulsory in households have toilets and the hours per day. all houses, shops and buildings village has six community latrines. 97 Towards Drinking Water Security in India The sewerage project was However, the engineers advised Education institutions and implemented at a cost of the VWSC that the water could be hospitals are not required to pay Rs. 3,18,71,000. The community reused. Currently, farmers pump for water. In 2006, the water tax contributed Rs. 35 lakh for this water into tankers for use in was Rs. 10 per month per family; the sewerage project. The GP irrigation. The next step, under however, to cover expenses (ward President, members, VWSC progress, is to lay down pipes to staff salary, electricity bill and members, village heads, and the adjacent fields for irrigation maintenance works), two tax representatives of women’s and charge a nominal fee (Rs.150 increases took place in 2008 and organizations went from door per acre per year) 2010. There is no regular charge to door to collect the funds. At to farmers. for the sewerage system, except various stages of the project, a one-time connection fee of owners of earth-moving Under the scheme, 1,490 Rs. 500. However, the VWSC is machinery cooperated by lending individual household toilets have financially in a poor shape and the services of their machines been constructed. Personal, family has Rs. 80 lakh of electricity for free. and community hygiene has been bills pending. substantially enhanced. Twenty The sewerage system is made public stand posts have been Due to the Jal Nirmal project, of 1,920 connections, a main constructed; and seven schools, Hulakoti, which has achieved all pipeline 7 kilometers long including a private school, have targets to qualify it for the Nirmal consisting of HDPE and PVC pipes, been provided with drinking Gram Puraskar (NGP or clean 42 kilometre long stoneware water supply, and parks have village award), is now a clean and and RCC pipes, three drainage been constructed in five schools, beautiful village. The community zones and one final treatment which promotes environmental has given up the habit of and disposal site. Waste water awareness and hygiene among dumping garbage and waste flows through these pipes into school children. in public spaces, waste water two open oxidation ponds with from sewage is being effectively a capacity of 35 lakh litres and is The VWSC prepares a budget and utilized for irrigation, incidences then pumped into the clear water presents it at the Grama Sabha. of malaria and diarrhoea have tank. It is estimated that about Water taxes are collected and reduced, and parks established 50 percent of the daily 1,300 deposited in the maintenance under the auspices of the GP m3 of waste water produced is account to pay for expenditures. and Jala Nirmal project have collected. The charges are fixed: for contributed to a clean and green households Rs. 60 per month; environment. The sewerage Initially, it was suggested that for public access points Rs. 30 project has also contributed the treated water be let out into per month and for commercial to making the people ’water a pit next to the clear water tank. supply points Rs.100 per month. literate’. Inputs by: Karnataka Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency, Jal Nirmal Project, and Suryanarayan Satish, Social Development Specialist, World Bank 98 COMMUNICATION FOR WATER Towards Drinking Water Security in India The history of organized development communication in India can be traced to rural radio broadcasts in the 1940s. Independent India’s earliest organized experiments in development communication started with community development projects initiated by the Government of India in the 1950s. The government, guided by socialistic ideals of its constitution and the first generation of politicians, started massive developmental programs throughout the country. While field publicity was given due importance for person-to-person communication because the level of literacy was very low in rural areas, radio played an equally important role in reaching messages to the masses. Universities and other educational institutions – especially the agricultural universities, through their extension networks – and international organizations under the United Nations umbrella carried the development communications banner further. Development communication in India, a country of sub-continental proportions, has acquired many connotations. On one end of the spectrum are the tools and techniques locally applied by charitable and not- for-profit organizations with very close inter-personal relations among the communicators and, on the other end, is the generic, top down communication emanating from the government. The need for development communication continues since a large percentage of the population lives in rural areas and depends directly on agriculture. Poverty is reducing as a percentage of the population but a large number of people still live in destitution. They need government support in different forms. Therefore, communication from the government remains highly relevant. In addition to the traditional ways, a new form of communication is being tried by the Government of India to support its developmental activities, though on a limited scale. Called Public Information Campaigns, public shows are organized in remote areas where information on social and developmental schemes is given, seminars and workshops are held, villagers and their children are engaged in competitions, messages are given through entertainment shows. In addition, government and corporate organizations involved in rural businesses display their wares and services in stalls lining the main exhibition area. This approach brings together various implementing agencies and service/ goods providers while the information providers encourage the visitors to make the best use of various schemes and services available. Some state governments have also adopted this model to take their development schemes to the masses. Strategic communication is a comprehensive and holistic concept. Today, the value-addition of communication to enhance sustainability of rural development programs is well recognized. There is also an increasing awareness that both internal and external communication should be carefully planned, implemented, and monitored and evaluated. Overall, the approach to strategic communications varies and there is confusion about its various components and how it is strategic. Most people use the term IEC or media or worse, public relations, to describe communications. Many believe that communication activities need to be implemented only during the life cycle of the projects, from identification and formulation, to implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Communication is more than disseminating information and knowledge, it is also about fostering social awareness and facilitating dialogue. It is about contributing to building a shared understanding that can lead to change. It does not add costs to the project cycle, at least not in the long run, but rather it reduces the costs of useless, often unplanned, communication activities and, most importantly, ensures that the project is designed with the consensus of a majority of stakeholders, that its goals are shared, and that its implementation is successful. Interesting examples from India are captured in the following pages. 