37741 37741 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, N. W. Country Of ce Manila Washington D. C. 20433, U.S.A. 23rd Floor, The Taipan Place Tel: 202-473-1000 F. Ortigas Jr. Ave. (formerly Emerald Ave.) Fax:202-477-6391 Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Philippines www.worldbank.org Tel: 63-2-637-5855 to 64 Fax:63-2-637-5870; 917-3050 www.worldbank.org.ph December 2005 The Philippines The Philippines The Philippines Environment Monitor 2000 Environment Monitor 2002 Environment Monitor 2004 presented snapshots of the on air quality. provided updates on the state general environmental trends of the Philippine environment in the country. The Philippines The Philippines and natural resources. Environment Monitor 2001 Environment Monitor 2003 on solid waste management. on water quality. This document was prepared by a World Bank Team composed of Mdmes./Messrs. Bebet Gozun, Anna van der Heijden, Jitendra Shah (Task Team Leader), Maria Consuelo Sy, Josefo Tuyor, Maya G. Villaluz. The NORDECO team who assisted in drafting this report include: Arne Jensen, Aage Jørgensen, Flora Santos Leocadio, Rose-Liza Eisma-Osorio, Rina Maria Rosales, Alan White. The Hotspot maps produced were provided by Jessie Floren while the photographs were provided by: Finn Danielsen, Luna Ipat, Arne Jensen, Ingvar Bundgaard Jensen, Rose-Liza Eisma-Osorio, and Alan White. The document was peer reviewed by Messrs. Marea Hatziolos, Idah Pswarayi-Riddihough, Gilbert Braganza and Ronald Zweig of The World Bank. Overall management and technical guidance provided by Mdmes./Messrs Joachim von Amsberg, Teresa Serra, Magda Lovei, and Dan Biller are gratefully acknowledged. Ms. Anju Sachdeva coordinated the cover design (by Mr. James Cantrell), layout, and production. The document was printed at Raintree Trading & Publishing Corp., Metro Manila, Philippines This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. 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PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Foreword ................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iii Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. iv Scorecard ................................................................................................................................... vi Hot Spot Maps.......................................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations and Acronyms................................................................................................. xi 1. PHILIPPINE COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 1 Thousands of islands An abundance of species Importance of coastal ecosystems Resources of signi cantvalue Other ecosystem services 2. RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS .............................................................................. 7 Coral reefs: "Rainforests of the sea" Mangroves: a multiple-function resource Seagrass beds, a vital resource for underwater life Beaches, foreshore, and shoreline areas Fisheries Over shingand declining shstocks Biodiversity 3. COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES UNDER PRESSURE.............................. 21 Agriculture and forestry Urban and industrial development Tourism development Oil and gas exploration Minerals and mining Population growth and shconsumption Climate change 4. COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURES AND LOCAL LIVELIHOODS............... 30 Social conditions Gender and coastal resources management Lessons learned and opportunities: Improving local livelihoods 5. LEGISLATION, POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS, AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT........................................................................................ 38 Legislation and institutions Sector policies and plans Integrated coastal resource management 6. CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE.............................................................................. 48 References.................................................................................................................................. 54 Relevant Organizations and Websites................................................................................... 59 Philippines at a Glance TABLES 2.10 Per capita fisheries-related food available for 16 1.1 Philippines coastal data 1 consumption in the Philippines 3.1 Typical impacts of tourism activities on the 22 1.2 Key coastal habitats 2 coastal zone 1.3 Annual economic net benefi ts from Philippine 3 3.2 Volume of exports and imports of fi sh and 25 coral reefs fi shery products, 1997­2004 2.1 Total fi sh production and value by sector, 13 3.3 Value of exports and imports of fi sh and 25 Philippines, 1997­2004 fi shery products 1997­2004 2.2 Growth rates in fi sh production by sector, 13 3.4 Total catch, 1989­2003 26 Philippines, 1997­2004 3.5 Change in landings, Philippines vs. 27 2.3 Contribution of top species to total volume 14 benchmark, 1970­2003 of capture marine fi sheries production, 1997­2004 5.1 Sumilon Island marine reserve with sanctuary 43 and traditional use area 2.4 Contribution of top species to total aquaculture 14 production, Philippines, 1997­2004 5.2 The CRM process for local governments 47 in the Philippines 2.5 Estimated numbers of marine species 17 that occur in the Philippines TEXT BOXES 2.6 Threatened and legally protected marine 18 1.1 Marine aquarium fi shery and trade 4 species and their habitat requirements 1.2 Marine turtles: Worth more alive than dead 5 3.1 Environmental impacts from tourism on 23 1.3 Renewable energy from the sea 5 coastal habitats 1.4 Environmental waste disposal services 6 3.2 Projected population and fi sh consumption 26 2.1 BFAR study warns of fi sh shortage in Davao 16 levels, 1995­2020 Gulf in 2007 3.3 Endangered area of land along Manila Bay 29 2.2 Live reef food fi sh trade 19 coast in different sea level rise 2.3 Whale sharks: Delicacy or Tourist Attraction? 20 4.1 Microenterprise options for livelihood 37 improvements in poor coastal communities 3.1 Decades of mining destroyed an island 24 paradise 5.1 Major sectoral plans of relevance to coastal 42 and marine resources 3.2 Potential impacts of climate change and 28 sea-level rise on coastal systems 5.2 Number of MPAs by location and legal basis 45 4.1 Employment and food security 30 5.3 Size distribution of MPAs 45 4.2 Confl icts among fi sherfolk 31 5.4 Management rating of MPAs 45 4.3 Indigenous peoples 32 FIGURES 4.4 Involving young people in coastal resource 33 1.1 Important coastal ecosystems and habitats 2 management 2.1 Reefs at risk threat index 7 4.5 Successful community-based coastal tourism 34 experiences 2.2 Different threats to coral reefs 7 4.6 Seaweed farming in Port Barton, Palawan 36 2.3 Mangrove detrital food chain 8 5.1 Legislative framework 38 2.4 Mangroves and their ecological and 8 economic products 5.2 The fi ght of San Fernando City, La Union to 39 eliminate illegal fi shing 2.5 Mangrove resource decline in the Philippines 9 5.3 Licensing in the commercial fi shing sector 40 2.6 Exchange of mutual benefi ts between 11 5.4 Licensing in the municipal fi shing sector 41 mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef 5.5 Supporting fi sheries at Sumilon and Apo 44 2.7 Well or Groundwater contamination from 12 Islands improper location of sewage disposal system 5.6 Key elements for the sustainability of 46 2.8 Map of heavily exploited areas 15 integrated coastal resource management 2.9 Decline in average CPUE for hook and line 16 5.7 The importance of including all stakeholders 46 fi shing in six provinces 6.1 Money from conservation: lessons from Anilao 49 i PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 SOME OF THE world's richest ecosystems--composed of extensive coral reefs, sea-grass beds, and dense mangrove forests--can be found in the waters of the Philippine Islands. The country's coastline, including 7,100 islands, is one of the longest in the world. Communities on the coastline are heavily dependentonthesewatersfor shandotherresources.Yethabitatloss,unsustainable shingpractices, and continuing trade in endangered marine species are increasingly threatening coastal biodiversity and livelihoods. This publication, the sixth in the Philippines Environment Monitor (PEM) series, focuses on coastal andmarinemanagement.Previousreportspresentedandupdatedtrendsinthestateoftheenvironment (2000 and 2004), solid waste management (2001), air quality (2002), and water quality (2003). This edition highlights the degradation and loss of coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grasses. Only 4 to 5 percent of coral reefs are in excellent condition; more than 70 percent of the mangrove forests have been converted to aquaculture, logged, or reclaimed for other uses; and half of all sea-grass beds have either been lost or are severely degraded. Beaches and seashores have come under pressure from rapid population growth and uncontrolled development. One of the consequences of this coastal degradation is the decline in sheriescatch-per-unit effort. In addition, the sheriesindustry and ecosystems are suffering from overexploitation, destructive shingpractices, and corruption. While existing laws and regulations provide a basic framework for coastal management, in practice coastal management has been inef cientand piecemeal. This report ndsthat improved public participation in coastal law enforcement and heightened national awareness of the state of these resources are crucial in improving management. Implementation of the proposed Integrated Coastal Resources Management Plan would also go a long way in reversing coastal degradation. This publication is divided into the following sections: (1) Introduction to the Philippines' coastal and marine resources; (2) Status and economic signi cance;(3) Pressures on ecosystems and resources; (4) Links to local livelihoods; (5) Legislation, institutions and policies; and (6) Key challenges ahead. This Monitor is the outcome of a series of stakeholder consultations involving national agencies, civil society, academia, and independent researchers, and it was prepared, reviewed, and nalizedwith comments from counterparts. Annex 1 lists all the sources on which the text is based. We hope that this Monitor will raise awareness of the technical and policy aspects of integrated coastal management and improve local capacity to implement the far-reaching reforms needed to protect valuable coastal resources. Maria Teresa Serra Joachim von Amsberg Sector Director, Environment and Social Development Country Director, Philippines East Asia and Paci cRegion East Asia and Paci cRegion The World Bank The World Bank ii THIS PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 on Coastal and Marine Resource Management is a product of collaborative effort of various government agencies, local government units (LGUs), academe, private sector, donor agencies, civil society organizations at both the national and local levels. The nancial contribution of the Danish Government is appreciated together with the valuable contributions of people who provided assistance in the preparation of this Monitor. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES Palawan State University USAID Economic Governance Department of Environment and Project Natural Resources International Center for Research Gem Castillo Asst. Secretary Analiza Teh in Agroforestry Annette Menez Asst. Director Teresita Mundita-Lim Rodel Lasco Dir. Romeo Acosta USAID Robert Jara CIVIL SOCIETY AND MEDIA Joy Jochico and team Marizel Calpito Environment and Broadcast Circle Rene Acosta Arthur Garcia Elizabeth Roxas Florendo Barangan Water and Sanitation Program William Panaypayon Haribon Jemima Sy Rogelio Trinidad Margarita Lavides Felix Mendoza Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Donna Gordove Sagip Pasig Movement Zusammenarbeit Bebot Corpuz Uarsten Heinrich Philippine Information Agency Meth Jimenez Lyndon Plantilla LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS Philippine Rural Reconstruction Palawan Corporate Services Division Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Movement Preselina Planas Resources Isagani Serrano Dir. Malcolm Sarmiento Palawan Council for Sustainable Sandra Victoria Arcamo Sustainable Coastal Tourism in Asia Development Staff Mercy Tan Grace Favila Nelson Devanadera National Anti-Poverty Commission Conservation International Municipal Government of Palawan Juanita Nartea Romy Trono Governor Joel Reyes Various Municipalities National Economic and World Wide Funds Development Authority Abigail Dumaup Province of La Union Jan Andrew Zubiri Joel Palma Mayor Mary Jane Ortega Edgardo Tongson Vice-Mayor Alvin Fernandez Philippine Coast Guard Lorenzo Tan Antonio Lalisan San Fernando City ENRO Staff, DONORS Sevilla Center CONGRESS Asian Development Bank Celso Jucutan House of Representatives - Nasimul Islam Committee on Ecology Loreta Rufo Municipal Government of Mabini Roselita Paloma Masaki Omura Mayor Rowell Sandoval Luzviminda Villas ACADEME AND RESEARCH USAID-FISH INSTITUTE Cesar Luna League of Municipalities UP Marine Science Institute Teresa Oledan-Grover Joel Wagan Dr. Edgardo Gomez Marco Carreon Aquarium Council Silliman University Arun Abraham Dr. Angel Alcala Domingo Ochavillo iii PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 THE 2005 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR looks at the history and effectiveness of coastal and marine resources management. Philippine coastal waters contain some of the world's most diverse ecosystems considered as the center of marine biodiversity in the world. It is characterized by extensive coral reefs, sea grass beds, dense mangrove forests, and pristine and beautiful beaches. The country stretches 2,000 kilometers from north to south and consists of 7,100 islands with a total coastline of 36,289 kilometers, one of the longest in the world. The coastal and marine resources have signi cant economic value. Healthy coastal and marine ecosystems can provide the Philippines a sustainable supply of goods--such as sh and related products, seaweeds, algae and salt--and services, such as shoreline protection, maintaining water quality, sustaining biodiversity, transportation, and recreation. The annual economic bene tsfrom the Philippines' coastal ecosystems are estimated at PhP 180 billion ($3.5 billion). The economic costs of environmental degradation of these resources are signi cant.It is estimated that 1 square kilometer of healthy coral reef generates an average of PhP 2.5 million ($50,000) from shingand tourism. As a whole, Philippine coral reefs contribute at least PhP 70 billion ($1.4 billion) annually to the economy, about 1.4 percent of GDP. With such rich resources, it is ironic that coastal communities who depend directly on shand other coastal and marine resources for their livelihood are among the poorest in the Philippines with 4 of 10 coastal residents living under the poverty line. Household income levels are as low as PhP 24,000 ($470) per year, compared to the national average of PhP 144,000 ($2,820). With the average annualcatchofamunicipal sherreducedto30percentofwhatitwasin1991,partlyduetocompetition with the commercial shing eet, over shing and destructive shing practices, local coastal communities are increasingly turning to alternative livelihoods in order to survive. This issue of equity (or bene tsharing) in coastal resource management needs to be addressed. The present status of coastal ecosystems in the Philippines is a cause for alarm. Almost all Philippine coral reefs are at risk due to the impact of human activities, and only 4 to 5 percent remain in excellent condition. More than 70 percent of the nation's mangrove forests have been converted to aquaculture, logged, or reclaimed for other uses. Half of the seagrass beds have either been lost or severely degraded, and the rate of degradation is increasing. Beaches and foreshore areas are under increasing pressures from rapid population growth and uncontrolled development, which leads to erosion, sedimentation, and water quality problems. The economic costs of environmental degradation of these resources are signi cant.The economic loss of over-fishing is estimated at about PhP 6.5 billion ($125 million) per year in lost shcatch. Red tides, which are harmful algal blooms largely caused by increasing pollution loads, produced yearly losses in exports of around PhP 1.6 billion ($30 million) during the 1990s. The human toll also is signi cant: Premature deaths among the working population due to water pollution in Manila Bay (harmful algal bloom) have an immeasurable human impact and are estimated to cause productivity loss of PhP 310 million annually ($ 6 million). Addressing the problems of increasing urbanization and human population pressure on coastal resources--contributing to land-based pollution, sedimentation, coastal degradation, and iv over shing--willrequire improved governance and mainstreaming the poverty reduction agenda across many sectors that affect the health of coastal ecosystems. Only through an integrated approach to coastal management can the productive potential of the Philippines' rich natural marine heritage be realized and its contribution to the welfare of coastal communities achieved. Existing national laws and regulations already provide a basic framework for coastal management. But the existing framework is not suf cientto achieve coordinated and integrated coastal resource management that cuts across economic sectors and levels of government to resolve con ictsover resource use and broaden the distribution of bene tsto society. The current laws and regulations need to be simpli ed.An international comparison to other developing countries with similar coastal resources found that the Philippines is using and managing its coastal resources less ef ciently. Although the country has more than 30 years of experience in the implementation of coastal resource management, including successfully pioneering co-management approaches for the establishment of marine protected areas and deriving continuous bene tsfrom better stewardship of coastal resources (such as the Bohol experience, Gilutongan Island, and Apo Island), these experiences need to be scaled up.Thereisawidespreadfragmentationofdevelopmentinitiativesthroughoutthecountryaggravated by the lack of a national champion. Applying an integrated approach to managing coastal resources-- that is, gathering information on the goods and services that can be derived from these resources in relation to the needs of society, and coordinating local community and government involvement in the use of these resources--is often dif cult,but the bene tsare clear. An integrated coastal resources management (ICRM) framework has been introduced in several LGUs and widely endorsed, but still lacks of cial sanction by the national executive and legislative bodies. Once sanctioned, it can signi cantlyhelp to accelerate the sustainable development, management, and conservation of coastal resources. For the Philippines, to establish sound coastal resource management that ensures the protection and sustainability of its rich ecosystems as well as local livelihoods while contributing to the national economy, several key challenges remain: 1. Increasing the protection of coastal resources under threat through: a. Increasing the number and size of effectively managed MPAs and forming MPA networks in ecologically connected and critical areas. b. Co-management regimes to promote and introduce innovative and sustainable nancing schemes that also allow local communities to bene tmore directly from the resource. A good example of this is the collection of user fees from resource users, such as in Mabini, Batangas; Gilutongan Island in Cordova, and Cebu and Apo Island in Negros Oriental. c. Sustainable management of sheriesresources through ef cientregulatory options, such as an effective shinglicense system that would control access to shingareas and spawning aggregation sites and de nethe type of gear that can be used. v PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 d. Establishing limits to individual catch, and setting ecosystem boundaries and parameters of sheriesand their supporting habitat systems based on scienti cassessments and through management of marine protected areas. e. Building the capacity of communities to address vulnerability issues, including the prevention and mitigation of local and global environmental impacts. 2. Improving local livelihoods for communities in coastal areas through: a. Mainstreaming the poverty reduction agenda--particularly for coastal areas--into the national development agenda by providing alternative livelihoods that conserve coastal resources, as well as promoting small and medium enterprise development through market analysis and offering support during initial years. b. Reducing population pressure through improved reproductive health practices, providing more opportunities for women and secure tenure. c. Improving shstocks and sheriesyields by reducing erosion and degradation of critical estuarine habitats and by restoring or rehabilitating other important coastal ecosystems, especially coral reefs. d. Maximizing the value and income potential by investing in post-harvest facilities to reduce losses. 