70753 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA DEVELOPING PARTICULATE MATTER CONTROL THE WORLD BANK INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA DEVELOPING PARTICULATE MATTER CONTROL THE WORLD BANK THE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The WORLD BANK 1818 H. St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 June 2012 All rights reserved Cover design by Jostein Nygard, Circle Graphics and Shepherd Inc. Front and Back Cover photos: John D. Liu, from the ï¬?lm A Green Call prepared by the Environmental Education Media Project in Beijing in cooperation with the World Bank, Xie Yongming, and Kosima Liu. Background photo: Anne Arquit Niederberger. This publication is a joint product of staff from the China Ministry of Environmental Protection, the World Bank, and others (see acknowledgements). 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All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Ofï¬?ce of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, email pubrights@worldbank.org Acronyms and Abbreviations Al Aluminium APC Air Pollution Control API Air Pollution Index AQM Air Quality Management As Arsenic BAM Beta attenuation monitor BTH Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Ca Calcium CBA Cost-Beneï¬?t Analysis CAEP Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning CMB Chemical mass balance model CNMC China National Monitoring Center CO Carbon Monoxide CRAES China Research Academy of Environmental Sciences EPB Environmental Protection Bureau ESP Electrostatic precipitator EU European Union FDG Flue gas desulfurization Fe Iron FECO Foreign Economic Cooperation Ofï¬?ce (of MEP) FPM Fine Particulate Matter FRM Federal Reference Method FYP Five Year Plan GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Green House Gas GOC Government of Peoples Republic of China HOB Heat only boiler IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments IT Interim Target INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES iii iii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS MEP Ministry of Environmental Protection MS Monitoring station MW Mega watts NH3 Ammonia NOx Nitrogen Oxide or Nitrogen Dioxide NSP New Suspension Preheater (Dry Proces Cement Production Line) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PFA Principal Factor Analysis PM Particulate matter PM2.5 PM smaller than 2.5 micrometers PM10 PM smaller than 10 micrometers PMF Positive Matrix Factorization QA-QC Quality Control and Assurance RMB Renminbi (Chinese currency) PMF Positive matrix factorization model PRD Pearl River Delta PWE Population weighted exposure SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction Si Silicon SO2 Sulphur dioxide TEOM Tapered element oscillating microbalance TSP Total Suspended Particulate US United States US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency V Vanadium VOC Volatile Organic Compound WB The World Bank WHO World Health Organization YRD Yangze River Delta Zn Zinc iv INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES Table of Contents ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS iii FOREWORD ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiii 1. POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR PARTICULATE MATTER CONTROL IN CHINA 1 1.1. History of PM control policies in china 1 1.2. Institutional framework for air quality management 3 1.3. The draft administrative measures and technical guidelines 4 1.4. Ambient air quality standards and monitoring 5 2. SOURCES OF PM POLLUTION IN URBAN CHINA 9 2.1. Ambient PM source apportionment methods 9 2.2. Characteristics and contributions of urban PM sources in china 10 Suspended dust 10 Coal combustion 10 Industrial dust 11 Vehicle emissions 12 Biomass burning 12 Secondary particulate matter 12 3. RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM10 POLLUTION IN CHINA 15 3.1. Trends in China the 2000s and international comparison 15 3.2. The present status 19 3.3. Geographical distribution and sources of non-compliance 22 Pollution types of northern cities 23 Pollution types of western cities 23 Pollution types of southern cities 23 3.4. Degree of PM10 non-compliance 24 Sources of PM10 pollution in the eighteen Group 3 cities of high non-compliance 28 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA v CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 3.5. The status of urban PM2.5 pollution 28 4. THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN 31 4.1 Objective, scope, and timeframe 31 4.2 The analytical air quality management approach 32 4.3 Menu of possible PM abatement options 34 4.3.1 Demand-side management and structural measures 35 4.3.2 Cleaner technology 36 4.3.3 End-of-pipe technologies 37 4.3.4 Other measures 38 4.3.5 Options for high-priority cities 40 4.4 Policy and regulatory framework 40 4.4.1 Recommendations for policies and regulations 40 4.4.2 Comments on the draft Administrative Measures and Technical Guidelines 41 4.4.3 Institutional coordination 42 4.4.4 Recommendations on policy instruments to support priority PM abatement options 42 5. PROPOSED PLAN FOR ESTABLISHING A PM2.5 MONITORING SYSTEM DURING THE 12TH FIVE-YEAR-PLAN PERIOD 45 5.1. The necessity of monitoring PM2.5 45 5.2. Existing evidence on PM2.5 mass concentration and its effects 45 5.3. Recommendations for PM2.5 standards in china 46 5.4. Available PM2.5 monitoring methods 48 5.5. Suggested plan for establishing a PM2.5 monitoring network during the 12th FYP period 48 Urban network design 49 Rural monitoring network 49 Phased development of the PM2.5 monitoring network 49 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 55 REFERENCES 59 ANNEXES 1. Annual Average Concentration and Grade Data for 113 Key Cities 61 2. Administrative Measures for Urban Air Quality: A Brief Introduction 67 3. Technical Guidelines for Compilation of Urban Ambient Air Quality Control Plan 69 1. Purpose and Signiï¬?cance 69 2. Guiding Ideology and Principles 69 3. General Requirements 69 4. Work Tasks 70 4. I. Summary of the Questionnaire Survey 73 II. Questionnaire Matrix 79 5. Analysis Investment Cost of Various Dust Collectors 89 Cost of devices 89 Power price 90 Occupied area 90 6. Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, Announcement 2012, No. 7 89 vi INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES COMPONENT 1 CONTENTS FIGURES 3.1 Urban air quality comparisons 2001–09 (based on SO2, NO2, and PM10) 15 3.2 Distribution of monitored cities by PM10 grade during 2001–09 16 3.3 Trends in PM10 concentrations in 113 key cities, 2004–09 17 3.4 Development in annual PM10 concentrations in northern vs. southern key cities 18 3.5 Comparison of annual average PM10 concentration trend of China, US, Europe, and Eastern Europe (1960–2010) 18 3.6 Characteristics of 108 cities in non-compliance with the composite grade II for NO2, SO2, and PM10 19 3.7 Distribution of PM10 concentrations among all 612 monitored cities, 2009 20 3.8 Distribution of annual PM10 concentrations at all 320 prefecture and higher-level cities, 2009 21 3.9 Distribution of non-compliant cities at prefecture and above, by source of non-compliance 22 3.10 Non-compliant cities at prefecture level and above, by pollutant source of non-compliance 23 3.11 Non-compliant prefecture and above cities by geographical region 23 3.12 Spatial distribution of non-attainment cities in 16 provinces in China 24 3.13 Grade II non-compliant prefecture or higher-level cities, by level of non-compliance 25 3.14 PM10 annual concentrations in 30 provincial capitals, 2009 27 3.15 Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Beijing 28 4.1 General concept for development of cost-effective air quality management strategies 33 5.1 Percent of time that 35 and 75 µg/m3 are exceeded at experimental PM2.5 monitoring stations in selected Chinese cities, 2009 47 5.2 Location of about 55 cities and stations for PM2.5 monitoring during Phase I (by end of 2012) 50 TABLES 1.1 Development of air pollution control policies in china 1 1.2 PM10 annual average concentration limits by grade 5 1.3 International air quality guidelines, standards and limit values for PM2.5 and PM10 (µg/m3) 5 1.4 Chinese and international standards for discharge of smoke and dust from thermal plants 6 2.1 Summary of source apportionment using studies from nearly 30 cities of China 11 3.1 Distribution of 612 monitored cities by composite grade attainment, 2009 (%) 20 3.2 Distribution of 612 monitored cities by PM10 grade attainment, 2009 (%) 21 3.3 Prefecture-level and above cities that are less than 10 percent above the class II limit for PM10 26 3.4 Prefecture-level and above cities that exceed the grade II PM10 limit by 10–19 percent 26 3.5 Prefecture-level and above cities that exceed the grade II PM10 limit by 20 percent or more 27 4.1 Grade II (and higher) compliance in 2009 and targets for 2015 and 2020 31 4.2 Summary of some PM reduction options 35 5.1 International air quality guidelines, standards, and limit values for PM2.5 (µg/m3) 46 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA vii CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT BOXES 2.1 City-level information about PM pollution source contributions 13 4.1 Application of end-of-pipe technologies in power plans and industry since the 1990s. 39 5.1 Proposed expansion plan for installation of a PM2.5 monitoring equipment in China during the 12th FYP 52 5.2 Monitoring of PM2.5 in Europe 53 5.3 Monitoring of PM2.5 in the United States 54 MAPS 1.1 Map of China indicating â€?key regionsâ€? and â€?key citiesâ€? for air quality management 7 viii INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES Foreword The Ministry of Environmental Protection, Peo- Nevertheless, much more work is needed ple’s Republic of China and the World Bank before all Chinese cities attain air quality stan- have worked together over the last three years to dards that comply with China’s own standards implement the Integrated Air Pollution Manage- and air quality standards recommended by the ment in China program. The purpose of the col- World Health Organization. As the study shows, laboration has been twofold: (1) to propose a it has taken cities in the United States and national compliance plan on coarse particulate Europe many years, even generations, to improve matter (PM10) to help non-compliant cities their air quality to today’s comparatively clean comply with China’s own air quality standards, levels. China is progressing very quickly. At this and to further improve air quality in cities that stage, however, there are few remaining easy pol- already comply; and (2) to recommend a moni- icy options that can be quickly applied to achieve toring system that will enable China to monitor the best air quality standards. Only very careful ï¬?ne particulate matter (PM2.5), which has a com- planning and implementation of a large number paratively severe human health impact. of air pollution abatement measures—within an As the study shows, most cities in China have effective regulatory framework, which this pro- over the last decade improved their air quality. A gram also has supported through its advice on the nationwide monitoring system that includes new Administrative Measures and Technical PM10 monitoring has been established that now Guidelines for Urban Air Quality—can ensure covers about 95 percent of all 655 cities in continued progress. China. Average PM concentrations have been This publication describes some of China’s reduced substantially throughout the country, achievements, its continuing challenges, and pro- AQM regulations have been put in place, posed solutions to reduced PM concentrations, national and local campaigns have been carried including an expanded focus on ï¬?ne particles. out to improve air quality, investment plans to Reflecting the current important progress in Air improve air quality have been implemented, and Quality Management in China, the Ministry of overall public awareness regarding air quality has Environmental Protection promulgated new increased due to improved environmental infor- ambient air quality standards (GB 3095-2012) mation systems. With the help of these initia- by the end of February 2012 that, among others, tives, Chinese cities today are cleaner places to established new standards for PM2.5 (e.g. annual live in and have substantially better air quality average grade II value of 35 µg/m3), tightened the than they did ï¬?ve, ten, or ï¬?fteen years ago. annual average standard for PM10 grade II from INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ix CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 100 to 70 µg/m3 and abolished the former Grade the analytical presentations in the report. How- III classiï¬?cation. These are great achievements, ever, a brief introduction to the new GB which also is in line with the recommendations 3095–2012 and part of its impact on the compli- made through this cooperation program and have ance plan is briefly presented in a new annex 6. important impact on the compliance plans being We hope the report is a valuable contribution discussed in this report. The report was drafted in our joint efforts to further improve air quality when the ambient air quality standards (GB in China. 3095–1996) was in place, which is reflected in x INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES Acknowledgements The initial version of this report was prepared tal Monitoring Center. The project received by a Chinese expert team under the World valuable support from staff in various depart- Bank—Ministry of Environmental Protection ments of MEP: Mr. Li Xinming, and Mr. (MEP) of P. R. China China APC—Particu- Wang Jian, deputy director generals of MEPs late Matter Control Project. With the support pollution control department, Mr. Ren from the Ministry of Finance (MoF) of Hongyan, (former) and Mr. Lu Shize (pres- P.R. China, the project has been implemented ent) division chiefs of the Air and Noise Pol- in China by the Foreign Economic Coopera- lution Control and Mr. Wang Eyi, deputy tion Ofï¬?ce (FECO) of MEP under the super- division chief in the same division, and Mr. vision of the Division of Air and Noise Xiao Xuezhi and Mme Li Pei, deputy director Pollution Control, Department of Pollution generals of FECO. Mr. Wang Xin, Divison Control of MEP. The team included: Mr. Chief, Division I, FECO/MEP and Mr. Xie Chai Fahe (Team Leader of the Chinese Yongming, Research Professor in the same team), Vice President, China Research Acad- division, implemented the project and coordi- emy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES); nated the work between WB and MEP as well Ms. Wang Shulan, Research Professor, as supervised the Chinese national expert team CRAES and Team Leader Assistant; Mr. The initial version provided by the Chinese Chen Zhenxing, PhD, CRAES; Ms. Hu Min, team was complemented, reorganized and ï¬?nal- Professor, College of Environment and Engi- ized by World Bank staff members Jostein neering, Beijing University; Mr. Yan Gang, Nygard, Task Team Leader (TTL) and Tijen Associate Research Professor, Chinese Acad- Arin, Senior Environmental Economist, and emy of Environmental Planning (CAEP); Ms. Consultants, Haakon Vennemo and Steinar Ning Miao, Research Associate, CAEP; Ms. Larssen. Neelesh Shrestha, Junior Professional Yan Li, Associate Research Professor, CAEP; Associate, and Stefan Csordas, Junior Profes- Ms. Wu Yuping, Research Professor, Policy sional Ofï¬?cer at the World Bank also con- Research Center for Environment and Econ- tributed to the report. Robert Livernash provided omy; and Mr. Wang Ruibin, Professor and editorial support, and the report was designed Divison Chief, China National Environmen- and typeset by Shepherd Inc. Report translations INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xi CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT were provided by Wang Zhujun and Li Li from Procee, Senior Urban Environment Specialist at FECO, while Niu Zijing, Minhnguyet Le Kho- the World Bank Beijing Ofï¬?ce for their guidance rami and Lourdes L. Anducta from the World in the preparation and ï¬?nalization of this study. Bank provided administrative assistance. Dick We would like to express our gratitude to the van den Hout, TNO, the Netherland; Dale M. various donors who provided funds to carry out Evarts, Neil H. Frank, and Scott Voorhees of the the study. This included the three World Bank United States Environmental Protection Agency; managed programs: the Trust Fund for Environ- and M. Khaliquzzaman, Consultant, and Sameer mentally & Socially Sustainable Development Akbar, Senior Environmental Specialist at the (TFESSD), the Bank-Korea Environmental Part- World Bank provided valuable peer reviewer nership (BKEP) with the Korean Environment comments. The team is grateful for the guidance Corporation, and the Italian Trust Fund for Envi- provided by Ede Jorge Ijjasz-Vasquez, Sustain- ronmental Protection in China. The Royal Nor- able Development Sector Manager for China wegian Embassy in Beijing funded the “Call for a and Mongolia; Magda Lovei, Sustainable Devel- Green China Tourâ€? in 2009, which facilitated opment Sector Manager; Carter Brandon, Agri- dialogues with provincial and municipal institu- culture, Forestry and Environment Sector tions on report subjects. Without these generous Coordinator for China and Mongolia: and Paul supports, this study would not have been possible. xii INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINESE CITIES Executive Summary â…· Particulate matter (PM) pollution is linked with directly emitted or formed when other pol- cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer and lutants—such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitro- constitutes an important public health risk in gen oxides (NOX), and ammonia—emitted China. PM is made up of a number of compo- from power plants, industries, and automo- nents, including acids (such as nitrates and sul- biles react in the air. fates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. The size of particles is directly linked The World Health Organization (WHO) to their potential for causing health problems. contends that “the risk for various [health] out- Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers comes has been shown to increase with exposure (â?®m) or smaller (PM10) are of major concern and there is little evidence to suggest a threshold because they generally pass through the throat below which no adverse health effects would be and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, anticipated.â€?2 WHO guidelines for annual mean these particles can affect the heart and lungs and concentrations are 20 micrograms per cubic cause serious health effects. PM10 is normally meter (â?®g/m3) for PM10, which includes both divided into two categories:1 coarse and ï¬?ne particles, and 10â?®g/m3 for PM2.5. In 2009, just a few of the 612 cities where i. “Inhalable coarse particlesâ€?—such as those PM10 is monitored met China’s urban grade I found near roadways and dusty industries— PM10 standard (40â?®g/m3), while 63 exceeded the that are larger than 2.5â?®m and smaller than grade II range (100–40â?®g/m3).3 Fifty-one of 10â?®m in diameter (PM10-2.5). these non-compliant cities are prefecture-level or ii. “Fine particlesâ€?—such as those found in higher (blue and green dots in Figure 1); of these, smoke and haze—are 2.5â?®m in diameter 30 are key cities for air pollution control (“key and smaller (PM2.5). These particles can be citiesâ€?), so designated by the State Council. 1 Source: The U.S. EPA particulate matter website: . 2 WHO. 2006. “WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.â€? Global update 2005. Summary of risk assessment. 3 The European Union standard for annual average PM concentrations is 40 â?®g/m3, while the United States since 2006 10 applies standards only for 24-hour concentrations of PM10. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, avail- able evidence does not suggest a link between long-term exposure to PM10 and health problems (U.S. EPA 2011). INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xiii xiii CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT FIGURE 1 Non-compliant Prefecture BACKGROUND and Higher-level Cities (2009) Over the past decade, China made signiï¬?cant This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. strides in reducing average urban ambient air pol- The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. lutant concentrations, including PM10. From 2001 to 2009, the number of Chinese cities reach- ing the grade II PM10 standard or better increased from 36 percent to 84 percent. From 2003 to 2009, the average annual concentration in 113 key cities decreased from 126 to 87â?®g /m3. In indus- trialized North China, where air pollution is par- ticularly severe, the average in key cities dropped from 149 to 98â?®g/m3. However, PM pollution remains a signiï¬?cant challenge. These averages are still substantially higher than the above-men- tioned WHO guideline or China’s own grade I limit value. In some cities recently attaining grade II, concentrations show signs of not being stable within the grade threshold, meaning that they are OBJECTIVE fluctuating between grade II and grade III. In This study is a joint effort of the Ministry of some cases, reductions in urban air pollution may Environmental Protection (MEP), Chinese have been achieved at the expense of higher con- experts, and the World Bank to inform the centrations in rural areas, where the industries policy-making process in line with the govern- were relocated. In other cases, due to air move- ment of China’s medium- and long-term ments, regional pollution contributes to high objectives. Specifically the study aims to assist urban PM concentrations, including ï¬?ne particles. MEP, provincial governments, and municipal- Regional PM originates from non-urban sources ities by: such as power and industrial plants, agriculture, arid landscapes, or secondary generation. 1. Proposing a national PM10 compliance Recent research indicates serious PM2.5 pol- plan to help non-compliant cities attain lution in urban areas. Annual average PM2.5 con- grade II—preferably by 2015 or in certain centrations are 80–100 â?®g/m3 in some northern cases by 2020 at the latest—and already com- cities, such as Beijing and surrounding pliant cities to further reduce PM concentra- provinces, which is 5–6 times higher than the tions. The plan would include (a) policies corresponding U.S. standard of 15â?®g/m3. Con- and regulations and associated physical centration levels reach 40–70â?