100 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Location: Punjab Punjab is one of the more prosperous states of India. However, the ground realities in terms of social development are quite different -- some 30 percent of the villages still do not have access to basic drinking water service. About 60 percent households in Punjab are dependent on unsafe private drinking water sources. With high O&M costs faced by the DWSS and low O&M cost recovery from users, the water supply systems are becoming unsustainable; charged septic tank effluent flowing in open drains has degraded the environmental conditions in the villages and poses a serious health hazard. The current institutional, operational and financing arrangements present constraints and challenges in achieving service improvements or ensuring long-term sustainability in providing safe drinking water to the rural masses. 101 Towards Drinking Water Security in India The International Development Agency (IDA)- booklets, and posters linked to each stage of the assisted Punjab Rural Water Supply and Sanitation project’s life cycle. Project (PRWSSP) aims to overcome these hurdles by focusing on providing rural households in the An integral part of the communication strategy state with access to safe and adequate drinking is the water testing kit that has been extremely water supply throughout the year. The project successful as a trigger to enter the community is decentralizing and empowering the villagers and initiate dialogue on the need for safe quality to manage and operate their own water supply drinking water in the village. Once the district teams schemes so that they can tailor it to meet their have gained entry into the village, the process of needs. consensus building and establishing the long-term vision starts with the villagers, for them to agree Project Communication to owning and operating their own water scheme within a clear timeframe. Through interpersonal Very early in the life of the PRWSSP, the state project communication, use of mass media, and capacity management team recognized the importance of building, the entire village comes to a consensus communication in its effective implementation, and understands the advantage of subscribing to especially in creating a demand for the scheme the scheme and the kind of commitment it requires amongst rural communities. The designing of from their end. This process culminates with the the communication strategy involved an iterative villagers garnering the contributory amount and process encompassing: i) conducting a detailed the formation of a committee of people willing to needs assessment study; ii) extensive planning take the lead in moving the village towards safe between the state project management team and drinking water and helping run it in a sustainable the district management teams; iii) development manner by negotiating the frequency of water and pre-testing of materials developed within the supply, maintaining the accounts, raising bills timely, project; iv) effective implementation of the agreed collecting bills, holding non-payers accountable, communication plan; v) regular monitoring and supervising and managing the pump operator, evaluation; and vi) feedback being integrated into ensuring that the electricity bill is paid on time the agreed communication plan, thus making the and, last but not the least, sensitizing people on entire communication process a ‘living and in- the need and importance of water conservation. progress’ cycle of reassessment and refinement. This committee is headed by the Sarpanch and As the project is people-centric in terms of villagers is inclusive of representation from the weakest contributing towards the scheme, being an integral members of society including women. part of the planning, technology selection (type of scheme), procurement (bid invitation, award), In keeping with the need for transparency, the state construction and O&M management of all new water management team has created a website that hosts supply schemes, interpersonal communication and all project related information; has mandated the capacity building are a major component of the need for disclosure walls that clearly articulate the outreach program developed and supported by the date of commissioning of the scheme, names of the DWSS. members of the water supply committee, amount contributed by the village, monthly billing, monthly To support these activities, extensive behaviour expenditure, credit in the bank post expenditure, change communication materials have been name of the pump operator, etc., and put in place a developed by the project such as flipcharts, flyers, 24x7 complaint redressal helpline for its customers. 102 field Lessons from the Field Engaging the Community Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat Aapni Yojana13 Aapni Yojna is a rural water-supply project covering about 20,000 square kilometre in three districts of northern Rajasthan, viz., Churu, Hanumangarh and Jhunjhunu. The project is co-funded by the Government of Germany through its development bank, KfW. It covers a population of about 9 lakh in 370 villages and two towns, at a cost of about Rs. 426 crore. The bulk of this investment is dedicated to the technical works implemented by the Project Management Cell, a special unit of the PHED of Rajasthan. The project’s main objective is to improve the health status and living conditions of the target population. Sustainable supply is ensured from the Indira Gandhi Canal, as ground water is insufficient and saline. To ensure sustainability and enhancement of the benefits, the concept of community participation was used in a drinking water project for the first time in the history of the state. A consortium of five leading NGOs, led by the Indian Institute of Health Management and Research, implemented the community participation approach using a variety of tools such as brochures and flyers, door-to-door campaign, village-level consultations, school meetings, puppetry and folk media. A Water and Health Committee manages the water distribution system in each village. The community was motivated through awareness building for payment of bills, water conservation, equal and fair distribution to all villages, health education measures and sanitation measures. As women were the main beneficiaries of improved water supply and also the principal target group for health education, women’s participation was the key element across all these activities. The implications of ownership are that the community had the right to decide on planning, designing, implementing, monitoring, operating and maintaining the installations of the system within its village. WASMO, Gujarat14 The Mission of Water and Sanitation Management Organization, Gujarat, is “working towards drinking water security and habitat improvement by empowering communities to manage their local water sources, drinking water supply and environmental sanitation�. In meeting this end, it employs the services of NGOs or support agencies to carry out community outreach, build social capital and help the community plan its water supply schemes in a sustainable manner – socially, environmentally, and financially. Selected on the basis of existing relationships in the target villages so that they enjoy greater trust and efficacy among the communities, each NGO team, comprising eight members, is responsible