3. The Way Forward: Strengthening and simplifying institutional arrangements through: a. An integrated coastal management framework that strengthens the capacity of stakeholders to work across sectors and through layers of government to improve stewardship of resources and to build capacity for coastal management by supporting champions, as well as the establishment of ICRM training and technical assistance to core groups at the national, regional, provincial, municipal, and barangay levels. One national agency can be identi ed to serve as a champion for both the management of the habitat and sheryas that would be best for ICM. b. Improved coastal law enforcement through streamlining and integrating the present enforcement, ghtingcorruption, and promoting stronger participation of local organizations. Promoting a balance between enforcement and voluntary compliance with environmentally sound practices by linking healthy ecosystems to sustainable economic growth, such as in the coastal tourism industry, which is largely dependent on environmental and cultural resources. c. Strengthening public awareness, education, innovative multi-stakeholder initiatives, social marketing, and public information dissemination, such as in the Beach EcoWatch programs. d. Improving access of local governments and coastal communities to information that will inform and improve decisions affecting services from coastal and marine ecosystems. Finding ways to implement challenges identi edand choosing the development path that protects coastal and marine resources will contribute to economic growth in the Philippines. Otherwise stopping and reversing the current trend in resource degradation will not happen. The business-as- usual will result in irreversible damage, possible collapse of these resources, and further marginalizing the coastal communities and endangering their health and nutrition. vi INDICATOR GENERAL PRIORITY TREND STATUS AND COMMENTS LEVEL State of coastal and marine resources Condition of Although reefs are considered to be declining nationwide, active coral reefs coastal and marine protected areas in the Central Visayas are showing improvements in coral cover and fish abundances. Mangrove cover In 1918, mangroves covered 450,000 hectares as opposed to 138,000 hectares today. Presently, mangroves are relatively stable and even increasing in selected areas of management in Visayas so that the overall rate of decline has lessened. Seagrass cover About half of the seagrass beds have been lost or degraded since 1950, and the rate of degradation is increasing due to land reclamation and pollution. Beach forest Almost all beach forest has been converted into settlements and coconut cover plantations. Larger blocks of intact beach forest exist only in very remote areas such as the coastline of Isabela Province, Luzon islets in the Sulu Sea, and the South China Sea including coastal protected areas of St. Paul's Subterranean River in Palawan. Fish stocks The main fish species and marine organisms are showing severe signs of overfishing. Despite the continued expansion of the country's commercial fishing fleet, total fish catch levelled off in the early 1990s Catch per unit All fisheries are showing decline in total catch and per unit effort (total effort number of fish caught per unit of time) despite increasing effort. Fish are being harvested at a level 30 to 50 percent higher than the natural production capacity. Protection of Many of the important marine species are threatened or have disappeared marine species from most of their former breeding ranges. State of coastal Coastal erosion is increasing in areas adjacent to or near urban erosion development centers. Sea level rise will exacerbate coastal erosion, especially in low-lying areas or near development. Pressure on coastal zone Population in About 62 percent of the population lives in the coastal zone. The Philippines coastal zone and has one of the highest population growth rates in the world with an average its growth annual rate of increase of 2.75 percent during the last century. Solid waste The generation of solid waste continues to increase from a minimum of generation 10.67 million ton per year in 2000 to a projected 14.05 million ton per year in 2010. Waste generation is highest in large cities and densely populated areas. Water pollution Most shore ecosystems near urbanized areas are threatened by nutrient loading. A recent study of 12 bays (major fishing grounds) found that organic nutrients were affecting water quality including high levels of heavy metal in some areas. Demand for Estimates show that if the present rapid population growth and declining fish and fishery trend in fish production continue, only 10 kilograms of fish will be available products per Filipino per year by 2010, as opposed to 28.5 kilograms per year in 2003. Erosion and Logging and unsustainable farming practices in recent decades have sedimentation led to increasing soil erosion and frequent flooding. Soil erosion causes sedimentation that reduces light, smothers marine organisms, and prevents recovery areas that have been silted over. Low Priority Medium Priority High Priority vii PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 INDICATOR GENERAL PRIORITY TREND STATUS AND COMMENTS LEVEL Institutional capacity and budget allocation for marine and coastal resources management Government staff The number of staff is increasing in municipal governments, cities, and in allocated to CRM selected provinces as a result of the emphasis placed on CRM. At regional and national levels, staff size is generally decreasing due to the small national budgets. Number of LGU About 97 staff members trained in 2001; 446 in 2002; 2,076 in 2003; staff trained in and 286 in 2004. (These numbers do not necessarily include all local CRM government units (LGU) staff, and include representatives of POs, fisherfolk, and other coastal stakeholders.) National level Over the past seven years, regular budgets of the Department of allocation Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for CRM have been decreasing. (percent of total Total budget allocation for foreign-assisted projects doing CRM, however, expenditure) has increased, particularly for the last three years. LGU level The number of LGUs allocating annual budget for CRM and the amount of allocation these allocations has increased during the past decade. Overall, average budgets increased from a baseline of PhP 107,981 in 1995 to PhP 291,675 in 2002. Coastal Resource Management Number of LGUs Of the 822 coastal municipalities and 25 coastal cities, 113 have achieved achieving CRM the basic benchmarks of CRM (budget, management, plan, law enforcement, benchmarks or other best practice in place). These LGUs cover 3600 kilometers or about 20 percent of the shoreline. Percent marine In 2005, about 26 percent of 362 legally established MPAs (out of a total protected of over 500 MPAs) from 150 municipalities in 36 provinces were managed areas (MPA) in a sustainable manner, and 44 percent were developing management under effective systems. The remaining 30 percent lack sufficient data to evaluate and management generally lack management. Percent of coral Three percent of coral reef habitat (or about 780 of the 26,000 square reef habitat kilometers of reef in the country) lies within an MPA. within MPA Increase in fish The increasing number of effective, although small, MPAs with no-take zones attributed to or "sanctuaries" is increasing the biomass of fish and fish yields in their spillover from immediate vicinity. (About 10 percent of fish catch from the Apo Island area MPAs was attributed to spillover.) Population Access to sanitation is rising slowly. Urban access to piped sewerage in with access to Metro Manila is very low (8 percent) as the investments in sewerage are sanitation and inadequate. Metro Cebu and Metro Davao have no centralized sewerage sewerage systems at all. Poverty among Eighty percent of municipal fishing households are living below the poverty municipal fishing line. This can be attributed to a lack of alternative sources of income and households decreasing catch per unit effort for most municipal fishers. Income of fishing Fishing households have an average annual income equivalent to half or households over even less of the national average of PhP 144,000 per year (US$ 2820). time Low Priority Medium Priority High Priority viii ix PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 x ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS AFMA Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act IPRA Indigenous People's Rights Act AFMP Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Plan ICLARM International Center for Living Aquatic Resources ARCDEV Sustainable Philippine Archipelagic Development Management Framework ICRM Integrated Coastal Resources Management BAS Bureau of Agricultural Statistics LGU Local Government Unit BESWMC Barangay Ecological Solid Waste Committee MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Marine Pollution from Ships CABCOM Cabinet Committee on Marine and Ocean Affairs MFO Municipal Fisheries Ordinances CCEF Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation MGB Mines and Geosciences Bureau CITES Convention on the International Trade of MPA Marine Protected Areas Endangered Species MPSA Mineral Production Sharing Agreement CLEC Coastal Law Enforcement Council NAMRIA National Mapping and Resource Information CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan Authority CMMO Coastal and Marine Management Office NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan CPUE Catch Per Unit Effort NCIP National Commission on Indigenous Peoples CRM Coastal Resource Management NFARMC National Fisheries and Aquatic Resource CRMP Coastal Resource Management Project Management Council DA Department of Agriculture NGO Non-Governmental Organization DAO Department Administrative Order NIPAS National Integrated Protected Areas System DECS Department of Education, Culture and Sports NWRB National Water Resources Board DENR Dept. of Environment and Natural Resources OBST Olango Island Bird and Landscape Tour DFA Department of Foreign Affairs OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion DILG Department of Interior and Local Governments PAMB Protected Areas Management Boards DND Department of National Defence PAWB Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau DO Dissolved Oxygen PEA Public Estates Office DOE Department of Energy PEMSEA Partnership in Environmental Management for the DOT Department of Tourism Seas of East Asia EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) PCMARD Philippine Council for Marine and Aquatic Research EIA Environmental Impact Assessment and Development EMB Environmental Management Bureau PCG Philippine Coast Guard ENRAP Environmental and Natural Resources Accounting PCRA Participatory Coastal Resources Appraisal Project PHP Philippine Peso EO Executive Order PN Philippine Navy FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United PNP Philippine National Police Nations PRA Public Reclamation Authority (formerly PEA) FARMC Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Council PO People's Organization FLA Fishpond Lease Agreement PPA Philippine Ports Authority FLC Foreshore Lease Contract PTA Philippine Tourism Authority FMB Forest Management Bureau RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance FPIC Free and Prior Informed Consent SAFDZ Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries Development GDP Gross Domestic Product Zones GOLD Governance and Local Democracy Project UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea IFARMC Integrated Fisheries and Aquatic Resource USAID United States Agency for International Development Management Council WRI World Resources Institute IPAF Integrated Protected Areas Fund WWF World Wildlife Fund Unless otherwise noted, all dollars are US Dollars 1 USD = 54 Philippines peso (PhP) (December 2005) All tons are metric tons (MT) (1000 kilograms); A billion is a 1,000 million. xi 1. PHILIPPINES COASTAL & MARINE RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION THOUSANDS OF ISLANDS. With its thousands of diversity of marine life. Factors that contribute to islands, the Philippines has one of the longest this exceptional range of biodiversity include: coastlines in the world--estimated at 36,289 · A warm climate and stable water temperatures kilometers. The coastline extends 2,000 kilometers (rarely below 18° Celcius); from north to south, with 25 major cities lying · Abundant sunlight to fuel the photo-synthesis on the coast. It is estimated that more than 60 process that supports the growth of algae, percent of the nation's total population of 87.8 coral, and other organisms; million (July 2005 estimate) lives in the coastal · Relatively low sediment loads, allowing light zone. Table 1.1 provides basic data about the to pass deep into the water; Philippines' coastal geography and population. · Generally low freshwater inputs that maintain a salinity level between 30 and 36 parts per Table 1.1 Philippine Coastal Data. thousand; Number of islands 7,100 · Currents, clean water, and hard substrates that Total land area 300,000 km2 provide optimal conditions for corals and Coastline 36,289 km other aquatic life to thrive (White 2001). Territorial Sea 679,800 km2 (up to 12 nautical miles) Territorial waters, incl. EEZ 2.2 million km2 Coastal waters 226,000 km2 Oceanic waters 1.93 million km2 Coastal provinces 64 (out of 79) Coastal municipalities 822 (out of 1,502) Total coastal population 64.7 million (2000) Population density in coastal 227 persons per km2 areas, year 1990 Population density in coastal 286 persons per km2 areas, year 2000 No. of inhabitants per 2,467 persons kilometer of coastline (2000) Source: http://www.census.gov.ph. Coral trout is often used as an indicator to monitor the condition of coral reefs. The country depends heavily on its rich coastal Photo: Ingvar Bundgaard Jensen. and marine resources for the many economic, employment, and biodiversity values and services Importance of coastal ecosystems. The coastal they provide. zone is the interface where the land meets the ocean. The Philippines' diverse coastal zone An abundance of species. Philippine waters contain consists of a variety of tropical ecosystems, some of the world's richest ecosystems, including sandy beaches, rocky headlands, sand characterized by extensive coral reefs, sea-grass dunes, coral reefs, mangroves, sea-grass beds, beds, and dense mangrove forests. Blessed with a wetlands, estuaries, and lagoons (Table 1.2). The sunny tropical climate, waters enriched with various ecosystems are interconnected, making it nutrients from the land, and driven by the wind, virtually impossible to alter one feature of the the country supports an exceptionally high coastal zone without affecting another, either directly or indirectly (Figure 1.1). 1 Figure 1.1 Important Coastal Ecosystems and Habitats. Source: Maragos et al. 1983. Table 1.2 Key Coastal Habitats. Beaches An area of unstable unconsolidated sediments like sand or gravel deposited along the shoreline. Beaches are subject to erosion (removal of material) and accretion (deposition of material) produced by waves, wind, and tidal currents. Coral Simple marine animals that live symbiotically with algae. In the symbiotic relationship, the algae provide the coral with nutrients, while the coral provide the algae with a structure to live in. Coral animals secrete calcium carbonate to produce a hard external skeleton. Coral reef Wave and current resistant calcareous structures formed in situ from the skeletons of corals and other organisms. They constitute the largest biogenic structures on the planet and support assemblages of living corals and many other organisms, including fish, mollusks, marine worms, crustaceans, algae, and sponges. Estuaries A semi-enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where nutrient-rich fresh water meets with salty ocean water. Foreshore The intertidal part of a beach or the part of the shorefront lying between the beach head (or upper limit of wave wash at high tide) and the mean low water mark. The foreshore is legally defined as 40 meters inland from the mean high tide. Lagoons A body of seawater that is almost completely cut off from the ocean by a barrier beach or the body of seawater that is enclosed by an atoll. Mangroves Tree wetlands located on the coastlines in warm tropical climates. Sea-grass Areas of salt-tolerant plants that occur in shallow near-shore waters, estuaries, lagoons, and adjacent to beds coral reefs. They hold sediment in place, support a rich detrital community, and provide food and habitat for many important near-shore species. Source: Castro and Huber 1997. 2 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Resources of significant value. Coastal marine attractions are the most important ecosystems are valuable in terms of the goods tourism destinations. Tourism generates revenue and services they provide (direct use values); through a number of different sources such as the ecological functions, which indirectly recreational user fees, lodging, transportation, support economic activity (indirect use values); food, and souvenirs. Tourism also leads to and the options for direct or indirect use of higher employment rates and increased incomes these ecosystems in the future (option use for businesses related to the tourism sector. values). Coastal ecosystems also have non-use values; for example, individuals derive Table 1.3 Annual Economic Net Benefits from satisfaction from the aesthetic value of Philippine Coral Reefs. ecosystems and the knowledge that they Resource Use (Direct and Indirect) Value ($ Million) will continue to exist for future generations Sustainable fisheries 620 (existence and bequest values). Coastal protection (erosion 326 prevention) The coastal areas of the Philippines provide a Tourism and recreation 108 continuous supply of goods--fish, oil, gas, Aesthetic/biodiversity value 10 minerals, salt, and construction materials-- (willingness to pay) and services such as shoreline protection, Total net annual benefits 1,064 sustaining biodiversity, maintaining water quality, Net present value 9,063 transportation, and recreation. Sources: Burke et al. 2002; White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998. The direct benefits from mangroves have been estimated to be more than $600 per hectare per year in fish production and potential sustainable wood harvest. The annual direct benefits in the Philippines from mangroves are therefore at least $83 million per year (White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998). It has been estimated that coral reefs alone contribute at least $1.064 billion annually to the economy (see Table 1.3). Locally, 1 square kilometer of healthy coral reef with some tourism potential produces net A growing tourism industry catering to scuba divers is providing much needed revenue to local communities. revenues ranging from $29,000 to $113,000 Photo: Ingvar Bundgaard Jensen. (White and Trinidad 1998; White et. al. 2000). These revenue potentials are realistic, since a large proportion of visitors to the Philippines In 2004, 2.3 million tourists generated $1.9 billion spend time on a beach or swim or dive in a coral in tourist receipts (Department of Tourism 2004). reef environment. This is a 20 percent increase over the volume of arrivals recorded in 2003. Visitor receipts in 2004 Tourism is a major source of income and also gained a double-digit growth at 30.7 employment for the Philippines. Coastal and percent. 3 fisheries (excluding reef fish) were estimated to yield production values of $741 million in 2003. The industry employs also more than 1 million people (5 percent of the national labor force), with 68 percent employed in the municipal sector and 28 percent in the commercial and aquaculture sectors (ADB 2003). The Philippines also accounts for 43 percent of the marine aquarium fish and 36 percent of the invertebrates traded globally (Global Marine Aquarium Database 2003). Box 1.1 describes the Tourists receive a welcome drink upon arrival to a marine aquarium fishery and trade in the community-based ecotourism destination. Philippines. Photo: Coastal Resource Management Project. Finally, the hunting and collection of eggs An estimated 6.2 million people were employed from marine turtles are also important sources in tourism-related businesses in 1998. of income for many coastal communities. But marine turtles may have an even higher monetary The Philippines is among the largest fish value when kept alive (Box 1.2). producers in the world. The commercial, municipal and aquaculture fisheries account Other ecosystem services. Other values from for 36, 30 and 24 percent of the total annual marine and coastal resources in the Philippines fisheries yield, respectively. Its annual total include the huge potential source of wave fisheries yield is estimated to be worth around energy from the ocean (Box 1.3) and the $70 to 110 billion PhP, equivalent to about 2 to environmental waste disposal services that marine 4 percent of its gross domestic product over the waters offer (Box 1.4). years (Barut et al. 1997 and Table 2.1). Municipal Box 1.1 Marine Aquarium Fishery and Trade. The collection and trade of marine ornamentals is present in about 100 of the approximately 800 coastal municipalities in the Philippines, and in 38 (out of 80) of its provinces. With a total value of $7.3 million (2004), the trade supports the livelihoods of 4,000 to 7,000 households of part time and full time collectors and local traders of marine ornamentals. There are approximately 70 exporters of marine ornamentals, mostly based in Manila with some located in Cebu. While the marine aquarium industry provides livelihoods to a significant number of households, the prevalent use of destructive collection methods--such as using cyanide and breaking of corals--and overfishing, caused by high mortality and poor husbandry, contribute to the deterioration of the Philippine coastal ecosystems. The Marine Aquarium Council addresses these problems by setting standards for best practices in the trade and assessing compliance to these standards through a third party certification system. Source: The Marine Aquarium Council, www.aquariumcouncil.org. 4 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Box 1.2 Marine Turtles: Worth More Alive Than Dead. The monetary value of marine turtles is remarkable. Trade in marine turtle products for consumption is estimated to be worth millions of dollars annually. But marine turtles may be even more worth when kept alive, according to a new international study. The study analyzed the consumptive use of marine turtles-- including use for meat, shell, eggs, bone, and leather--at nine case study sites and found that the gross revenue from this use of marine turtles reached an average of $582,000 per study site per year. The direct beneficiaries from consumptive use vary from a handful to several hundred, including the fishermen and egg collectors in communities close to marine turtle feeding areas and Green sea turtle. nesting beaches. Other beneficiaries are traders and other Photo: Author. intermediaries. The study also took a close look at the non-consumptive use of marine turtles and found that the average gross revenue for nine case studies where non-consumptive use, such as tourism, was a major revenue generator was almost $1.7 million per year. The average gross revenue for four sites where marine turtles are one of many attractions was $40,791 per year. The overall conclusion of the study was that the non-consumptive use of marine turtles generates more revenue, has greater economic multiplying effects and more potential for economic growth, creates more support for management, and generates proportionally more jobs and social development and employment opportunities for women than consumptive use. Source: Treong and Drews, WWF 2004. Box 1.3 Renewable Energy from the Sea. The oceans are considered one of the best potential sources of renewable energy. Although current technologies for these ocean energy systems are not yet economically competitive with conventional energy systems, it is important to note that Philippine waters provide excellent conditions for ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems in sites accessible to populated regions such as Manila and Davao. With new developments in wave energy conversion systems, the Philippines' moderate wave energy resources (an average of 33 kilowatt per meter per year at the Pacific side and 35 kilowatt per meter per year at the South China Sea) will be more than sufficient to provide Renewable energy from the sea. power to small islands. The strong and continuous currents in the Surigao Photo: Author. and San Bernardino Straits are also potential sites for sea current systems. Energy from the sea is a sustainable resource that will help reduce the dependence upon fossil fuels. It also produces no liquid or solid pollution and has little visual impact. Source: Heruella 1993. 