®g/m3 in southern interventions/measures; (b) geographical regions, which is 2–4 times higher than the U.S. scope; (c) sequencing of interventions; and standard. This situation is of signiï¬?cant concern (d) feasible environmental investments likely because PM2.5 is one of the most damaging pol- to have high beneï¬?t/cost ratios. lutants to the human body. It can enter the 2. Recommending a PM2.5 monitoring system upper and lower respiratory tract and be and related data applications. deposited in the lungs. It can even enter the xiv INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY bloodstream through the alveolus. Fine particles, Harbin, Panzhihua, Shijiazhuang, Taiyuan, including black carbon, easily accumulate heavy Tianjin, Xuzhou, Yan’an, Wuhan, Yueyang, and metals, acid oxides, and organic pollutants. In Zhuzhou—recorded remarkable reductions of addition, they are carriers of bacteria, viruses, 140–20ug/m3 in average annual concentrations and fungi. Black carbon also plays an important from 2003–09. Weifang, which was compliant role in radiative forcing and hence climate in 2003–07, but exceeded the grade II limit in change. However, although substantial PM2.5 2008 and 2009, illustrates the volatility of PM10 research has been carried out in about 20 cities, compliance. Ten cities, including eight key and 14 background monitoring and 31 rural cities, exceed the limit by 10–19 percent monitoring stations were established during the (Group II). Among these cities, Shenyang, 11th FYP to measure regional PM10 and PM2.5 Weinan, and Xi’an achieved signiï¬?cant reduc- concentrations, China has neither a PM2.5 mon- tions of 64 to 23 ug/m3 between 2003 and 2009; itoring system or standards nor any PM2.5 abate- on the other hand, in Hefei and Jining the annual ment guidelines or policies. average concentrations actually increased. Eigh- The degree to which the 51 prefecture or teen cities, including seven key cities, exceed the higher-level cities exceed the grade II PM10 limit limit value by more than 20 percent (Group III). value varies (Figure 2). In 23 of these cities This group includes Beijing. The situation is (Group I), including 14 key cities, the annual particularly dire in Hotan where the annual average PM10 concentration is up to 9 â?®g/m3 average concentration was 206 ug/m3 in 2009. higher than the grade II limit value of 100 In Beijing, Jinan, and Lanzhou, from 2003–09 â?®g/m3.4 This group includes six cities that the average annual concentrations decreased exceed the limit value by 1 percent and three by substantially, albeit with signiï¬?cant fluctuations. 2 percent. Thirteen of the key cities in this In Urumqi, Xining, Zaozhuang, and Zibo, the group—namely Baotou, Chongqing, Handan, 2009 values exceeded the 2003 values, although FIGURE 2 Grade II Non-compliant Prefecture or Higher-level Cities by Level of Non-compliance 2009 concentrations Grade II standard Grade I standard WHO guideline New Grade II standard of 02/29/12. * indicates key cities 4 70 â?®g/m3 in the new GB 3095–2012 of 02/29/12. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xv CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT grade II-compliant concentrations were lates that a sound regional atmospheric pollution observed intermittently during the period.5 prevention and control mechanism would be put PM10 pollution sources vary signiï¬?cantly in place and control of regional pollution would among non-compliant cities, as illustrated by be approached. The FYP also emphasizes that Group III cities. In Beijing, important sources prevention and management of air pollution by are secondary PM formation, biomass burning, particulates would be deepened. The State Coun- and motor vehicles, in addition to PM from coal cil Announcement No.33 regarding the promotion combustion, which is still the most important of joint prevention and control of air pollution to primary PM sector. In Heze, Dezhou, Zibo, improve regional air quality (May 2010) (“The Jinan, and Liaocheng in Shandong Province, a State Council Announcementâ€?) requires that nine coal-based heavy industry leads to elevated levels key regions—namely the Beijing Hebei Tianjin of both PM10 and SO2. Suspended natural back- region, the Tangtze River Delta, the Pearl River ground soil dust contributes signiï¬?cantly to the Delta, Central Liaoning, Shandong Peninsula, coarse fraction of PM10 in the dry western China Greater Wuhan, the Changsha, ZhuZhou and cities, namely Urumqi, Turpan, Akzu, Kashi, Xiangtan region, the Chengdu and Chongqing and Hotan (Xinjiang Autonomous Region); region, and areas around the Taiwan Strait— Baiyin and Lanzhou (Gansu Province); Zhong- meet or exceed grade II standards. Cities that wei (Ningxia Autonomous Region); and Wuhai have reached grade II are to develop plans to con- (Inner Mongolia). tinouosly improve within and beyond the grade II In general, coal combustion for heating is a range or prevent deterioration. MEP’s recent common PM source in northern and western draft—Administrative Measures on Urban Air cities. Construction and road dust is a problem in Quality Management (“The Administrative Mea- most of the non-compliant cities. Industrial suresâ€?)—stipulates that by 2015, 90 percent of sources contribute signiï¬?cantly to PM in all the the county-level cities and 80 percent of the key non-compliant cities, and are among the most cities will comply with grade II (Table 1).6 By prominent sources in Shandong Province. The 2020, all these cities should be compliant. industrial sector contributes both through coal Two regulatory documents drafted by MEP combustion for process heat and power, as well as with support from this study—The Administra- through PM emissions from production processes, tive Measures and Technical Guidelines for Com- which can be rich in harmful heavy metals. pilation of Urban Ambient Air Quality Control Regional PM pollution makes up a signiï¬?cant part Plans (“The Technical Guidelinesâ€? )—aim to of the PM concentration in urban areas, and con- guide city leaders in preparing city air quality sists to a large extent of secondary PM2.5 resulting management plans to reach both the above-men- from emissions of SO2, NOX, and ammonia. tioned compliance targets and already compliant cities to further reduce PM concentrations (attached as annexes to the Component 1 KEY ELEMENTS OF THE PROPOSED report). The authors of this study propose COMPLIANCE PLAN improvements in these two key compliance aids. The policy and legal framework. The 12th Five Notably, The Administrative Measures should Year Plan (2011–15) (FYP) targets compliance emphasize proper sequencing of the complete air with grade II standards by 80 percent of prefec- quality management (AQM) process (explained ture and higher-level cities. The FYP also stipu- below), regulating testing and evaluation of air 5 Less information is available about the 12 county-level cities that do not comply with grade II PM10 standards, therefore the study focuses on the prefecture and higher-level cities. 6 Note this may be revised after GB 3095–2012 is adopted. xvi INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY TABLE 1 Grade II (and higher) Compliance in 2009 and Targets for 2015 and 2020âœ? 12th FYP Grade II grade II Grade II PM10 overall overall Administrative compliance compliance+ compliance Measures (2009) (2009) target compliance target Monitored cities 612 549 (89.7%) 504 (82.4%)* Prefecture and 9 key regions to meet higher level 320 269 (84.0%) 255 (79.6%)** 80% by 2015 or exceed grade II County level 292 280 (95.9%) 250 (85.6%) standards; grade II 263 (90%) by 2015 compliant cities to 292 (100%) by 2020 continuously improve within grade II and 90 (80%) by 2015 Key cities* 113 83 (73.5%) 76 (67.3%)*** then meet grade I 113 (100%) by 2020 + Grade II includes annual average standards for PM10, SO2, and NO2. * Incl. 4.2% grade I. ** Incl. 3.7% grade I. *** Incl. 0.9% grade I. âœ? Note that this table is based upon GB 3095–1996 and not on the new GB 3095–2012, see Annex 6. pollution models, and clarifying the relationship of preventive measures against air-pollution- between AQM and the total load control process. related illnesses; and PM2.5 monitoring. The Technical Guidelines could be strengthened Differing compliance timetables. Overall, by recommending the use of beneï¬?t/cost or cost Group I cities have a good chance to attain effectiveness analysis for evaluating abatement grade II compliance for PM10 by 2015 by adopt- options; providing monitoring network design ing the most technically and economically feasi- recommendations; prescribing a comprehensive ble abatement option(s) (below). For some emission inventory; emphasizing the need for Group II cities, it may be a challenge to reach testing and evaluating air pollution models; and grade II by 2015. In such cases, they may need clarifying the steps of the AQM process. additional time up to 2020 to comply and will Institutional coordination. The Technical need technical assistance in preparing economi- Guidelines require that each city establish a “lead- cally efï¬?cient air quality management plans. In ing group on air pollution controlâ€? to coordinate Group III cities, the severity of the situation sector policies, including notably energy, indus- requires immediate application of abatement try, agriculture, transportation, and urban devel- measures with proven effectiveness in China (see opment. It is recommended that the leading below). Additional abatement measures may group be led by a deputy mayor (or a mayor, as also need to be considered and should be prior- in the case of Urumqi) and be composed of rep- itized based on cost-beneï¬?t analysis and the dif- resentatives of local government bodies responsi- ferent sources. The severity of the situation and ble for air-pollution-related sectors, notably setbacks experienced suggest that compliance by industry, power, construction, and transport, as 2015 is unlikely, and a target date of 2020 would well as public health. Initiatives that the leading also require signiï¬?cant technical assistance. group could coordinate include district heating; The guiding principle: complete air quality public transport; cogeneration, SO2 abatement, management (AQM). Within the compliance energy efï¬?ciency and clean coal in the power sec- plan, air pollution reduction measures must be tor; energy efï¬?ciency in buildings; road dust and tailored to each city’s speciï¬?c air pollution char- construction site management; public awareness acteristics, economic and capacity constraints, INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xvii CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT trols that address multiple pollutants and effects FIGURE 3 Graphical Presentation of the AQM Approach simultaneously. Experiences in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere have shown that single- pollutant-abatement is arduous and inefï¬?cient. Emphasis on health beneï¬?ts and co-beneï¬?ts. Multiple co-beneï¬?ts accrue from primary and sec- ondary PM abatement. Notably, PM abating measures also reduce NOX, SO2, organic aerosols, and black carbon, which contribute to a variety of effects in addition to health, including acid rain, ozone pollution, waterway eutrophication, haze and visibility problems, and climate change. In addition to environmental co-beneï¬?ts, economic co-beneï¬?ts—notably from decreased production costs due to more efï¬?cient production processes or energy usage—are also possible. The beneï¬?t assessment, which is part of the AQM approach, should include all of these beneï¬?ts. The study team also recommends that both The Administra- tive Measures and The Technical Guidelines incor- and population conditions. The study recom- porate the concept of co-beneï¬?ts. mends the AQM approach to identify the most Menu of possible PM abatement options. cost-effective abatement options for each city The proposed plan provides a menu of possible (Figure 3). pollution reduction measures covering demand- The AQM process begins with an inventory side management and structural measures, cleaner and analysis of emission sources. Next, a disper- technologies and fuels, end-of-pipe control, and sion model incorporating the inventory and cli- measures to reduce suspended dust from natural matic data is developed and calibrated to estimate areas, construction sites, and roads (Box 1). the impact on pollutant concentrations of techni- Options for high-priority cities. Among the cally feasible abatement options. The population- abatement options—phasing out of inefï¬?cient weighted exposure related to each measure is plants, boilers, and small-scale coal combustion; determined by overlaying a map of concentration moving point-source industry and power plants impacts on a map of population density. Such away from urban centers; enhancing district exposure data are used to estimate improvements heating; increasing natural gas use; use of low- in public health and other environmental beneï¬?ts sulfur and low-PM coal, clean coal, or briquettes resulting from each abatement option. The bene- where possible; and construction and trafï¬?c dust ï¬?ts are then quantiï¬?ed in monetary terms and control—are options that have proven effective compared with the corresponding costs. The in China in signiï¬?cantly reducing PM concen- measure(s) with the highest net beneï¬?ts is (are) trations. In particular, widespread switching to selected for implementation. natural gas is a short-term measure, provided Holistic approach to air quality manage- that the necessary infrastructure is in place. The ment. While this report focuses on PM pollution feasibility of the options should be investigated abatement, air quality management should be car- immediately for short-term implementation in ried out in a multi-pollutant fashion, applying con- the eighteen Group III cities. xviii INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Box 1 Summary of PM Reduction Options Demand-side management and Cleaner technology structural measures and fuel End-of-pipe control Other Phasing out Increasing use of Increasing use of Measures to reduce inefï¬?cient plants, natural gas for technologies such as dust from natural inefï¬?cient industrial energy and heat FDG, SCR, and ESP in areas, such as boilers, and small- generation industrial and power increasing scale coal combustion plants vegetative cover Moving heavy Increasing use of End-of-pipe controls Construction site industry and power low-sulfur and low- for motor vehicles management for generation plants PM coal, and, where dust abatement away from city possible, of clean coal centers* and briquettes Expanding coverage Increasing energy Reducing dust from of district heating and process efï¬?ciency roads in industry Greater use of public Improving engine transportation technology for motor vehicles Improved energy efï¬?ciency in buildings Improving stoves for biomass burning *This measure will redistribute regional PM pollution, and increase it in some places. Policy options. Policy options to improve concentrations. Thus, local abatement efforts compliance with PM10 standards include can impact only about half of the concentra- (a) strengthening prevention and control of tions; regional measures are needed to control regional PM pollution in the key regions deï¬?ned the rest. Furthermore, separate measurement of in the State Council Announcement; (b) coordinated coarse particles and PM2.5 would be useful for city and central government attention to promote source identiï¬?cation and targeting abatement continuous reduction of PM concentrations in measures according to effectiveness and eco- cities after they reach urban grade II limits, with the nomic efï¬?ciency, especially in dry areas (also see goal of achieving grade I status and ultimately section on PM2.5 monitoring below). WHO guidelines; (c) reducing energy price subsi- dies that prevent energy efï¬?ciency investments by industry; (d) increasing pollution charges so they PROPOSED PM2.5 MONITORING truly provide incentives for reducing emissions; FRAMEWORK and (e) initiating total NOX management as indi- The objective of PM2.5 monitoring would be to cated by the 12th FYP, as NOX emission reduction assess ï¬?ne particles, their impact on public reduces secondary PM formation. health, and to inform medium- and long-term Regional PM pollution abatement. AQM plans that would be developed to abate them. analytical work in Shanxi cities indicated that The monitoring framework would build on regional PM10 makes up about half of the urban the PM2.5 standards that MEP is expected to pub- INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xix CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT lish in 2011. Adoption of the WHO interim tar- Additional key recommendations are: gets (IT) for average annual concentrations (IT-1: 35 â?®g/m3, IT-2: 25 â?®g/m3, and IT-3: 15 â?®g/m3) • Site selection for PM2.5 monitors. To the extent is recommended. In view of the existing high con- possible, new PM2.5 monitors should be inte- centration levels, a transition period should be grated into existing monitoring networks to granted for compliance with IT-1. ensure compatibility of data; however, exist- Monitoring networks and compliance plans ing PM10 monitoring locations may not would be developed in three phases and com- always be the best sites for PM2.5 monitoring. pleted in 320 prefecture and higher-level cities The monitoring program should include a by the end of the 12th FYP period (Box 2). significant number of rural monitoring sta- This phased approach would allow gradual tions to assess the signiï¬?cant regional compo- development of necessary administrative struc- nent of PM2.5 pollution. Ideally, regional tures and technical expertise, including the concentrations should be measured using important task of data quality assurance. Each monitors located 50–150km away from the city would have at least two PM2.5 monitoring city center to identify the urban, suburban, stations. The final number of monitoring sta- and regional PM2.5 components. It is also tions in a city would be a function of the diver- important that monitoring station sites are sity of urban pollution sources and known selected in a consistent manner across the spatial patterns, and determined based on the cities of the network. In each city, one of the PM2.5 levels measured at the first two stations two monitors should be placed in a high- and background monitors. The PM2.5 moni- concentration area, and the other in an aver- toring roll-out would be synchronized with the age concentration location. ozone and carbon monoxide monitoring net- • Monitor types. A variety of monitoring tech- work development. nologies—ranging from simple filter-based BOX 2 Proposed Three-phase Plan for Installing PM2.5 Monitoring Equipment in Chinese Cities This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. – Phase 1: By the end of 2012, Phase 2: By the end of 2013 Phase 3: By the end of 2015, over 100 stations would be about 260 stations would be more than 650 stations would introduced in about 60 cities, established in about 130 cities. be installed in 320 prefecture- including all provincial capitals, This includes 60 cities from level and larger cities. 5–6 cities in the Beijing-Tianjin- phase 1 and those of the 113 Hebei area, 10–11 cities in the “air pollution focus citiesâ€? Yangtze River Delta, 8 cities in that were not covered in the Pearl River Delta, and phase 1. certain developed cities. Inclusion of some prefecture- level or smaller cities with particularly large PM2.5 levels would be useful. xx INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY systems to sophisticated continuous record- concentration due to the semi-volatile nature ing information systems—are available of part of the PM2.5 mass. Such underestima- responding to diverse objectives. The objec- tion can be substantial, depending on the tives of PM2.5 monitoring may include com- chemical composition of the PM2.5 mass and paring with standards, reporting to the local climatic conditions (especially in warm public, developing abatement strategies, climates). More expensive top-of-the-line assessing progress and trends, assessing expo- monitors, such as the TEOM 1405-DF sure and health impact, and assessing visibil- instrument, can correct the problem. It is ity. As most of these objectives are relevant strongly recommended that designers of the for China, it is recommended that a multi- monitoring program and data quality assur- technology, multi-functional monitoring ance procedures consult the U.S. and Euro- system be assembled. Among the available pean experiences in implementing similar technologies, chemical speciation (CS) may programs. warrant particular interest because it can • Black carbon (BC). BC from coal combustion, assist in assessing the contributions from biomass burning, brick kilns and coking main source sectors to PM pollution and processes is a signiï¬?cant contributor to ambi- thus assist in developing effective abatement ent ï¬?ne particulates. Monitoring and control strategies. of BC should be considered because of BC’s • Global experience shows that PM2.5 monitor- important role in PM2.5 health and climate ing can be challenging. Typical state-of-the- change impact. BC can be measured by art monitors tend to underestimate the PM2.5 reflectance from the ï¬?lter-based PM2.5 samples. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA xxi 1 Policy, Institutional and Regulatory Framework for Particulate Matter Control in China â…· 1.1 HISTORY OF PM CONTROL over time. Prevention and control policies, POLICIES IN CHINA which have led to signiï¬?cant improvements in Particulate matter (PM) has been a key aspect in urban PM concentrations during the past China’s efforts to prevent and control atmos- decade (see chapter 3), can be divided into three pheric pollution and focus on PM has intensiï¬?ed stages (Table 1.1). The ï¬?rst stage is marked by TABLE 1.1 Development of Air Pollution Control Policies in China INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 1 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT the National Environmental Protection Confer- PM. At the same time, the State Council ence held by the State Council in 1973, when approved the “two control zonesâ€? classiï¬?ed pro- China began to control industrial point sources gram, which controlled SO2 and acid rain, and of air pollution. During this period, China’s air made corresponding support policies. This pro- pollution abatement efforts included transform- motes the integrated prevention and control of ing boilers, eliminating smoke and dust, and acid rain and sulfur dioxide in China, while also controlling point-source pollution. affecting particulate pollution. The second stage spans the 1980s. The Law At the beginning of the 21st century, China of the People’s Republic of China on the Pre- began a new stage in total emission control of vention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution major air pollutants. In April 2000, the Air Law (hereinafter referred to as “the Air Lawâ€?) was for- was revised.8 The new version stipulated that mally promulgated in 1987. The Air Law total load control and a discharge permit system focused on lowering smoke pollution, especially would be implemented in key areas. The new the prevention and control of coal emissions. strategy also prohibited the emission of pollu- The emphasis on the control of atmospheric pol- tants; charged pollutant discharge fees according lution changed from point sources to integrated to the type and quantity of pollutant; reinforced control. Activities included combining the con- pollution control measures on motor vehicles; trol strategy with national economic adjustment; regulated compliance deadlines in the key cities; changing the urban structure and layout; plan- and controlled urban dust pollution. Moreover, ning for pollution prevention; technological the law mandated that the State Council desig- transformation of enterprises and comprehen- nate key cities for prevention and control of sive utilization of resources; controlling and pre- atmospheric pollution (“key citiesâ€?) that were to venting industrial pollution; saving energy and meet ambient air quality standards on the basis changing the urban energy structure; expanding of a time-bound plan approved by the State integrated controls on coal smoke pollution; and Council or the administrative department for adjustments to industry, including the closing, environmental protection under the State suspension, merging, or moving of heavily pol- Council. Key cities include municipalities luting enterprises. These measures played an directly under the central government, provin- important role in controlling the rapid deterio- cial capitals, open coastal cities, and key tourist ration of the atmospheric environment. cities (Article 17). A total of 113 key cities were The third stage occurred in the 1990s. Pre- designated (see Annex 1 for a list of the key cities vention and control of atmospheric pollution and Map 1.1 for their locations). shifted from lowering ambient concentrations of In May 2000, the State Council sent to the pollutants to “total load control,â€? and from Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) a comprehensive urban environment pollution Notiï¬?cation on Improving Regional Air Quality control to regional pollution control. The con- through Joint Prevention and Control Measures trol strategy entered a new historical stage. Much (â€?State Council Notiï¬?cationâ€?). The State Council has been done in enacting laws and regulations, Notiï¬?cation stipulates that by 2015 the urban air establishing supervision and management sys- quality of all nine key regions meet or exceed tems, strengthening air pollution control mea- urban grade II limit (see Section 1.4) values (Arti- sures, and developing and promoting control cle 3). The nine key regions include (1) the Beijing technologies. This has promoted atmospheric Hebei Tianjin region; (2) the Tangtze River Delta; pollution prevention and control of atmospheric (3) the Pearl River Delta; (4) Central Liaoning 8 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution (Order of the President No.32) 2 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK [Province], including Shenyang; (5) Shandong joint prevention and control of air pollution to Peninsula, including Qingdao; (6) Greater improve regional air quality in nine key regions, Wuhan; (7) Changsha, Zhuzhou, and Xiangtan requires that a mechanism be established to coor- region; (8) Chengdu and Chongqing region; and dinate regional joint air pollution. Work plans are (9) areas around the Taiwan Strait, including Xia- to be completed and approved by the end of 2011. men (Article 4). Each of these nine regions Article 28 of the State Council Notiï¬?cation states includes several key cities (Map 1.1). The notiï¬?- that “local governments are the lead responsible cation also requires that cities not meeting grade II party for implementing regional air pollution pre- standards develop compliance programs to ensure vention and control, and they shall strengthen that air quality improvement goals are met on organization and leadership, develop workplans schedule. Cities that have already achieved grade and programs for joint air pollution prevention II standards should develop plans to continuously and control, designate tasks under the workplans improve air quality within and beyond grade II or to responsible units and enterprises, strengthen prevent deterioration (Article 22). supervision and examination.â€? The State Council The 12th Five Year Plan of the People Republic Notiï¬?cation also stipulates that “all regions must of China (2011–15)(“12th FYPâ€?) targets compli- submit implementation plans for attaining these ance with grade II standards by 80 percent of goals and the recommendations listed in this prefecture and higher-level cities. The FYP also notice to MEP by the end of June 2010.â€? The stipulates that a sound regional atmospheric pol- draft Technical Guidelines stipulates formation of lution prevention and control mechanism would “leading groups for air quality controlâ€? composed be put in place and control of regional pollution of city authorities for various relevant sectors. to would be approached. The FYP also emphasizes coordinate regional air quality measures. that prevention and management of air pollu- Monitoring, inspection, and enforcement. tion by particulates would be deepened. Administrative departments for environmental protection under the people’s governments at or above the county level are tasked with the “uni- 1.2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ï¬?ed supervision over the prevention and controlâ€? FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT of air pollution. Administrative departments for This section summarizes the key provisions public security, transportation, and ï¬?sheries at of the 2000 Air Law and the 2010 State Coun- various levels will be responsible for “supervision cil Notification regarding the division of over atmospheric pollution caused by motor vehi- institutional responsibilities in air quality cles and vesselsâ€? (Air Law Article 4). Besides, “All management. units and individuals shall have the obligation to Planning and implementing measures for air protect the atmospheric environment and shall quality management. Article 3 of the Air Law states have the right to inform or lodge charges against that “the State takes measures to control or gradu- units or individuals that cause pollution to the ally reduce, in a planned way, the total amount of atmospheric environmentâ€? (Air Law Article 5). the major atmospheric pollutants discharged in Setting standards for ambient air quality. Air different areas.â€? Furthermore “the local people’s Law Article 6 mandates that “the administrative governments at various levels shall be responsible department for environmental protection under for the quality of the atmospheric environment the State Council shall establish the national within the areas under their jurisdiction, making standards for atmospheric environment quality.â€? plans and taking measures to ensure that the qual- Furthermore, “The people’s governments of ity of the atmospheric environment within the said provinces, autonomous regions, and municipal- areas meet the standards.â€? Article 27 of the State ities directly under the Central Government Council Notiï¬?cation, which aims to promote may establish their local standards for items INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 3 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT not speciï¬?ed in the national standards for evaluation requirements, and outlines a reward atmospheric environment quality and report the and punishment system. The document makes same to the administrative department for envi- clear that “municipal government at different lev- ronmental protection under the State Council els shall be responsible for the air quality in its for the record.â€? jurisdiction.â€? Cities that are not compliant with Setting emission standards. Article 7 of the Air grade II (section 1.4) standards normally have ï¬?ve Law stipulates that: “The administrative depart- years to reach compliance, although the deadline ment for environmental protection under the can be stretched to ten years. Municipal govern- State Council shall, on the basis of the national ments should draw up a program or plan consist- standards for atmospheric environment quality ing of i) baseline/status analysis, ii) guiding and the country’s economic and technological principles, iii) deadline and intermediate goals, conditions, establish the national norm for the iv) key tasks and measures, v) key engineering discharge of atmospheric pollutants.â€? In addition, projects, vi) safeguard measures, and vii) estimates “The people’s governments of provinces, of emission reductions and effects. In the 113 key autonomous regions, and municipalities directly cities the program shall be submitted to MEP for under the Central Government may establish approval. In other cities the plans shall be their local discharge norms for items not speciï¬?ed approved by provincial governments. Reviews of in the national norm for the discharge of atmos- the management plans shall be conducted by the pheric pollutants; with regard to items already cities themselves and by MEP. The MEP exami- speciï¬?ed in the national norms for the discharge nation indicators consist of a maximum of 100 of atmospheric pollutants, they may set local dis- points, in which quality indicators account for charge norms which are more stringent than the 37%, management indicators account for 23% national norm and report the same to the admin- and engineering indicators account for 40%. A istrative department for environmental protection plan scoring less than 60 points is a failure and under the State Council for the record.â€? must be revised. In addition, “related fundingâ€? will be reduced and projects that may increase emissions will be limited until an acceptable plan 1.3 THE DRAFT ADMINISTRATIVE is devised. Leaders will also be “publicized for crit- MEASURES AND TECHNICAL icism.â€? The examination takes place at the dead- GUIDELINES line for complying with the standard. Before that In the Spring of 2011, with support from this the actual air quality will be considered an evalu- project, MEP drafted Administrative Measures on ation indicator, not an examination indicator. Urban Air Quality Management (“The Adminis- The Technical Guidelines provides detailed trative Measuresâ€?) and Technical Guidelines for advice on the content of the municipal air pol- Compilation of Urban Ambient Air Quality Con- lution control programs/plans. It suggests that trol Plans (“The Technical Guidelinesâ€?), which “major pollutants that cause urban air pollution aim to operationalize the State Council Notiï¬?ca- should be managed ï¬?rstâ€? and that “coordinated tion, notably by means of “city air quality man- controlâ€? of particles, SO2, NOx and VOC shall agement plans.â€? (These draft documents are be emphasized.â€? The document provides reproduced in Annexes 2 and 3; comments are detailed guidance on the tasks listed in Article 18 provided in Chapter 4.) These two regulatory of The Administrative Measures, such as how to documents aim to guide city leaders in preparing forecast the baseline trend in emissions. The the city air quality management plans. Technical Guidelines also suggests a menu of pos- The Administrative Measures prescribes a sys- sible abatement measures, including (a) improv- tem and procedures for administration of air qual- ing urban industrial structure and layout; ity at different levels, describes reporting and (b) reinforcing the use of clean energy; (c) strength- 4 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ening end-of-pipe prevention and control of notably agriculture, industry, agriculture, trans- major pollutants; (d) preventing and controlling portation, and urban development. transport pollution; and (e) monitoring key enterprises (point sources) for emission reduc- tions. Furthermore, The Technical Guidelines 1.4 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY recommends that a “detailed list of projects be STANDARDS AND MONITORING9 worked out in line with the major tasks of the China has ambient concentrations standards for urban air pollution control planâ€? and that cost all major pollutants, including NO2, NOx, lead estimates be made. But, it does not recommend (Pb), PM10, SO2, and TSP. These standards are cost-beneï¬?t or cost-effect analysis to evaluate grouped in three levels. They are differentiated abatement measures and projects. As discussed by urban vs. rural areas, as well as by annual ver- in Chapter 4, such analysis is critical to selecting sus 24-hour average concentrations. The three the most appropriate measures in a budget-con- urban grades for average annual PM10 concen- strained environment. Finally, The Technical trations are presented in Table 1.2. For compar- Guidelines also suggests capacity building efforts ison, various international guidelines, standards and establishment of a “leading group for air and limit values for ambient PM10 and PM2.5 quality controlâ€? to coordinate sector policies, concentrations are provided in Table 1.3. TABLE 1.2 PM10 Annual Average Concentration Limits by Grade µ µ µ TABLE 1.3 International Air Quality Guidelines, Standards and Limit values for PM2.5 and PM10 (µg/m3) * Since 2006, the United States applies standards for 24-hour concentrations of PM10. According to the USEPA, avail- able evidence does not suggest a link between long-term exposure to PM10 and health problems (US EPA 2011). 1) 7 days above 35 per year is allowed (98th percentile); 2) 35 days above 50 per year is allowed (90th percentile); 3) To be met by 2010; 4) To be met by 2020 9 This section aims to aid the reader of the report by providing basic information about air quality standards and monitoring related to the issues covered in the report. A full review of these topics is outside the scope of the section. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 5 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Compliance with standards is often set or monitor PM10 and TSP, while 20 continue to reported in terms of composite grades, compris- measure TSP only. Of these 612 cities, 320 are ing NO2, NOx, Pb, PM10, SO2, and TSP, or a prefecture and higher-level cities, and 292 are subset depending on the purpose of the classiï¬?- country-level cities. The 113 key cities are cation. Targets set in policy and planning docu- included in the 320 prefecture and higher-level ments generally use composite grades. Given the cities. importance of NO2, PM10, and SO2 for air qual- PM10 monitoring was first introduced in ity in China, the classiï¬?cation of cities is often 2000 in the 113 key cities. In the remaining In based only on these pollutants and their annual the remaining prefecture and higher-level average concentrations are published in envi- cities, transition to PM10 monitoring was com- ronmental yearbooks. When composite grades plete in the mid-2000s. Finally with regards to are used, a city is classiï¬?ed in the lowest grade county-level cities, all but 20 have PM10 moni- that individual pollutants achieve. In other toring. words, a city is classiï¬?ed as grade III if one pol- Presently, ambient concentration standards lutant’s annual average concentration is at grade do not exist for PM2.5. However, substantial III level even if all other pollutants are below PM2.5 research has been carried out in about 20 grade II or I limits. cities, and 14 background monitoring and 31 In China, the ofï¬?cially reported air pollution rural monitoring stations were established dur- concentrations in a city always represent the aver- ing the 11th FYP to measure regional PM10 and age of the concentrations measured at all the PM2.5 concentrations. PM2.5 abatement guide- monitoring stations in a city. All the concentra- lines or policies have also not been elaborated. tion data presented in this report are such city- China’s latest air pollutant emission standard averaged concentrations. This means that there for thermal power plants (GB13223-2003) was are locations in the city where the concentrations promulgated and implemented in 2004. Com- are higher than the reported average. Compliance pared with its previous version (GB13223- with standards in China is always based on this 1996), the dust concentration standard changed averaged concentration. This means that even if from 200–600mg/Nm3 to 50–600mg/Nm3. a city is reported as being in compliance, there are Power plant dust emission standards in some areas in the city where the standards are exceeded. countries and regions are shown in Table 1.4. Ambient particulate matter concentrations The Chinese standards are still higher than those are monitored in 612 cities. Of these, 592 cities of other countries and regions. TABLE 1.4 Chinese and International Standards for Discharge of Smoke and Dust from Thermal Plants – – 6 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA Map 1.1 Map of China Indicating â€?Key Regionsâ€? and â€?Key Citiesâ€? for Air Quality Management 0 300 Kilometers 0 100 200 300 Miles HEILONGJIANG Qiqihar Harbin Karamay Mudanjiang Changchun Jilin Urumqi J I L I N Chifeng Shenyang Fushun LIAONING Benxi L Jinzhou Anshan GO X I N J I A N G ON Hohhot E I M Baotou BEIJING BEIJING Qinhuangdao N Datong Tangshan Tianjin Dalian Baoding Shizuishan TIANJIN Jinchang HEBEI Yantai Yinchuan Taiyuan Shijiazhuang Yangquan SHANDONG IA This map was produced by Zibo the Map Design Unit of The Xining Yan'an SHANXI Handan Jinan Weifang Qingdao World Bank. The boundaries, Anyang Changzhi Taian Yellow Linfen Rizhao colors, denominations and Jining NINGX any other information shown QINGHAI Lanzhou Jiaozuo Lianyungang Sea Zaozhuang on this map do not imply, on Weinan X I Z A N G Luoyang Kaifeng the part of The World Bank G A N S U BaojiTongchuan Xuzhou Yangzhou Group, any judgment on the Sanmenxia Zhengzhou JIANGSU Zhenjiang legal status of any territory, Xianyang Xi'an Pingdingshan Changzhou or any endorsement or SHAANXI HENAN Wuxi acceptance of such Nanjing Nantong boundaries. Hefei Shanghai HUBEI Maanshan Wuhu Suzhou Mianyang SHANGHAI Huzhou G SICHUAN Deyang Yichang Wuhan A N HUI IN Nanchong Hangzhou Ningbo Q Lhasa Chengdu Jingzhou Shaoxing East NG Chongqing Jiujiang ZHEJIANG HO Yueyang China C Zigong Zhangjiajie Changde Nanchang Wenzhou Yibin Luzhou Sea Changsha CHINA Xiangtan Zhuzhou Zunyi JIANGXI GUIZHOU HUNAN FUJIAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT Panzhihua Guiyang Fuzhou PROGRAM Qujing Guilin Xiamen Quanzhou Kunming Shaoguan TAIWAN Yuxi Liuzhou KEY APC CITIES GUANGDONG YUNNAN G U A N G X I Guangzhou Shantou INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA KEY REGIONS Shenzhen Nanning Zhuhai HONG KONG PROVINCE CAPITALS Beihai MACAO Zhanjiang NATIONAL CAPITAL Haikou PROVINCE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES HAINAN 7 POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 2 Sources of PM Pollution in Urban China â…· Information about the relative contributions mates the contribution of each type of source and key sources of ambient air pollution in a city using data on atmospheric PM chemical com- allows the formulation of well-targeted abate- position and physical characteristics. Since ment policies and measures. This chapter ï¬?rst 2000, receptor models have been used in nearly presents the main ambient PM source appor- 30 Chinese cities to study sources of ambient tionment methods, followed by a review of exist- PM. Speciï¬?c models used include the chemical ing source apportionment studies. The key mass balance (CMB) model, the positive matrix sources of PM pollution are then discussed by factorization (PMF) model, and the principal region. factor analysis (PFA). The CMB model is the most widely used receptor model in China. With prior knowl- 2.1 AMBIENT PM SOURCE edge of major sources and their emission charac- APPORTIONMENT METHODS teristics in the study area, the CMB model can The chemical composition of PM often allows it conveniently calculate the contribution of each to be traced to its source. With the recent source to a certain receptor point. The principle improvement of PM monitoring technology, of this model is clear, though it needs source pro- detailed information can be collected on emis- ï¬?les that should be updated regularly. sion sources and ambient PM, including con- The PMF model makes source apportion- centrations and chemical composition—such as ment without prior knowledge of the source ionic matters, crustal elements, organics, and proï¬?les by analyzing a large data sample. Both black carbon. This chemical information— the source proï¬?les and the contributions of each combined with information on meteorological source are outputs of this model. These outputs conditions, economic structure, and emission make PMF increasingly popular, though it is inventories—allows integrated judgments of the more difï¬?cult to use than CMB. characteristics and contribution of each source PFA targets a small number of variables and by using mathematical methods of multivariate is useful when source proï¬?les are unavailable and statistical analysis. the sample size is small. However, it needs to be Source apportionment of PM with the chem- combined with other methods in order to esti- ical (so-called “receptor modelâ€?) method is one mate the total contribution from various method to identify the sources of PM. It esti- sources. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 9 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT These methods are limited to the analysis of ments such as silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and the situation at the locations where PM is mea- calcium (Ca). The Ca concentration is higher in sured. This chemical method of source appor- construction and cement dust than in soil or tionment should be accompanied by air road dust. Road dust is signiï¬?cantly richer in pollution modeling methods based on emission organics. As the largest part of road dust is inventories, and meteorological and population resuspended soil dust, a collinearity problem distribution data, which can enable the appor- exists with these two sources (Rui et al. 2008; Xu tionment of source contributions to the expo- 2007). Sometimes these two sources cannot be sure of the entire population to PM pollution, a distinguished and are identiï¬?ed as one source. necessary basis for cost-effectiveness and cost- Studies show that soil dust and road dust con- beneï¬?t ranking of control options. tribute the most to urban atmospheric PM. In northern cities—such as Beijing, Shenyang, Taiyuan, Tianjin, and Jinan —soil dust and 2.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND road dust account for 30–60 percent of PM10 CONTRIBUTIONS OF URBAN PM concentration (Bi et al. 2007; Feng et al. 2004; SOURCES IN CHINA Liu et al. 2007; Xie et al. 2008; Xu 2007), with The receptor model applications in China have the highest level being 60 percent in Yinchuan provided information on the main features of (Bi et al. 2007). In southern cities—such as urban PM pollution in China that are summa- Nanjing, Guangzhou, and Hangzhou—the per- rized below. Note that the assessment is always centage is lower. The contribution of soil dust limited to the locations of the PM measuring and road dust to PM10 concentration ranges stations. When the measurement station loca- from 5 percent to 30 percent (Cui et al. 2008; tions can be said to represent the city as a whole, Rui et al. 2008; Song et al. 2008; Wang et al. the results can be said to be representative. 