for around 40-50 villages. The facilitation by the NGOs has been the key to success of rural water initiatives in Gujarat, in addition to the enabling environment created by the state government and WASMO. Most NGOs gradually build support and constituency for the water reforms and then introduce the formation of Pani Samitis (Water and Sanitation Committees) and water schemes using a variety of social mobilization and communication tools. Some of these tools are brochures, posters, door-to- door campaign, village-level meetings, focus on involvement of women, and films. Each village forms a Pani Samiti, comprising 10-20 members representing different castes and sections in the village. It is chaired either by the Sarpanch or the ward Panch. This Samiti is the executor of all drinking water projects and receives funds directly from WASMO; the community contributes 10 percent or more of the total cost. All procurement, labour and material, is done directly by the Pani Samiti. Most villages have implemented water delivery systems that provide a private household connection to each family. Some villages provide 24x7 supply. Most villages keep a buffer storage of seven to10 days to ensure drinking water even if pumps or bulk supply fails. There is a user fee charged by the Pani Samiti, which is used for paying bulk water charges and O&M costs. Strong emphasis has been laid in the communication tools on personal hygiene and sanitation; schools students are a prime focus of such communication. 13 Reference : www.aapniyojana.org 14 Reference : www.wasmo.org 103 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Successful Model of Public Private Partnership in Communications Location: Kerala Palathulli-Jalasureksha 2010 (Palathulli – ‘many-a-drop’, Jalasureksha – ‘water security’) was a joint communications campaign (road show) organized by the Communication and Capacity Development Unit (CCDU) of the Water Resources Department, Malayala Manorama, a media house in the state and UNICEF, for propagating the message of water security. Kerala, arguably one of the most rain-rich states in the country, is facing a decline in the availability and quality of potable water. The state registers one of the highest per capita consumption of potable water in the country. Sand mining in rivers and watersheds is killing the rivers and creating several environmental problems. The wells in Kerala run dry during summer and there is an acute shortage in the availability of pure water. All 44 rivers in Kerala are highly polluted due to inflow of untreated domestic and industrial waste and agriculture runoff. Most industries are located near the thickly populated riversides, often near cities and towns. Wide-spread bacteriological contamination of fecal origin in sources of public drinking water supplies (traditional open dug wells, bore wells and surface sources) is a matter of grave concern. Studies show that the quality of drinking water supplies in the state clearly indicates high level of bacterial contamination. This poses a serious risk to public health. To address the issue of scarcity of potable water and degrading water quality, a massive drive was conceived to capitalize on the awareness that was created in earlier years by various governmental and non-governmental campaigns. Influencing the masses for a sustained behavioural change was the critical challenge. 104 Lessons from the field Despite spurts of activities, there various programs initiated by the Activities: A van was fabricated to still exists ignorance on the government and implemented look like a typical house in Kerala. subject of water conservation through people’s participation. The activities staged on and in and water quality management The core of this program is to front of the vehicle included folk among the people. In this combine the efforts of all the songs, magic shows, spot games context, Palathulli, a project line departments and relevant for the students, water quality on water conservation by organizations and implement testing lab and resource person Malayala Manorama, and the water security plans interaction, distribution of water Jalasureksha, a project on water under the auspices of people’s quality testing kits to schools, quality management by the representatives. Provision is also Palathulli-Jalasureksha pledge Department of Water Resources, made for the required IEC and cards/stickers for distribution and were integrated to leverage the human resource development a giant droplet mascot. strengths of both projects and to (HRD) activities so as to ensure develop the campaign ‘Palathulli- active public involvement which Folk songs: A renowned troupe Jalasureksha’. is invariably a primary requisite for of 10 artistes conveyed messages the success of such an endeavour. on the need for protecting our Malayala Manorama, the largest The CCDU Kerala is implementing water sources and maintaining circulated and the largest read the state-wide IEC and HRD the purity of water, through regional language newspaper in activities through various melodic folk songs. The traditional the country, also has leadership projects. art of folk songs not only presence in television, radio, aroused interest but also made online and print media with a The objective was to capitalize an emotional connect with the host of media titles. Manorama on the awareness already crowd. The songs covered themes had launched the Palathulli created and induce a behavioural like Kerala rivers, pure water and project in 2004, an awareness and change. The theme of the pure environment. capacity building campaign to message was ‘Pure Water, Pure face societal challenges related Environment’ giving the Magic show: The various magic to water. It resulted in a new concerns on water quality a tricks performed by a renowned paradigm of conservation of fresh holistic environmental approach. magician induced curiosity water rivers and water sources Such a messages and learning and conveyed the message and, most importantly, rainwater should ideally be cultivated effectively. After each item, the harvesting. The project was in people’s mind from a very magician explained the message focused on rainwater harvesting young age. A massive drive with to the audience. Each item was and was immensely successful. local emphasize was achieved developed based on the theme The project won many awards like through a road show covering of water quality, domestic the UNESCO IPDC International the entire state of Kerala. Since waste management, sanitation Prize for Rural Communication ‘catching them young’ was the planning, water borne diseases, in 2006 and the Indira Gandhi idea, the strategy was to target rivers of Kerala, etc. Environmental Prize in 2007. schools and interact with as many students as possible. The Spot games for the students: The Department of Water 20-day long road show jointly The compere asked questions Resources, Government of Kerala, managed by Malayala Manorama related to the theme of water to launched Jalasureksha, a water and CCDU ran across both urban the students gathered at each security program to address the and rural centres across all 14 location. Prizes were given to water related problems. The main districts in Kerala. Each day, three correct answers. objective of this program was schools and one public place to assure water security for all in were selected as the venues for Water testing