5 Box 1.4 Environmental Waste Disposal Services. The marine environment has a huge capacity to absorb wastes from human activities. While there is a limit on how much marine waters can absorb before they become so polluted that habitats, fish stocks, and other resources suffer, an estimate of the value of this service does indicate its importance. In 1995, for example, the total value of environmental waste disposal services in the Philippines was an estimated $428 million, according to the Environmental and Natural Resources Accounting Project (ENRAP). The project performed these kinds of estimates for both air and water (surface and marine) and based its findings on the amount polluters are willing to pay for the privilege of discharging wastes into the environment, or alternatively, on the prospective cost of reducing pollution to a non-damaging level. The valuation exercise took into account water pollution from industrial processes, domestic effluents (mainly from households), and surface runoff (agriculture, forestry, and urban sources). Pollutants considered included biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids, total dissolved solids, oil, nitrates, and phosphates. Sources: Orbeta 1994; Morales et al. 1996. Clean and pristine coastal waters create opportunities for ecotourism and increased fish catch. Source: Authors. 6 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Coral reefs, sea-grass beds, and mangrove Destructive fishing and overfishing are the forests are critical resources supporting most prevalent problems affecting the coral reefs ecosystems and livelihoods in coastal areas of the Philippines, while other major threats of the Philippines. This chapter explores the include sedimentation and coastal development. role and current status of these resources, as Furthermore, coral reefs are the most sensitive well as those of beaches, other shoreline areas of all ecosystems to global warming, pollution, and fisheries. and new diseases. Figure 2.2 illustrates the threats to coral reefs separately as well as combined. Coral reefs ­"rainforests of the sea." Coral reefs are widespread and can be found throughout Figure 2.1 Reefs at Risk Threat Index. virtually the entire archipelago, except perhaps India ndia in some areas of north and south-central Belieze Belieze Mindanao and east of northern Luzon. The Jamaica Jamaica approximately 26,000 square kilometers of Thailand Thailand Philippine reefs (Gomez et al. 1994; Burke et al. Dominican Rep. Dominican Rep. Indonesia Indonesia 2002) provide many direct and indirect Malaysia Malaysia benefits, including food, livelihoods, recreation, VVietnam e a protection from erosion, and extremely high Philippines Philippines levels of biodiversity. 0% 20% 40% 60% 6 % 80% 100% low w medium edium high high very high ry high Nationwide surveys conducted from the 1970s Source: World Resources Institute 2002. to the 1990s found that 4 to 5 percent of the reefs were in excellent condition, 25 to 27 percent Figure 2.2 Different Threats to Coral Reefs. good, 39 to 42 percent fair, and 27 to 31 percent poor (Gomez and Alcala 1979; Licuanan and Gomez 2000). Recent analyses of some 50 sites indicate declining trends in the percentage of coral cover and reef fish abundance in all regions of the Philippines. One exception is the Visayan Seas area where the many coastal resource management programs and marine protected areas (MPAs) in recent years have helped curtail illegal fishing and encouraged more sustainable management efforts. The general trend is negative for the coral reefs in the Philippines. A recent international analysis Source: World Resources Institute 2002. of coral reef status found that the Philippines had the most degraded reefs of all sampled Historically rich coral reef and sea-grass countries. This study estimated that 98 percent of coastal habitat areas--such as the Danajon coral reefs in the Philippines were at risk from Double Barrier Reef in northern Bohol Island; human activities, with 70 percent at high or very portions of western Palawan Island; the high risk (Figure 2.1). Lingayen Gulf in northern Luzon; and parts of 7 Marinduque, Mindoro and selected areas of commercially important fish species (mullet, other major islands--have mostly been degraded tilapia, eel and especially milkfish), shrimps, by sedimentation. Destructive fishing is also a prawns, mollusks, crabs, and sea cucumbers. culprit, but in areas where it is being slowed and Fry that gather in mangrove areas are very stopped, it is sedimentation that continues to important for aquaculture. Important aspects of take its toll on water quality and coral reefs mangroves are depicted in Figures 2.3 and 2.4. and their associated fisheries. Once the reefs are covered in sediment, recovery--if it takes place at all--is very slow. Figure 2.3 Mangrove Detrital Food Chain. Mangroves--A multiple-function resource. Mangroves protect coasts from storms, erosion, and floods, and help purify water. They are important feeding sites for many Source: Authors. Figure 2.4 Mangroves and their Ecological and Economic Products. Healthy corals are vital for both fish stocks and tourism. Photo: Ingvar Bundgaard Jensen. Source: Modified from Berjak et al. 1977. 8 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Figure 2.5 Mangrove Resource Decline in the Philippines. Areas on the coast in Negros that used to be covered by Sources: Brown & Fischer 1918; DENR 1988, 1998; White and de mangroves now feature fishponds. Leon 2004. Photo: Alan White. Mangrove coverage in the Philippines has declined from around 450,000 hectares in 1918 to only about 120,000 hectares in 1995 (Figure 2.5). A recent interpretation of 2002 satellite images by the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) and the Forest Management Board (FMB) indicated a total area of 248,813 hectares. This estimate, however, has not been validated on the ground. The rate of exploitation in the mid-1980s was highest in the Visayas. Satellite image analyses indicate that Mindanao has the most mangrove areas in the country (29 percent of the country's Replanting of mangroves contributes to the stability of mangrove cover in the country. total) while Luzon and Mindoro have the least. Source: Authors. Old-growth mangrove forests are mainly found in Mindanao (4,582 hectares) and Palawan (5,317 hectares) (Zamora 1990). settlement. Conversion to fishponds represents about 289,000 hectares of the losses noted Mangrove cover nationwide is now relatively above. These fishponds mainly cultivate milkfish stable, with some increases seen in areas and shrimps (Primavera 1993). The use of of intense coastal resource management, mangrove forest wood on the part of local particularly around Bohol and Siquijor Islands populations (if beyond sustainable levels) also in the Visayas. contributes to the decline in this type of forest. Mangrove forests have been converted to The conversion of mangroves into fishponds aquaculture, salt production, and human normally results in an overall loss of coastal 9 Mangrove reforestation in coastal villages in Tinambac, Camarines Sur, has improved the local fish catch. The new mangrove forest brought back red snapper fish The people of Pangangan Island off Calape, Bohol, have species that had previously disappeared due to lack of found in mangroves a natural way to protect their island's habitat. only road link to the mainland from typhoon damage. Source: BFAR Region 5 website. The four kilometer long causeway is protected by mangroves planted in recent decades by local schoolchildren. fish farms when compared to, for example, Source: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, Thai shrimp farms, which have an average December 1998, Vol. 1, No. 12. size of 2 hectares or less (Primavera 2005). By reducing farm sizes, fish farmers could productivity and fisheries yield. Fishponds increase pond yields and old pond areas could pollute mangrove swamps with organic and instead be used for replanting mangroves. inorganic fertilizers, chemical toxins, and During the past decade or so, the loss of antibiotics. The use of seawater for fishponds mangroves to fishponds has declined, in part as also causes the salinization of the ground a result of an improved implementation of water and adjacent lands, including agricultural national policies for mangrove conservation. lands--such as in Central Visayas. In many cases, a few large fishpond entrepreneurs Sea-grass beds, a vital resource for underwater gain at the expense of marginal capture life. Sea-grass beds provide the intermediate fisherpeople (Primavera 1991 and 1993). buffer necessary for coral reefs to protect coasts and mangroves from strong waves and Until recently, fishpond leases cost only surges and for mangroves to protect reefs from about $2 per hectare per year, in contrast to erosion and sedimentation (Fortes 1989 and conservative resource rent estimates of $538 1995). The exchange of mutual benefits among per hectare per year for fish and $42 to $156 mangrove, sea grass and coral reef ecosystems per hectare per year for wood harvests from is illustrated in Figure 2.6. mangroves (Evangelista 1992; Primavera 2005). As a result of the very low fees for fishpond Sea-grass beds also support and harbor many leases many families own or lease large juvenile fishes (including rabbitfish), adult fishpond areas. Many of these ponds, however, rabbitfish, and commercially important shrimps, are either underutilized or abandoned. prawns, crabs, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. In general, productivity is low in Philippine Sea-grass habitats also serve as the feeding 10 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 ground for marine turtles and the highly Beaches, foreshore, and shoreline areas. Beaches endangered dugong. Some 16 species of sea are the most widely recognized habitat in the grasses have been identified (Fortes and coastal zone. Recreation and tourism draw Santos 2004). millions of people to beaches for rest and relaxation. They are used extensively for fishing From surveys in 96 sites, 978 square kilometers activities, boat landings, and construction of sea-grass beds have been identified in the materials. Many other species also compete country, mostly in northwestern, western, and with humans for use of beaches. Sea turtles lay southern areas, with outlying islands having their eggs in the sand above the high tide lines. sizeable beds. About half of the sea-grass beds Terns, plovers, and other seabirds lay their eggs have either been lost or severely degraded over in the upper beach or dunes. Beaches also the past 50 years, and the rate of degradation provide habitat for burrowing species, such is increasing. Sea-grass losses and degradation as clams, crabs, and many other small result from coastal development (industries, crustaceans. Such organisms are part of the ports), waste disposal, sedimentation, destructive complex intertidal community that attracts fishing (raking, trawling, and the construction fish and shore birds. of fish corrals), eutrophication (water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients), boat traffic, In addition, beaches are extremely important and aquaculture (Fortes 1995). as buffers between the land and sea. They Figure 2.6 Exchange of Mutual Benefits between Mangrove, Sea grass, and Coral Reef Ecosystems. Source: Authors. 11 With the majority of municipalities and 25 of the largest cities located in the coastal zone, the country's foreshore and shoreline areas are mainly being used for settlements and housing. The proliferation of coastal dwellers-- with no proprietary or tenure rights over the land they occupy and often no basic facilities for sanitation, solid waste management, sewerage, or water supply--is a contributing factor in the degradation and deterioration of Aeta children collect shellfish on a beach in Northern the coastal environment and beaches Luzon. throughout the country. Figure 2.7 shows a Photo: Finn Danielsen. typical problem. provide protection against waves and erosion and remove silt and sediments from the water Coastal development of industries, ports, and as it passes over the ground surface. This resorts on the foreshore and reclamation and is particularly important in areas where shoreline protection works (such as jetties) are impervious surfaces, such as asphalt also prevalent. Industries are situated by the pavement, cement sidewalks, compacted soils, sea for ease of transport of raw and finished and buildings, drain to the seashore. Water materials. Land filling or reclamation involves passing through the beach sand is diffused so the dredging and placement of materials to that the point of discharge is spread over a turn aquatic habitat into land for housing, larger area rather than one small point (DENR tourism or manufacturing facilities, ports, et al. 2001.) and/or harbors. These activities clear aquatic vegetation (such as mangroves), smother coastal Coastal erosion from natural causes in the ecosystems, increase cloudiness of the water, Philippines is an issue in areas with high-energy and alter the water system as a whole. (wave or storm prone) coasts. Wave-prone coasts occur in northern Luzon, the eastern Figure 2.7 Well or Groundwater Contamination shores of Lingayen Gulf, and along the eastern Resulting from Improper Location of seaboard. The internal seas are not erosion-prone, Sewage Disposal Systems. except in areas where development has infringed on the coastal strip or beach and thus exacerbates loss of beach or coastal vegetation. Such areas are increasingly common adjacent to or near urban development centers, where erosion is prompting the construction of illegal protective seawalls. Sea-level rise will The improper location of the sewage disposal system exacerbate coastal erosion to some degree causes contamination of the well or seepage into the along all shorelines, but will be worse in groundwater and ultimately the ocean. low-lying areas or those that are being degraded Source: Rees 1990. by shoreline structures and development. 12 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Table 2.1 Total Fish Production (MT) and Value (billions of PhP) by Sector, Philippines, 1997-2005. YEAR Commercial Municipal Aquaculture TOTAL Volume (MT) Value Volume (MT) Value Volume (MT) Value Volume (MT) Value (PhP B) (PhP B) (PhP B) (PhP B) 1997 884,651 25.9 764,727 25.5 879,014 22.4 2,528,392 73.6 1998 940,533 29.7 744,675 26.2 910,961 22.1 2,596,169 78.5 1999 948,754 32.2 779,820 28.8 943,289 24.1 2,671,863 85.2 2000 946,485 33.9 793,824 30.0 988,869 27.0 2,729,178 90.8 2001 976,539 36.1 833,188 31.3 1,096,790 31.2 2,906,517 98.6 2002 1,042,193 39.1 857,294 34.8 1,191,018 29.5 3,090,505 104.0 2003 1,109,636 42.0 1,055,143 40.6 1,454,503 37.2 3,619,282 119.8 2004 1,128,382 48.3 1,080,764 45.7 1,717,026 44.8 3,926,172 138.8 2005 1,135,222 47.7 1,132,120 49.9 1,895,793 49.1 4,163,135 146.7 Ave. 1,012,488 37.2 893,506 34.7 1,230,807 31.9 3,136,801 104.0 Sources: BAS: Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines, 1997-2001; 2001-2003; 2004; 2005. Note: For the purpose of this document, municipal fisheries refer only to marine municipal fisheries, and aquaculture data refers to brackish water and marine production and its value. Freshwater production was excluded from the analysis. Total production and value refer to fisheries production and value in the marine sector. Some data may be missing, particularly in the municipal and aquaculture sectors, due to the data gathering constraints of BAS. Fisheries. During the past 14 years, fishing has Growth in the marine aquaculture sector has on average contributed 4 percent to total GDP been the fastest, at an average of 8.4 percent and accounted for 20 percent of gross value over the past seven years (Table 2.2). The year added in the agriculture, fishery, and forestry 2001 saw a double-digit growth rate in marine sectors. The contribution to total GDP, however, aquaculture, and subsequent years were not has been gradually decreasing from 5 percent far behind with almost 9 percent growth rates. in the early nineties, down to 4 percent in the Seaweed aquaculture contributed to the bulk mid-90s and less than 3 percent since 1997. of production, accounting for 67 percent and 68 percent of total aquaculture production in The Philippines fisheries sector includes three 1997 and 2003 respectively (BAS 1997-2001; main subsectors: commercial, municipal, and 2001-2003). aquaculture. The municipal sector can further be divided into marine and inland fisheries. Table 2.2 Growth Rates in Fish Production by Sector, Philippines, 1997-2004 (Percentage). The Philippines Fisheries Code of 1998 defines Year Com- Muni- Aqua- Total municipal fishing as fishing without vessels mercial cipal culture or with vessels of 3 Gross Tons (GT) or less. 1998 6.3 -2.6 3.6 2.7 Fishing with vessels of more than 3 GT is 1999 0.9 4.7 3.5 2.9 considered commercial fishing. Legally, 2000 -0.2 1.8 4.8 2.1 commercial fishing is restricted to areas 2001 3.2 5.0 10.9 6.5 outside of municipal waters or waters beyond 2002 6.7 2.9 8.6 6.3 15 kilometer from the shoreline. Table 2.1 illustrates total fish production and value 2003 6.5 7.5 8.6 7.6 by sector. 2004 1.7 1.8 18.7 7.4 AVERAGE 3.6 3.0 8.4 5.1 Source: BAS 1997-2001; 2001-2003; 2004. 13 Commercial and marine municipal fisheries Philippines is fortunate in having vast fishery had fluctuating growth rates over the period. resources at its disposal. All of its main fish Average growth rates were 3.6 percent and 3 species and marine organisms, however, are percent respectively between 1997 and 2004. showing severe signs of overfishing. In addition, This indicates the need to diversify fisheries destructive fishing methods using dynamite production into aquaculture and veer away and cyanide and other gears resulting in from capture fisheries, if growth rates are to habitat degradation, are also a major cause of remain positive and the fisheries sector is to the decline in fisheries productivity and CPUE. contribute positively to GDP. This option, however, would require a thorough assessment Table 2.3 Contribution of Top Species to Total of environmental impacts from increased Volume of Capture Marine Fisheries Production, aquaculture production. 1997-2004 (Percentage). Species 1997 2001 2003 2004 The species that consistently contributed the Round Scad 14 16 15 20 most to the total volume of capture marine Indian Sardines 12 11 8 13 fisheries production are listed in Table 2.3. Skipjack 7 6 7 10 Growth in aquaculture has been dominated Frigate Tuna 7 6 9 13 by the species (see Table 2.4). FIMB. Sardines 6 5 3 3 Anchovies 5 5 4 Overfishing and declining fish stocks. While Yellowfin Tuna 4 5 6 8 demand for fish and fishery products has been Slipmouth 4 4 3 3 growing in recent decades, the catch per unit Big-eyed Scad 3 4 5 3 effort or CPUE (the total number of fish caught Others 38 38 39 24 per unit of time, an indicator of fish abundance) has been declining, following worldwide trends Sources: BAS: Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines. 1997-2001; 2001-2003; 2004. in fisheries. As an archipelagic state with over 2.2 million square kilometers of seas, the Table 2.4 Contribution of Top Species to Total Aquaculture Production, 1997-2004 (Percentage). Species 1997 2001 2003 2004 Tiger Prawn* 4 3 2 Tilapia* 9 9 9 9 Milkfish* 16 18 17 16 Seaweed 67 64 68 70 Others 4 5 3 5 * introduced species Sources: BAS: Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines. 1997-2001; 2001-2003; 2004. Despite the continued expansion of the country's commercial fishing fleet, total fish Municipal fisherman in Northern Luzon. catch leveled off in the early 1990s. Since then, Photo: Finn Danielsen. marine fisheries production has been around 1.6 to 1.8 million tons annually. 14 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Studies have shown that as early as the late now has 400 percent too much effort for the 1960s, the country had reached the maximum available fish stocks. Catch rates in the gulf are economic yield of its demersal fish stocks five times smaller than they were 15 years ago, (fish living on or near the bottom), except in the compelling fishers to invest more time and money offshore hard bottoms around Palawan, the in dwindling catches." (Hilomen et al. 2002.) Southern Sulu Sea, and the central part of the Pacific coast (Silvestre and Pauly 1989). In the period between 1998 and 2001, 30 Current biomass of demersals is only 10 to 30 percent more fish were harvested than could percent of the levels in the late 1940s be replenished through the sea's natural (Luna 2004). productivity. Such excess fishing has resulted in economic losses, conservatively estimated at With respect to small pelagic (open sea) about PhP 6.25 billion (about $125 million) per fisheries, overfishing and declining CPUE has year in lost fish catch (ICLARM 2001). also been observed, except in lightly fished areas off Palawan, parts of the Pacific coast, Finally, analyses of annual catch per unit and some parts of Mindanao (Silvestre and effort (CPUE) in six coastal provinces in the Pauly 1989). Biomass has declined to about 17 Philippines for the common hook-and-line type percent of levels in the early 1950s, and of fishing showed that in some cases fish catch economic rent dissipation is estimated to per unit effort was less than five percent of the reach about $290 million annually. Figure 2.8 shows the major fishing areas in the country Figure 2.8 Map of Heavily Exploited Areas. that are considered to be seriously overfished. Lingayen Gulf is a major fishing ground located in Northern Luzon. Studies reveal it "reached its maximum sustainable yield (MSY) more than 20 years ago, and that the fishery A small, commercial-size fishing boat. Photo: Alan White. Source: Green et al. 2003. 15 original levels of only a few decades ago (Figure 2.9; Green et. al. 2003). According to some estimates, if the declining trend in fish production continues, by 2010 only around 10 kilograms of fish per year will be available for each Filipino (Figure 2.10; Bernascek 1996). Nationwide, fisherfolk are concerned about Fisherfolk displaying their fish trap, the common method their low CPUE. The municipal sector in of capturing fusiliers, outside the sanctuary on Sumilon particular feels increasing competition from Island reef. Photo: Alan White. Figure 2.9 Decline in Average CPUE for Figure 2.10 Per Capita Fisheries-Related Food Hook and Line Fishing in Six Provinces. Available for Consumption in the Philippines. Source: Green et al. 2003. Source: Bernascek 1996. Box 2.1 BFAR Study Warns of Fish Shortage in Davao Gulf in 2007. DAVAO CITY, 26 September 2005 ­ The Davao Gulf could suffer a fish shortage by 2007 if unregulated fishing continued in the region's 520-kilometer fishing ground, an official of the Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic resources (BFAR) warned. Jose Villanueva, project leader of the National Stock Assessment Project (NSAP) of BFAR in Region 11, said the latest results of the NSAP study showed that the exploitation rate (ER) of growth overfishing (harvesting of fish before reaching the first maturity stage) within the Davao Gulf area is nearing critical level. "The ratio is way above the standard level of 0.5," he said. Once the ER reached the ratio of 0.9, Villanueva said it is already considered critical. He said by this time, the Davao Gulf will run out of fish products. Fish species that will be most hurt by the projected depletion are moonfish or bilong-bilong, scads and round scads or borot. "In two years, if we fail to stop the harvesting of small fishes, we would end up without fish," Villanueva said. Source: Philippines Daily Inquirer, September 26, 2005. 