2003; Wang et al. 2006). China is characterized by intensive urbaniza- tion. Building demolition and construction, Suspended dust road construction, and general construction Suspended dust particles are induced into the air generate cement and construction dust that con- by natural and artiï¬?cial forces. Its main compo- tribute 3 percent to 20 percent of PM10 concen- nents are soil dust, road dust, cement, and con- tration and is becoming an important source of struction dust. Soil dust comes directly from urban atmospheric PM (Bi et al. 2007; Rui et al. bare soil surfaces, including local and distant 2008; Song et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2003; Wang sources. For example, a dust storm, which nor- et al. 2006; Xu 2007). mally occurs in the spring in northern parts of Suspended dust tends to occur seasonally, as China, is an extreme event involving the cre- it is much more abundant during winter and ation and transportation of soil dust. spring. Road dust originates from road surfaces and Results from about 20 source apportionment is suspended into the atmosphere by the air tur- studies in China are summarized in Table 2.1 bulence created by vehicles, especially large (heavy duty) vehicles. Cement and construction Coal combustion dust come from municipal construction, build- ing construction, and demolition. Coal is the dominant industrial and residential The chemical composition of dust varies fossil fuel in China. In 2008, coal accounted for greatly in different geographic regions. In gen- 68.7 percent of energy consumption (Li 2010). eral, all dust sources are abundant in crustal ele- Power plants, large-scale boilers for steel mills, 10 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA SOURCES OF PM POLLUTION IN URBAN CHINA TABLE 2.1 Summary of source apportionment using studies from nearly 30 cities of China – – – – – – Source: Based on sources reviewed in this report. central heating boilers, and domestic small of PM10 concentration) and low in summer stoves are the major coal users. Combustion by (5–20 percent of PM10 concentration) (Feng et products include particles and incomplete oxi- al. 2004; Bi et al. 2007; Liu 2007; Wang et al. dation products such as CO and hydrocarbons. 2006; Xu 2007; Xie et al. 2008). Domestic heat- The particles from coal combustion contain ing greatly impacts PM pollution. organic matter and black carbon as well as Si, Ca, iron (Fe), and other crustal elements, Industrial dust notably arsenic (As) and vanadium (V). If the coal contains sulfur and nitrogen, the com- Many industrial processes discharge atmospheric pounds will also include SO2 and NOx. Further- particles. The characteristics and chemical com- more, high combustion temperatures will position of this particulate matter varies among oxidize atmospheric nitrogen and create NOx, industries. For example, particles from the steel which is the dominant source of NOx from the industry are rich in Fe, Ca, and Si, while parti- combustion. cles from the nonferrous metallurgical industry Because of the energy structure, coal dust has contain corresponding elements such as zinc a large impact in nearly all cities. Coal combus- (Zn), copper (Cu), and Al. tion has an average annual contribution of 15 to Industrial dust greatly impacts urban and 30 percent of PM10 concentration (Bi et al. industrial cities. In some well-known iron and 2007; Feng et al. 2004; Liu et al. 2007; Rui et al. steel cities such as Anshan and Panzhihua, steel 2008; Wang et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2006; Xie dust can contribute 20 percent of the PM10 con- et al. 2008; Xu et al. 2007). In small and centration (Liu et al. 2007; Xue et al. 2010). medium cities, the contribution may be larger. Cities containing speciï¬?c heavy industries also Coal combustion pollution also exhibits seasonal are influenced. For example, the zinc industry in variation, being high in winter (20–60 percent Huludao (Xu 2007) and the petrochemical INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 11 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT industries in Harbin (Huang et al. 2010) sub- L-glucan are mainly regarded as tracers of bio- stantially contribute to the PM concentration of mass burning. those cities. The chemical composition of particles depends on the type of biomass and the burning conditions, so it is difï¬?cult to obtain an integrated Vehicle emissions proï¬?le of biomass burning. The CMB model can- From 1990 to 2009, the vehicle population in not estimate this source. However, studies using China increased from 5 million to 186 million. the PMF model in Beijing, Guangzhou, and As a result, vehicle emissions have also become other cities have concluded that 10 percent of an increasing source of PM pollution. Vehicle PM10 concentrations is due to biomass burning emissions mainly come from incomplete fuel (Song et al. 2008; Xie et al. 2008) and thus is an combustion, resulting in exhaust components important source of atmospheric particles. Bio- such as organic matter, soot, CO, and NOx. mass particles are, like particles from motor vehi- Vehicle emissions may have a similar source pro- cles, comparatively small, making them an even ï¬?le to coal combustion. However, compared more important source of PM2.5 emissions. with coal dust, particles from vehicle emissions have larger amounts of black carbon. Secondary particulate matter Between 5 percent and 20 percent of the PM10 concentration comes from motor vehicle Industrial processes, coal combustion, vehicles, emissions (Bi et al. 2007; Feng et al. 2004; Liu and biomass burning discharge large amounts of et al. 2007; Rui et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2003; gaseous pollutants such as SO2, NOx, and Wang et al. 2006; Xie et al. 2008; Xu 2007), volatile organic compounds (VOCs). During which is large enough to cause concern. Fur- the daytime, photochemical reactions occur thermore, since these published studies are based between atmospheric NOx and VOCs, leading on PM concentration data prior to 2006 and the to elevated concentrations of ozone and other vehicle population has substantially grown since atmospheric oxidizing substances. This signiï¬?- then, the contribution of vehicle emissions to cantly enhances atmospheric oxidation. PM concentrations could be higher. NOx emit- Based on the high atmospheric oxidation, ted by motor vehicles not only is an important gaseous precursors (SO2, NOx) are oxidized atmospheric photochemical reaction precursor, through gas phase oxidation, heterogeneous oxi- but also is a precursor of particulate nitrate. dation, and liquid-phase oxidation into gaseous sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which are then neu- Biomass burning tralized by atmospheric ammonia and form the Agricultural production results in straw and particulates ammonium sulfate and ammonium other crop residues. Crop residues are partly nitrate. Some volatile organic compounds can burned by rural residents for heating and cook- also be oxidized to low volatile substances and ing and are also burned after harvesting. The transform into particulates by coagulation and incineration of leaves and municipal solid waste condensation (Tang et al. 2006). Therefore, the and forest ï¬?res are other important examples of chemical composition of inorganic secondary biomass burning. Such burning produces sub- particles is basically sulphate, nitrate, and stantial particulate and gaseous pollutants. The ammonium. Some organic secondary particulate particles mainly contain organic matter, black matter also exists. The particle size is predomi- carbon and potassium, while potassium and nantly within 2.5 mm. 12 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA SOURCES OF PM POLLUTION IN URBAN CHINA BOX 2.1 City-level information about PM pollution source contributions As part of this project, selected cities were surveyed for details about PM pollution problems (see Annex 4). Responses from ï¬?ve cities drawn from different parts of the country conï¬?rm the general picture among the Chinese regions, but also indicate signiï¬?cant differences between cities depending on their location and regional characteristics (ï¬?gure below). For example, compare Jinan, a city of Shandong Province, with Shizuishan, a city of Ningxia Autonomous Region, and the city-province of Chongqing. Jinan, the red element of the columns, obtains concentrations of PM from iron and steel, cement, vehicles, construction and road suspended dust, coal, and soil dust, all in similar proportions. In other words, there are many sources. Jinan is currently 23 percent away from class II compliance (Table 3.5). It is representative of northeastern conditions. Shizuishan is the purple element of the columns. It is representative of northwestern conditions. Soil dust and secondary PM, as well as industry (all sectors together), are important. Finally, in Chongqing the situation in terms of sources is similar to Jinan, but secondary PM and biomass burning are also important. In other words, there are even a larger number of signiï¬?cant sources than in Jinan. Chongqing is representative of central to southern conditions and is only 5 percent away from compliance (Table 3.3). In all three cities, there are a multitude of sources, with relative weights a bit different, but with a low weight for soil dust in Chongqing in the central/southern region. In all these cities, the control of PM has to address many sources in order to move toward compli- ance, using cost-effect considerations to develop a detailed control plans. Sources of PM Concentrations in Five Selected Cities Note: The main sources of population-weighted PM concentrations according to city and province environmen- tal protection bureaus. Cities have ranked sources on a qualitative scale 1–3. The longest sections of columns cor- respond to a “3â€? and so on. HOB means heat-only boiler. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 13 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Due to the time scales involved in the chem- northern cities, secondary PM has not become ical transformations (from several hours to days), a predominate source of PM10 concentration (Bi the secondary PM formation takes place mostly et al. 2007; Liu 2007; Xu 2007) but it is prob- on the regional scale (several tens to hundreds of ably a larger source of PM2.5 concentrations. km). Emissions in the cities as well as outside With the enhancement of atmospheric oxida- cities (such as from rurally located sources, e.g. tion, secondary particulate pollution is becom- power plants, domestic, agricultural sources) ing more signiï¬?cant in megacities and city combine in the chemical transformation clusters such as Beijing, the Yangtze River processes. Therefore, control of secondary PM Delta, and the Pearl River Delta. In these areas, requires a regional outlook, where the control secondary PM can account for 20–40 percent of efforts involve rural as well as urban sources. PM10 concentrations during some seasons (Rui Secondary PM is not yet a very important et al. 2008; Xie et al. 2008). In other large cities source of PM10 pollution in China, in contrast such as Jinan, Chengdu, and Nanjing, sec- to the European Union and OECD countries, ondary PM can account for up to 20 percent of where it constitutes up to 90 percent of regional PM10 concentrations (Feng et al. 2004; Wang et PM10 concentrations. For example, in most al. 2006). 14 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 3 Recent Trends, Current Status, and Sources of Urban PM10 Pollution in China â…· This chapter reviews air quality improvements 3.1 TRENDS IN CHINA THE 2000s10 in Chinese cities since 2000 and its current sta- AND INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON tus. The chapter then discusses sources of air China made impressive progress in air quality pollution and levels of exceedance in cases of management—including of SO2, NO2, and non-compliance. The chapter closes with a PM10—during the period from 2001 to 2009.11 review of the characteristics of the PM2.5 pollu- In 2001, about one-third of China’s air quality tion situation in cities. FIGURE 3.1 Urban Air Quality Comparisons 2001–09 (based on SO2, NO2, and PM10) 10 All PM data included in this report are annual average concentrations; 24-hour concentrations were not analyzed due to limited data availability and time constraints. 11 As discussed in section 1.4, PM monitoring was phased in gradually during the 2000s. For the earlier years in this period, 10 PM10 concentrations in non-key cities were estimated from measured TSP concentrations. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 15 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT monitored cities attained the composite grades able since emissions did not follow a similar II or I covering these pollutants (Section 1.4); downward trend during the same period. Emis- about one-third were within grade III, and about sions of industrial soot and dust, the PM emis- one-third exceeded grade III. In 2009, there sion indicators, were decreasing in the previous were very few cities left above grade III, about 20 decade, but soot, the better indicator of PM, percent left in grade III, and almost 80 percent showed only a small decrease. Emissions of SO2 were in grades II or I (Figure 3.1). The improve- rose, then fell, and were about the same at the ment in ambient PM10 concentrations followed end of the decade as they were at the beginning. a similar pattern (Figure 3.2). In 2001, of the Emissions of NOx rose during the entire 612 cities, about 29 percent were above the decade. grade III limit for PM10, 35 percent were in The improved air quality in urban areas is grade III, and 36 percent were in grades II or I. attributable both to lower emissions of soot and In comparison, in 2009, less than 1 percent of dust, as well as measures to relocate emission the cities exceeded the PM10 grade III limit, sources outside urban areas. The previous about 15 percent were in grade III, while almost decade saw increased efforts to limit PM emis- 84 percent were in grades II or I. The number of sions from industrial as well as mobile and nat- grade I cities increased from zero to seven during ural sources. Further, there was a reduction in this period. small coal boilers that emit pollutants at low China’s achievements in controlling air height; in addition, large industrial sources— quality concentrations are all the more remark- such as iron and steel works—were relocated FIGURE 3.2 Distribution of Monitored Cities by PM10 Grade During 2001–09 16 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA away from downtown areas. These measures Figure 3.4 examines the difference in trends contributed to improved city-level air quality for between South China and North China cities a given level of emissions. An unintended effect during 2003–09. Concentrations declined both of this can be that pollution levels increase in the in North China and South China, and the dif- surrounding areas where the sources were ference between the two regions became smaller. moved. Regional air pollution levels also will be The average in North China cities recorded a affected by moving these large industrial and slight increase between 2008 and 2009, but power sources. remained just below the grade II limit in 2009. Figure 3.3 illustrates the behavior of PM10 South China cities were on average robustly concentrations in the 113 key cities from below the grade II limit and continuously 2004–09. The trend was downward sloping and reduced average concentrations during this passed through the grade II limit of 100µg/m3 in period. the middle of the period. However, this ï¬?gure Figure 3.5 provides a picture of where China also shows the strong seasonal variation in con- stands with regard to its annual average PM10 centrations, with signiï¬?cantly higher concentra- concentrations compared to USA, Europe, and tions occurring in the winter. In addition, Eastern Europe. China has shown a steady occasional spikes occurred in select individual progress in reducing its PM10 concentration. For cities. (See Annex 1A for annual average PM10 instance, the average value decreased from 118 concentrations in all 113 key cities during µg/m3 in 2003 to 87 µg/m3 in 200912, and is thus 2003–09.) within the national Grade II standard of FIGURE 3.3 Trends in PM10 Concentrations in 113 Key Cities, 2004–09 PM10 30 days moving average(PM10) linear scale (PM10) 2004-1-1 2005-1-1 2006-1-1 2007-1-1 2008-1-1 2009-1-1 2009-11-1 12 Based on 113 key cities data. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 17 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT FIGURE 3.4 Development in Annual PM10 Concentrations in Northern vs. Southern Key Cities* * Simple averages of concentrations of cities in North and South China FIGURE 3.5 Comparison of Annual Average PM10 concentration trend of China, US, Europe, and Eastern Europe (1960–2010) China 3 USA Eastern Europe 10 Europe 18 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA 100µg/m3. However, the 2009 value is still more NO2, SO2, and PM10. Of these, forty-two were than 2 times the national Grade I & EU stan- county-level cities and sixty-six were prefecture dard of 40µg/m3 or more than 4 times the or higher-level cities, including thirty-seven key WHO standard of 20µg/m3. On the other hand, cities (Figure 3.6). Table 3.1 provides a more USA12, Europe13, and Eastern Europe14 have detailed distribution of cities by grade and already or almost achieved the WHO standard. administrative level. It is interesting to note that It is worth to note that even in the 1960s, the prefecture and higher-level cities exhibit a average PM10 concentrations in USA was lower slightly lower compliance rate with grade II or I than that of China’s present. —79 percent compared to the county-level city rate of 85 percent. With regard to PM10, in 2009 average annual 3.2 THE PRESENT STATUS concentrations in most of the 612 monitored This section reviews the present status of air pol- cities clustered in the 60–120µg/m3 range with lution on the basis of average annual concentra- a mean of about 80µg/m3, which is below the tion data from 2009, the latest year in which 100µg/m3 grade II limit. A long but thin right comprehensive data are available. tail of the distribution indicates that only a few Of the 612 cities monitored in 2009, 108 did cities experience highly elevated PM10 levels (Fig- not comply with the composite grade II for ure 3.7). In terms of grades, almost 90 percent of FIGURE 3.6 Characteristics of 108 Cities in Non-compliance with the Composite Grade II for NO2, SO2, and PM10 13 Data from 1960-1980 was an approximation from Pace et.al (1986), EPA (1988), Bachmann (2007); Data from 1985- 2010 is from US EPA, from which an average was taken from all monitoring stations for respective years. 14 Suburban background station data from Mol, W., van Hooydonk, P. and de Leeuw, F. (2011). Countries included: Aus- tria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, United Kingdom, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Nether- lands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden. 15 Suburban background station data from Mol, W., van Hooydonk, P. and de Leeuw, F. (2011). Countries included: Czech Rep., Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 19 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT TABLE 3.1 Distribution of 612 Monitored Cities by Composite Grade Attainment, 2009 (%) FIGURE 3.7 Distribution of PM10 Concentrations Among All 612 Monitored Cities, 2009 35 30 _ 25 _ 20 _ _ 15 _ 10 5 00.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22 3 __ mg/m the 612 cities attained grade II or I. Seven per- while NO2 concentrations were below the grade cent of all cities now attain grade I status. As in II limit in the majority of cities. Separate data on the case of composite grades, county-level cities SO2 and NO2 are not available for the 612 cities. exhibited lower average PM10 concentrations. However, Annex 1B data show that all key cities Ninety-six percent of the county-level cities— are either grade II or grade I compliant with compared to 84.3 percent of the prefecture and respect to NO2. higher-level cities—attained grade II or I (Table At the county level, twelve cities did not com- 3.2). ply with PM10 grade II standards in 2009. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 also show that cities have Eleven cities were within the class III category, performed better in complying with grade II or while one county-level city was above the grade III I with respect to PM10 alone than with SO2, limit with a concentration level of about NO2, and PM10 together. Of the 612 cities, 200µg/m3. Most of the county-level cities that do 89.7 percent complied with PM10 grade II or I, not comply with China’s class II or better are due compared with 82.5 percent attaining the com- to high SO2 concentrations (thirty cities) rather posite grade II or I. Non-compliance with SO2 than PM10 concentrations (twelve cities). High limits was the main cause for this discrepancy, PM10 concentrations seem to be less of a problem 20 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA TABLE 3.2 Distribution of 612 Monitored Cities by PM10 Grade Attainment, 2009 (%) FIGURE 3.8 Distribution of Annual PM10 Concentrations at All 320 Prefecture and Higher-level Cities, 2009 This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. among smaller county-level cities compared to grade II, and some cities in the South and up larger prefecture-level and above cities.16 through Sichuan and Gansu provinces are green, Figure 3.8 illustrates the geographical distri- indicating grade I compliance. The non-compli- bution of the 320 prefecture and higher-level ant yellow and red cities are mostly found in the cities and their PM10 grade status as of 2009. North and West, with one red city in Xinjiang Most cities are blue, indicating that they attained being above the grade III limit. 16 Nevertheless, all county-level cities, regardless of whether they struggle with SO or PM , are included in China’s efforts 2 10 to have all their cities comply with class II (or better) category. There is an ongoing dialogue with MEP and the China National Monitoring Center (CNMC) to clarify the speciï¬?c PM10 concentration levels of these cities in order to get them integrated into the classiï¬?cations of the compliance plans. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 21 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 3.3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION mining, metal smelting, chemicals, and ther- AND SOURCES OF NON-COMPLIANCE mal energy generation. This section focuses on the causes of non-com- Thirty-eight cities (12 percent) had excessive pliance with the composite grade II in sixty-ï¬?ve PM10 concentrations and can be divided into prefecture or higher-level cities. Cities that are three groups according to PM10 sources: non-compliant with composite grade II have (1) cities with a large number of motor vehicles excessive concentrations of SO2, PM10, or SO2 and substantial secondary pollution in addition and PM10 together. The geographical distribu- to industrial and other combustion sources, such tion of non-compliant prefecture or higher-level as Beijing, Tianjin, Chongqing, Chengdu, and cities is illustrated in Figure 3.9 by red, blue, and Xi’an; (2) industrial cities such as Xuzhou, green dots. PM10 was the primary pollutant in Anshan, Handan, Yushu, Baoji, and Yueyang, the majority of the non-compliant cities at this where the coal, metallurgy, and petrochemical level in 2009.17 industries are the main source of pollution; and Of the 320 cities, 13 (4.1 percent) had SO2 (3) cities that are rich in mineral resources and concentrations that exceeded the grade II vulnerable to dust effects, such as Turufan, limit. These cities include Tongling, Zunyi, Kuerle, Atushi, and Guyuan. Kaili, Dujun, Shizuishan. and Zhaotong, and In ï¬?fteen cities (4.7 percent), both SO2 and are mainly located in the in Guizhou, PM10 concentrations exceeded the grade II limit. Guangxi, Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Cities in this category included Panzhihua, Henan, Hebei, and Anhui provinces. The pre- Zaozhuang, Zibo, Linyi, Liaocheng, Wuhai, dominant industries in these cities are coal Zhuzhou, Taiyuan, and Urumqi. They are located FIGURE 3.9 Distribution of Non-compliant Cities at Prefecture and Above, by Source of Non-compliance This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 17In contrast to the county-level cities where excessive SO2 pollution was the main cause for non-compliance with the com- posite grade II. 22 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA mainly in Shandong (8 cities), Xinjiang, Inner Typically, northern cities in China are always Mongolia, Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Shanxi dry and have much bare surface, which often provinces. These cities are characterized by heavy causes dust particle pollution. Coal is the main coal mining and coal consumption (Figure 3.10). energy source in the heating period, and extensive In terms of regional distribution, twelve of coal-burning leads to SO2 and dust emissions, the non-compliant prefecture level or above which combined with industrial and vehicle emis- cities (18 percent) are located in the South. sions result in both PM10 and SO2 non-compli- Cities in the North and West make up 41 per- ance in cities. In general, cities in the North China cent (twenty-seven cities each) (Figure 3.11). Plain are polluted with dust emitted from indus- try, roads, and construction. Northeastern and northwestern cities have better diffusion condi- Pollution types of northern cities tions and are mainly polluted with dust. Eighty-ï¬?ve percent of northern non-compliant cities failed to meet urban grade II for PM10. Shiji- Pollution types of western cities azhuang, Handan, Shenyang, and Anshan are typ- ical. Fifty-two percent of the cities failed because of In the western non-compliant cities, PM10 mainly SO2. In total, 37 percent of the Northern non- comes from natural sources such as dust from the compliant cities exceed both SO2 and PM10 stan- desert. Eighty-ï¬?ve percent of western non-attain- dards. Cities in Shandong Province—such as ment cities exceeded the urban grade II standard Zaozhuang, Liaocheng, and Jining—are examples. for PM10. These cities are located mainly in Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Fifty-two FIGURE 3.10 Non-compliant Cities at Prefec- percent of them failed to meet the SO2 standard. ture Level and Above, by Pollu- Fifteen percent of western cities failed to meet tant Source of Non-compliance the urban grade II standards for both SO2 and PM10. These cities are development cities with high 15.00% 11.90% populations densities—such as Urumqi, Yan’an, 10.00% and Wuhai—that depend on coal utilization. 4.10% 4.69% 5.00% Pollution types of southern cities 0.00% The pollution situation in southern cities is SO2 PM10 SO2/PM10 complex. The southern cities can be divided into FIGURE 3.11 Non-compliant Prefecture and Above Cities by Geographical Region 40.9% 40.9% Northern Cities Southern Cities Western Cities 18.2% INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 23 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT FIGURE 3.12 Spatial Distribution of Non-attainment Cities in 16 Provinces in China ’ This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Note: This ï¬?gure includes the names of non-compliant cities in 16 of the 22 provinces with non-compliant cities at the prefecture level and above. Figure 3.9 includes all non-attained cities in dots. two parts, southeast and southwest cities. South- possess abundant energy and other resources, east cities, located in the Pan-Yangtze River and rely mainly on energy extraction and Delta region, have developed industrial resource processing as their pillar industries. economies. Their PM10 pollution is caused by a This results in excessive SO2. These cities combination of industrial and motor vehicle account for 34 percent of non-compliant south- emissions. For example, Wuhan in Hubei ern cities. Province and Yueyang in Hunan Province both Figure 3.12 summarizes the above information. failed to meet the urban grade II standard for PM10. In 2009, cities of this type accounted for 34 percent of southern cities. 3.4 DEGREE OF PM10 Cities in Guizhou, Yunnan, and Guangxi NON-COMPLIANCE18 provinces—such as Zunyi, Zhaotong, and The degree to which PM10 non-compliant Liuzhou—and other southwestern provinces cities—sixty-three of the 612 monitored 18 Throughout this document, non-compliance is deï¬?ned as having annual average concentrations above the grade II limit of 100µg/m3. Furthermore, in China, the ofï¬?cially reported air pollution concentration in a city always represents the aver- age of the concentrations measured at all the monitoring stations in a city. All the concentration data presented in this report are such city-averaged concentrations. This means that there most likely are locations in the city where concentrations are higher or lower than the reported average. Compliance with standards in China is always based on this averaged concentra- tion. This means that even if a city is reported as being in compliance, there are most likely areas in the city where the stan- dards are exceeded. 24 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA FIGURE 3.13 Grade II Non-compliant Prefecture or Higher-level Cities, by Level of Non-compliance 2009 concentrations Grade II standard Grade I standard WHO guideline New Grade II standard of 02/29/12. * Indicates key city cities—exceed the grade II limit varies signifi- remarkable reductions of 20–140 µg/m3 in aver- cantly. This variation is examined for the fifty- age annual concentrations from 2003–09. one prefecture and higher-level cities where Weifang, which was compliant in 2003–07, but detailed data are available. Cities are catego- exceeded the grade II limit in 2008 and 2009, rized into three groups according to the per- illustrates the volatility of PM10 compliance.19 centage by which their 2009 annual average Group 2 consists of ten cities, including eight concentration measured exceed the grade II key cities that exceed the limit by 10-19 percent limit (Figure 3.13). This categorization (Table 3.4). This category includes provincial informs the proposed PM10 compliance plan capitals like Shenyang, Chengdu, and Xian that presented in Chapter 4. have resources and a demonstrated will to reduce Group 1 consists of twenty-three cities, PM10 pollution levels further. Among these including fourteen key cities, whose exceedance cities, Shenyang, Weinan, and Xi’an achieved was less than 10 percent (Table 3.3) This group signiï¬?cant reductions of 23-64 µg/m3 between includes six cities that exceed the limit value by 2003 and 2009; on the other hand, in Hefei and 1 percent and three by 2 percent. Thirteen of the Jining the annual average concentrations actu- key cities in this group—namely Baotou, ally increased. Chongqing, Handan, Harbin, Panzhihua, Shiji- Group 3 is made up of eighteen cities, includ- azhuang, Taiyuan, Tianjin, Xuzhou, Yan’an, ing seven key cities, which exceed the limit by Wuhan, Yueyang, and Zhuzhou—recorded 20 percent or more (Table 3.5). This group 19 See Annex 1 for annual average concentrations for all key cities for 2003–09. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 25 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT TABLE 3.3 Prefecture-level and Above Cities That Are Less than 10 Percent Above the Class II Limit for PM10 * Indicates key city TABLE 3.4 Prefecture-level and Above Cities That Exceed the Grade II PM10 Limit by 10–19 Percent * Indicates key city includes provincial capitals such as Beijing, average concentration was 206 ug/m3 in 2009. Urumqi, and Lanzhou. Many are located in In Beijing, Jinan, and Lazhou, from 2003–2009 Shandong Province, such as Zibo, Jinan, the average annual concentrations decreased Dezhou, Liaocheng, Zaozhuang, and Heze. substantially, albeit with signiï¬?cant fluctua- Some of the cities with the highest non-compli- tions. In Urumqi, Xining, Zaozhuang, and ance rates—including Akzo, Kashi, Urumqi, Zibo, the 2009 values exceeded the 2003 values, Turpan, and Hotan—are located in the Xin- although grade II-compliant concentrations jiang Autonomous Region. The situation is par- were observed intermittently during the ticularly dire in Hotan, where the annual period.20 20 Less information is available about the twelve county-level cities that do not comply with grade II PM10 standards, there- fore the study focuses on the prefecture and higher level cities. 26 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA TABLE 3.5 Prefecture-level and Above Cities That Exceed the Grade II PM10 Limit by 20 Percent or More * Indicates key city FIGURE 3.14 PM10 Annual Concentrations in 30 Provincial Capitals, 2009 10 Figure 3.14 examines the thirty provincial Huhot, the capital of Inner Mongolia. Cities of capitals, which are a subset of the cities reviewed Inner Mongolia face adverse air pollution con- above. The ten cities having the highest concen- ditions, including high levels of dry dust, but tration levels are located in the North and West. data reported from monitoring stations in The ten cities with the lowest levels are with one Huhot show that it is possible to make progress exception located in the South. The exception is despite adverse conditions. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 27 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Sources of PM10 pollution in the Despite differences, there are also similarities. eighteen Group 3 cities of high From the source apportionment material above, non-compliance it is clear that coal combustion is a common source of PM in northern and western cities, Even when the scope is narrowed down to the most probably including all the eighteen in seri- eighteen cities of high non-compliance, the air ous non-compliance. Moreover, secondary PM pollution situation in terms of PM is quite particles are important to control, both because diverse. Beijing is seeing more and more vehicle they are an emerging source and because they pollution and secondary PM formation, constitute a disproportionate share of the small- although there is a multitude of source cate- est particles (Figure 3.15). gories there, such as biomass burning (Figure Although suspended dust from natural causes 3.15). The cities of Shandong Province are fac- is a problem mainly for the West, the issue of ing problems of combined PM10 and SO2 non- construction dust and road dust is a problem in compliance. This is a province of heavy coal most of the non-compliant cities. However, sus- mining, as well as heavy industry based on coal pended dust is high in coarse PM fractions. This mining. The cities of the Western region—such gives measures to reduce suspended dust a hand- as the cities of Xinjiang Autonomous Region icap in terms of effect, since coarse PM has a mentioned above, Gansu Province (Baiyin, smaller health effect than PM2.5. This has a bear- Lanzhou), Ningxia Autonomous Region ing on cost-beneï¬?t assessments of measures (see (Zhongwei), and Inner Mongolia (Wuhai)— Chapter 4). are facing the issue of suspended dry dust from Finally while industrial sources are perhaps natural causes, which adds to the man-made most prominent in Shandong Province, they are pollution problem. found in all the non-compliant cities. While coal combustion in heavy industry is part of the coal combustion category, the production processes FIGURE 3.15 Source Apportionment of of heavy industry are an independent source of PM2.5 in Beijing particle emissions that must be taken seriously. As we have seen earlier in Chapter 3, industrial particles are rich in metallic particles, many of which are considered harmful. 3.5 THE STATUS OF URBAN PM2.5 POLLUTION Research on ï¬?ne particles in about twenty cities indicates serious PM2.5 pollution in urban areas. Annual average PM2.5 concentrations are 80–100 µg/m3 in cities such as Beijing and sur- rounding provinces, which is 5–6 times higher than the corresponding U.S. standard of 15 µg/m3. Concentration levels reach 40–70 Source: Song et al. (2006). The data used are prior to µg/m3 in southern regions, which is 2–4 times 2006. Since then, motor vehicle pollution has increased higher than the U.S. standard. In cities that are dramatically in Beijing. Note also that the study is on PM2.5. Still, it has relevance for PM10 as well as being rel- not part of the ï¬?ne particle research program, evant in its own right. applying the average PM2.5/PM10 ratio (0.70) to 28 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA RECENT TRENDS, CURRENT STATUS, AND SOURCES OF URBAN PM 1 0 POLLUTION IN CHINA measured PM10 concentrations suggests that in program, and to not limit the PM2.5 control pro- almost all cities the estimated PM2.5 concentra- gram to the local (city or metropolitan) scale, tion would be much higher than the U.S. stan- but to expand the control efforts to the regional dard of 15 µg/m. In thirty-seven major cities, it scale. would exceed 70 µg/m3.21 Simulation results The development of the concentrations of from an air quality model showed that the PM2.5, which is the PM fraction of PM10 that PM2.5 concentration is relatively high on a large has the largest impact on health, is not known, geographical scale, which is typical of regional since long term monitoring data are lacking. pollution. Still, most of the PM10 control options used in These estimates provide a rationale for the China should also bring PM2.5 down in most need to develop a PM2.5 monitoring and control places. 21Measurements have shown that in Chinese cities the PM2.5/PM10 ratio varies considerably between 0.28 and 0.89, with an average of 0.70 (see Section 5.2). INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 29 4 The Proposed PM10 Compliance Plan â…· 4.1 OBJECTIVE, SCOPE, AND State Council Notiï¬?cation requires that cities TIMEFRAME continuously improve their ambient air quality. The proposed compliance plan aims to guide In other words, cities that have already met PM10 non-compliant cities in preparing plans to grade II standards are to continue to reduce reach the air quality targets speciï¬?ed in the 12th their concentrations within the grade II range FYP, the State Council Notiï¬?cation and draft and strive to meet grade I standards. Reaching Administrative Measures, which are discussed grade I would bring such cities on a par with EU in chapter 1 and summarized in Table 4.1. cities (Table 1.3 in Chapter 1). The State Coun- Speciï¬?cally, the 12th FYP stipulates that by cil Notiï¬?cation also requires that the nine key 2015, 80 percent of all prefecture and high-level regions it deï¬?nes meet or exceed grade II stan- cities will comply with overall grade II. While dards. The draft Administrative Measures of this target was already met in 2009 with regard 2011 speciï¬?es timed targets for the key cities— to PM10, it is important that even compliant 80 percent are to comply with grade II by 2015 cities maintain their status. In fact, the 2010 and 100 percent by 2020. TABLE 4.1 Grade II (and higher) Compliance in 2009 and Targets for 2015 and 2020âœ? * Composite grade II includes annual average standards for PM , SO , and NO . * Incl. 4.2% grade I. ** Incl. 3.7% grade I. *** Incl. 0.9% 10 2 2 grade I. âœ? Note that this table is based upon GB 3095–1996 and not on the new GB 3095–2012, see Annex 6. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 31 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT While the proposed compliance plan focuses based on cost-beneï¬?t analysis and the different on PM pollution abatement, air quality man- sources. Furthermore, measures that reduce agement should be carried out in a multi-pollu- regional PM pollution—involving joint action tant fashion, applying controls that address with neighboring jurisdictions—would likely multiple pollutants and effects simultaneously. help reduce urban PM concentrations. The Experiences in the United States, Europe, and severity of the situation and set-backs experi- other parts of the world have shown that single- enced suggest that compliance by 2015 is pollutant abatement is arduous and inefï¬?cient. unlikely, and a target date of 2020 would also Furthermore, even though the proposed plan’s require signiï¬?cant technical assistance.22 focus is on urban PM pollution, it also recog- Given time and resource limitations, it is advis- nizes and provides advice about the growing able to focus assistance on cities that are furthest importance of regional pollution both as a result away from compliance and perhaps have insufï¬?- of some urban air quality measures and as a fac- cient resources. However, the suggestions on cost- tor influencing urban air quality. effective measures and policies provided in this The non-compliant key cities’ levels of pres- plan are general in nature. Relevant measures and ent exceedance over the grade II limit—coupled policies may be adopted by any city, including with their trend in the 2000s (chapter 3)—sug- those that have achieved grade II compliance and gests the likelihood of their attaining compliance seek to further reduce PM concentrations, as with grade II during the 12th FYP period. This mandated by the State Council Notiï¬?cation. information also helps city authorities in select- ing abatement measures. In general, Group I cities appear to have a good chance to attain 4.2 THE ANALYTICAL AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPROACH grade II compliance for PM10 by 2015 by adopt- ing the most technically and economically feasi- Air pollution reduction measures must be tailored ble abatement option(s) (below). to each city’s speciï¬?c source structure and air pol- For some of the Group II cities, it may be a lution characteristics, economic and capacity con- challenge to reach grade II by 2015. In such straints, and population conditions. This study cases, they may need additional time up to 2020 recommends the air quality management (AQM) to comply and will need technical assistance in approach to identify the technically, ï¬?nancially, preparing economically efï¬?cient air quality man- economically, and socially most feasible control agement plans. Substantial regional-level mea- options for a particular city within the compliance sures may also be needed for achieving program. Urban air pollution control plans man- compliance. In Group III cities, the severity of dated by the 2000 Air Law and the 2010 State the situation requires immediate application of Council Notiï¬?cation (chapter 1) are best devel- abatement measures with proven effectiveness in oped on the basis of AQM analysis.23 China. Additional abatement measures may also AQM is a structured approach to (a) contin- need to be considered and should be prioritized uous assessment of air pollution levels; (b) the 22 Even when overall compliance in a city reaches compliance according to city-wide concentration averages, some areas may continue to experience concentrations that exceed the compliance limit. 23 Useful references with details and examples of AQM analysis include: 1) The integrated air quality management concept is described in detail in the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia Guidebook (World Bank, 1997): http://books.google.com/books?id=9G0c7d_nQcEC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq= urbair+guidebook&source=bl&ots=9pUtYHlKot&sig=ZlwtkH1m3KqY2OfO3AByz6Zatb0&hl=en&ei=B34SSu2SEI- ysgaus5mFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPP1,M1 and 2) World Bank, 2011. “Mongolia – Quality Analysis of Ulaanbaatar. Improving Air Quality to Reduce Health Impacts,â€? Sustainable Development – East Asia and Paciï¬?c Region Discussion Papers Series. 32 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN contributions from various sources to ground- resulting from the city’s own emissions are level concentrations; (c) their effects on the pop- added to this background level. ulation from exposure to damaging air Elements of the analytical AQM approach pollution; (d) scenarios of the future develop- include: ment of the city, its activities, and impact on the air pollution situation; (e) identiï¬?cation and pri- • Assessment of air quality and its distribution oritization of feasible, cost-effective mitigation and variations strategies; (f) implementation; and (g) monitor- • Assessment of the environmental and health ing and evaluation for continuous readjustment damage caused by air pollution and improvement (Figure 4.1). • Development of scenarios for future develop- In the context of AQM in an urban area, it is ment of activities and subsequent impact on important to account for air pollution concen- the air pollution situation trations in the air entering the city. This can be • Assessment of technically feasible pollution done either by measuring the concentrations at abatement options one of more monitoring stations outside the • Using economic analysis, comparing costs of urban area in locations that are not affected sig- the abatement options with the resulting niï¬?cantly by the city’s own emissions. Air pollu- reduction in damage costs tion modeling for a larger region surrounding • Selection of the best abatement options the city can also be used to assess the regional air • Strategy development for optimal control of pollution component. The regional concentra- pollution tions are entered into the urban model as “back- • Follow-up of the pollution control plan to ground concentrations.