lab and resource a sustainable manner through the road show to visit. person interaction: A resource 105 Towards Drinking Water Security in India person from CCDU interacted with the crowd for 10 minutes. At each school, around 10 water samples were collected and, using the kit, quality testing was demonstrated to the Chemistry teacher and a few senior students. During this live demonstration, the resource person explained the importance of confirming the quality of water. Water quality testing kit and over 2,000 students each were The key factor behind the contest kit distribution: Each selected. The program at public success of this campaign was school was handed over a water quality testing kit after the live places was witnessed by a crowd the teamwork and the synergy demonstration on how to use of spectators at each location. The that could be achieved out of it. Along with this, a contest response from the schools was this public private partnership. kit was also given. The contest tremendous. The road show was UNICEF’s association enhanced announced by CCDU was a report received with lively enthusiasm the credibility of the project. preparation contest wherein the by the young students. The keen Manorama Group provided the schools were asked to prepare interest showed by the attentive event management expertise a report using the water quality audience was encouraging for the and cross media editorial testing kit provided to the school. organizers. The school authorities coverage for the program. The The best reports would be given expressed appreciation of the Department of Water Resources prize money by the Government content and quality of the provided the resource persons of Kerala. road show. – chemists and engineers from Kerala Water Authority Pledge stickers and leaflet Attention and interest was and CCDU for interacting distribution: An attractive sticker sustained by high profile cross with students and also the with a simple message on the media coverage. Malayala water quality testing kits and campaign theme was distributed Manorama newspaper covered literature for distribution. to the school students. Along the road show at all venues in with this, informative leaflets were the respective district pages Palathulli- Jalasureksha is a great distributed to the audience. with photographs. Manorama example of a successful model News television channel covered of public private partnership. Giant droplet mascot: A giant the road show in the local news The role of the government in droplet was the mascot of the segment corresponding to each facilitating the program and road show. Popularly named location. Radio Mango FM station the role of the media house in ‘Grandpa Raindrop,’ the mascot from the Manorama Group gave responsible communication entertained the students with radio jockey bytes announcing went hand in hand. The results a dance. the arrival of the road show achieved by such a partnership, to the locality. The Manorama investing in educating the young Over 50 schools and 20 public Online portal developed a special citizens of the country and places hosted the road show mini site on the activities and triggering a behavioural change, activity as part of this campaign. documented the photographs will bear fruits and stand the test Schools with a headcount of and videos on a regular basis. of time. Inputs by: Dilip Koshy, Malayala Manorama; Dr. Suseel Samuel, Water and Sanitation Specialist, and Vandana Mehra, Communication Specialist, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 106 State Level Reforms Towards Drinking Water Security in India Towards a Uniform Approach for Decentralized Service Delivery Location: Maharashtra Despite sizeable investments and Mumbai suburban) while O&M costs (including power) over the 1980s and 1990s in the the remaining 33 are rural. For through appropriate user fees; rural water and sanitation sector administrative purposes, the iv) the District government in Maharashtra, many citizens state is divided into six revenue provides technical support to still remained without access to divisions.15 The rural population the villages and also supervises safe and adequate water and resides in 24,000 GPs, further sub- quality of the process and sanitation. On the other hand, divided into 40,785 villages and works; v) the centralized PHED there was a financial crisis where around 45,500 habitations. has been restructured to play a resources were limited and role of technical consultants to needs were many. This situation The Government of Maharashtra villages; and vi) the introduction prompted the Government rural water sector reforms of competitive rewards based on of Maharashtra to undertake included the implementation performance indicators for the governance reforms in the sector of a uniform approach across local governments. in the year 2000. the state, irrespective of source of funding, where: i) local All these reforms led to a drastic Maharashtra is located in Western governments led the process shift from the traditional top- India and has a total population of need identification, designs, down approach to a bottom- of about 97 million as per the last execution and O&M in full up approach across the state census of 2001. Out of this, 56 consultation with residents; with appropriate institutional million (58 percent) population ii) VWSCs are the vehicle to structures to support the process. resides in rural and 41 million assist local governments in the (42 percent) in urban areas. The process; iii) the village should The changes in roles and state has 35 districts. Two of contribute 10 percent of capital responsibilities before and after the districts are urban (Mumbai cost and agree to pay for all reforms are shown in Table 9. 15 Konkan, Pune, Nashik, Aurangabad, Nagpur and Amravati. 108 Lessons from the field Table 9: Changes in roles and responsibilities before and after reforms Project Cycle Activities Gram Block Zila PHED17 Panchayat16 Panchayat Panchayat Plan, design & execution of water supply infrastructure Water supply needs identification v * Community mobilization v Design of scheme v v v Single village v * Multi-village v v * Contracting v * Funds routing v v * Supervision during construction Single village v * Multi-village v * Water quality testing v v v * O&M responsibility Single village v * Multi-village v v * Water tariff finalization In village water distribution v * Bulk water supply v * Water tariff payment collection In village water distribution v v Bulk water supply * Monitoring and grievance redressal Capacity building of GPs v Monitoring v v v * v Post-reforms * Pre-reforms Based on these reforms, the World been implemented in about households). A recently concluded Bank financed a rural water and 3,021 villages in 26 districts across report of this project indicates the sanitation project in the state the state, covering about 8.9 following improvements due to from 2002-09. The project has million rural citizens (1,162,606 the approach. 16 India has adopted a three tier decentralized rural governance structure and assigned different roles and responsibilities to the three tiers. The nature of the organizations and their roles vary from state to state. The GP is the lowest tier of elected government, the Block Panchayat is the second highest tier and the Zila Panchayat is the district level elected government. 