16 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 the commercial sector, which often fishes Danajon Double Barrier Reef and connecting illegally within the 15 kilometer municipal islands off northern Bohol Island; and islands in water limit. Nevertheless, despite the very the Bohol (Mindanao Sea), such as Apo, Selinog, low catch rates, the numbers of municipal Camiguin, and Sumilon. Marine mammals are fisherpeople are still increasing due to the lack scattered but well known in the Tanon Strait, of economic opportunities elsewhere. off southern Bohol and the Cebu Islands, in the Sulu Sea, and off northern Palawan. Furthermore, a significant percentage of what they capture is used for their own consumption, thus providing a major source of survival. In Table 2.5 Estimated Numbers of Marine Species that Occur in the Philippines. some areas, fish catches during the lean season Taxonomic group Species in Species are almost solely used for feeding families Philippines world-wide rather than for commercial purposes. Marine fishes (all) 2818 ? Marine reef associated fishes 1727 ? The situation concerning overfishing in Davao Marine `cartilaginous' fishes 164 ? Gulf is described in Box 2.1. Seagrasses 16 67 Stony corals 488 700 Biodiversity. The Philippines has recently been identified as a biodiversity "hotspot"--that is, Marine mollusks 2000+ an area where the Earth's biological wealth is Other marine invertebrates 10,000+ most distinctive and rich and where its loss will Marine mammals (cetaceans) 25 80 be most severely felt if conservation efforts are Other marine mammals 1 ? (Dugong) not successful. The coastal and marine waters of the Philippines contain some of the world's Marine reptiles (sea turtles) 5 8 richest ecosystems, characterized by extensive Marine reptiles (sea snakes) 17 ? coral reefs, sea-grass beds, and dense mangrove Seabirds 20 ? forests. For example, the number of species (488) Sources: FISHBASE 2005; Fortes and Santos 2004; Werner and Allen 2000; Alava and Cantos 2004; Magdaraog 1998; Compagno of hard stony corals (scleractinians) found in et al. 2005. Philippine coral reefs far exceeds the 70 species found in the Caribbean (Werner and Allen 2000). Unfortunately, many of the important marine Its 16 species of sea grasses are second only to species in the Philippine marine environment western Australia, which has 17 species. The total are threatened. Some of the main threatened diversity of all taxa of marine life is not known, species are listed in Table 2.6. The main threats to but estimates of species numbers are high, as marine species are habitat loss and degradation, shown in Table 2.5. pollution, and local and commercial fishing activities. Sites that have a particularly rich assemblage of coral reef-associated marine life include Although an estimated population of at least Tubbataha Reefs in the Sulu Sea; Apo Reef 1 million resident and migratory water and Mindoro; the Calamianes Islands in northern shore birds is still found in the Philippine coastal Palawan; Tawi-Tawi and Balabac Islands, Sulu ecosystems, severe habitat loss, disturbance, and Sea; parts of the Central Visayas, such as the hunting are causing declines in most 17 Table 2.6 Threatened and Legally Protected Marine Species and their Habitat Requirements. Marine animals Habitat requirements Reptiles Sea turtles (all species) Coral reefs, seagrass beds, beaches, and near-shore waters Sea snakes Fringing coral reefs, mid- water (all species) reefs Mammals Sea cow (dugong) Seagrass beds, bays with reefs Dolphins (all species) Open water areas and mid- water reefs Brown booby birds nesting on the North Islet of Whales and porpoises Open water areas Tubbataha Reefs, where they are protected from (all species) human disturbance. Fish Photo: Alan White. Whale sharks Open water and mid-water (1 species) reefs Manta rays Open water and coral reefs populations. In one extreme case, the Philippine (all species) Pelican, Pelecanus philippinesis, is now extinct Milkfish (1 species) Estuaries, coral reefs, and open in the Philippines. water areas Crabs The presence of large congregations of oceanic Coconut crabs Beach areas seabirds is a good indicator of the environmental (Birgus latro) status and health of remote atolls and small Molluscs island ecosystems. Seabirds generally require Giant clams Coral reefs, seagrass beds and intact and undisturbed habitats for successful (7 species) sandy areas breeding and roosting, in combination with an Giant triton shell Coral reefs abundance of their main food sources such as (Charonia tritonis) squid and smaller fish species. Helmet shell Coral reefs (Cassis spp.) Habitat loss and degradation affects many Kapis shell Coral reefs, sandy areas (Placuna placenta) marine species. There is a parallel trend to that Corals of seabirds for both sea turtles and the dugong. Stony and precious Estuaries, reefs and mudflats About 30 years ago, dugongs were believed to corals (all species) be fairly common throughout the Philippine Birds Archipelago, where they are called duyong or Seabirds Coral reefs baboy-dagat (sea pig). But today, the dugong Water birds (5 species Remote, oceanic islets without population is considered to be both sparse and inc. 1 extirpated) human disturbance and scattered. The decline has been caused by the predators; rocks and cliffs widespread loss and degradation of sea-grass Shorebirds (5 species) Coastal ecosystems: beds, the dugong's feeding sites. The incidental mangroves, ponds, lagoons catches of dugongs in fishing gear (gill nets, Sources: DENR et al. 2001; IUCN Red Data List 2004; Jensen 2004. 18 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 trawl, and fish corrals) and the use of dynamite plentiful and bringing many already endangered fishing methods are other major causes of dugong species ever closer to the brink of extinction (See deaths (UNEP 2004). Boxes 2.2 and 2.3). For a discussion of aquarium fisheries and trade (see Box 1.1, p. 4). The loss of biodiversity may also be linked to high population growth and density, according to a new study by DENR. The study found that Box 2.2 Live Reef Food Fish Trade. loss of biodiversity was higher in areas of the Philippines with rapid population growth and The trade in live reef fish for food is an important in-migration (DENR-PAWB et al. 2004). industry with an estimated annual retail value of US$ 1 billion in the Asia-Pacific region, at least US$ 30 million in the Philippines, and US$ 18 Many reefs and smaller marine islets are million in Palawan. now inhabited and the ecosystems have been modified to the extent that they can no longer While historically most of the live reef fish trade sustain their original biodiversity, which was for ornamental fish and marine organisms, included beach forest, marine and terrestrial since the early 1990s the trade has increasingly mammals, birds, and reptiles. been focused on live fish for food. The high price for live food fish was the most significant factor in The rapidly growing Southeast Asian regional the emergence of the industry. All live reef food fish exported from the Philippines go to Hong Kong market for marine products also affects Philippine and Taiwan. marine biodiversity. This market is based on both legal and illegal trade. The strong demand The type of fishing involved with this trade creates leads to unsustainable rates of harvesting, several adverse effects including loss of biodiversity, which are threatening species that were once decreased food production and food security, and decreased livelihood opportunities in coastal communities. Among the destructive practices used to harvest live reef organisms is the use of cyanide, which fishers often squirt on a reef to stun the fish and make them easier to capture. The practice, however, not only stuns the fish, but also severely degrades the reef. Law enforcement is difficult, and corruption at various levels, as well as social conflicts between those involved in the trade and others, such as local resource users and managers and conservationists, beset the trade. A large percentage of economic benefits accrues to relatively few and the degradation of coral reefs Dugongs were fairly common in the Philippines about 30 and overfishing for the trade threaten the livelihood years ago. Today the dugong is threatened and the of already marginalized fishing communities. remaining population is sparse and scattered. Sources: FISH Project and Palawan Council for Sustainable Photo: FISH-Project. Development. June 2005. 19 Box 2.3 Whale Sharks: Delicacy or Tourist Attraction? Though ferocious-looking, whale sharks are gentle creatures that feed primarily on microscopic marine organisms called plankton. They are, however, are also considered a delicacy and often served in banquets. While the hunt for whale sharks used to be limited to traditional hunting villages where the meat was used for local consumption, it is now done primarily in response to an increasing export demand. The market for whale sharks is in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Japan. Each shark, cut and frozen, fetches as much as PhP 800,000 ($16,000). Reportedly local fishers may receive prices as high as PhP 80,000 ($1,600) for a whale shark. Companies sometimes even offer boats and other means of support to the fishers. Whale sharks, although protected, are threatened in the But while fishing efforts increased and new whale Philippines shark fisheries were opened up in at least 5 provinces, Photo: Alan White. catches went down. From about 56 to 100 sharks per site per year in four of the primary fishing sites years prior to 1997, catches decreased to about 13 sharks per site in at least 11 sites in 1997, illustrating the impact on the species as well as the unsustainability of the industry in the long run. That things can be very different is evident in Donsol, Sorsogon. This town quickly became not only a major tourism destination for whale shark watching, but the discovery of a large aggregation of the animals­with one of the highest densities of whale sharks in the world--and the subsequent slaughter of six of them by fishers of neighboring towns created a public outcry and propelled the issuance of the Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) No. 193, which bans the killing and trading of whale sharks including manta rays throughout the Philippines. The LGU of Donsol also enacted a local ordinance declaring its municipal waters a sanctuary for the whale sharks. With the help of WWF, which together with the LGU and the Donsol Municipal Tourism Council (DMTC), implemented the Butanding Ecotourism Development Project to secure the financial viability, environmental sustainability and social acceptability of ecotourism, Donsol quickly became an important eco-tourism destination in the Bicol region. In 2003, the ecotourism program ranked first in the most visited attraction in the Bicol region and won the Kalakbay Award, given by the Philippines-Department of Tourism. The following year, Time Magazine named Donsol as the Best Wild Animal Encounter in Asia. Sources: Adapted from Over Seas ­ The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, and http://crmsd.wwf.org.ph/donsol/wshark.php. 20 3. COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES UNDER PRESSURE PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 The main pressures affecting Philippine turn reduces light and oxygen, resulting in fish coastal and marine areas are agriculture and kills. Red tide has become a yearly occurrence in forestry activities, urban and industrial some coastal areas of the country. development, tourism development, oil and gas exploration, minerals and mining, population growth and fish consumption, and climate change. This chapter explores each of these issues, including their social, political, and economic context. Agriculture and forestry. The early onset of industrial logging in the Philippines-- combined with a lack of proper forest management--has resulted in the loss of nearly 80 percent of the Philippines' original forest cover. In 1990, 10.6 million hectares were classified as forest; by 2005, the total had declined to 7.2 million hectares, or A river plume is often a sign of upland deforestation. The a loss of 3.4 million hectares (FAO 2005). Over river plume consists of silt and clay. It decreases the the past 15 years, the average annual forest water quality by increasing turbidity (cloudiness loss was equivalent to almost 227,000 hectares of water). per year. Forest loss combined with poor land Photo: Alan White. management and unsustainable farming practices lead to soil erosion and increased Sewerage infrastructure is inadequate or flooding, resulting in higher costs of nonexistent. Centralized sewerage collection infrastructure maintenance, as well as higher and treatment facilities cover only parts of risks to lives, property, and productivity. Metro Manila, while Metro Cebu and Metro Soil erosion reduces light, smothers marine Davao have no centralized sewerage systems organisms, and prevents the recruitment and at all. Many areas have septic tanks that often recovery of areas that have been silted over. do not have seepage or leaching devices and are not maintained, thus making them often Agricultural runoff is a growing source of inefficient and ineffective in reducing nutrient pollution in bays and near-shore waters. The pollution. The expansion of domestic water surface runoff consists of residues from livestock supply systems in major coastal cities is also and poultry, fertilizer and pesticides, and increasing the volume of wastewater. decaying plant matter. Each year, nearly 2.2 million tons of organic Urban and industrial development. Almost all pollution are produced by domestic (48 percent), near-shore ecosystems within or near urbanized agricultural (37 percent), and industrial (15 areas in the Philippines are threatened by percent) sectors (World Bank 2003). The organic pollution--that is, nutrients from industrial sector accounts for most, if not all, industrial, commercial, and domestic wastewater of the toxic and hazardous waste discharged carrying organic wastes and fertilizer residue. into water bodies, a finding confirmed by Nutrients enhance the growth of algae (including studies carried out by the Environmental and those that cause red tides) and bacteria, which in Natural Resources Accounting Project (ENRAP). 21 Figure 3.1 Typical Impacts of Tourism Activities on the Coastal Zone. Source: Authors. The main substances are mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), sulfides, phenols, phosphorus pentoxide, and fluoride. Tourism development. Coastal tourism has contributed to the pollution of coastal areas. Pollution from this sector is usually lumped under the household sector, as the generated waste is domestic. Waste from tourism activities also primarily affects the business itself. A concrete example of this is Boracay where, for a time, the number of tourists dwindled as a result of high This beach, at the Tambuli Beach Resort on Mactan coliform counts from its beaches. Most coastal Island, Cebu, depicts proper setbacks for the resort and resorts are still poorly planned in terms of an uncluttered beach environment. environmental protection. The larger resorts Photo: Alan White. have only recently begun to implement stringent environmental practices on their properties (Hütcche et al. 2002). In many cases, the building 22 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Table 3.1 Environmental Impacts from Tourism on Coastal Habitats. Coastal Habitats Environmental Impacts Tourist activities that may cause impacts Coral reefs · Physical damage to coral reefs and removal · Walking or collecting souvenirs on reefs of reef organisms beyond sustainable limits · Overfishing to supply restaurants · Increase in freshwater runoff and sediments · Land clearing for construction · Introduction of waterborne pollutants · Freshwater influx from wastewater pipes from poorly treated sewage and improper disposal methods Estuaries/ lagoons · Encroachment · Land-filling for buildings · Changes in sedimentation patterns · Placement of structures on beach or in coastal · Changes to the salinity regime waters · Introduction of waterborne pollutants · Freshwater runoff · Destruction of submerged and fringing · Recreational uses causing runoff, vegetation sedimentation · Loss of fishery habitat · Harbor maintenance · Site considerations · Land-use modifications, causing increased runoff, sedimentation, and pollution increases from sewage, wastewater disposal · Inlet modifications Mangroves · Changes in freshwater runoff, salinity regime · Wastewater and sewage from construction and tidal flow patterns activities · Excessive siltation · Use as a tourist development site · Introduction of pollutants · Same as for coral reefs and estuaries/ · Conversion of mangrove habitat lagoons · Overharvesting of resources Seagrass beds · Physical alteration · Boat anchoring · Excessive sedimentation or siltation · Recreational activities · Introduction of excessive nutrients or pesticides · Increasing runoff · Sewage and, wastewater discharge Salt marshes · Degradation of bird habitat or seed fish · Discharging wastes (tidal flats) collection sites · Making physical alterations for tourist uses · Obstruction of stormwater runoff · Altering tidal flats for development purposes Barrier beaches, · Erosion · Sand mining sand dunes and · Dune migration · Use for construction purposes spits · Disregarding setback regulations and improper placement of coastal structures · Removal of natural vegetation Sources: Authors. setback and waste management regulations are Oil and gas exploration. Available data show not being followed and deterioration in beach that there are 83 oil wells in the offshore areas quality quickly ensues. of the South China Sea within the Philippine territory--56 wells in Northern Palawan, 20 Figure 3.1 shows some of the most common impacts in South Palawan, and 7 in the Reed Bank. from tourism activities on the coastal zone. Commercial deposits of oil and gas have been found in northwest Palawan. West Linapacan The potential environmental impacts from is estimated to contain more than 100 million tourism on coastal habitats are listed in barrels of recoverable crude oil. The Camago- Table 3.1. Malampaya offshore gas discovery is among 23 the major natural gas deposits of the country, estimated to contain 2.5 to 3.2 trillion cubic feet Box 3.1 Decades of Mining Destroyed an Island Paradise. of recoverable gas (Balce and Pablico 1997). This discovery of offshore commercial natural Marcopper began mining copper on Marinduque gas resources provided the impetus for the Island in the Philippines four decades ago. It development of the Philippine gas industry. dumped millions of tons of toxic mining waste into Marinduque's coastal waters and polluted its rivers. Other offshore gas deposits have been As a result, local inhabitants have lost their health, discovered in the Reed Bank and South Palawan. livelihoods and some even their lives. After a major Dangerous Grounds and Spratly Islands, which accident in 1996, the Philippine Government closed down the mine. are claimed in part by other nations as well as the Philippines, share a common geology as the Recent field investigations and a scientific survey Reed Band and North Palawan, suggesting that funded by Oxfam Australia's Mining Ombudsman potentially large petroleum reserves may also revealed that--almost a decade after the mine has be found in these areas. been closed--a main river is still polluted from the continuous runoff from the mine and old tailings Another major site for oil and gas exploration left behind. The high acid and metal levels in the activities in the last three decades is the Western river are a hazard to humans and aquatic life. Sulu basin. This is a "frontier" (underexplored) Local health is strongly affected by skin diseases, which local people blame on toxic mine waste. region with comparatively low drilling density Fishermen have lost limbs, which they believe is (11 wells within Philippine territorial waters; 10 the result of arsenic contamination. Stomach wells offshore Sabah since 1970). complaints, dementia, and cancer are also common. Local inhabitants have received little or The main environmental impacts of oil and no rehabilitation of their environment, nor any gas include operational wastes, such as drilling payment of compensation. fluids and drilling muds; drainage; leaks from offshore pipelines; and oil spills. Noise and other kinds of disturbance from offshore oil and gas operations may also affect marine mammals. Minerals and mining. Sand and gravel mining is a common activity in coastal areas. In many cases, it leads to increased coastal erosion. Land-based mining can cause significant environmental impacts, many of which are harmful to human health. Mine tailings disposal has often been indiscriminate. Some tailings have found their way into coastal waters. Improper Michael (only legs shown) and Jay. Michael has skin impoundment of wastes and tailings may lead problems, which local people blame on the mine to disastrous accidents, such as the case of waste pumped into Calancan Bay. massive toxic spills from Marcopper in Photo: David Sproule/Oxfam Australia. Marinduque. It was estimated that the amount Source: Adapted from full case study, which is available at: http://www.oxfam.org.au. of lost income due to the accident, and from coastal fishing alone, was PhP 9.2 million in 1996 (Box 3.1) (Bennagen 1998). 24 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 While the exploitation of land-based metallic Figure 3.2 Volume of Exports and Imports of and nonmetallic mineral deposits is a major Fish and Fishery Products, 1997­2004 (MT). contributor to the country's economy, the potential of mining marine mineral resources in Philippine offshore areas has received little attention. As technological advances in ocean mining develop, ocean floor minerals will probably be explored as possible alternative sites for future mineral exploitation. Polymetallic sulfides and manganese deposits are among the potential mineral resources from the ocean floor. Based on knowledge of tectonic environments favorable to the formation, accumulation, and preservation of polymetallic Sources: BAS: Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines. 1997-2001; sulfides, the marginal basins around the 2001-2004. Philippines are promising exploration grounds (Yumul 1993). Sulfide deposits contain copper, Figure 3.3 Value of Exports and Imports of Fish lead, zinc, silver, gold, and possibly other and Fishery Products, 1997­2004 (1ī000 PhP). alloys. The Scarborough Seamount Chain Plateau offshore of northeastern Luzon, and the Cagayan de Sulu Ridge in the Sulu Basin, are likely sites for these sulfide deposits. For manganese nodules, only the West Philippine Basin appears to be a good target site. The potential environmental impacts of marine mining include pollution from waste and mine tailings, increased water turbidity (cloudiness in water), and debris and sediments that may have an effect on local marine life. Removal of sand from the sea floor can cause Sources: BAS: Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines. 1997-2001; 2001-2004. severe erosion and loss of marine habitat; such alterations may also cause a change in wave the same period, the volume of imports decreased regime that could affect coastal erosion. Noise by an average of 5 percent (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). and other kinds of disturbances from operations may also affect marine mammals. During the past two decades, the annual population increase in the Philippines has been Population growth and fish consumption. Fishery about 2.2 percent per year. Fish consumption exports were about 173,887 MT in 1997 and in the Philippines is about 28.5 kilograms 196,087 MT in 2004, valued at PhP 16 billion ($327 per capita per year (Barut et al. 2004). The million) and PhP 27 billion ($543 million) increased demand for fish by a rapidly growing respectively. Over a period of seven years, volume population, and increasing exports due to grew by an average of 3 percent, while the value increasing fish prices, have substantially of fish exports grew on average 9 percent. Over increased the pressure on marine fishery 25 resources over the past two decades. Table 3.2 the inherent differences in resource and illustrates a projection, which assumes that technology characteristics. average fish consumption continues to be 28.5 kilograms per capita per year. Table 3.2 Projected Population and Fish Consumption Levels, 1995­2020. Without any change in fish consumption and YEAR Population level Fish consumption no active human population management (millions) (million metric tons) program, domestic demand for fish will reach 1995 68,4 1,9 3.2 billion kilograms (3.2 million MT) by 2020, 2000 76,5 2,2 given the projected population growth rate of 2005 85,2 2,4 the country. 