â€? The concentrations ensure compliance and success FIGURE 4.1 General Concept for Development of Cost-effective Air Quality Management Strategies Pollution drivers / emissions Dispersion Monitoring modeling of air pollution Solutions to reduce Emissions Air pollution Air pollution concentrations pollution Abatement options Optimized Exposure abatement costs strategies cost and benefit value comparison Damage– Effects Impact / health damage INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 33 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT The AQM process begins with an inventory tiveness are selected as the best options, and then and analysis of emission sources, including sce- analyzed in terms of their technical, ï¬?nancial, narios for their future development. Next, a dis- and social feasibility. persion model incorporating the inventory and The follow-up to the air pollution control climatic data is applied and calibrated against plan—conducted at regular intervals—can monitored air pollution data to assess the pres- ensure that it produces the expected results and ent air pollution state and distribution and to must be an integrated component of the control estimate the impact on pollutant concentrations plan. and population exposure of technically feasible air pollution control options. The modeling should take account of the regional pollution 4.3 MENU OF POSSIBLE PM level caused by sources outside the modeled ABATEMENT OPTIONS area. The population-weighted exposure related This study reviews possible PM abatement to each intervention is determined by overlay- options in the light of key sources of PM10 pol- ing a map of concentration impacts on a map of lution in Chinese cities. The options can be population density. Such exposure data are used grouped in four categories: (1) demand-side to estimate improvements in public health and management measures and industrial restructur- other environmental beneï¬?ts due to each inter- ing; (2) cleaner technologies, including cleaner vention, such as improved visibility, reduced fuels, where the industrial production, energy corrosion, higher crop yields, reduced cleaning generation or heating process creates less emis- needs, reduced water body eutrophication, and sions; (3) end-of-pipe measures that abate emis- climate change mitigation. Beneï¬?ts may also sions generated in an industrial, power, or heat include savings due to higher efï¬?ciency in generation process; and (4) other options that energy and raw material use in industrial address mainly suspended dust from non-point processes. The beneï¬?ts are then quantiï¬?ed in sources (Table 4.1). monetary terms and compared with the costs of These options can be applied on a city as well each intervention. Both beneï¬?ts and costs as regional basis. In cases where regional pollu- should be assessed over the operational life time tion is of signiï¬?cant concern, enlarging the scope of the control option.24 A simpler form of rank- of planning from the city level to the regional ing of control options can be carried out when level may be more effective and efï¬?cient than beneï¬?t analysis (e.g. health effects estimates) is focusing on the sources in a city to reduce urban not available. This approach is based on cost- pollution concentrations. effectiveness: The costs of the available control The following sections discuss these options options are compared to the reduction they pro- with a focus on efï¬?ciency and effectiveness in the vide in the pollution concentrations, best deter- light of available international and Chinese evi- mined as a reduction in population-weighted dence. However, the effects and beneï¬?ts of any average concentration. The best options are particular control measure will differ among those giving the largest decrease in exposure per cities. What counts as an effective measure in unit of control cost. one city may not be the best in another city. The interventions with the highest net bene- Therefore, a beneï¬?t-cost or cost-effectiveness ï¬?ts—beneï¬?ts minus costs—or highest cost effec- analysis based on AQM is indispensible prior to 24 It is important to distinguish between economic analysis and ï¬?nancial analysis. The analysis outlined is an economic analy- sis, in that all costs and beneï¬?ts accrue to the society as a whole. Costs and beneï¬?ts accruing speciï¬?cally to the owner or oper- ator of a plant are part of a ï¬?nancial analysis. Treating economic beneï¬?ts or costs as ï¬?nancial items and vice versa can lead to misleading results and should be avoided. 34 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN TABLE 4.2 Summary of Some PM Reduction Options * This measure will redistribute regional PM pollution and increase it in some places. determining local regulations and investment industrial production in urban centers; popular programs. reliance on individual modes of transportation, Recommendations on policy instruments— generating a plethora of non-point pollution including command-and-control, economic, and sources; and heat and energy generation on res- awareness raising and voluntary instruments— idential and industrial units, leading to an that support the adoption of these abatement “urban forest of smokestacks.â€? The proposed options are provided in Section 4.5.3. measures reduce the prevalence of these processes in the industrial and energy generation structure of the economy. 4.3.1. Demand-side management and Phasing out inefï¬?cient power generation structural measures and industrial plants. Phasing out inefï¬?cient Demand-side and structural measures refer to plants in the power generation, iron and steel, interventions that aim to change the demand for nonferrous metals, petrochemical, and chemical processes that lead to pollution. Such processes sectors is a priority and could help lower PM include inefï¬?cient power and industrial produc- concentrations during the 12th FYP period if car- tion; large point-source power generation and ried out early and on a large scale. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 35 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Small plants are often the worst offenders in tial use as well as industrial use, should be terms of air pollution and therefore are a high pri- strengthened. Mestl et al. (2005) show for the ority for phaseout. Small thermal power units with case of Taiyuan that coal-based, but more efï¬?- an installed capacity of 200 MW or less still con- cient district heating is highly cost effective. stitute a very important part of China’s thermal Promoting greater use of public trans- power industry. Due to their high coal consump- portation. Greater availability of affordable and tion, high levels of pollutant emissions, and since convenient public transportation, such as sub- they are nearing the end of their service life, these way and bus rapid transit, would encourage small units should be the focus of a sectoral restruc- more people to use these means as opposed to turing. Small industrial boilers should be encour- private transportation. In the long term, cities aged to close down in order to achieve emission with a population of more than 1 million should reductions or switch to natural gas (below). At the consider building a subway system. Subways are end of 2008, there were 568,000 in-service indus- capital intensive to build, but extremely effective trial boilers in China that consumed 670 million in transporting large numbers of people in tons of coal per year and accounted for 24.8 per- densely populated cities. cent of national coal consumption, second only to the thermal power industry. Most of these boilers 4.3.2 Cleaner technology have low steam capacity and no up-to-date pollu- tion control equipment. Measures listed under this heading aim to reduce Research indicates that the ï¬?nancial costs of pollutant emissions through the use of cleaner operating an inefï¬?cient plant may be higher energy sources or more efï¬?cient processes for than the sum of the operating and capital costs energy generation, industrial production, and in of a replacement plant. Under such circum- motor vehicles. Energy-efï¬?cient heating in stances, it is more proï¬?table for the owner to buildings is also listed under this heading. Mea- replace the old unit with a more efï¬?cient new sures promoting energy efï¬?ciency in different unit. Proï¬?table possibilities have been found sectors of the economy also reduce demand for within China’s population of industrial boilers energy which in turn will reduce pollution (Fang et al. 1999; Aunan et al. 2004) and power caused by energy generation. plants (Cao et al. 2009a). Increasing the use of natural gas for energy Moving heavy industry and power genera- and heat generation. Mao et al. (2005) show for tion plants away from city centers would also the case of Chongqing that promoting natural reduce PM concentrations in cities by the end of gas as a substitute for coal in densely populated the 12th FYP period if initiated early during this urban areas can entail environmental beneï¬?ts period. Li et al. (2004) estimate that the health that outweigh the investment costs. There is also beneï¬?ts from banning industrial coal use from a case for switching from inefï¬?cient industrial the urban area of Shanghai and partial relocation boilers to natural gas boilers. However, the cost- to neighboring counties are larger than the costs beneï¬?t ratio of this type of intervention strongly of this measure. However, relocation would depends on local conditions, including whether redistribute regional PM pollution and increase the city in question has the infrastructure in place it in some areas close to the relocated plants, to supply natural gas. In case long-distance gas unless the plants meet emission standards by pipeline systems have to be constructed—as is adopting cleaner technologies or end-of-pipe the case for Beijing (Mao et al. 2005)—the cost- control methods (see below). beneï¬?t ratio tends to be less favorable. Expanding the coverage of district heating. Cao et al. (2009b) estimate the environmen- District heating, including heating for residen- tal beneï¬?ts inherent in lower coal consumption, 36 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN and similarly for consumption of oil and gas. et al. 2004). Their effect will be felt immediately. They make use of a large data set of power plants Other means of enhanced steam coal prepara- and industrial sources in different locations, in tion that reduce boiler pollution, particle emis- combination with epidemiological research and sions, and smoke pollution should also be environmental economic data. They conclude considered. with an “enormousâ€? 53.5 cents of damage per Increasing energy and process efï¬?ciency in yuan of coal burned, which amounts to 3–4 industry. This includes improving whole-process yuan in damage per yuan of coal burned. The management of a recycling economy, recycling price of coal may have increased since the base and reusing waste heat from new dry process year 2002 of this research, but the beneï¬?t of kilns, and using waste heat for power generation. reducing emissions from coal still seem quite Measures that utilize waste gas for electricity pro- extraordinary. Primary and secondary PM are duction also have a tendency to be ï¬?nancially the main sources of beneï¬?t. Regarding oil and proï¬?table. The condition here is that the value of gas, Cao et al. (2009b) ï¬?nd that damages from electricity production exceeds, in discounted oil are 0.2 yuan per yuan of oil burned, and terms, the investment cost and any operations and damages from natural gas are negligible. These maintenance costs associated with the measures. results are like a measuring rod by which to com- Mestl et al. (2005) identify ï¬?nancially proï¬?table pare costs of suggested measures to reduce emis- measures utilizing waste gas in a huge iron and sions from coal and also oil. The extension of a steel plant in Taiyuan. London et al. (1998) and natural gas grid, for instance, involves a substi- Aarhus et al. (1999) identify possibilities in the tution of gas for coal that may have environ- textile and paper industries. Measures to improve mental beneï¬?ts of 3–4 yuan per yuan in volume. insulation and improve building standards have Measures that utilize waste gas for electricity also been shown to be ï¬?nancially proï¬?table production also tend to be ï¬?nancially proï¬?table. (McKinsey & Associates 2007). Such measures The condition here is that the value of electric- help improve the energy efï¬?ciency of buildings ity production exceeds, in discounted terms, the and reduce energy demand. investment cost and any operations and mainte- Improving stoves for biomass burning. Bio- nance costs associated with the measures. Mestl mass burning in inefï¬?cient stoves is a signiï¬?cant et al. (2005) identify ï¬?nancially proï¬?table mea- source of PM10, and probably a larger source of sures utilizing waste gas in a huge iron and steel PM2.5. Improving stoves entails huge health plant in Taiyuan. London et al. (1998) and gains for the rural population and is highly ben- Aarhus et al. (1999) identify possibilities within eï¬?cial in a cost-beneï¬?t sense (Sinton 2004; the textile and paper industries. World Bank 2007). Increasing the use of clean coal. Clean coal is a broad category that covers everything from 4.3.3 End-of-pipe technologies simple measures like cleaning and briquetting of coal to capital-intensive investment such as in End-of pipe technologies are “conventionalâ€? district heating systems and integrated gasiï¬?ca- pollution control methods that aim to reduce tion combined cycle technology. There are vari- emissions at the end of a production process ations in cost-beneï¬?t ratios among the measures, rather than modifying the process itself or the but the general message is that they pass the cost- inputs. They include (a) dust removing tech- beneï¬?t test in almost any city. Cleaning and bri- nologies in power generation and industry; and quetting of coal can reduce PM and SO2 by as (b) end-of-pipe controls for motor vehicles. much as 35–40 percent and have a positive net Dust removing technologies in power gen- beneï¬?t (Aunan et al. 2004; Mestl et al. 2005; Li eration and industry. Dust control is a priority INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 37 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT for cement, iron and steel, power plants, and equipped with bag ï¬?lters. To comply with the industrial boilers. End-of-pipe dust control tech- new emission standards, the steel industry is now nologies have high beneï¬?t/cost ratios and an facing the challenge of upgrading dust collectors. immediate effect on emissions. Electrostatic pre- Flue gas desulfurization (FDG). SO2 is a pre- cipitators (ESPs), along with flue gas desulfur- cursor to secondary PM, therefore its abatement ization (FDG), which prevents secondary PM will contribute to PM10 reductions. FDG is now formation, were aggressively implemented and established on a large number of power plants, signiï¬?cantly contributed to the general PM con- but further expansion is possible in power gen- centration reduction across China during the eration and industrial plants. Cao et al. (2009) 2000s (Box 4.1). Research suggests that most found that the environmental beneï¬?ts associated conventional measures in China have higher with FDG are about ten times larger than the environmental beneï¬?ts than costs (below). costs. However, use of extremely low-sulfur coal Ninety-ï¬?ve percent of the thermal power (a cleaner fuel) is another option where such coal plants in China now employ ESPs, which are at is available (above). The decision on which least 98 percent efï¬?cient and limit the concen- option to adopt should be based on the ratio of tration of particulate emissions to below 50 environmental and other beneï¬?ts over costs. mg/m3. Vennemo and Yan (2008) found that Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). Being a ESPs have beneï¬?ts 60 times higher than costs. precursor to secondary PM, NOx is important for There is scope for introducing ESPs on indus- the PM compliance plan. SCR and other NOx trial boilers that presently use cyclones for PM control technologies are commercially available. abatement. Industrial boilers with an output of While SCR was previously considered too expen- less than 10 t/h are usually equipped with single sive for Chinese conditions (Xu et al. 2007), its and multi-cylinder cyclones; those with an out- combined impact on NOx and PM reduction put of more than 10 t/h are partially equipped may make its application economically feasible in with multi-cylinder cyclones or wet dust collec- power generation and industrial plants. tors. With a dust removing efï¬?ciency of less than An additional beneï¬?t of ESP, FGD, and SCR 80 percent, these cyclones and collectors cannot is the reduced emission of other compounds, satisfy the requirements of environmental man- notably mercury and black carbon. agement and must be upgraded for the purpose Annex 5 analyzes the investment costs of var- of enhancing efï¬?ciency. ious dust collectors. At present, only some of the coal-ï¬?red plants use bag ï¬?lters and electro-bag combined dust 4.3.4 Other measures collectors. As the dust emission standards of the thermal power industry become more stringent, This category includes measures that do not ï¬?t the dust removing devices of many power plants under the previous three groups but are of sig- fail to meet the requirements of a new standard niï¬?cant relevance for combating PM pollution (30 mg/m3) and need to be upgraded for the from natural sources, construction sites, and purpose of enhancing efï¬?ciency. roads. New Suspension Preheater (NSP) dry process Control of suspended dust from natural cement production lines are mainly provided sources. Low-cost measures with potentially with bag ï¬?lters, and only a few continue to use noticeable effects over a ï¬?ve-year period include electrostatic dust collectors. Seventy-eight per- planting and increasing vegetation cover in rural cent of the sintering (pelletizing) equipment and bare urban areas. The effects of vegetation used in the steel industry employs electrostatic improve over time. Agricultural practices that lead dust collectors, and 10 percent of them are to higher dust levels—including overgrazing on 38 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN BOX 4.1 Application of end-of-pipe technologies in power plans and industry since the 1990s End-of-pipe technologies for power plants and industry have been important in China’s air quality management over the last decade. Since 2003, the control of pollutants emitted from power plants has been strengthened. Over 99 percent of new coal-burning power plants are equipped with a dust collection system. Many coal-burning power plants were equipped with electrostatic precipitators (ESP) or fabric ï¬?lter systems. Increased Coverage of PM Removal Technologies in a) Coal-ï¬?red Power Plants and b) Industries Note: For power plants: Electric, wet air, and mechanical dust removal. For industry: wet air, mechanical, and no measure of dust removal Compared with 2003, the installed capacity of thermal power plants increased by 67.1 percent and electricity gen- eration increased by 49.3 percent by the end of 2006, while dust emissions increased by only 12.1 percent. Dust emissions dropped from 2.1 g/kWh in 2003 to 1.6 g/kWh in 2006. The 2003 and 2005 levels represented a peak. Since then, although coal consumption has sharply increased, emissions of industrial dust and soot were constantly reduced. Trends in Dust (red), Smoke (blue), and Coal Consumption (black line) INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 39 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT the western plains, plowing on hilly terrain and this grade, but also to cities that are already in com- during high winds, tillage, and open burning of pliance with urban grade II. The latter cities straw, hay, and other foliage—should be avoided. should strive to reduce their PM concentrations Control of suspended dust from roads and and reach grade I status. Administrative and tech- construction sites. Simple, low-cost measures nical guidelines should be promulgated as soon as with an immediate effect include cleaning of possible to guide cities in this process. Forming roads with effective machinery (should be better city-level “leading groups on air pollution controlâ€? than regular sweeping machines) and covering of (see subsection on institutional coordination) will construction areas. contribute to this effort. Regional PM Reduction. As prescribed by Article 4 of the State Council Announcement, 4.3.5 Options for high-priority cities launch regional air pollution prevention and con- Among the abatement options—phasing out of trol efforts in key areas—including Beijing Hebei inefï¬?cient plants, boilers, and small-scale coal Tianjin region, the Yangtze Delta, Pearl River combustion; moving point-source industry and Delta, Central Liaoning, Shandong Peninsula, power plants away from urban centers; enhanc- Wuhan and surrounding regions, Changsha, ing district heating; increasing natural gas use; Zhuzhou and Xiangtan region, Chengdu, use of low-sulfur and low-PM coal, clean coal, or Chongqing and surrounding areas, as well as areas briquettes where possible; and construction and around the Taiwan Strait (including Xiamen). As trafï¬?c dust control—are options that have suggested in the State Council Announcement, this proven effective in China in signiï¬?cantly reduc- will require review by local governments of non- ing PM concentrations. In particular, widespread local sources of PM pollution and collaboration switching to natural gas is a short-term measure, among local governments to prepare joint pre- provided that the necessary infrastructure is in vention and control programs. place. The feasibility of the options should be Economic Instruments. Abolish fuel subsi- investigated immediately for short-term imple- dies, especially on dirty coal, and increase air mentation in the eighteen Group III cities. pollution charges or tradable quotas so industrial thermal power plants have incentives to invest in cleaner technologies and fuels, energy efï¬?ciency, 4.4 POLICY AND REGULATORY or end-of-pipe control measures. Consider a fuel FRAMEWORK tax and offer affordable and convenient public transportation to discourage increased use of pri- 4.4.1. Recommendations for policies vate transportation. and regulations NOx Management. Initiate comprehensive The following general polices are recommended NOx management, as lower NOx emissions to support the proposed PM10 Compliance Plan. decrease secondary PM formation. Continuous PM Reduction. As prescribed by Co-control of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) Article 22 of the State Council Announcement No. and Conventional Air Pollutants. Air pollu- 33 on Improving Regional Air Quality through Joint tants and GHGs mainly derive from fossil fuel Prevention and Control Measures (2010) (“The combustion. For instance, air pollution and State Council Announcementâ€?), coordinated city GHGs share the same source in motor vehicles, and central government management to promote power plants, and other industrial activities. continuous reduction of PM concentrations in Therefore, the control measures targeting air cities is essential. This applies not only to cities that pollutants can be the same as those targeting do not yet comply with urban grade II standards GHGs, such as energy structure adjustment, sec- and must prepare compliance programs to reach tor structure adjustment, and clean-coal tech- 40 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN nology. Controlling ï¬?ne PM also reduces soot management practices. Carry out experiments in and its related climate forcing capabilities Beijing and surrounding provinces and cities, (decreased deposition on Himalayan glaciers). the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River In capital investment decisions or for produc- Delta in order to study how to effectively orga- tion or emission abatement, power plants and nize regional coordination and policy making of industrial enterprises should consider the impact air pollution control among different adminis- on both GHG and conventional pollutants. As tration units. These areas are also identiï¬?ed in research in China has shown (Aunan et al. 2004; the State Council Announcement No. 33. Mestl et al. 2005), public health beneï¬?ts associ- ated with the reduction of conventional pollu- 4.4.2 Comments on the draft tants—such as PM, NOx, and SO2—may exceed Administrative Measures and the cost of a highly expensive GHG control tech- Technical Guidelines nology. In such instances, plants would beneï¬?t from reduced pollution charges. Conversely, This section presents the study team’s recom- plants that wish to invest in reducing conven- mendations to improve the draft Administrative tional air pollutant emissions may opt for a tech- Measures and Technical Guidelines. Introduc- nology that also reduces GHG emissions, which tions to these draft documents are to be found in could earn them carbon credits. Annexes 2 and 3 of this report. Speciï¬?c policy options for co-control include: Comments on the draft Administrative Measures: • Prepare a co-control strategy during the 12th FYP period. Special attention should be paid 1. Incorporate the concept of integrated man- to coordinating efforts to control black car- agement of local/regional pollution and bon, NO2, CO2, and conventional air pollu- greenhouse gas emissions (Articles 9 and 17). tants. The strategy should include GHG 2. Consider banning practices, notably open density monitoring, emission statistics, coor- biomass burning, that generate health dam- dination domains, control policy formulation, aging ï¬?ne PM particles (Article 10). and technical research and development. 