17 The PHED is the state level centralized engineering unit that has been created in the 1970s in most states to design, execute and manage water supply schemes in both villages and cities. 109 Towards Drinking Water Security in India Table 10: Improvements due to the project Indicator Baseline Current Situation - 2002 Situation - 2010 % of GPs where water schemes are fully functional N/A 2,294 (where water and are delivering potable water to the households supply as per Govt. of Maharashtra criteria18 commissioned) 76% % of households using sanitation facilities 19% 77% in project villages (220,895) 898,351 % of GPs where 100% ODF status has been achieved 0% 61% (1848) No. of GPs where full community contribution for 0 3,022 capital has been achieved % of GPs holding a minimum of 6 Gram Sabhas19 0% 93%20 per year, to make decisions on planning, (2,810) implementation and O&M of RWSS % participation of women in the Gram Sabha 5% 53% meetings, across all GPs Key Lessons • While decentralizing, it is roles and responsibilities to important to define the lowest tiers of government or • Decentralization is part roles and responsibility of communities, there is a need of the larger governance centralized institutions (like to define support from higher structure and needs the PHEDs) and also undertake tiers of government political commitment, necessary restructuring of the • Competitions, peer-learning appropriate policy centralized agency are good approaches to environment and • While decentralization is seen capacity building of local institutional structures as giving a large part of the governments Inputs by: J.V.R. Murty, Water and Sanitation Program, e-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org 18 To be reachable within 1.6 km distance, 30 m vertical distance. 19 Gram Sabha is village assembly to make decisions concerning village development or other local issues. 20 Last assessed in March 2008. 110 Lessons from the field Uttarakhand Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project: A Flag-bearer of the Sector Wide Approach Location: Uttarakhand The pilot phase of the rural water which the IDA credit is limited to a approach where users get the supply and sanitation project maximum of US$ 120 million. The service they want and are willing implemented in Uttar Pradesh project commenced operations in to pay for it across the rural area and Uttarakhand (popularly November 2006 and will conclude of the state, i.e., across the sector. known as Swajal Project) during in June 2012. The basic principles for reform 1996-2003 became a sector in the rural water supply and model in India. Demonstrated This case study attempts sanitation service sector include success of the Swajal Pilot Project to: i) describe the project in community participation in the encouraged the Government brief; ii) identify some unique planning, implementation, O&M of Uttarakhand to scale it up for characteristics of the project; for the scheme of its choice, improved coverage in the state, iii) share experiences and good and the changing role of the adopting a sector-wide approach. practices under the project, government from that of a service The scaled up project, now called including their applicability and provider to a facilitator. the Uttarakhand Rural Water efficacy in improving sustainable Supply and Sanitation Project service for the rural communities; The unique features of the project (‘Global First’ rural water supply and iv) detail lessons learnt for have benefited/are benefiting and sanitation project), is unique better working and planning rural communities in several on several counts. Concepts such with communities. ways. Admittedly, the culture as decentralization, partnership, of dependence on outsiders community management, The delivery of sustainable rural for a basic necessity like water effective demand, gender water supply and sanitation supply has been considerably analysis and cost recovery are service is an issue of considerable reduced by the empowered User deeply engrained in the project concern among policy planners Water Supply and Sanitation principles adhering to the 73rd and water sector managers of Committees (UWSSCs) regarding constitutional amendment of the the country. The case study is quality, quantity, service level Indian Constitution. intended for managers and and system reliability of the water planners who are concerned supply scheme. The benefits The project covers the entire with the challenging problem of accrued to communities due to rural Uttarakhand and is how to deliver sustainable water sustainable O&M of the water facilitated by the Department supply and sanitation services in supply scheme by the VWSC of Drinking Water, Government the rural areas. Evidence exists to include: i) reduction in coping of Uttarakhand and executed support the fact that sustainable cost as well as more availability by three agencies namely delivery of water supply and of household space due to Uttarakhand Peyjal Nigam sanitation services encompasses elimination of storing water in (UJN), Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan not only technical issues, but also larger containers; ii) elimination (UJS) and Project Management managerial, social, financial and of travel time and travel cost in Unit (Swajal). IDA-World Bank, institutional. lodging no-water complaints, Government of India, Government making payment of bills/getting of Uttarakhand and rural The current project design is corrections in wrong bills and beneficiary communities jointly such that it moves away from getting sanction of new water fund the project. The project has a the target-based, supply-driven connection; iii) improvement total budget of US$ 224 million of model to a demand-based in Mean Time Between Failure 111 Towards Drinking Water Security in India (MTBF) due to better quality a community-led participatory borne diseases, environmental of repairs and strict control/ program which aimed to sustainability through protection supervision by the community; provide drinking water facilities and management of water and iv), most importantly, in rural areas with minimum source catchment areas, and reduced bureaucracy. provision of 40 lpcd; ii) adoption time savings in fetching water, of a demand-responsive, especially for women. The project Water scarcity in hilly regions adaptable approach along with envisages upgrading no or partial is a major issue being faced by community participation based coverage of water supply to full the state. Data from existing on empowerment of villagers to coverage with sustainable service, water supply schemes indicated ensure their full participation in benefiting at least 1.2 million that nearly 30 percent of the the project through a decision people, or 20 percent of the rural schemes suffered from a decrease making role in the choice of the population. The project will also in the availability of water, drinking water scheme, planning, improve sanitation in about 30 especially during the summer design, implementation, control percent of rural communities, to months, because of depletion of of finances and management be declared ODF. water sources. This also caused arrangements; iii) full ownership some of the villagers to spend of drinking water assets with Recognizing the need for considerable amount of time UWSSCs; (iv) communities have scaling up reforms, the collecting water for domestic the powers to