2010 93,9 2,7 2015 102,8 2,9 If increased demand is met solely by marine 2020 111,6 3,2 capture fisheries, such increased pressure on the fisheries sector could lead to an eventual Source: Authors. collapse of fisheries and the fishing industry. As illustrated in Figure 3.4, the average increase in total catch between 1989 and 2003 was 2.9 As mentioned in Chapter 2, declining CPUE percent per year, with the fasted increases in is an indication of overexploitation. When we Vietnam (5.8 percent) and Indonesia (4.6 percent) compare the Philippines and five other and the slowest in the Philippines (1.6 percent) countries in the region (Figure 3.4 on previous and Thailand (1 percent). page), the result seems to confirm this trend, even though comparing fisheries indicators The relatively small increase in Philippine among countries is problematic because of landings indicates that the fisheries resource is Figure 3.4 Total Catch, 1989­2003 (MT). 4,500,000 4.500 4,000,000 4.000 3,500,000 )snot 3.500 3,000,000 3.000 6 2,500,000 01x( 2.500 2.000 2,000,000 hctaC 1.500 1,500,000 1,000 1,000,000 0.500 500,000 0 0 9891 19919119 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 00 10 1989 19909109 199291 199391 199491 199591 199691 199791 199891 199991 200002 200102 20022002 30022003 India ndia Indonesiaa ones Ma ays a alaysia Philippines Philippines Thailand Thailand Vietnam V ietnam Source: FAO Fishstats. 26 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 more heavily exploited than elsewhere. An Figure 3.5 Change in Landings, Philippines vs. analysis of mullet, grouper, and bream landings Benchmark, 1970-2003. (the part of the fish catch that is brought ashore) is particularly worrying. Figure 3.5 illustrates 600 Philippines the change in landings of these fish, which (%) 500 Benchmark represent important target species over the last 400 three decades. quantity 300 Because marine capture fisheries are over- landing 200 exploited, the growing demand for fish in will eventually have to be met by an increase 100 in aquaculture production. Costs to the Change 0 environment, however, will have to be taken Mullet Grouper Bream intoaccount.Environmentallyfriendlyaquaculture is possible with adequate planning, investment, Note: Figure shows average landings between 1970­1975 and 1998­2003; Benchmark is composite, Mullet (Indonesia, Malaysia, and consideration of potential impacts and Thailand), Grouper (Indonesia, Malaysia), Bream (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand). mitigation on vulnerable coastal mangrove and Source: FAO Fishstats. reef ecosystems. Climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel The potential influence of climate change and on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that sea-level rise on Philippine coastal areas and (a) atmospheric greenhouse gases have increased; resources is only now beginning to be studied. (b) the average surface temperature of the earth Nevertheless, based on measurements over the has increased since 1861 by about 0.6 degrees last 100 years and various projected global Celsius; (c) global average sea level have risen scenarios, fairly good inferences can be made between 0.1 and 0.2 meters; and (d) rainfall has about the possible impact of such changes on increased by 0.2 to 0.3 percent per decade over Philippine coasts over the next 50 to 100 years. the tropical land areas. Temperatures seem to be rising slightly all over Potential impacts of climate change on coastal the Philippines and in the surrounding coastal areas are summarized in Box 3.2. waters. The 1990s were the warmest decade in the last century, and 1998 was the warmest year on record in the Philippines. That year coincided with the most extensive coral bleaching episode ever observed on Philippine coral reefs; about 15 to 20 percent of the country's living corals were killed. Average air temperature in the Philippines has risen by about 0.5 degrees Celsius since 1980. This warming has been accompanied by a 6 percent average decline in annual rainfall over the last century. This drying occurs primarily during the December to February season (WWF 1999). The density of fish traps in parts of Manila Bay is a lot higher than the fish remaining. Sea level is monitored at Manila and Legaspi. Photo: Alan White. Time series show a small rise in relative sea level 27 Box 3.2 Potential Impacts of Climate Change at the monitoring sites monitoring, but nonetheless and Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Systems. a small residual rise in sea level along the Philippine coast remains that may be due to global Climate change and a rise in sea-level can have a change and ocean warming.1 number of biophysical and related socio-economic impacts on the Philippines. Potential biophysical impacts: · Increased coastal erosion. · Inhibition of primary production processes. · More extensive coastal inundation. · Higher storm-surge flooding. · Landward intrusion of seawater in estuaries and aquifers. · Changes in surface water quality and groundwater characteristics. · Changes in the distribution of pathogenic microorganisms. · Higher sea-surface temperature. Manila lies in a low-lying flood plain and tidal swamp Potential socio-economic impacts: area that is extremely vulnerable to rises in sea level. · Increased loss of property and coastal habitats. Photo: Ipat Luna. · Increased flood risk and potential loss of life. · Damage to coastal protection works and other A relative rise in sea-level, regardless of its infrastructure. cause, has a real effect on the coastal area as it · Increased disease risk. causes inundation of low-lying areas. Several · Loss of renewable and subsistence resources. studies have shown the vulnerability of the · Loss of tourism, recreation, and transportation functions. Philippine coasts to a relative change in sea level · Impacts on agriculture and aquaculture through and erosion forces on beaches. Most studies decline in soil and water quality. have focused on the Manila Bay area because Manila lies in a low-lying flood plain and tidal Source: IPCC Third Assessment Report, 2001. swamp area that is extremely vulnerable to rises in sea level. Based on different sea level before the 1960s, and a more rapid increase of projections, the amount of land that would be between 20 (Legaspi) and 40 centimeters (Manila) inundated with water along the Manila Bay up to the present day. Other measures of relative shoreline (See Table 3.3.). sea level, using localized tide gauges in Cebu and Jolo, indicate a relative fall in sea level at rates of Manila is clearly vulnerable to a rise in sea-level. a few millimeters per year, but the tide gauge in This is made worse by the subsidence of portions Manila Bay again registers a rise in relative sea of the coastline. The most probable scenario by level of 2 centimeters per year between 1963 and 1980. In the adjacent delta region, an average of 3 centimeters per year was documented on the basis 1 The IPCC Third Assessment Report states: "sea-level rise of the emergence of groundwater in well pipes is regarded as one of the more certain outcomes of global and tidal flooding. Most of this relative change in warming and already is taking place. Over the past 100 years, sea level is due to excessive land reclamation, global sea level has risen by an average of 1-2 millimeters per year, and scientists anticipate that this rate will accelerate groundwater withdrawal, and possible subsidence during the next few decades and into the 22nd century." 28 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 2100 of a 1-meter rise in sea level would affect In summary, climate change and sea-level rise approximately 2.3 million people living in the could have major impacts on Philippine marine coastal area in Manila (based on population and coastal resources. projections for 2025). To prevent or mitigate these various changes Table 3.3 Endangered Area of Land along the and impacts, climate change responses and Manila Bay Coast in Different Projected Sea-Level measures--such as the implementation of Rise Scenarios for 2100. setback regulations, appropriate land planning Sea level rise scenario Area to be inundated in coastal areas, and the strengthening of coral (meter) (hectares) reef management to enhance the natural 0.3 2090 resilience of coral reef communities--need to 1.0 5555 be part of ICRM schemes and strategies. In 2.0 8905 addition, more studies on mitigation and Source: Perez et al. 1999. adaptation to climate change in coastal areas The vulnerability of other coastal areas of the are needed. Philippines will depend on the actual rise in sea level as a result of global changes in temperature, glacial ice melting, and other factors, including shoreline topography and elevation. Most major Philippine cities--such as Dapitan, in Lingayen Gulf, parts of Davao City, and reclaimed portions of Cebu City among others--are situated on relatively low-lying areas. Projected possible increases in storm frequency and strength due to global warming will also affect coastal areas with flooding from extreme high tides, mud slides, and increased erosion rates. Although data on changes in storm patterns is still preliminary, even assuming the status quo it is clear that higher tides combined with regular typhoon-strength storms will yearly cause significant damage along the coasts that are exposed to such storms. Such damage can only be mitigated with preventive planning along shoreline areas and the implementation of building and development setbacks along beaches and all low-lying shorelines. Climate change would also strongly affect coral Aeta mother and her children in Northern Luzon. reefs through a changing marine biochemistry. As The Aetas live at the coast part of the year, where they the ocean warms, its capacity to dissolve carbon fish and collect shellfish. Climate change will likely have dioxide could decrease by 14 to 30 percent, leading a strong impact on these poor communities, worsening to a decrease in biological carbonate formation their already tenuous situation. that is essential for reef building (Hardy 2003). Photo: Finn Danielsen. 29 4. COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND LOCAL LIVELIHOODS SOCIAL ISSUES. About 1 million coastal residents and their families--about 5 percent of Box 4.1 Employment and Food Security. the nation's labor force--earn a living directly A multitude of stakeholders depend on fisheries, from fisheries (Barut et al. 2004). Of the total including municipal and commercial fisherpeople, number of individuals who rely on fish for canneries, fish markets, and various industries. In their livelihood, 69 percent are municipal terms of employment, the sector annually generates fisherfolk, 25 percent are engaged in aquaculture, an average of PhP 4,000 ($80) per household and the remaining 6 percent are involved in per month, or over PhP 62 billion ($1.24 billion) commercial fisheries (Box 4.1). worth of employment per year. In many coastal communities, the majority of As a source of food, fish is indispensable; other natural animal or vegetable protein sources are households depend directly on fish and other poor substitutes in terms of nutrition and cost. Fish coastal resources for their livelihood. Several of provides protein, essential fatty acids, and vitamins the important fishing bays often have mor A, B-1, B-2, B-12, and D. It is also a source of than 70 fisherfolk per kilometer of coastline. Such minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, areas include Manila Bay, Carigara Bay, and San and iron, as well as trace elements and Miguel Bay. micronutrients like iodine and zinc. Municipal fisherfolk are among the poorest in In the Philippines, fish remains a major component of the diet, accounting for over 50 percent of the Philippine society, with an annual average total animal protein consumed in the country. At household income of PhP 70,000 ($1,400), which present, an average of 28.5 kilograms of fish per is about half the national average of PhP 144,000 person per year is consumed in the Philippines. ($2,820). Other studies report even lower levels But with the population increasing and marine of income among fisherfolk. In Palawan, for capture fisheries remaining steady, the future does example, fisherfolk households have an average not look good for the food security of the country, net income of no more than PhP 2,000 ($40) particularly for low-income families. per month, or PhP 24,000 ($480) per year (Rivera- Sources: Green et al. (2003); Kurien (2002); and ADB (2001). Guieb and Jarabejo 2001). The average annual catch of a municipal Among fishing families, household sizes are fisherperson today has probably decreased to less generally larger than the national average and a than 30 percent of 1991 levels. It is thus not greater proportion of their income is spent surprising that coastal communities are among on food. The level of education of fisherfolk the most impoverished in the country, with the household heads is lower than average. In poor fisherfolk, in most cases, suffering the dire terms of access to basic services, fisherfolk effects of deteriorating fishery yields. households have lower rates of access. Poverty among fisherfolk is exacerbated by Within the coastal zone, near-shore fisheries high losses and spoilage due to improper are the most heavily exploited. An increasing handling of fish catch, possibly affecting as number of small fisher families compete with much as 25 to 30 percent of total catch. There is each other, as well as with commercial fishermen an even higher level of discards, possibly 40 (Box 4.2) for fishery resources that have percent of all marine landings, due to the lack experienced serious declines in productivity in of a post-harvest infrastructure in many areas the last 10 to 15 years. of the country. Inadequate cold storage and poor roads contribute to inefficient marketing 30 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20054 Box 4.2 Conflicts Among Fisherfolk. Commercial (35 percent) and municipal (29 percent) fish production on average account for an almost equal share of production in terms of volume. This is, however, a far cry from the production figures of the 1950s, when 70 percent of the country's fish supplies came from municipal fisherfolk. Furthermore, of the seven top species caught by both sectors, 67 percent are harvested by commercial fishing companies, while only 33 Small fish traps in Dumaguete. These traps are often used in sea-grass beds to catch rabbit fish. percent are caught by municipal fisherfolk. Although these are two distinct sectors, they are Photo: Alan White. in fact competing directly with each other. With weak law enforcement, a further expansion of and a reduction in the value of fish. Estimates commercial fisheries could mean the decline of have shown that saving post-harvest losses may municipal fisheries. even wipe out the fish supply deficiency of the country, allowing self-sufficiency to be attained Despite evidence of overcapacity in the commercial (Mendoza 2004). fishing fleet, the country is still encouraging investments in the industry, as shown by the Understanding and taking into account food increase in total tonnage of the commercial fishing security and poverty alleviation for fisherfolk fleet over the years. The fleet's total tonnage households is crucial to the success of any coastal increased from 150,260 tons in 1988 to 270,281 resources and fisheries management program. tons in 2000--almost a 70 percent increase. Because of the link between resource Within the commercial fishing sector itself, there management and poverty, coastal management are questionable policies in place. The delineation of municipal waters that extend up to 15 kilometers strategies could benefit from addressing from the shoreline has actually worked against a poverty issues through a dual objective: substantial number of small-scale commercial (1) enabling the recovery of the local resource fishing concerns, who make up the majority of base, and (2) promoting economic development commercial fishing boats. Many of these are not activities that will either compensate for a reduced capable of operating beyond 15 km. level of extraction of a particular resource or produce parallel incomes through the rational Furthermore, the most common commercial fishing utilization of other resources. gear(trawl,ringnet,andpurse-seine)areunsuitable for water depths found beyond 15 km. Gender and coastal resources management. All this, coupled with weak law enforcement, has Traditionally, women and men fulfill different resulted in rampant encroachment of commercial roles in the management of marine and coastal fishing concerns into municipal fishing grounds, resources. Women, for example, with the causing municipal fisherfolk to be further exception of coastal communities in Davao marginalized. where they join their husbands on fishing Source: Authors. expeditions (Siason 2004)--tend to have little direct involvement in fish capture. 31 Box 4.3 Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous groups or ethnic minorities account for more than 20 percent of the population. Many of these groups live in coastal lowlands where they practice agriculture, fish and shellfish gathering, and trade in locally manufactured items. The indigenous communities have strong attachments to their land and resources; most see themselves as the caretakers of their resources. To varying degrees, these communities have indigenous natural resources management regimes in place within their territory. To protect the rights and customary claims of Aeta family collecting shellfish during the rainy season indigenous peoples, the concept of "ancestral on a coast in Northern Luzon (See box 4.3). waters" has now been included in national Photo: Finn Danielsen. legislation. The term refers to all marine areas exclusively and actually possessed, occupied, or utilized by indigenous cultural communities by Despite their lack of involvement in the direct themselves or through their ancestors in accordance catch of fish, studies of coastal communities with their customs and traditions since time show that women are important stakeholders in immemorial, and as may be defined and delineated coastal resources management. Women are by law. naturally responsible in the values formation The Tagbanwa People on Coron Island, Palawan and transformation of the family, and thus can achieved their Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title be effective in education and advocacy and (CADT) in 1998. Their ancestral domain was the influence decisions. In addition, many of the first to include both terrestrial and marine LGU officials in the MAO, MENRO, and LGU components, and covers a total area of 22,284 extension offices are women, who play very hectares. critical roles in CRM implementation. Many Under the IPRA Law (RA 7942), no ancestral land CRM champion Mayors or local legislators are or waters can be opened for mining operations also women. without the prior consent of the indigenous cultural community concerned. In the event of an agreement Future support for local livelihood with an indigenous cultural community, the royalty improvement and CRM could benefit from payment for the utilization of minerals must be agreed upon by the parties and form part of a trust incorporating gender concerns into the planning fund for the socioeconomic well-being of the and design of activities; currently, few projects indigenous cultural community. include a gender dimension. Training for entrepreneurship would be a priority, as Source: Authors. women already are involved in small-scale Instead, they assist with maintaining gear, trading activities. process and sell the catch after the men return, In addition to taking gender into account, it is and, often together with their children, catch also important to involve the local youth, an small fish and fry in shallow waters or collect example of which is described in Box 4.4. Box 4.5 edible shellfish for household consumption or provides examples of successful community- sale at local markets. based ecotourism. 