3. Emphasize the correct sequence and complete • Demonstrate co-control measures in low- application of the AQM approach. Impor- carbon city initiatives. tantly, analysis of the costs, pollutant reduc- tion impacts of abatement options in terms of Strengthen the Strategy Research of reduced health and environmental damage, Regional Composite Air Pollution Control. and monetary beneï¬?ts of available technical Systematically develop pollution monitoring, options are an integral part of the AQM damage evaluation, forecast and alarm measures, process that help determine the most eco- and research into regional control systems and nomically feasible intervention (Article 18). pollution mechanisms in order to provide a 4. Incorporate testing and evaluation of air pol- technical foundation for the future healthy lution models (Article 32). development of China’s cities. Build scientiï¬?c 5. Clearly state the link between the analytical air quality standards and target systems to shift AQM process and the total load control the emphasis from single pollutant control to the process (Articles 37 and 18). control of multiple pollutants, especially ozone 6. Include provisions for making monitoring and ï¬?ne particles. Under the speciï¬?cally deï¬?ned data available to the public in near-real time, air quality targets, establish co-control technical to enable the public to evaluate their indi- options for multiple pollutants. Gradually estab- vidual needs to protect themselves against lish regional coordination mechanisms and high air pollution, including PM. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 41 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Comments on the draft Technical Guide- 4.4.3 Institutional coordination lines (see introduction in Annex 3): The Technical Guidelines (see introduction in Annex 3) require the establishment of a cross- 1. Mention the concept of co-control (chapter II). institutional leading group on air pollution con- 2. Regarding design of the monitoring system, trol that assembles relevant departments, develop monitoring network design recom- bureaus, enterprises, and other stakeholders into mendations and review the monitoring net- one unit. The government may consider the fol- work (chapter V). lowing suggestions regarding the leading group: 3. Regarding the emission inventory, include all A deputy mayor should head the leading sources such as domestic/small enterprises. group.25 PM, “smoke,â€? and “dustâ€? should be mea- The leading group should be composed of sured in terms of particle fractions, such as representatives from all departments and sectors PM2.5 and PM10 (Chapter V). under the municipal government that are 4. Regarding air pollution modeling, state the responsible for sectors linked to PM pollution, need for model testing and evaluation. While including construction, transport, industry, and the choice of models should not be restricted, power. This composition would improve hori- the chosen models must be evaluated and zontal coordination and cooperation in the tested. Consider using population-weighted municipal government. exposure methodology by combining the An ofï¬?ce should be established in the city modeled air pollution distribution with the environmental protection bureau to act as the population distribution (Chapter V). Incor- secretariat of the leading group. porate the concept of regional scale in the Some Initiatives that the leading group could modeling efforts. coordinate include district heating; public trans- 5. Clarify the steps of the analytical AQM port; co-generation, SO2 abatement, energy efï¬?- process and include at the beginning of Chap- ciency, and clean coal in the power sector; ter V (“Tasks and Technical Methodâ€?) a list energy efï¬?ciency in buildings; road dust and of the following steps of the AQM analysis: construction site management; public awareness i. Assessment of the present situation, the of preventive measures against air-pollution “base caseâ€? related illnesses; efforts to address regional pol- ii. Analysis of the forecasted development, lution; and monitoring of ï¬?ne particles. which includes present policies and regu- lations and the “base lineâ€? iii. Selection of feasible control options and 4.4.4 Recommendations on policy scenarios instruments to support priority PM iv. Cost effectiveness analysis of the selected abatement options options and scenarios 6. Incorporate the notion of ongoing evaluation This section presents a summary of policy of progress toward goals and adjustments as instruments, including command-and-control, needed. economic, and voluntary instruments that may 7. Consider including “energy efï¬?ciencyâ€? in the be used in support of PM abatement measures menu of possible abatement options. discussed in Section 4.3. 25 In the case of the eighteen cities that are more than 20 percent above the class II mark for PM10, consider having a mayor heading the leading group. 42 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA THE PROPOSED PM10 COMPLIANCE PLAN (continues) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 43 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 44 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 5 Proposed Plan for Establishing a PM2.5 Monitoring System during the 12th Five-Year-Plan Period â…· THE NECESSITY OF standards, and limit values (Table 5.1), and MONITORING PM2.5 countries implemented a series of action plans to PM2.5 is one of the most damaging pollutants to protect human health. The U.S. has enacted the the human body. It affects human health more annual average PM2.5 standard of 15 µg/m3 and directly than PM10. Fine particles can enter the 24-hour average standard of 35 µg/m3. The EU upper and lower respiratory tract of humans and has a limit value of 20–25 µg/m3, while the be deposited in the lungs. It can even enter the WHO guideline for annual average PM2.5 con- bloodstream through the alveoli. In addition, centrations is as low as 10 µg/m3. WHO also has PM2.5—including black carbon—easily accu- interim targets (IT) for use in countries with mulates heavy metals, acid oxides, organic high pollution levels to give time for a phased pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocar- improvement. China does not at present have a bons, and pesticides. It is also the carrier of bac- PM2.5 quality standard, but may establish stan- teria, viruses, and fungi. From experiences in dards in 2011. Europe and the U.S., there should be no doubt that the health effects from PM2.5 are signiï¬?cant 5.2 EXISTING EVIDENCE ON PM2.5 in China. In recent years, a number of epidemi- MASS CONCENTRATION AND ITS ologic studies have been conducted within EFFECTS China, showing very similar mortality and mor- bidity impacts of exposure to air pollutants (HEI China does not have systematic and comprehen- 2010).26 sive data to evaluate PM2.5 pollution, because Since the 1990s the World Health Organiza- PM2.5 is not an indicator in China’s routine mon- tion (WHO), the United States (US), the Euro- itoring. Until now, the analyses of ï¬?ne particle pean Union (EU), and some other developed pollution and its status have been using research countries have started to pay attention to ï¬?ne data from monitoring stations in about 20 cities. particle pollution. After nearly a decade of Jiangsu Province Monitoring Center’s survey research, they developed air quality guidelines, in Nanjing during the four seasons of 2001 26 Health Effects Institute (HEI). 2010. “Outdoor Air Pollution and Health in the Developing Countries of Asia: A Com- prehensive Reviewâ€?. HEI International Scientiï¬?c Oversight Committee HEI Special Report 18, November 2010. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 45 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT TABLE 5.1 International Air Quality Guidelines, Standards, and Limit Values for PM2.5 (µg/m3) Sources: WHO; U.S. EPA; EU Air Quality Directive; cleanairinitiative.org * 7 days above 35 per year is allowed (98th percentile) showed the following basic characteristics of the Figure 5.1 indicates results from recent concentration distribution: the proportion of experimental PM2.5 monitoring stations in PM10 in TSP mass concentration reached 71 per- selected cities in 2009. The columns show the cent, while the proportion of PM2.5 in PM10 percentage of time that measured 24-hour accounted for 28 percent to 89 percent, averag- concentrations exceeded 35 and 75 µg/m3 ing 70 percent. The daily average PM10 concen- respectively. It can be seen that the 35 µg/m3 tration ranged from 100 to 450 µg/m3 during the level was exceeded more than 50 percent of the survey period, with an average concentration of time. From this, we conclude that the WHO 317 µg/m3. The daily average PM2.5 concentra- guidelines are exceeded most of the time in tion was 221 µg/m3. If evaluating air quality by China. comparing it to the U.S. air quality standards, the daily average concentration is more than 3 times higher, and more than 6.5 times on both sides of 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PM2.5 the highest concentration of trafï¬?c routes. This STANDARDS IN CHINA distribution represented the situation in China’s Many developed countries like the U.S. and southern cities in 2001; however, it is likely they European countries have developed appropriate no longer represent the current situation, as over- standards. As mentioned, there are still no stan- all urban PM concentrations have decreased dards for evaluating PM2.5 in China. The evalu- since then, as discussed in Chapter 2. ation of PM2.5 is different at each experimental 46 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA P R O P O S E D P L A N F O R E S T A B L I S H I N G A P M 2.5 M O N I T O R I N G S Y S T E M FIGURE 5.1 Percent of Time That 35 and 75µg/m3 Are Exceeded at Experimental PM2.5 Monitoring Stations in Selected Chinese Cities, 2009 3 3 Source: CNMC database. monitoring site, and evaluation results of PM2.5 average concentrations and 35 µg/m3 for 24- are barely comparable. hour average concentrations. China should develop its PM2.5 standards Given the existing high concentrations, even with a view to the WHO guidelines and interim using the most lax interim standard (IT-1) could targets, as well as the U.S. and European stan- result in signiï¬?cant compliance problem. There- dards. On the basis of the high pollution experi- fore, it is recommended that plans to reduce enced in China’s cities, and also regionally, it is PM2.5 concentrations be initiated. While it is clear that China will need a multi-phase process beyond the scope of this report to offer advice on toward a standard that is in line with the need the elements of a PM2.5 compliance plan, a few for health protection. Therefore, China should initial suggestions are provided here. Control establish PM2.5 standards that are in line with the efforts should concentrate on the emissions from WHO interim targets, starting with the interim coal combustion, its primary particles as well as target 1 (IT-1). Both the annual average IT-1 of its emissions of precursor gases (SO2, NH3 and 35 µg/m3 and the 24-hour IT-1 of 75 µg/m3 NOx), since ammonia emissions (agriculture, should be introduced. In view of the high PM2.5 waste) and NOX (also from road trafï¬?c) also play levels in China compared to this standard (or a part. Multiple beneï¬?ts, other than only human most other PM2.5 standards available), a “phase- health, result when effectively controlling both inâ€?-period for IT-1 should be established, which primary and secondary forms of PM2.5. Reduc- may last through the 12th FYP period. For the ing secondary PM also reduces deposits of sulfur future, and beyond the 12th FYP period, the rec- and nitrogen to land and water and helps limit ommended standards are 15 µg/m3 for annual ozone formation, regional haze, and visibility. It INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 47 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT lessens black carbon emissions, with resulting state-of-the-art automatic monitors tend to climate beneï¬?ts as well. Dry dust particles, underestimate the PM2.5 concentration due to which contribute signiï¬?cantly to PM10, play a the semi-volatile nature of part of the PM2.5 relatively smaller part in the PM2.5 problem; mass. The underestimation can be substantial, therefore its control may be considered a sec- depending on the chemical composition of the ondary priority. PM2.5 mass, as well as of the local climate condi- tions (problems tend to be larger in warm cli- mates). Top-of-the-line, but rather expensive 5.4 AVAILABLE PM2.5 MONITORING monitors such as the TEOM 1405-DF instru- METHODS ment correct that problem. It is very useful to At present, monitoring instruments for PM2.5 study the experiences that have accumulated in are mature. The automatic monitoring methods Europe and the U.S. in running similar moni- mostly used today worldwide are the ‚-ray toring programs over several years when design- method (in the U.S. known as the Beta attenua- ing the program and the data quality assurance tion monitor, or BAM) and the tapered element procedures. A PM2.5 measurement network can oscillating microbalance (TEOM) method. preferably be constructed using both these types Reference methods for PM2.5 measurements of measurement equipment (automatic moni- are based upon sampling of particles in filters. tors and samplers). There are many relatively low-cost filter sam- At present there are no monitoring equip- plers on the market, with various operational ment manufacturers for PM2.5 located in China. features such as automatic sample-changing However, there are several mature foreign equip- and two-fraction sampling. These filter-based ment manufacturers, whose products have been PM2.5 samplers provide good quality measure- applied to monitor PM2.5 in experimental mon- ments of PM2.5 that are often of better quality itoring sites in China. The price of PM2.5 moni- than the automatic samplers, and are appro- toring instruments is currently about priate for judging compliance with standards 200,000–270,000 yuan in the market. This is and implementing control programs. An addi- similar to the price of other conventional moni- tional advantage of such samplers is that the toring instruments, and it should be within an filters with a PM sample can be subjected to acceptable level of national and local monitoring detailed chemical and elemental analysis. Such capacity and reasonable within capacity building data can be used as a basis for assessing which programs. types of sources contribute to the PM sample, and to what extent. This is one of the useful bases for developing cost-effective control 5.5 SUGGESTED PLAN FOR programs. ESTABLISHING A PM2.5 MONITORING The main advantage of the automatic sam- NETWORK DURING THE 12TH FYP plers is that they can provide online near-real- PERIOD time short-term average (e.g. 1-hour averages) According to China’s characteristics of data that can be viewed directly, for instance on regional pollution and different levels of eco- the Internet, both by policy makers and the pub- nomic development in different regions, in the lic. The public can then have the chance to pro- 12th FYP period the country will gradually tect themselves against episodes with high-level increase the number of indicators to be moni- pollution. tored to include O3, PM2.5, and CO indicators Global experience also shows that monitoring in addition to the existing SO2, NO2, and of PM2.5 is not entirely free of problems. Typical PM10 indicators. 48 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA P R O P O S E D P L A N F O R E S T A B L I S H I N G A P M 2.5 M O N I T O R I N G S Y S T E M Urban network design pollution. They should be located far enough away from urbanized areas—at least several tens The total number of monitors per city with high of km and up to 50–150 km—so they can be levels of pollution depends on factors such as said to represent the regional component of known spatial patterns and diversity of urban pol- PM2.5 pollution. lution sources as well as the population distribu- This is a successful practice in both Europe tion, and may be guided with the aid of temporary and the United States (see boxes below). It will portable samplers to perform what is known as provide a very important input to the basis for “survey sampling.â€? Such surveys can assist in locat- developing compliance plans and tracking pro- ing proper sites for permanent monitors. gram results. There are different strategies To the extent possible, new PM2.5 monitors needed for tackling the local and regional com- should be integrated into existing monitoring ponents the PM2.5 pollution. The local compo- networks so that the resulting output data will be nent mainly consists of locally emitted primary compatible. The siting of monitors and the particles, while the regional component is to a choice of type of monitoring devices should con- large extent made up of secondary particles sider other potential uses for the resulting data, formed from precursor gases. For successful such as real time air quality reporting to the pub- compliance, knowledge of both the local and lic. Automatic monitors can also be used for regional components is necessary. comparison with air quality modeling outputs. This helps validate the modeling results. MEP has proposed that the cities that will Phased development of the PM2.5 monitor PM2.5 must choose at least two existing monitoring network monitoring sites for PM2.5 monitoring. If the monitoring results show that one of the O3, The project team proposes the following PM2.5 PM2.5, or CO indicators have serious pollution implementation program up to the end of 2015: (annual average concentration is 20 percent higher than the national standard, or the num- 1. Phase I: PM2.5 monitoring stations will be ber of pollution days is more than 20 percent of established in about ï¬?fty-ï¬?ve cities, which a year), the city shall increase the indicator to all includes all the capital cities in China (thirty- monitoring sites in the city. one), in addition to ï¬?ve or six selected cities in the Tienjin-Hebei-Beijing Delta, about ten cities in the Yangze River Delta, and about Rural monitoring network eight cities in the Pearl River Delta (Figure 5.2 In view of the regional-level nature of the PM2.5 and Box 5.1). The selected locations have pollution problem in China, it is strongly rec- strong economic and technical capacity. With ommended that the monitoring program a minimum of two PM2.5 monitoring stations include a signiï¬?cant number of MSs in rural in each city, the total number of MSs in China locations to assess the signiï¬?cant regional com- by the end of 2012 would be about 110. ponent of PM2.5 pollution in China, which 2. Phase II: Monitor O3, PM2.5, and CO in all largely consists of secondary particles formed â€?key citiesâ€? of environmental protection from SO2, NOx, and ammonia (NH3). Such before the end of 2013. These are all cities monitoring is common in both Europe and the that have been subject to air quality moni- United States and would provide important toring over a number of years with well- input to compliance plans that must address established air quality monitoring and both local and regional components of PM2.5 reporting procedures (Box 5.1). INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 49 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT FIGURE 5.2 Location of About 55 Cities and Stations for PM2.5 Monitoring During Phase I (by end of 2012) 0 300 Kilometers 0 100 200 300 Miles HEILONGJIANG Harbin Changchun Urumqi L J I L I N O G N O Shenyang M EI L I A ON I N G N Chengde X I N J I A N G Hohhot Zhangjiakou BEIJING BEIJING Tangshan Langfang Tianjin Yinchuan Baoding TIANJIN HEBEI Taiyuan Shijiazhuang IA This map was produced by SHANXI Jinan NINGX the Map Design Unit of The Xining World Bank. The boundaries, Lanzhou SHANDONG Yellow colors, denominations and any other information shown QINGHAI Sea on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank G ANSU Xi'an Yangzhou Group, any judgment on the Zhengzhou JIANGSU Taizhou legal status of any territory, Changzhou or any endorsement or SHAANXI HENAN Wuxi acceptance of such Nanjing Nantong boundaries. Hefei Suzhou X I Z A N G A N H U I Huzhou Shanghai SHANGHAI Jiaxing SICHUAN H U B E I Wuhan G Hangzhou Zhoushan IN Lhasa Chengdu Shaoxing East Q NG Ningbo ZHEJIANG Chongqing China O CH Nanchang Sea CHINA Changsha JIANGXI HUNAN Phase I PM2.5 Monitoring Stations G U I ZH OU Guiyang FUJIAN Fuzhou (by end of 2012) Kunming TAIWAN YUNNAN GUANGDONG G U A N G X I Foshan Guangzhou STATIONS AT PROVINCE CAPITALS Zhaoqing Dongguan Nanning Jiangmen Shenzhen HONG KONG STATIONS AT OTHER CITIES Zhongshan Zhuhai MACAO NATIONAL CAPITAL Haikou PROVINCE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES HAINAN 3. Phase III: Monitor O3, PM2.5, and CO in all pean and many Eastern European countries. 