plan, implement, Government of Uttarakhand use, averaging one to three hours operate, maintain and manage issued its rural water supply per day; even more time is spent all water supply and sanitation and sanitation sector policy. in hilly locations. The problem schemes; v) partial capital cost The key elements of the policy was aggravated by water supply sharing either in cash or kind included: i) decentralized service systems which had outlived their including labour or both, 100 delivery through devolution of design life, and inadequate O&M. percent responsibility of O&M by administrative, executive, the users; vi) an integrated service and financial powers to the It is widely recognized that delivery mechanism; vii) taking three-tier PRI institutions; supply-driven rural water up of conservation measures ii) establishment of the State supply and sanitation service through rainwater harvesting and Water and Sanitation Mission delivery does not adequately ground water recharge systems (SWSM) and District Water and serve the requirements of for sustained drinking water Sanitation Missions (DWSMs), to user communities as they are supply; and viii) shifting the role oversee the policy and planning often located at sites without of government from direct service for the sector; and iii) adoption consideration of community delivery to that of planning, policy of an integrated approach to needs or preference. Planning formulation, monitoring and service delivery, linking water of rural water supply and evaluation, and partial financial supply, sanitation, health sanitation services also takes support. and hygiene, catchment-area place without due attention to conservation, and community- resource availability or quality, The project’s development development initiatives. and the schemes are rarely objective is to improve the financially viable. The end result effectiveness of rural water supply Proactiveness of top political is a government-dominated and and sanitation services through leadership and committed target-driven service that has decentralization and increased bureaucracy, willingness to become unsustainable. role of PRIs and involvement of implement reforms at the senior local communities in the state. level and a broad consensus of The current project significantly The project is also aimed at priorities created momentum differs from previous efforts bringing associated benefits, and legitimacy to drive the sector to supply water. The tenets of including improved health wide approach (SWAp) program. the current project include: i) resulting from reduced water- The progress of SWAp has been 112 Lessons from the field made an integral part of Annual for implementation of the project committee of the GP. The Confidential Reports. was prepared. composition of the UWSSC is interesting as rural women Introduction of uniform This case study does not highlight constitute 30 percent, with an computerized accounting the case of a particular water equal number from SC and ST system: It was recognized that supply scheme but dwells on households. Communities have the timely reimbursement essential features of the project as shown tremendous interest of project cost is dependent a whole. and enthusiasm in shouldering on timely preparation of the responsibilities, including consolidated financial statement. The project is being executed procurement and financial Therefore, a computerized by three line agencies: Project management activities. accounting system having an Management Unit Swajal, UJS ‘account code classification and UJN. SWSM and DWSM The total water sector investment system’ was operationalized in all oversee the activities of three line committed is US$ 224 million for implementing agency offices. agencies at the state and district the SWAp. Partners for the SWAp level. All decisions for planning, pool (US$ 224 million) include Adequate change management: design, implementation and Government of India (31 percent), Appropriate change management maintenance are decentralized Government of Uttarakhand (67 efforts to shift the mindset of at the district and village level. percent); and the User the sector institutions from The village UWSSC under the Communities (3 percent) service provider to a facilitator GP is fully responsible for the financial share. The IDA will were whole-heartedly taken up intra-village scheme design, reimburse the Government of by engaging reputed training procurement, implementation Uttarakhand share of SWAp institutes. and management. UJS and UJN basket up to US$ 120 Million, are responsible for bulk water against an annually varying Manuals such as operations, supply under multi-village reimbursement pattern, agreed in procurement, financial schemes. the Project Appraisal Document. management and technical for The three sub-components and implementation of the project Support organizations are percentage share by the were prepared and agreed with contracted for community Government of Uttarakhand are the World Bank before embarking development and technical given in Table 11. on actual implementation. support to the UWSSCs. They are contracted by the district The following project cycle is IEC: The project printed booklets, implementing agency, based followed for detailed planning, leaflets, and posters that provided on a district specific short list of implementation and O&M: messages on the project, applicants, as per procurement including use of toilets, health and guidelines. The project mobilizes Project cycle for single village hygiene aspects. A documentary households for group action schemes: Each scheme cycle film depicting detailed processes through the UWSSC, a sub- includes four phases, including Table 11: Component-wise SWAp budget – share of the Government of Uttarakhand SWAp Program Components Total Budget GoU share % IDA Reimbursement Million $ % A RWSS Development 5.02 5.02 100% B RWSS Infrastructure Investments 196.78 103.40 53% C Program Management Support and M&E 22.09 11.60 52% Total 224.00 120.00 54% RWSS: Rural Water Supply and Sanitation; GoU: Government of Uttarakhand 113 Towards Drinking Water Security in India pre-planning (two months), and marginalized sections of to be carried out by the UWSSC. planning (three to six months), community in the entire planning However, the sector agencies implementation (six to18 phase. continue to monitor and support months), and O&M phase (four the GPs on O&M issues, including months). The duration of each (c) Implementation phase: The large repairs, which cannot be phase depends on the scheme outputs of this phase include: i) undertaken at the GP level. size, technology type and the preparation of implementation time it takes to mobilize the phase proposal, construction Support Organizations communities. of water supply schemes, and Service Agencies environmental sanitation works (a) Pre-planning phase: Major and catchment area protection NGOs and community-based outputs of the pre-planning works by GP/UWSSC through organizations are involved in the phase include: i) selection of community engineers contracted sector program as a link between support organizations; and ii) out by District Implementing the beneficiary communities collection of baseline data; and Agency (DIA); ii) independent and the district implementing iii) selection of GP/habitation. third party construction agencies. Acting as catalysts in Since the GP is not a