32 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20054 Box 4.4 Involving Young People in Coastal Resource Management. The Port Barton Marine Park, set up in 1997 and 1998 with help of the local community, is now regarded as a model for marine conservation in Palawan. Each year, tourists from all over the world, drawn by the area's natural attractions, visit Port Barton. Apart from the white sand beach on the main cove of the village, there are coral reefs and unpolluted beaches in the outlying islands, two waterfalls, and a forest that remains heavily wooded despite years of intensive logging. Through the marine park initiative, the local community is increasingly involved in protecting its marine resources, and the local youth organization also pitches in. "We organize coastal cleanup activities and help in waste management," says Marvin Ballesteros, chairman of Port Barton's youth council. The mayor is banking on the young people of his town. "We must show and teach them the importance of our environment, and that they are responsible for its protection." Barangay Captain Romeo Garganta Sr., (see image), says Barangay Captain Romeo Garganta Sr., shown he wants the Port Barton Marine Park to succeed. "We with youth leader Marvin Ballesteros (right) and know it will be good for the community," he says. Boatmen's Association chairman Wilfredo Ruiz. Source: Authors. Port Barton is also the site of an LGU-led Barangay Environmental Sanitation project, which is supported by the World Bank. The project seeks to preserve the water quality of the beaches from domestic sewage and other household wastes. Source: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1. Opportunities and lessons learned: Improving · Good quality technical assistance is local livelihoods. A number of programs in fundamental to the identification and recent years have sought to improve the creation of economically viable enterprises livelihoods of fishing families in coastal at a micro level. The technical assistance communities. Some of the main lessons from should be attuned to and familiar with the these livelihood programs are: capabilities of the recipients. · The design of livelihood improvement · A credit element is important, as productive activities needs to be based on a strong enterprises in agriculture, fisheries, and participatory process with a thorough aquaculture normally entail relatively high understanding of the many social and start-up costs. Poor fisherfolk organizations economic factors at play. Participation of often lack the collateral needed to receive women and community youth in the credit, so different options should be assessed, process is vital for long-term sustainability. including savings-and-credit, revolving funds, and village banks. · Livelihood improvement activities need to involve a community organization. Capacity · It is important to have a coherent land use building and organizational strengthening plan and coastal waters zoning. In recent are also important elements. years, mariculture enterprises have become 33 one of the most viable and attractive efforts to protect and conserve forest and income-generating activities in coastal coastal habitats and resources. Community municipalities. Experiences in Lingayen stewardship of mangroves and coral reef Gulf, Taal Lake, and Bolinao, however, areas, river estuaries, and artificial reef point to the fact that mariculture viability complexes can thus be associated with runs the risk of being threatened irreversibly livelihood opportunities such as agro- by unmanaged growth of investments. orestry, fruit processing, mud crab culture, Defining the extent of mariculture areas seaweed farming, milkfish culture in and putting management control mechanisms cages, and ecotourism. The economic viability in place to check overcrowding and of such projects will depend on the healthy environmentally unsustainable operations conditionofhabitatsthatserveasinfrastructure should be part of the underlying framework for these economic activities. for mariculture micro-enterprise development. · A need for public sector investments in · Proactive efforts are needed to demonstrate support facilities such as seedling propagation the link between income-generating options and certification facilities, fish nurseries, and conservation. The sustainability of brood stock, and feed development. popular participation in natural resource management initiatives is largely influenced In terms of the economic improvement of by the economic benefits derived from the coastal communities, it is important to move beyond the development of traditional small- Box 4.5 Successful Community-Based Coastal Tourism Experiences. Olango Island waters of Donsol in Sorsogon, whale sharks are Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary, situated 5.5 threatened because of the strong demand for their kilometers east of Mactan Island near Cebu, is a meat and fins. Ecotourism activities in Donsol have protected wetland of international importance because created an awareness of whale shark conservation of its high number of migratory bird species. With the among the local community and contributed to a assistance of the Coastal Resource Management national conservation strategy. (See also Box 2.3.) Project (CRMP) of DENR, Olango Island Bird and Seascape Tour was developed in 1997 as a Bais Dolphin and Whale Watching Tours community-based tourism project that provides The Bais dolphin and whale watching tours organized alternative livelihoods for island residents. by Bais City LGU in the Taņon Strait have successfully brought revenue to local communities. In 2000, the Tubbataha Reef operation handled a total of nearly 7,000 tourists, One of the best destinations for scuba diving in the including 251 foreigners. Gross revenue in 2000 was country, the famous Tubbataha Reef National Marine PhP 1.8 million ($36,000). Park, is a World Heritage Site. Attracting international markets, Tubbataha generated around PhP 3 million El Nido Resorts ($60,000) in fees and permits in 2005 during its Large-scale resort developments that adhere to three-month dive season. Alongside protection efforts, principles of ecotourism can be an effective and affected communities are provided with seed funding sustainable means of providing continuous benefits to for local livelihoods and training on coastal resource the community. The El Nido Foundation helps local management. communities develop a variety of business and Donsol Whale Shark Encounters development opportunities. Whale sharks are the largest fish in the world and Source: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, grow up to 20m long. Congregating in the coastal January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1. 34 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20054 scale "alternative livelihoods" and attempt to From a microenterprise development expand proven livelihood projects into micro- perspective, we need to look at the following enterprises that are capable of bringing the essential ingredients when preparing and profit margins and employment potential up to implementing coastal microenterprise projects: higher economic levels. 1. Economic viability and potential for business One approach is the development of expansion entrepreneurial businesses with better technical · Product marketability and demand systems that aim for more stable and bigger · Project site suitability and access to cash returns. Noteworthy examples of such an economy enterprise process are Mountain Fresh jams and · Production costs and profit margin jellies of the Ikalahans; the Olango Seascape · Potential for expanding production Tour (see Box 4.5); sardine production in San · Income stability Vicente, Palawan; the milkfish cage culture · Potential for tie-ins with other funding industry in the shallow areas of the open sea; windows and private business and seaweed farming. 2. Credit assessment The key success factors behind such micro- · Capacity to manage business enterprises were the availability of a lucrative · Organization's collective will and and firm market and the assistance of experienced confidence and competent institutions and project · Overall track record implementers brokering with the private sector. From these tie-ins, post-harvest and product 3. Impact and correlation with wise coastal distribution networks emanated, stepping management practices production up to a higher gear and more · Presence of successful coastal management competitive market standards. initiatives such as Marine Protected Areas and mangrove reforestation projects The objectives of any potential livelihood/ Firmness of institutional commitment microenterprise program could be along the · to Coastal Resources Management following lines: · To provide opportunities for more stable 4. Counterpart funding from other institutions incomes and a wider range of benefits · Microenterprise acceptability to other among members of the recipient organization funding institutions to be tapped and other members of the community · "Buy-in" by other institutional services/ who will eventually benefit from the donors expansion of the enterprise; 5. The People's Organization as micro-enterprise · To intensify popular participation in development cooperator and recipient natural resource management by showing · Organizations of fisherfolk that are that significant economic benefits can be actively and consistently participating derived when resources and habitats are in coastal resources management and conserved and protected; protection could be the focus of livelihood development assistance · To develop a broad support base for upland and coastal zoning systems and the management of protected areas. 35 6. Business Plan · The management of microenterprise development could be based on a business plan developed from proactive and thorough planning sessions with the community. Box 4.6 provides an example of a successful small-scale enterprise established by a woman, and Table 4.1 provides some potential microenterprise options that could help improve livelihoods in poor coastal communities. Seaweed farming near Olango Island, Cebu provides a Several of these options are well-suited to steady income to island residents. women and young people. Photo: Alan White. Box 4.6 Seaweed Farming in Port Barton, Palawan. One seaweed farmer, Florencia Alimodin, has shown a tenacity that promises well for the future of Port Barton. A single mother with two school-age children, Alimodin set up her farm with help from the Coastal Resource Management Project in 1998. She toiled under the sun for months, only to see a strong typhoon wipe out all her efforts. Undeterred, she started over. "The others in my group lost interest, but the thought of giving up never occurred to me, even when I had to use my own money to start up a new farm," she says. Today, her seaweed farm serves as a model for the rest of her community. Seaweed farming offers an economically promising alternative source of income that is also environmentally sound. Wilfredo Ruiz, chairman of the boatmen's association, had their group accredited last year so they could obtain government financing for seaweed farming. He explains, "The tourist season and therefore our boat operations last only four months each year (November-February). Seaweed farming will allow us to earn income during the off-season. We are also told it will not harm the marine environment, which is important to us who depend on tourism, because it is our marine ecological destinations that the tourists come to Port Barton for." Sources: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1; Authors. 36 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20054 Table 4.1 Micro-enterprise Options for Livelihood Improvements in Poor Coastal Communities. Livelihood Option Advantages Disadvantages Requirements Community-based · Local control spreads the · Tourists bring garbage · Site: natural attraction (reef, ecotourism wealth from tourism · Tourists may not be culturally forest, wildlife); good · Communities become active sensitive or may have a transportation and participants instead of negative cultural impact accommodation facilities; tourism objects · Needs strong link-up with clean, modern sanitary travel and transport groups, facilities; clean drinking DOT, LGU water Non-marine based · Can be long lasting · Needs training, skills, and · Skills for making a craft crafts/ souvenirs · Lucrative and rewarding to dedication · Good ideas (wooden shells, T- pride of workmanship · Needs market · Capital to buy materials shirts, mats, · Can raise awareness of · Can overexploit certain · Training carving, artwork, marine conservation/ resources (e.g., wood) · Tourist or local market food, etc.) advocacy for conservation, available protection, sustainable · Quality Control development Fish cage culture · Income may be expected · Grazing by fish may be high · Appropriate conditions within 6 months · Market may demand high (protected cove) in site · Capital investment may be quality selection low · Some buyers only take large · Brackish water for some · Technology may be simple lots species and ecologically sound · Fluctuating price of some · Tenure/access rights to area · Potential for live market species · Availability of feeds · Knowledge and skills in managing project Seaweed culture · Short growth cycle · Boat anchoring · Good water flow · Seed for next cycle can be · Recreational activities · Brackish to full seawater gathered from harvest · Increasing runoff · No history of disease in site · Enhances local fish resources · Sewage and, wastewater discharge Mud crab fattening · High market price · Collecting stock may deplete · Brackish water site · Short cycle supply · Muddy bottom or cages · Difficult to find stable sources · Stable supply of crablets of crablets · Availability of feed Fermented fish · Increases shelf life · Seasonal · Quality control processing · Makes use of local materials · Processing plant or kitchen · Value-added product · Storage facility · Good for home consumption · Skilled labor · Hygienic environment Drying/salting of · Reduces perishability · May promote an · Knowledge/skills in drying/ fish · Good fish processing unsustainable fishery salting alternative during peak · Constant supply of fish season of fish catch · Also good for home consumption Source: Authors. 37 5. LEGISLATION, POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT LEGISLATION AND INSTITUTIONS. The basic framework for coastal management can be Box 5.1 Legislative Framework. found in already existing national laws and The 1991 Local Government Code (RA 7160) regulations. The 1987 Constitution provides provides local government units (LGUs) with broad for the right to a balanced and healthy ecology governmental powers to manage fisheries and and specifically mandates the Philippine aquatic resources within municipal waters. government to conserve the nation's marine wealth. Statutes and regulations concerning The 1998 Fisheries Code (RA 8550) is the primary coastal management have existed for decades. legislation for fisheries management. They clearly demonstrate, however, the lack of The 2004 Clean Water Act (RA 9275) aims to a single law or administrative decree directly protect the country's water bodies from pollution. related to integrated coastal management. Under current legislation, sectors and activities The 2001 Wildlife Conservation Act (RA 9147) governs the conservation and protection of wildlife affecting the coastal environment are regulated species and critical habitats. through fragmented legislative mandates. Box 5.1 describes this current framework for The 1997 Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (RA coastal management. In total, more than 20 7942) recognizes the concept of ancestral waters. government units exercise separate management Other legislation: Public Land Act, Coast Guard powers and mandates over coastal uses and Law, Marine Pollution Decree, Philippine Mining sectors. Other government bodies also serve as Act, Philippine Environment Code, and Forestry advisory and recommendatory councils. Reform Code. The Department of Environment and Natural International Treaties: Convention on Biological Resources (DENR) protects the environmental Diversity, Agenda 21, RAMSAR, UNCLOS, CITES, integrity of Philippine territorial waters, which FAO Code of Conduct for Fisheries, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, and The Bonn Convention. comprise 220 million hectares and include the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The DENR Source: Authors. has the specific mandate to manage mangroves and associated terrestrial and aquatic flora and governmental powers, especially in the fauna within the marine zone. delivery of basic services--including the duty to protect and manage the coastal and marine The 1991 Local Government Code provided environments, to impose local fishery revenues local government units (LGUs) with broad and taxes, to delineate their municipal waters, governmental powers to manage fisheries and to allocate the use of resources within and aquatic resources within municipal municipal waters (Box 5.2). The national waters. Municipal waters were defined as the government is mandated to consult with the 15-kilometer area of marine water stretching local government units in their responsibility out from the general coastline. The term also to manage and maintain ecological balance includes streams, lakes, inland bodies of within their territorial jurisdiction. water and tidal waters within the municipality, public forest, timber lands, forest reserves, and The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources fishery reserves. Municipalities and cities serve (BFAR), an attached agency of the Department as the primary unit of governance for coastal of Agriculture (DA), under the Fisheries Code management in the Philippines. Through the exercises general jurisdiction over all waters devolution of powers, LGUs possess broad outside of the municipal waters, all commercial 38 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20045 Box 5.2 The fight of San Fernando City lack of collaboration between institutions with a La Union to eliminate illegal fishing. mandate for management of marine and coastal resources. Furthermore, planning units and The City of San Fernando promulgated a Fishing management boundaries tend to follow Ordinance in support of the Fisheries Code (R.A. territorial jurisdictions instead of ecological and 8550) by creating several Barangay Fisheries and natural limits. Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMC). Lack of viable fisheries management mechanisms. They conduct seminars on relevant rules and At present, no clear fisheries management regulations, organize a Bantay Dagat (Sea Watch) processes are implemented in coordination with and deputize fish wardens to assist the Philippine national government agencies, local government National Police Maritime on the enforcement of units, the municipal and commercial fisheries laws on illegal fishing. Coastal governments sector, and other key stakeholders. There is also a adopted a color-number coding scheme for the need for reorientation among all stakeholders from fishing equipment of their residents which facilitated the traditional "open access" approach toward identification of non-resident fishermen in coastal more regulated access, considering the dwindling barangay waters. Non-resident fishermen are to resources that may collapse very soon without have a fishing permit, license, and a fishing gear permit before they could fish in specific barangay appropriate intervention from the government. waters. Issues concerning licensing are described in Boxes 5.3 and 5.4. The barangay units provide support by patrolling, apprehending, filing and prosecuting violators. Lack of institutional and local capacities for coastal Barangays Lingsat, Carlatan, Dalumpinas Oeste, management. Capacity of national agencies and and Pagdaraoan have made enormous strides in LGUs to manage coastal environments and enforcing the Fisheries Code and the City Fishing resources is limited. They require technical Ordinance and apprehend violators in cooperation with the Philippine Coast Guard and Philippine guidance, budgets, personnel, training, Marines. monitoring, and other technical support in order to attain coastal management objectives. Source: Authors. fishing boats greater than 3 gross tons and shoreland aquaculture areas covered by fishpond lease agreements (FLAs). Several key issues regarding institutional arrangements and responsibilities for the implementation of coastal and fisheries legislation are described below. Weak institutional integration. There is a need for an integrated approach that considers both land-based activities--such as deforestation, Local government officials determining their municipal industrialization, and urbanization--as well as boundary to formalize their municipal water jurisdictional direct impacts of coastal resource uses, such as area. fishing, aquaculture, and ecotourism. There is a Photo: Alan White. 39 Box 5.3 Licensing in the knowledge and information of communities Commercial Fishing Sector. using all channels and methods could improve local participation in the management of High biodiversity presents a challenge in managing marine and coastal resources. Increased the fisheries sector: the more species, the more awareness would encourage local communities, complicated the management and research barangay groups, and local managers to requirements. With the exception of tuna, for which a Management Council has been formed and a become effective coastal managers. Tuna Management Plan has been drafted, the current licensing scheme in the Philippines does not Ineffective enforcement of marine and coastal distinguish among species and therefore does not laws. Philippine fisheries are now being fished target optimal levels of harvest in both economic to their limit. Municipal fisheries production and biophysical aspects. On the short term, is in steady decline due largely to illegal fishing however, a non species-based license scheme may practicessuchastheuseoffinemeshnets,dynamite be a more practical way of dealing with Philippine fisheries considering the current state of enforcement and cyanide fishing, and other destructive agencies in the country. The current licensing methods, as well as waste pollution, illegal system presents the following issues: conversion of mangrove forests, and improper shoreline settlement. There are sufficient laws that · Under-registration: Interviews with government officials suggest that only about 25 to 30 percent provide a policy and regulatory framework for of operating fishing vessels are registered. use, access, and allocation of resources, but law enforcement has been ineffective. · Maximum of vessels: No limitations exist on the total number of commercial vessels that can Some of the major obstacles to effective law register. enforcement include conflicting and ambiguous · Maximum of licenses: Currently no limit exists policies caused by differing interpretations on the total number of licenses as long as all of the law; confusion of jurisdictional roles requirements are met. among authorized agencies and deputized local · Classification: The current classification scheme enforcers; selective enforcement stemming of commercial vs. municipal fishing vessels does from political interference and discretionary not seem to reflect actual capacity, creating prosecution; minimal punishment of offenders; gaps in equity among fishers. There is a large variation among fishing vessels in the one tonnage category. · License fees: A common concern expressed by various players is the low level of license fees for commercial fishing charged by BFAR. Studies showed that all sampled vessels were operating profitably (with respect to both financial and economic criteria) and had a direct proportion to tonnage. Sources: Luna, C. 2004, Mendoza 2004, REECS-Tetra Tech, Inc. 2004. Lack of institutional awareness and informed stakeholders in coastal management. Education is A market operation to confiscate protected species at a necessary to broaden support for coastal Cebu City market. management initiatives. Increasing the Photo: Alan White. 40 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20045 lack of capacity for enforcement; and lack of public awareness (Christie et al. 2005). Box 5.4 Licensing in the Municipal Fishing Sector. Unclear regulatory policies are often With respect to the municipal fisheries sector, counterproductive to full law enforcement. current national policies and legislation appear Conflicting provisions are readily apparent in sufficient to institute a fisheries licensing system at Philippine fisheries laws. For example, Section the municipal level. Few coastal municipalities and 90 of the Fisheries Code bans the use of active cities, however, have established a fisheries gear (gear that is moved through water, such licensing system. This is mainly due to a lack of appreciation of coastal resources management, as trawl nets) within the 0-15 kilometer-zone of lack of understanding of the urgency to regulate municipal waters. Section 16 of the same Code, fisheries, and the fear of antagonizing political however, provides that municipalities may, constituents in the coastal area. through local ordinances, allow commercial fishing using only passive gear (stationary gear, Many local chief executives primarily consider fisheries licensing as a revenue generating such as gill nets and fish traps) within a 10.1-to- instrument. Although this is a legitimate objective, 15-kilometer area of the municipal waters (subject fisheries licensing should be linked to the overall to specific conditions). idea of fisheries management. A licensing system should be able to generate information about Sector policies and plans. There are a number of fishing effort and resource capacity, and regulate policies and plans for specific uses of marine and access along with generating revenue. coastal areas from both LGUs and national Furthermore, many municipal fisheries are already government agencies, including DENR, BFAR, so depleted that any proposed fisheries licensing DOT, and DOE. At the local government level, system will start on the wrong track and will put the there are possibly seven or more categories of long-term sustainability of fisheries resources at risk sectoral plans. The result has been uncoordinated if it is primarily established on the basis of revenue generation. The existing municipal license fees do sector-level management, even within one not seem to be based on sound estimates. A number local government unit. of fisherfolk interviewed commented that some fees are set too high. One such plan at the local government level is Given the present open access status of most the Local Development Plan, which contains municipal fisheries--where resource rents have provisions on population, basic services, practically been totally dissipated--and the variability of income, fisherfolk said they could hardly pay the required fees. Some fisherfolk even refuse to register and obtain a license because of the perceived prohibitive fees. The FISH Project has elaborated proposals and models for licensing schemes in both commercial and municipal sectors. Implementation of these proposals could help solve many of these problems. Source: Authors. education, health, labor, the economy, social services, and housing. This is distinct from Small fishing vessel in Luzon. the Municipal/City or Integrated Fishery Photo: Finn Danielsen. Development Plan. Also at the local government 41 level are Land Use Plans, which control the use of all forms of property, as well as all business activities and establishments within a given local government territory. Comprehensive land use plans (CLUPs) or zoning ordinances are prepared by LGUs as part of their land use planning and classification powers under the Local Government Code. Table 5.1 Major Sectoral Plans of Relevance to Coastal and Marine Resources. Sector Related Plans Agency Local Local Development Plan LGU Bangus are often raised in floating fish cages in protected Government bays. Land Use Plan LGU Photo: Alan White. Coastal Resource LGU Management Plan Marine Sanctuary LGU Coastal Resource Management Plans are Management Plan (Locally developed by some LGUs with the aim of managed areas) incorporating CRM strategies into local Agriculture Integrated Development Plans LGU development activities. Such efforts will remain and for SAFDZs marginal if they are not integrated into the Fisheries Comprehensive Agriculture DA development framework--local development and Fisheries Modernization plans and land use plans--of all coastal LGUs. Plan These and other major plans of relevance to Regional Fisheries DA-BFAR coastal and marine resources are listed in Management Plan Regional Offices Table 5.1. Tourism National Tourism Master Plan DOT Coastal resource management. The Philippines Local Tourism Plan LGU has a relatively long history of marine protected Energy Integrated Energy Plan DOE areas and other management instruments. The Forestry Master Plan for Forestry DENR-FMB first MPA was created more than 30 years ago. Development Today there are many experiences and lessons Mining Mineral National Action Plan DENR- learned about the management of marine and MGB coastal resources. Water Clean Water Act DENR-EMB resources NWRB The years have shown that the use of an Climate Comprehensive Air Pollution DENR-EMB integrated management approach is often Change Management and Control fraught with challenges. The diversity of issues Program in coastal areas requires multi-sectoral Air Quality Management Plan LGU collaboration, government commitment, and Integrated Air Quality DENR endless resources, requirements that are often Improvement Framework-Air lacking in the Philippines. Even in areas where Quality Control Action Plan external funding or projects are available, Source: Authors. coastal resource management initiatives have failed. 42 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20045 Nonetheless, some successful experiences, use. Established in the early 1980s with the including those at Bohol and the Gilutongan guidance of Silliman University, the strong Island and Apo Island Marine Sanctuaries, participation of the community stakeholders have continued even after donor support came is evident in all aspects of management. Because to an end: of its biological diversity, it was proclaimed as a Protected Seascape and Landscape under Bohol. The Bohol experience demonstrates how the National Integrated Protected Areas local governments, led by the provincial System (NIPAS) law. A Protected Area government, have been able to unite against Management Board (PAMB), comprised mostly illegal fishing and how leadership can truly of local representatives, currently oversees the make CRM happen. implementation of policies for the sanctuary, including a user's fee program. Gilutongan Island Marine Sanctuary. This sanctuary in the Municipality of Cordova, Cebu The importance of well-managed MPAs shows how a local government unit emphasized cannot be overemphasized in the conservation marine sanctuary management and allocated and sustainable management of marine a budget for the regular operations and biodiversity in the Philippines. The first MPA management of the sanctuary, reaping in the country established as a fish sanctuary considerable benefits from tourism. The results was in 1974 on Sumilon Island, Cebu under were positive: Not only did the biophysical the guidance of the Silliman University Marine conditions of the sanctuary improve, but Laboratory. Figure 5.1 provides a map of the substantial revenues were generated by Sumilon Island marine reserve. collecting a user's fee. The annual fees currently amount to almost PhP 2 million ($40,000) with The Sumilon Island fish sanctuary is often 70 percent going to the municipality and 30 mentioned as the reason why coral reef fish percent to the barangay. sanctuaries contribute to improved reef fisheries management. The experiment in reef Apo Island Marine Sanctuary. This sanctuary in management, which stopped all fishing on Negros Oriental underscores the vital role of the community in promoting sustainable resource Figure 5.1 Sumilon Island Marine Reserve with Sanctuary and Traditional Use Area. Gilutongan Island--Toti, the sanctuary manager signs the management plan. Photo: Alan White. Source: Authors. 43 one part of the Sumilon Island reef for about tourism include Balicasag and Pamilacan 10 years, allowed researchers to collect Islands, Bohol; Mabini, Batangas; and San substantial data on the effects of this kind of Salvador Island, Zambales (Christie et al. 1999, management of the coral reef and its related Green et al. 2002, Kuperan et al. 1999, White et al. fisheries. The benefits provided compelling 1994, White 1988a,b, White 1989, White 1996). evidence for fish biomass spillover from the sanctuary zone where no fishing is allowed These examples of MPAs have followed a (the "no-take" areas). Such evidence has general model in which an area of a fringing been important in convincing scientists, reef coral reef adjacent to an island or mainland is managers, and fisherfolk that fish sanctuaries set aside as a "no-take" or "sanctuary" zone. improve reef fisheries while benefiting fisherfolk in the area (Box 5.5). The area outside of this no-take zone is called a traditional fishing zone or, in international Since 1974, many similar municipal marine fish terms, a buffer zone. Activities that do not sanctuaries or MPAs have been established, damage the coral reef in any way, such as following the lead of Sumilon and the associated traditional fishing methods, are usually allowed Apo Island (Pajaro et al. 1999, White et al. 2002). within the buffer zone. Within the no-take Other well-managed and documented MPAs sanctuary zone, entry is normally permitted in terms of their benefits for fisheries and for swimming and diving although some Box 5.5 Supporting Fisheries at Sumilon and Apo Islands. Research carried out over the past 28 years at Sumilon Island, and the past 22 years at Apo Island in the Central Visayas, has provided some of the most compelling evidence available worldwide for the usefulness of no-take marine reserves as fisheries management tools: Effects on fish biomass: Biomass of target fish (five fish families accounting for 92.3 percent of the fisheries yield at Sumilon; four fish families accounting for 75.6 percent of the fisheries yield at Apo) increased threefold inside the no-take reserves over nine years of no-take protection at Sumilon and by 4.6 times over 18 years of no-take protection at Apo. Biomass of these fish did not increase outside each reserve. Spillover of fish: Both large predatory fish and surgeonfish and jacks (accounting for 40-75 percent of the yield at Apo) increased substantially (by factors of 17 and 3 respectively) inside the Apo reserve over 18 years of protection. Outside the reserve, the biomass of these fish over time increased significantly at locations closer to the reserve boundary (200-250m) compared to those further away (250-500m). Effects on fisheries yields: At Sumilon, positive correlations were found between the number of years of reserve protection and both targeted fish biomass in the reserve and catch outside the reserve, although the latter relationship was not statistically significant. At Apo there was a strong positive relationship between number of years of reserve protection and targeted fish biomass in the reserve, but not between number of years of reserve protection and catch outside the reserve. These results, plus spillover evidence, suggest that marine reserves may help maintain, or even enhance, local fishery yields in the long term. Sources: Alcala 1981 and 1988, Alcala and Russ 1990, 2000 and 2002, Alcala et al. 2005, Maypa et al. 2002, Russ and Alcala 1996 and 2003, Russ et al. 2003 and 2004, White et al. 2002. 44 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20045 managers prohibit any form of entry (White A pilot of the system was, among others, tested 1988a, b, White 1989, White and Vogt 2000). in former Coastal Resource Management Project learning sites. Recent studies have not only indicated the beneficial effects of fish sanctuaries on fishery Table 5.2 Number of MPAs in the Philippines by yields and coral reef protection, but also that Location and Legal Basis. people participating in such management Area Local NIPAS Total % efforts gain in a variety of ways, including ordinance Act through food security, cash income from Luzon 33 9 42 11.6 tourism, and pride in their protection role Visayas 257 8 265 73.2 (White et al. 1994, Katon et al. 1999, Vogt 1997). Mindanao 45 10 55 15.2 Total 335 27 362 100 A salient characteristic of all successful MPA Source: Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation. projects in the country is the strong involvement of communities and the local government in Table 5.3 Size Distribution of MPAs. planning and enforcement (White and Vogt General Size range No. of Area (hectares) 2000, DENR et al. 2001). This involvement size (ha) MPAs builds the confidence of people to manage their Small <15 201 1,541 own resources and encourages long-lasting Medium 15-30 81 1,715 outcomes. The success of the Philippine MPAs thus hinges on two crucial players: the Large >30 40 2,079 (local and national) government and strong Very large >100 40 1,537,267 stakeholder community involvement. Total 335 362 1,542, 602 Source: Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation. In spite of all the efforts to establish MPAs, only few are sustainable without outside support. In Table 5.4 Management Rating of MPAs. addition, the benefits from successful and well-managed MPAs are often lost due to % overfishing, pollution and other human Rating level nozuL sayasiV oanadniM latoT pressures in surrounding areas, outside of the 0-pre-rating 0 7 0 7 1.9 controlled MPA or sanctuary. The total number, relative size, and management status of some 1-initiated 8 35 7 50 13.8 MPAs in the country (those included in the 2-established 10 82 12 104 28.7 CCEF Database), is summarized in Tables 5.2, 3-enforced 3 57 13 73 20.2 5.3, and 5.4. 4-sustained 0 13 3 16 4.4 5-institutionalized 0 4 1 5 1.4 The management rating system of MPAs, No data 21 67 19 107 29.6 developed by the Coastal Conservation and Total 42 265 55 362 100 Education Foundation (CCEF) and its partners, is Note: Management ratings as evaluated by the MPA rating system of applied through the participation of local CCEF and Partners (2004). stakeholders together with outside observers. The Source: Authors. rating system following strict criteria and guidelines on what constitutes achieving a particular level of management (White et al. 2004). 45 Box 5.6 Key Elements for the Sustainability of Integrated Coastal Resource Management. A recent review of integrated coastal resource management experiences in the Philippines identified the following key elements for the long- term sustainability of this approach: Stakeholder participation in ICRM decision making processes Improved economic returns and income generation Equitable sharing of economic benefits ParticipatoryCoastalResourceAssessmentinamangrove forest helps engage the community in assessing and Supporting legal and policy framework appreciating their coastal resources. Intergovernmental coordination mechanisms Source: Authors. Capacity for law enforcement and, more recently, on municipal and Institutional continuity beyond leadership provincial levels, and implement these from a change wider "fisheries ecosystem perspective." Conflict resolution mechanisms Fishing grounds are contiguous areas with Education and awareness-level raising mobile fish and fishers. To ensure sustainable Long-term monitoring information systems fish stocks, management must be applied Stable financial support equally across and beyond political boundaries. Clustering of LGUs and interprovincial and Source: Adapted from Christie, et. al. 2005; Milne, et al. 2003. interregional management clusters can set the A recent review of integrated coastal resource management experiences in the Philippines Box 5.7 The Importance of Including All Stakeholders. identified several key elements for the long-term sustainability of this approach (Box 5.6). Despite catching some 60 percent of total fish (by volume) in the country, the commercial fishing The importance of broad stakeholder sector has seldom been included in coastal and participation in integrated coastal resources fisheries management. management is illustrated in Box 5.7. In the Camotes Sea, the commercial fishing industry Fisheries management is not a separate was invited to take part in a regional fisheries management planning process. As a spin-off from strategy but an essential component of any that process, commercial fishing operators have coastal resource management (CRM) program. now initiated their own research into the life cycles of main commercial species, looking for key It does, however, offer the opportunity to seasons in which they will initiate an industry-led broaden the scope of CRM interventions, and -enforced closed season. which have historically focused on the village Source: Green et al. 2003. 46 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 20045 foundation for the integration of management between the municipal and commercial sectors, Figure 5.2 The CRM Planning Process for Local Governments in the Philippines. who ultimately fish the same resource in the same fishing grounds. A good way to achieve local support to CRM is through the implementation of Participatory Coastal Resource Assessments (PCRA) at the community level. Not only are PCRAs a research tool for informed decision making, but they also serve as a high-impact educational vehicle for both resource users and decision makers. Efforts to generate LGU and community support for CRM are generally more successful when backed up by information about local conditions. Through the presentation of locally derived Source: CRMP. research results and other relevant information, LGUs and community resource users are able to better appreciate the issues and problems actual management activities. Such an approach and accept the need for unified rather than will ensure that issues are addressed across a wide fragmented solutions. range of sectors and foster a broad mechanism of support while promoting sustainability. Experience has also demonstrated that ownership of a CRM initiative must be shared While monitoring and evaluation of progress in and spread as widely as possible. Ownership CRM helps to keep everyone on track, it is not a must be spread both across the community and practice that many LGUs are likely to practice on among as many sectors as possible. To foster a regular basis. such ownership, the process must be transparent, giving all partners a complete say in what Compliance, however, might be improved happens in the project (Figure 5.2). with incentives. As a non-monetary incentive, certification has proved to provide the CRM is a collaborative undertaking. Clearly, "prestige" factor, which can encourage LGUs no matter how dedicated and determined, no to regularly benchmark, monitor, and evaluate LGU acting alone can be effective in addressing their progress in CRM. A three-step certification the multidimensional and multisectoral issues system has been developed by DENR and that characterize CRM. An LGU initiating CRM the CRMP. would benefit from seeking support both from the inside and the outside by sectors whose By 2005, 113 coastal municipalities had achieved activities affect the coastal environment. It is the basic certification benchmarks of coastal also important to recognize that collaboration resource management: Allocation of budget, begins with and is strengthened by a policy of CRM plan, functional Fisheries and Aquatic inclusion. To encourage collaboration, it is Resource Management Council (FARMC), one important not to preclude anybody from or more MPAs, coastal law enforcement, or participating in CRM, whether in advocacy or other CRM best practice in place. 47 6. CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE The analysis of trends and responses in this report suggests that the Philippines has a number of challenges ahead when it comes to managing its rich marine and coastal resources. This section will briefly outline some of the main challenges. 1. Increased protection of resources under threat. A number of experiences clearly demonstrate the value and impact of mangrove rehabilitation and fish sanctuaries and other MPAs on biodiversity, fish stocks, and other aquatic Visitors at the Gilutongan Island Marine Sanctuary look resources. The main priority is to use the out over the sanctuary from the guardhouse. existing experience with successful MPAs and Photo: Alan White. to not only replicate them, but, more importantly, to expand their scope, in unless the current size and rate of establishing particular by increasing the sizes of effectively MPAs is improved (Alino et al. 2002). managed MPAs and by forming MPA networks in ecologically connected and critical areas. This Another priority is to expand transborder expanding scope is only possible through initiatives on MPAs. An example is the Sulu inter-LGU collaboration and co-management and Sulawesi Seas Project by WWF, where between LGUs at both the municipal and the Philippines works with Indonesia and provincial levels and the local community Malaysia on the establishment of an integrated MPA managers. Despite several successes, it is network of priority marine protected areas, as estimated that protecting 10 percent of the well as sea turtle and fisheries conservation coral reef areas will take another 100 years activities. It is also important to promote and strengthen the sustainability of financing schemes for protection. Intact and healthy marine and coastal natural areas with high biodiversity value will eventually attract tourists and generate local revenue. This creates a base for sustainable financing--for example through the user fees, public and private sector partnerships, and models for revenue sharing between stakeholders and government. Examples are the Bais dolphin and whale watching tours organized Group participating in a participatory coastal resource by Bais City LGU in the Taņon Strait, and the assessment training. user fee system implemented in Mabini and Photo: Alan White. Tingloy, Batangas (Box 6.1). 