homogenous supervision by the Service Agency the process, they are involved unit, most of the information is and facilitation and monitoring in the scheme cycle activities in collected from each habitation of by DIA, contracted out by SWSM; motivating and mobilizing the the GP to understand the access iii) collecting balance cash/ communities and building their of different socio-economic labour and O&M community capacities towards their envisaged groups to water and sanitation contribution for water supply, roles and responsibilities in the facilities. sanitation, and catchment area management of their water and protection works; iv) training sanitation schemes. (b) Planning phase: This on community development, phase includes: i) mobilization health, women’s development The challenges for the project of communities, participatory initiatives, book keeping, were to develop a system which planning, and use of SARAR O&M (technical, institutional, embodies the philosophy of the tools, problem investigation, financial), etc., for GP/UWSSC demand-responsive approach, analysis and solving; ii) formation members; and v) preparation of UWSSC; iii) selection of water and provides an alternative to of the implementation phase supply and sanitation technology completion reports. supply-driven service delivery by the users in community-wide mechanism. The challenges for the meetings; iv) capacity building (d) O&M phase: DIA provides implementing agency were to act on community development, technical assistance to the as a facilitator and co-financer (to health, feasibility and design of UWSSCs after commissioning provide assistance at appropriate water supply schemes, catchment of the water supply schemes to time and ensure capital cost area protection, accounting, etc., place the O&M system in order. sharing by the community), as a for support organization/GP/ Training at the GP/UWSSC level monitor (process and progress) UWSSCs members; v) preparation is conducted by DIA. The O&M and as an agency to ensure of detailed project reports and system comprises the technical, the standards of construction, community action plan for each financial, and the institutional accounts and community UWSSC; vi) collecting upfront systems. After establishing development activities. cash and O&M community O&M system and completing all contribution for water supply, the activities stipulated in the The innovations and interventions sanitation, and catchment agreement, the DIA formally at various levels are discussed area protection works; and exits from the GP. Thereafter, the in following paragraphs. vii) involvement of women scheme’s maintenance continues Appropriate change management 114 Lessons from the field efforts to shift the mindset of the of the World Bank in its Aide- project efforts and the Centre sector institutions from service Memoire has given the project sponsored Total Sanitation provider to facilitator were whole- rating shown in Table 12. Campaign. The NGP for clean heartedly taken up by engaging villages has been received by 25 reputed training institutes. Steps The project is being implemented percent GPs (418 GPs) against the had to be initiated for focusing on by following uniform policies target of 15 percent GPs. O&M aspects for the sustainability and institutional arrangements of schemes in addition to the across the state. Schemes covering While independent monitoring training programs on the design more than 1,800 habitations have and social audits are in-built in the and implementation of rural already laid a solid foundation for project design, the implementing water and sanitation schemes. the SWAp program in Uttarakhand. agencies have started signing- How and where to interact with The decentralized institutional off, providing quality assurance district level formal institutions arrangements, processes and for the completed schemes. Also, had to be focused on during procedures are established continuous supervision has been capacity building in order to and fully operational in all the introduced during the O&M stage cover the eventualities of major 13 districts. The GPs through to ensure technical and financial repair works. The Project Appraisal UWSSCs are fully responsible support to the GPs. Document and Operations for Single Village Scheme (SVS) Manual provide that the SWAp and intra-village Multi Village The district schedule of rates for principles be followed for all new Scheme (MVS). The sector various engineering items/works/ investments. It was recognized institutions are responsible for materials (local and non local) that in ‘exceptional situations’ the bulk water supply under the are jointly prepared by all the principles of ‘demand’ responsive MVS. The water supply schemes three implementing agencies, community participation may are integrated with catchment based on the existing analysis of not be practical. Examples of area programs, household rates and are approved by the such exceptional situations and village environmental DWSM. This schedule of rates is include: damages due to natural sanitation programs, solid waste updated on a yearly basis or as calamities, damages due to road management and health and and when needed. Thus there is construction activities, water hygiene awareness promotion a single set of schedule of rates supply schemes for tourists programs, in order to maximize for each district and for all the en route pilgrimage sites; and water supply and health benefits implementing agencies. emergencies such as floods, to the communities. Compared drought, epidemics, etc. The to the pre-project household The culture of dependence policy exceptions were sought coverage of sanitary latrines at on outsiders for a basic from the World Bank. 21 percent, the existing project necessity like water is showing coverage has gone up to 71 a diminishing trend leading to The Sixth Implementation percent, a difference of 50 percent a positive indication of Gram Support Mission, April, 2010, achievement as a result of the Swarajya (village self rule), Table 12: World Bank project rating India, Uttaranchal RWSS (Project ID: P083187; Loan/Credit No.: 42320 Key Project Data Current Ratings and Flags Effectiveness Date 11/30/2006 Development Objectives Satisfactory Closing Date 06/30/2012 Implementation Progress Moderately Satisfactory Project Age 3.4 years Problem Flags None % Disbursed 21 115 Towards Drinking Water Security in India in other words, ‘community institutions to sensitize the state, community-based organizations, pride and community control’. district and village stakeholders NGOs, independent reviewers, Robust monitoring is followed and functionaries regarding PRIs, SWSM and the implementing to monitor processes, inputs, the project. These programs agencies. outputs and outcomes, including include modules on planning indicators of change under and implementation of SVS PRI and community the project. Governance and and MVS, environmental and mobilization: The project has accountability measures have sanitation hygiene awareness made a commendable effort been adopted as an integral programs and practices, financial in identifying, prioritizing part of the project design and and procurement management and selecting GPs/villages/ implementation. The Swajal practices, etc. habitations for intervention. Project Management Unit has Subsequently, households in consecutively received the Right IEC: The project has printed the selected habitations have to Information (RTI) award 2009 booklets, leaflets and posters that been mobilized into UWSSCs, and 2010 for transparency and provide messages on the project, sub-committees of the GP, good governance practices, including health and hygiene, which have proved to be an which include independent Total Sanitation Campaign, effective vehicle of community quality checks, community technology options for sanitation, participation. The support monitoring, grievance redressal use of toilets, good practice case organizations have contributed measures, social audits, robust studies, informal education, along significantly towards mobilizing monitoring and evaluation, and with roles and responsibilities as well as capacitating the local sector-wide information system, at the state, district and village communities. User surveys for information disclosure and levels. IEC activities, mainly to confirm full acceptance and tracking progress of the schemes promote the decentralization satisfaction by the communities in all phases of the project. agenda and SWAp program, for water supply and sanitation have been carried out through schemes implemented under the Capacity building of all workshops, cross-visits, project. Since it was recognized stakeholders: Capacity building competitions, IEC stalls, television that the support organizations of all stakeholders was essential programs, etc. A couple of short would play the key role in for effective and efficient documentary films have been achieving effective community implementation of the project. prepared on the good practices participation, efforts were Therefore, a comprehensive currently being implemented made to ensure that they would capacity building plan was under the project. be selected and trained in an developed and included detailed appropriate manner. and programmed training Governance and accountability modules for: i) SWSM and processes adopted: Independent Social audit committee: This Program Management Unit; ii) reviews are an integral part of committee is constituted in each DWSMs and District Program the project processes, including water supply scheme. The Social Management Units; iii) change concurrent monitoring during Audit Committee performs the management and community- the scheme planning phase, following functions: i) ensures development skills for sector third party construction quality that all the committees follow the institutions; iv) general training checks, technical audits, social Procurement Manual; ii) reports activities for PRIs; and v) training audits and grievance redressal any violation or deviation of rules of support organizations and measures during the scheme to GP; iii) monitors the adherence support agencies. Special implementation phase. The of project principles and rules training programs have been project clearly defines the in selection of beneficiaries, developed and implemented roles and responsibilities of the implementation of sub projects through the local training beneficiary communities and and all decisions of UWSSC. 116 Lessons from the field Grievance redressal mechanism: of Public Administration has The project has largely The project provides for complete been engaged to conduct demonstrated that as long as a decentralization in the pre- the independent study on demand-responsive approach is planning, planning, procurement, sustainability perspectives. The adopted, communities are willing construction and O&M of water study would be completed by to contribute towards capital cost supply schemes at grassroot levels March 2011. and plan, implement, operate and where decisions are taken by the maintain their own schemes. The concerned UWSSC with assistance This project has been a trend project has demonstrated that of the GP and facilitation by the setter in the rural water supply an alternative delivery system support organization and DIA. and sanitation sector for adopting vis-à-vis the present top down a sector wide approach. The government-dominated system Grievance redressal at effective and efficient functioning is not only desirable but also UWSSC level: On receipt of a of implementing agencies has feasible in the sector. The capacity grievance, the UWSSC convenes a reinforced the hypothesis that of the communities and the NGOs community wide meeting and it is proper orientation and training, has been upgraded to such a put up before the members of the a mix of skills, experience and degree that the methodology UWSSC and the community. This gender can work in tandem to of the project can be process is facilitated by DIA and achieve positive results. It has successfully carried over to other the representatives of the support been proved that the partnership development areas. A gender organization and the GP. It is between village communities, balance approach is important noteworthy to mention here that NGOs and the government, where to ensure that both women and 146 out of total 154 grievances the government takes the role men have the same opportunities relating to various categories of facilitation and co-financing, to influence and control the are already attended to the has worked successfully. The new services and share their satisfaction of the complainant project has demonstrated benefits. Observation study since the inception of the project. that the communities can tours and exposure visits have efficiently and effectively been found to be an effective All steps are being taken during handle dispute resolutions, tool in creating necessary design, implementation and material procurement, financial awareness and in changing the maintenance stages to ensure transactions and record/ mindset of policy makers. The sustainability of schemes. book keeping in a satisfactory possibility of misappropriating The project is currently on- manner, when properly trained. and misusing the funds is minimal going and a periodic review Catchment area protection if transparency at each stage will be carried out to monitor works and water supply scheme is adhered to and monitored. sustainability. The project construction works should be Irrespective of the source of has designed a Sustainability implemented simultaneously funding, there should be a Evaluation Exercise to assess so that the sustainability of the uniform policy regarding capital the sustainability of completed tapped water source can be cost sharing as well as O&M. schemes which are more than monitored during the project Otherwise the current systems are one year old. The Indian Institute period itself. unsustainable. Inputs by: Kapil Lall, Director, Project Management Unit, Uttarakhand Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project, Mussorie Diversion Road, Makkawala, Dehradun, and Smita Mirsa, Senior, Economist, SASDU, World Bank 117 Notes Notes Notes Designed and Printed by: Roots Advertising Services Pvt. Ltd. Water and Sanitation Program Ministry of Rural Development The World Bank Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation 55 Lodi Estate, 9th Floor, Paryavaran Bhawan New Delhi 110 003, India CGO Complex, Lodi Road January 2011/1000 copies Phone: (91-11) 24690488, 24690489 New Delhi 110003, India Fax: (91-11) 24628250 Phone: (91-11) 24362705 E-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org Fax: (91-11) 24361062 Web site: www.wsp.org E-mail: jstm@nic.in Web site: www.ddws.nic.in/