48 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 Box 6.1 Money from Conservation: 2. Improved local livelihoods and Lessons from Anilao. sustainable resource utilization. Improving local livelihoods for communities Maricaban Strait in Batangas Province, more in coastal areas is closely linked to building a popularly known as "Anilao," features a high base for a more sustainable management of diversity of corals and invertebrates. Human activities, however, were threatening Anilao's rich coastal and marine resources. Ecotourism biodiversity, and in 1998 the local government activities have proven in some cases to provide units of Mabini and Tingloy in collaboration with benefits to local communities. For tourism WWF-Philippines launched a marine law development, it is important to see local enforcement campaign, which reduced illegal communities as partners and work with fishing and restored coral cover and fish community organizations to develop services populations. This conservation effort is financed by and facilities. A stimulation of small-scale user fees. enterprises in communities could be accompanied The system, first implemented by Mabini in by qualified technical assistance and financing September 2003, has, yielded PhP 2.89 million opportunities. ($56,667) in users' fees by 2006, which are being used for marine law enforcement through Bantay A key priority is to target the persistent poverty Dagat and other conservation efforts. The user fee system supports the continued protection of problems around many of the MPAs. A big biodiversity of Anilao and benefits local fisherfolks challenge is to ensure that the poorest and and divers through increased fish catches and vulnerable groups, such as women and youth, enhanced diving experiences. are targeted beneficiaries of income-generating activities. Another priority is to ensure that A multi-stakeholder management board decides on the programmatic use of funds and provides profits from ecotourism are shared fairly with oversighttoensuretransparencyandaccountability. local communities. In September 2005, Tingloy and Mabini agreed to a unified collection system and sharing scheme, Rapid population growth in coastal areas and since its initiation, Tingloy's share of collected also needs to be addressed. There is a need at fees have amounted to about PhP 700,000 the local levels for an integrated approach that ($13,725). links environment and natural resources management with access to reproductive health Dive Fee Monthly Collections and family planning services. An example of 350000 this approach is the "People and Environment 300000 250000 Co-Existence Development (PESCO-Dev) Project" 200000 2003 2004 in two provinces in Region VI. PESCO-Dev Pesos150000 2005 100000 combines the development of reproductive 50000 health and coastal resources management 0 JanuaFebruaryMarch ry AprilMayJuneJuly AuguptembeOctoNovemDecem st r ber ber ber capacities within coastal communities. Se Month Improving local livelihoods also entails going From September 2005 on forward, the Mabini-Tingloy ahead with a process to secure community and unified fee collection system charges PhP 100 and household tenure rights to land and local PhP 1,800 for daily and annual passes respectively. resources. Secure tenure is important because Source: World Wildlife Funds, 2005. local communities are far more likely to act in 49 ways that conserve natural resources if they A key priority is the formulation and adoption have real control over resources, influence in of an integrated coastal and marine management decisions on how resources are used, and if they policy that sets clear priorities, principles, and end up with a fair share of the benefits. An guidelines that can steer policy towards important part of the tenure process will resolution and encourage government agencies be to continue the demarcation and titling of and offices to see themselves as being part of the ancestral waters belonging to indigenous larger effort towards proper management of peoples. The case of the Tagbanwa People, who the coastal and marine areas. The policy obtained a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title formulation should build on lessons learned (CADT) to the Coron Island in Palawan, in the implementation of coastal and marine demonstrates that the recognition of indigenous programs and projects, including proposed peoples' property rights and customary law may policy frameworks such as the Sustainable lead to community-based conservation areas. Philippine Archipelagic Development Framework (ArcDev) and the national coastal resource 3. Formulation and adoption of a national management policy resulting from projects coastal and marine policy framework and funded by UNDP and USAID, respectively. strengthening institutional integration. With the numerous laws and government 4. Development of institutional and local programs being implemented, management of capacities for coastal management. the coastal and marine areas remains fragmented It is important to address the issue of capacity and uncoordinated. While there has been some development both in national agencies and in improvement in conceptual and government LGUs. While an important effort is already attitudes--notably in the area of local governance made by the CMMO office in DENR, which and marine environment protection--at the provides training and assistance to local LGU national level integrated coastal management staff, a wider capacity building approach is across the different sectors continues to be needed that targets all levels of government, largely problematic. including law enforcement units. One way could be to implement the proposed training Considerable sectoral fragmentation exists in and capacity development activities in the the governing regimes of the various coastal and ArcDev, including the formation of ICRM marine-related sectors, resulting in jurisdictional training and technical assistance core groups competition among agencies. Multi-sectoral at national, regional, and provincial levels. bodies, such as the Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Another priority is to develop and implement Management Councils for coastal fisheries and a targeted, policy-relevant research agenda the Protected Areas Management Boards for for enhanced management and stewardship of protected seascapes, have been set-up as coastal resources. required by law in recognition of the existence of overlaps and need to coordinate all interested 5. Improved coastal law enforcement. parties, agencies and groups. Ad-hoc inter-agency There is a systemic lack of capacity and agreements are often used to resolve program resources by the government to enforce implementation issues, but the underlying fisheries laws in the Philippines. The present legal and jurisdictional framework remains enforcement framework needs to be revised unchanged. and streamline to overcome conflicting and 50 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 6. Sustainable management of fisheries resources. The increased demand for fish by a rapidly growing population, and increasing exports due to increasing fish prices, have substantially increased the pressure on Philippine marine fishery resources over the past two decades. Philippine fisheries are now being fished to their limit. While the demand is going up, catch per unit effort and fish stocks are going down, a clear sign of severe overfishing. Coastal enforcement officers inspecting a fishing boat in Within the next 15 years, the demand could Cebu City. be so large that it eventually may lead to a Photo: FISH Project. collapse of fisheries and the fishery industry. To change this situation, a high priority is to ambiguous policies and clear up the present revise existing and develop new and more confusion of jurisdictional roles among efficient fishing license systems (commercial authorized agencies and deputized local and municipal) in order to control access to enforcers. The selective enforcement resulting fishing areas and put limits on catch. Concrete from political interference and discretionary proposals and models for improved licensing prosecution also needs to be addressed, as well systems already exist (i.e. the FISH Project in as minimal or non-punishment of offenders. Cebu City). Another priority is to continue working at the Another priority is to develop an environmentally local level with local enforcement organizations. friendly aquaculture, using more native species It is important to encourage LGUs to continue and with adequate mitigation of impacts on the process of forming and strengthening local vulnerable coastal mangrove and reef ecosystems. organizations to enforce coastal laws, such as the Bantay Dagat (literally, "sea watch"). Authorities should consider providing more technical assistance and enforcement capacity to overcome logistical constraints and illegal activity, which are undermining local management initiatives. If the collaboration with local organizations and community members on enforcement is to succeed in the long term, it is important to guarantee adequate prosecution of coastal and fishery law violators. Mangroves in Mindanao. Photo: Finn Danielsen. 51 One example is the environmentally and and marine ecosystems and decisions affecting economically sustainable method of raising their services. It is therefore a priority to ensure mud crabs in pens among the mangroves, that information is better distributed to both which is found in Tantanang Bay in western LGUs and coastal communities because Mindanao. increased awareness and access to information will improve participation in coastal resources Rehabilitation of degraded habitats to improve management, and encourage local communities, fish stocks and fisheries yields is also a priority. barangay groups, and local managers to Old fish pond areas could be used for replanting become effective coastal managers. mangroves, and coral reefs could be better managed so that human-caused impacts are 8. Addressing climate change. minimized. This way, coral reefs will also be Climate change and sea-level rise in the able to recover from bleaching episodes. A coming decades will likely have several good example of this practice is the recovery major impacts on Philippine marine and coastal of living coral cover at Tubbataha Reefs after resources. It is important to emphasize the the 1998 coral bleaching incident in which the egree of difficulty in identifying climate-change- reef lost about 24 percent of its living coral induced coastal patterns from other factors, cover. Since then, the reef has almost stresses, and problems affecting these areas. completely recovered to its original state because It is vitally important to study baseline dynamics of protection from other human impacts. to be able to identify, study, and understand climate change. Additional studies on mitigation 7. Strengthening of public awareness and and adaptation to climate change in coastal areas education. also are a priority. A recent survey in the Philippine Daily Inquirer2 revealed that Filipinos in general have a low Potential climate change impacts and changes level of awareness of the Philippines' biodiversity will need to be mitigated and prevented to the richness, in spite of a number of environmental extent possible through ICRM. For example, campaigns in recent decades. It is important to prevention of flooding and inundation of low- seek new ways to increase public awareness lying areas will require planning for and about coastal and marine resources and their implementation of coastal setback regulations uses in order to broaden support for coastal for all kinds of development. Projected rates of management initiatives. An innovative approach erosion and inundation will be needed to help is the new Beach EcoWatch Programme of plan for appropriate land use in coastal areas. DENR, which is a multi-stakeholder initiative that seeks to link the management of local Another priority is to strengthen coral reef coastal resources with public awareness and management to enhance the natural resilience of income opportunities. coral reef communities by reducing human pressures. This entails avoiding overfishing of An important part of awareness-raising is herbivores, which keep the algae population in giving people access to information about coastal check and help maintain clear surfaces for coral recruits following a bleaching event; eliminating physical damage to reefs (blast fishing and cyanide fishing); and identifying and protecting 2 The Philippine Daily Inquirer, Regions, 7-9-2005, p. A16 source reefs for coral and fish recruitment. 52 PHILIPPINES ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2005 9. Fighting corruption. Development of the Country's Coastal and Good governance and development are linked, Marine Habitats and Resources and Providing particularly in the area of natural resources Mechanisms for its Implementation; (c) a where corruption and weak management are strengthened role of science in resource particularly corrosive of equitable and sustainable management decisions; (d) ICRM information, growth. The corrupt and illegal practices related training and technical assistance that are to forests, fisheries, and wildlife cost the global accessible to core groups at the national, economy more than $30 billion per year3 and regional, provincial, municipal, and barangay people who have spoken out against it have lost levels; (e) a clear definition of roles at the their lives. For good governance, all agencies, various government levels that identify organizations and individuals in the Philippines coastal resource policy, coordination, and and abroad must step up efforts to fight corruption, management roles and responsibilities; and illegal practices, and weak law enforcement (f) improved coastal law enforcement through related to natural resource management. streamlining and upgrading of the technical capacity of enforcement units and stronger The Way Forward. To address the multiple participation of local organizations. demands of the Philippines' vast but threatened array of coastal and marine resources, an integrated One option for designing such a framework is coastal resources management (ICRM) framework to identify the ICRM champions and start with is needed. Such a framework should strengthen the DENR proposed National ICRM Strategy for the capacity of stakeholders to work across the Philippines. This framework can be sectors and through layers of government to strengthened through consultations with the improve stewardship of these resources. This different national agencies and LGUs. Specifically, will require (a) new institutional arrangements the lessons from 100 LGUs in the Visayas, where that rationalize competing uses across sectors; the strategy is currently being piloted, and the (b) the formulation and adoption of an recently passed Wildlife Act should be used to integrated coastal and marine management improve the current draft. policy that sets clear priorities, principles, and guidelines to steer policy towards resolution The needs and aspirations of local communities and encourage government agencies and offices whose livelihoods depend on a healthy coastal to see themselves as being part of larger effort and marine environment should be taken into towards proper management of the coastal and account. In addition, to aid the effective scaling marine areas. The point of departure for the up of ICRM practices, guidance can be provided formulation could be the existing ARC/DEV on the actions required at the LGU and central framework and the draft Executive Order: government levels to reinforce the cross linkages Adopting Integrated Coastal Management as necessary for effective coordination among The National Strategy to Ensure the Sustainable levels of government and allow for policy harmonization across sectors. 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This network encourages Archbishop Reyes Avenue Banilad, Network exchange of ideas and sharing of experiences Cebu City. and information for the advancement of MPA Tel: (032) 2336947. implementation. The network promotes the use of E-mail: ccef@mozcom.com or the MPA Database System with centralized data on ccef_mpa@mozcom.com. MPAs to facilitate easy access to information in a user-friendly and standardized format to document and monitor change for adaptive management, policy decisions, and science. PhilReefs PhilReefs was conceptualized to consolidate various Philippine Council for Aquatic and Coral Reef reef survey information and facilitate exchange and Marine Research and Development Management communication among the different reef workers. With (PCAMRD) Network of the the advent of information technology and the Internet, Los Baņos, Laguna. Philippines this exchange of information can be operationalized by Tel: (049) 5365578 posting relevant data and information in an online web E-mail: ersterz@laguna.net; source such as PhilReefs. mrd@laguna.net. NARRDS The NARRDS is a nationwide network of R&D Northern Luzon: National institutions from the academic and government Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State Aquatic agencies composed of over 40 members, including University Resources national and zonal centers, cooperating stations, and Bacnotan, La Union. Research and collaborating specialized agencies that implement Tel: (072)-242-5641 loc 209 Development aquatic and marine resources R&D. Fax/Telefax: (072)-888-5354/ System (072)-242-5642 The five zonal centers are: · Northern Luzon Aquatic Resources R&D Zonal Southern Luzon: Center University of the Philippines · Southern Luzon Aquatic Resources R&D Zonal Los Baņos, Laguna. Center Tel: (063-049) 536-7527;536-0188 · Visayas Aquatic Resources R&D Zonal Center Fax: (063-049) 536-2517; 536-0188 · Northern Mindanao Aquatic Resources R&D Zonal E-mail: zonalcenter2@yahoo.com. Center Visayas Center: · Southern Mindanao Aquatic Resources R&D Zonal University of the Philippines in the Center Visayas, Miag-ao, Iloilo. Tel: (033) 338 1534/ 315 9378 Contact information is provided on the right and Fax: (033) 338 1534 available at http://www.pcamrd.dost.gov.ph. E-mail: upv_oc@yahoo.com. Northern Mindanao: Mindanao State University Naawan, Misamis Oriental. Tel: 08822) 720552 Tel/Fax: (08822) 720551 Email: m_tumanda@yahoo.com. Southern Mindanao: Davao del Norte State College Brgy. New Visayas, Panabo City Tel: (084) 628-4301 Contact: Ronnie Estrellada E-mail: restrellada@yahoo.com. 59 NAME DESCRIPTION CONTACT INFORMATION PAMANA KA National Alliance of Small-scale Fishermen Pamana Ka Sa Pilipinas sa Pilipinas Stewarding Sanctuaries and Seas in the Philippines. Cebu City. Tel +63 32 262 2713 "Pambansang Nationwide alliance of community-based marine Email: Pmnk_pilipinas@yahoo. Alyansa ng protected area managers composed of fisherfolk and com. Maliliit na local government units. PAMANA KA is currently Mangingisda at composed of 122 member sanctuary sites. Komunidad na Nangangalaga sa Sanktwaryo at Karagatan sa Pilipinas" FishNet FishNet was formed as a network of non-government Philippine Council for Aquatic and Philippine and people's organizations in 1998 with the aim Marine Research and Development Fisherfolk to undertake studies and make institutional stands (PCAMRD) Network for on the issues and concerns of the fisheries sector. Los Baņos, Laguna. CBCRM It participates in discussions, launches media Tel: (049) 5365578 campaigns and engages government in action E-mail: ersterz@laguna.net; dialogue at various levels. mrd@laguna.net. CRM Net CRM Net was formed in 1999 to monitor the impact Resource Center Coastal and accountability of major CRM/ICM programs University of the Philippines Resource and develop and pursue an advocacy agenda College of Social Work and Management for strengthening CBCRM practice. It consists of Community Development Network individuals from government, NGOs, people's (CSWCD) organizations and the private sector involved in theory Diliman, Quezon City 1001. and practice of CRM/ICM. It aims at facilitating the Tel: (02) 929-2477. exchange of experiences, information, and knowledge E-mail: cbcrm_rc1@pacific.net.ph. on CRM/ICM among members of the Net and other similar networks; fostering and nurturing linkages between advocates, practitioners and stakeholders; and promoting and advocating standards of good practice in CRM/ICM. LMMA The LMMA Network promotes adaptive management Website: www.LMMAnetwork.org. Network for local areas through community and local E-mail: toni@lmmanetwork.org. Local Marine government involvement. Management Areas Network B: PHILIPPINE WEBSITES RELATED TO MARINE AND COASTAL RESOURCES Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR): www.bfar.gov.ph. Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation, Inc (CCEF): www.coast.ph. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR): www.denr.gov.ph. Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest (FISH) Project of Tetra Tech and USAID: www.oneocean.org. Local Marine Managed Areas Network (LMMAN): www.LMMAnetwork.org. Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA): www.pemsea.org. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD): www.pcamrd.dost.gov.ph. 60 GEOGRAPHY ECONOMY / SOCIETY Area: Total..................................... 300,000 sq. km GDP (2005) .................................................. 5,379 B Land ..................................... 298,170 sq. km GDP growth rate (2005) ..................................5.1% Water ....................................... 1,830 sq. km GDP ­ composition by sector: Boundaries: Agriculture ................................................14% North: Balintang Channel Industry .....................................................33% South: Sulu and Celebes Seas Services ......................................................53% East: Philippine Sea/Pacific Ocean Unemployment rate (2005): ..........................10.3% West: South China Sea Gross Domestic Investment/GDP:..............15.7% Coastline:.............................................. 36,289 km Exports of goods and services/GDP:...........46.4% Maritime claims: Gross domestic savings/GDP: .....................20.1% Total territorial water area incl. Gross national savings/GDP:.......................18.2% Exclusive Economic Zone . 2,200,000 sq. km Industrial production growth rate: ...............5.3% Coastal ................................. 266,000 sq. km Agricultural production growth rate:...........2.0% Oceanic ............................. 1,934,000 sq. km Agriculture-products: rice, coconut, corn, Continental shelf area .......... 184,600 sq. km sugarcane, banana, hog, broiler chicken, Climate: Tropical: northeast monsoon layer chicken, carabao, beef cattle, dairy (Nov. to April); southwest monsoon cattle, duck, goat, chicken eggs, duck (May to October) sardines, milkfish, oyster, mussels, tilapia, Terrain: Mostly mountains, with narrow to catfish, tuna, shrimps, seaweed extensive coastal lowlands Exports (2005):.....................................PhP2,496.6 B Elevation extremes: Imports (2005):....................................PhP2,533.9 B Lowest point.................Philippine Sea 0 m Exchange Rate:.........................................54.04 PhP Highest point ....................Mt. Apo 2,954 m Population (2005): ............................... 85.2 million Natural resources: timber, nickel, cobalt, silver, Population growth rate:..................................2.2% gold, salt, copper, petroleum Urban population (% of total population):....62.6 Land use: Birth rate (2003):.................25.1/1,000 population Arable land..............................................19% Death rate (2003): .................5.1/1,000 population Permanent pastures ................................. 4% Infant mortality rate (2003): ...27/1,000 live birth Permanent crops .....................................12% Access to safe water Forest & wetlands...................................46% (% of population 2003):........................80%** Others .....................................................19% Access to sanitation Environment ­ International agreements: (% of population 2003):.....................86.1%** party to: Climate Change, Endangered Life expectancy at birth (2003):.............69.8 years Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Literacy (total population 2003):...................92.3% Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Elementary participation rate (2003):..........90.1% Layer Protection, Biodiversity, Wetlands, National capital: Manila Whaling, POPs Administrative divisions (July 2004): 17 regions, 79 provinces Independence: June 12, 1898 Sources: National Statistical Coordination Board, National Statistics Of ce, National Economic and Development Authority, Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2001-2004 and Medium Term Development Plan 2004-2010, CIA Worldbook 2000, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, World Health Organization 2004, World Development Indicator 2000, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.