320 prefecture-level and above cities before the Today, the network has about 775 MSs, about end of 2015 (Box 5.2). If each city established the same as China may have after the ï¬?rst 4–5 at least two MSs, about 650 PM2.5 monitoring years of implementation. (The network to be stations (MS) would have been established in established in China would have a substantively China before the end of the 12th FYP. larger population to cover.) The network in Europe is balanced among urban background As part of Phase II–Phase III, China should stations, trafï¬?c stations, industrial stations, and also establish a network of ï¬?lter-based samplers. rural stations, a balance that is also recom- In addition to the need for measurements with mended for China. In the United States, the such reference method samplers as a part of the Federal Reference Method (FRM) sampler net- quality control and assurance (QAQC) pro- work has installed about 940 PM2.5 MSs cover- gram, such a network of samplers will also pro- ing all 50 states. Following adoption of the vide ï¬?lters for chemical analysis as a basis for national PM2.5 standards in 1997, the states source apportionment (as mentioned above). established their FRM sampler network from In Europe, the PM2.5 monitoring network 1998 to 2000. Based upon a division of labor established more than 500 MSs over a 7-year with different monitoring functions, there are period (2001–08) covering all Western Euro- today also two additional PM2.5 networks and an 50 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA P R O P O S E D P L A N F O R E S T A B L I S H I N G A P M 2.5 M O N I T O R I N G S Y S T E M IMPROVE and Chemical Speciï¬?cation Net- This is a bold plan, in view of the need to work in the United States (Box 5.3).27 build up local technical monitoring expertise, Taking into account that China largely estab- including the need for quality assurance pro- lished its PM10 monitoring system in 612 cities grams to assure the quality of the data, as well as from 2001 to 2008 and with the experiences from the system for data collection and transfer, and both Europe and the U.S., it seems realistic that utilization of the data for various purposes, China can establish PM2.5 MSs in 320 cities including real-time availability for the public. A within the 12th FYP period if PM2.5 standards are robust organization needs to be built up to tackle adopted early in the FYP period. It would be this challenging task. Still, it is important to con- important for China to develop a monitoring net- sider whether there are prefectural- and lower- work that balances the various functions—com- level cities with a clearly large PM2.5 problem paring with standards, public reporting, that could be included in the ï¬?rst wave of PM2.5 developing control strategies, assessing trends, monitoring in 2012. assessing human health exposure, and assessing The question of the quality analysis / qual- visibility—and is supported by overall AQM. ity control (QA/QC) program is extremely In addition to the city-based monitors, a important. A state-of-the-art QA/QC program minimum of 50 regional/rural background MSs for the PM2.5 monitoring network must be would be needed. established. 27 A main feature of the IMPROVE and chemical speciation (CS) networks is to provide the chemical composition of PM2.5. IMPROVE provides important information about background concentrations to estimate visibility impairment in national parks and other remote protected scenic areas, and to help establish regional concentrations and their contributing emission sources. CS provides measurements of PM2.5 chemical constituents in urban areas, primarily to establish emission sources, support air quality modeling, and track emission trends. An advantage of the ï¬?lter-based PM2.5 monitoring for compliance purposes also provides the opportunity to subsequently perform supplementary chemical analysis for many of the reasons mentioned above and to help understand contributing emission sources on particularly high PM2.5 days. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 51 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT BOX 5.1 Proposed Expansion Plan for Installation of a PM2.5 Monitoring Equipment in China During the 12th FYP Phase 1 (Before the end of 2012): All capital cities in China and cities in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) area, in the Yangze River Delta (YRD), in the Pearl River Delta (PRD), and in certain developed cities will install PM2.5 monitoring stations (MS). Taking into account about ï¬?ve or six additional cities in the BTH area, about ten or eleven cities in the YRD, and about eight cities in the PRD, the total number of cities having installed PM2.5 MSs would be about 50–55, with all together over 100 MSs. Phase 2 (Before the end of 2013): The plan is expanded to include all the 113 focused cities for Air Pollution Con- trol to have installed PM2.5 MSs. Taking into account the already established MSs during phase 1, the total number of cities that would have installed PM2.5 MSs would be about 130 cities with more than 260 MSs. Phase 3 (Before the end of 2015): The plan has expanded to This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment include all the 320 cities at prefecture level-and-above that on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. would have installed PM2.5 MSs. Taking into account that each city is installing a minimum of two MSs (some need to install several more), the total number of MSs at the end of the 12th FYP would be above 650 (or substantially more) in addition to recommended background monitors. – 52 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA P R O P O S E D P L A N F O R E S T A B L I S H I N G A P M 2.5 M O N I T O R I N G S Y S T E M BOX 5.2 Monitoring of PM2.5 in Europe The monitoring of PM2.5 in Europe is governed by the Air Quality Directive of the European Union. (see link: Direc- tive 2008/50/EC). The directive sets requirements for issues like (a) selection of cities; (b) speciï¬?cation of types of sta- tions; (c) number of stations in each city; (d) location of stations (details); (e) quality control and quality assurance programs; (f) time schedule of reporting of data and additional information to the central (European) data base; and (g) air quality standards (target and limit values) and the time schedule for compliance. The extent of the European monitoring of PM is as follows, covering 27 countries: PM 10 2,685 PM 2.5 540 As shown, in Europe the following station types are speciï¬?ed: • Urban background stations: general urban/suburban stations not dominated by any speciï¬?c source • Trafï¬?c stations: located in highly trafï¬?cked areas, close to streets/roads • Industrial stations: located to monitor the influence from industrial sources • Rural stations: located outside cities to monitor the regional components of air pollution The monitoring network has been built mainly since 1998, although several hundred PM10 stations were in opera- tion before then (see the ï¬?gure below). The ï¬?gures below visualize the location of cities and rural stations (left, PM2.5; right, PM10). Reference: Mol et. al. 2008. State of AQ (in Europe), 2008. European Topic Centre of AQ and Climate Change (http:// acm.eionet.europa.eu/), Technical Paper 2010/1. http://acm.eionet.europa.eu/reports/ETCACC_TP_2010_1_EoI_AQ_meta_info2008 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 53 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT BOX 5 3 Monitoring of PM2.5 in the United States PM2.5 monitoring in the United States is governed by the national PM2.5 ambient air quality standards with an annual value of 15 µg/m3 (1997) and an 24-hour value of 65 µg/m3 (1997), which was modiï¬?ed to 35 µg/m3 in 2006. In the U.S., there are a number of different PM2.5 networks that have different monitors with different functions. Of the roughly 940 MSs in the Federal Reference Method (FRM) sampler network (NW), most were established in the 1998–2000 period (upper left-hand map). The FRM network installed mass monitors, which collect samples on ï¬?lters that are weighted and analyzed. The main purpose is to compare standards, assess progress/trends, and ana- lyze health exposure. In addition, there are about 700 PM2.5 MSs reporting to the AIRNow and/or the AQS that apply continuous monitoring (upper right-hand map), with the main purpose of public reporting, applying air quality indicators, developing control strategies, and also assessing the exposure on human health. Moreover, there is a chemical speciï¬?cation and IMPRONE NW (lower map) that provides background monitoring at state boundaries. It is being used to develop control strategies and assess progress/trends, as well as assessing visibility. Types of PM2.5 Monitoring Networks in the U.S. Source: Tim Hanley et al. 2009. U.S. EPA PM Monitoring Program Update for Environment Canada. V= Main function, S = Secondary function 54 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 6 Conclusions and Recommendations â…· CONCLUSIONS reactions between sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen The present study documents that over the past oxides (NOx), and ammonia. decade, China has made signiï¬?cant strides in In 2009, just a few of the 612 cities where reducing average urban ambient air pollutant PM10 is monitored met China’s urban grade I concentrations, including PM10. From 2001 to PM10 standard (40 µg/m3), while 63 cities 2009 the number of Chinese cities reaching the exceeded the grade II range (100–40 µg/m3).28 grade II PM10 standard or better increased from Fifty-one of these noncompliant cities are pre- 36 percent to 84 percent. From 2003 to 2009 fecture level or higher; of these, 30 are key cities the average annual concentration in 113 key for air pollution control as designated by the cities decreased from 126 to 87 µg /m3. In the State Council. industrial northern region, where air pollution In general, coal combustion for heating, par- was particularly severe, the average in urban ticularly from small-scale combustion, is a com- areas dropped from 149 to 97 µg/m3. However, mon PM source in northern and western cities. PM pollution remains a signiï¬?cant challenge. Construction and road dust is a problem in most These averages are still substantially higher than of the noncompliant cities. Industrial sources the WHO guideline or China’s own grade I contribute signiï¬?cantly to PM in all the non- limit value. In some cities recently attaining compliant cities. The industrial sector con- grade II, concentrations show signs of not being tributes both through coal combustion for stable within the grade threshold meaning that process heat and power, as well as through PM they are fluctuating between grade II and III. In emissions from production processes, which can some cases, reductions in urban air pollution be rich in harmful heavy metals. The size of the may have been achieved at the expense of higher contributions from these main source types vary concentrations in rural areas, where the indus- considerably between cities. Regional PM pollu- tries were relocated. Regional pollution con- tion makes up a signiï¬?cant part of the PM con- tributes to high urban PM concentrations, centration in urban areas, and consists to a large including ï¬?ne particles. Regional PM originates extent of secondary PM2.5, resulting from emis- from non-urban sources such as power and sions of SO2, NOX and ammonia. industrial plants, agriculture, arid landscapes, or The present study recommends a national secondary particles, notably from atmospheric PM10 compliance plan to help noncompliant 28 40–70 µg/m3 according to the new GB 3095-2012 of 02/29/12. See Annex 6. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 55 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT cities attain grade II—preferably by 2015, or in number of abatement options such as banning certain cases by 2020 at the latest—and already small-scale coal burning and open biomass compliant cities to further reduce PM concen- burning. trations toward grade I. The plan would include • Emphasize the correct sequence and complete (a) policies and regulations and associated phys- application of the AQM approach, including ical interventions/measures; (b) geographical an analysis of air pollution, its costs, and scope; (c) sequencing of interventions; and impacts of abatement options on health and (d) feasible environmental investments likely to environmental effects, as well as the monetary have high beneï¬?t/cost ratios. When the Chinese beneï¬?ts of the options. government has set standards for PM2.5, at pres- • Incorporate testing and evaluation of air pol- ent proposed by MEP to be 75 µg/m3 (24 hour lution models and clearly states the link average/daily) and 35 µg/m3 (annual average), between the analytical AQM process and the similar compliance plans should be developed to total load control process. reach these new standards and to further accel- • Include provisions for making monitoring erate toward reaching the interim targets recom- data on the critical pollutants available to the mended by WHO in the longer-term. public in near-real time. According to targets prepared by MEP and set in the 12th Five-Year Plan, 80 percent of pre- The technical guidelines should: fecture and higher-level cities have to comply with grade II standards by the end of 2015. • Mention the concept of co-control and include MEP’s Administrative Measures and Technical monitoring network design recommendations. Guidelines, which was supported through this • Include all sources in the emissions inventory; project, will guide local decision makers and “smokeâ€? and “dustâ€? should be measured in the stakeholders in preparing urban air quality man- form of particle fractions like PM2.5 and PM10. agement (AQM) plans to comply with grade II • State the need for testing and evaluation of the standards and further reduce PM concentra- air pollution models and clarify the steps of tions. In the process, it is important for activities the analytical AQM process. to be properly sequenced and to apply air pollu- • Incorporate the notion of ongoing evaluation tion and economic analyses, such as cost effec- of progress toward goals and adjustments as tiveness for evaluating air pollution abatement needed, and consider including energy efï¬?- options and strengthen emission inventories and ciency as a possible abatement option. air quality monitoring. When standards are set, • With regard to the leading group, require that new monitoring systems are in place, and com- (a) a deputy mayor should lead the group (in pliance plans completed for PM2.5, the Measures cities that are furthest from reaching compliance and Guidelines should be further reï¬?ned and the mayor should lead the group); (b) the group applied as a tool to assist in the effective control should include representatives from all sectors of these small particles. that are linked to PM pollution in the city; and (a) the group should be supported by a secre- tariat in the environmental protection bureau. SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS: The administrative measures should: PM2.5 standards monitoring and control: • Incorporate the concept of integrated man- • PM2.5 standards should be developed with a agement of local/regional pollution and green- view to the WHO guidelines and interim tar- house gas emissions while considering a gets (IT) as well as relevant standards in the 56 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS U.S., Europe, and other countries, starting expands the coverage from all provincial capi- with the IT-1 of 75 µg/m3 (24 hour/daily) and tals and cities in key regions (1st phase), 35 µg/m3 (annual average). A “phase-inâ€? through all the “key APC citiesâ€? (2nd phase) to period for IT-1 should be established that all the 320 prefecture-level-and-above cities would last through the 12th FYP period. before the end of 2015 (3rd phase). • For the future (beyond the 12th FYP period), the • While the requirement of two PM2.5 monitor- recommended standards to be gradually applied ing stations per city should be a minimum, the should be further tightened through 25 µg/m3 required number of monitors should be sub- (annual average) and 50 µg/m3 (24-hour/daily) stantially larger in certain cities. A signiï¬?cant to 15 µg/m3 and 35 µg/m3 respectively. number of rural background stations also • Control options should concentrate on urban should be included. emissions from coal combustion, especially • The nationwide PM2.5 monitoring system to from low-level emissions, both its primary be established can serve multiple purposes, particles as well as precursor gases (SO2, NH3, including measuring progress compared to and NOx). new standards, reporting to the public, sup- • A three-phased monitoring plan for PM2.5 porting control strategies and assessing (also including O3 and CO) should be imple- progress, and assessing health exposure and mented throughout the 12th FYP period that visibility. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 57 References â…· Air Pollution Management program in China, Component 1: Develop a draft PM control plan for China, Memo (by the international World Bank team), March 17, 2011 Aunan, K., Fang, J., Vennemo, H., Oye, Seip, H.M. (2004). 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Ofï¬?ce of Air Quality Planning and Standards, US EPB, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 60 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX A1 Annual Average Concentration and Grade Data for 113 Key Cities Annual Average PM10, SO2 and NO2 Concentrations in Northern and Southern Key Cities (2003–2009) INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 61 62 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 NORTHERN KEY CITIES City Name Province PM10 PM10 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 SO2 NO2 PM10 Anshan Liaoning 0.122 0.132 0.117 0.078 0.038 0.127 0.062 0.043 0.131 0.069 0.037 0.109 0.057 0.039 0.054 0.04 0.111 Anyang Henan 0.187 0.143 0.115 0.075 0.041 0.102 0.045 0.027 0.112 0.053 0.037 0.093 0.055 0.037 0.051 0.037 0.097 Baoding Hebei 0.131 0.112 0.108 0.056 0.028 0.109 0.065 0.022 0.106 0.059 0.032 0.085 0.061 0.031 0.046 0.03 0.088 Baoji Shananxi 0.118 0.139 0.124 0.04 0.046 0.113 0.027 0.029 0.101 0.024 0.026 0.109 0.023 0.026 0.023 0.028 0.11 Baotou Neimenggu 0.226 0.186 0.143 0.07 0.036 0.147 0.077 0.039 0.135 0.074 0.042 0.124 0.066 0.039 0.059 0.033 0.109 Beijing 0.141 0.149 0.141 0.05 0.066 0.162 0.052 0.066 0.148 0.047 0.066 0.123 0.036 0.049 0.034 0.053 0.121 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Benxi Liaoning 0.133 0.13 0.089 0.041 0.11 0.044 0.028 0.108 0.047 0.031 0.091 0.046 0.034 0.051 0.032 0.09 Changchun Jilin 0.098 0.085 0.099 0.026 0.035 0.099 0.026 0.039 0.099 0.03 0.038 0.096 0.03 0.038 0.034 0.043 0.085 Changzhi Shanxi 0.176 0.173 0.122 0.067 0.039 0.128 0.041 0.035 0.106 0.03 0.036 0.09 0.027 0.033 0.028 0.026 0.076 Chifeng Neimenggu 0.138 0.134 0.115 0.087 0.023 0.134 0.082 0.023 0.11 0.078 0.016 0.094 0.048 0.016 0.044 0.02 0.089 Dalian Liaoning 0.08 0.085 0.086 0.044 0.032 0.095 0.048 0.041 0.087 0.049 0.043 0.071 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.067 Datong Shanxi 0.178 0.18 0.161 0.101 0.038 0.155 0.098 0.036 0.11 0.075 0.034 0.101 0.077 0.034 0.039 0.026 0.077 Fushun Liaoning 0.162 0.128 0.055 0.035 0.115 0.047 0.037 0.111 0.056 0.031 0.093 0.048 0.034 0.046 0.042 0.1 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 0. Handan Hebei 0.134 0.113 0.065 0.039 0.115 0.064 0.038 0.104 0.065 0.035 0.101 0.053 0.033 0.045 0.034 0.102 Re vi 128 Harbin Heilongjian 0.121 0.113 0.104 0.042 0.056 0.104 0.034 0.049 0.102 0.048 0.06 0.102 0.043 0.055 0.046 0.054 0.101 Hohhot Neimenggu 0.116 0.08 0.097 0.05 0.041 0.102 0.054 0.048 0.084 0.066 0.048 0.07 0.049 0.045 0.049 0.04 0.074 Jiaozuo Henan 0.148 0.131 0.097 0.076 0.036 0.106 0.055 0.038 0.099 0.068 0.041 0.096 0.07 0.035 0.065 0.035 0.08 Jilin Jilin 0.141 0.107 0.014 0.034 0.096 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.025 0.019 0.093 0.025 0.025 0.02 0.033 0.095 Jinan Shandong 0.149 0.149 0.128 0.06 0.024 0.114 0.04 0.021 0.118 0.056 0.023 0.126 0.052 0.022 0.05 0.025 0.123 Jinchang Gansu 0.132 0.106 0.094 0.12 0.023 0.113 0.108 0.023 0.103 0.084 0.024 0.102 0.079 0.022 0.076 0.028 0.087 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 NORTHERN KEY CITIES Jining Shandong 0.104 0.109 0.092 0.046 0.037 0.097 0.052 0.033 0.107 0.057 0.033 0.104 0.059 0.033 0.074 0.044 0.112 Jinzhou Liaoning 0.125 0.113 0.062 0.029 0.104 0.043 0.032 0.098 0.034 0.024 0.085 0.029 0.023 0.023 0.018 0.087 Kaifeng Henan 0.186 0.198 0.127 0.059 0.045 0.111 0.064 0.039 0.109 0.069 0.043 0.089 0.037 0.038 0.04 0.041 0.095 Karamay Xinjiang 0.55 0.059 0.05 0.008 0.032 0.059 0.009 0.029 0.066 0.015 0.036 0.072 0.016 0.033 Lanzhou Gansu 0.174 0.172 0.158 0.068 0.037 0.192 0.057 0.052 0.129 0.06 0.042 0.132 0.07 0.054 0.059 0.043 0.15 Lianyungang Jiangsu 0.096 0.091 0.097 0.049 0.024 0.096 0.052 0.026 0.095 0.049 0.026 0.086 0.04 0.025 0.039 0.02 0.091 Linfen Shanxi 0.233 0.219 0.184 0.177 0.054 0.168 0.112 0.051 0.113 0.072 0.039 0.085 0.05 0.026 0.038 0.019 0.085 Luoyang Henan 0.217 0.165 0.129 0.065 0.042 0.117 0.049 0.033 0.114 0.052 0.031 0.097 0.043 0.025 0.05 0.032 0.098 Mudanjiang Heilongjiang 0.152 0.119 0.092 0.034 0.035 0.079 0.035 0.028 0.083 0.032 0.022 0.068 0.023 0.02 0.025 0.027 0.066 Pingdingshan Henan 0.154 0.174 0.149 0.067 0.043 0.142 0.058 0.045 0.116 0.074 0.05 0.097 0.054 0.051 0.045 0.046 0.096 Qingdao Shandong 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.057 0.024 0.1 0.056 0.024 0.099 0.054 0.026 0.1 0.055 0.028 0.052 0.043 0.098 Qinhuangdao Hebei 0.068 0.076 0.077 0.057 0.025 0.083 0.052 0.027 0.08 0.05 0.025 0.071 0.046 0.023 0.043 0.025 0.067 Qiqihar Heilongjiang 0.098 0.088 0.025 0.025 0.098 0.028 0.032 0.079 0.038 0.036 0.082 0.034 0.031 0.033 0.024 0.075 Rizhao Shandong 0.055 0.058 0.055 0.021 0.027 0.055 0.015 0.019 0.06 0.023 0.03 0.061 0.026 0.037 0.037 0.039 0.085 Sanmenxia Henan 0.141 0.126 0.113 0.068 0.029 0.112 0.065 0.021 0.102 0.065 0.023 0.102 0.053 0.024 0.051 0.018 0.094 Shenyang Liaoning 0.135 0.137 0.118 0.054 0.036 0.117 0.058 0.043 0.119 0.054 0.036 0.118 0.059 0.037 0.059 0.037 0.11 Shijiazhuang Hebei 0.175 0.123 0.132 0.054 0.041 0.142 0.044 0.039 0.128 0.043 0.035 0.116 0.046 0.031 0.045 0.035 0.104 Shizuishan Ningxia 0.239 0.119 0.101 0.087 0.036 0.105 0.076 0.027 0.097 0.07 0.026 0.093 0.072 0.03 0.072 0.03 0.087 Taian Shandong 0.086 0.083 0.073 0.048 0.027 0.077 0.048 0.028 0.08 0.048 0.028 0.081 0.047 0.027 0.048 0.032 0.095 Taiyuan Shanxi 0.172 0.175 0.139 0.077 0.02 0.142 0.08 0.025 0.124 0.076 0.027 0.094 0.073 0.021 0.075 0.022 0.106 Tangshan Hebei 0.127 0.112 0.092 0.086 0.04 0.1 0.082 0.043 0.094 0.082 0.042 0.082 0.067 0.031 0.061 0.031 0.077 Tianjin 0.133 0.111 0.106 0.076 0.047 0.114 0.067 0.048 0.094 0.062 0.043 0.088 0.061 0.041 0.056 0.04 0.101 Tongchuan Shananxi 0.159 0.151 0.127 0.067 0.041 0.116 0.04 0.035 0.107 0.073 0.04 0.083 0.044 0.029 0.035 0.032 0.079 Urumqi Xinjiang 0.127 0.114 0.114 0.116 0.056 0.152 0.113 0.064 0.136 0.088 0.067 0.145 0.105 0.065 0.093 0.068 0.14 Weifang Shandong 0.094 0.09 0.089 0.058 0.042 0.097 0.061 0.042 0.087 0.058 0.038 0.116 0.082 0.039 0.068 0.041 0.102 Weinan Shananxi 0.181 0.175 0.145 0.083 0.046 0.138 0.079 0.048 0.123 0.066 0.046 0.11 0.053 0.045 0.048 0.044 0.117 Xi'an Shananxi 0.136 0.142 0.129 0.044 0.032 0.133 0.056 0.042 0.135 0.053 0.043 0.113 0.05 0.044 0.048 0.046 0.113 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 63 ANNEX 1 64 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 NORTHERN KEY CITIES Xianyang Shananxi 0.207 0.137 0.114 0.033 0.025 0.112 0.038 0.025 0.121 0.035 0.021 0.102 0.033 0.021 0.034 0.019 0.094 Xining Qinghai 0.139 0.127 0.114 0.029 0.026 0.135 0.024 0.029 0.115 0.028 0.035 0.118 0.029 0.03 0.042 0.032 0.141 Xuzhou Jiangsu 0.211 0.158 0.111 0.066 0.04 0.114 0.047 0.03 0.115 0.052 0.038 0.103 0.051 0.03 0.051 0.022 0.107 Yan'an Shananxi 0.131 0.139 0.128 0.06 0.037 0.133 0.039 0.045 0.112 0.059 0.04 0.068 0.074 0.051 0.079 0.049 0.108 Yangquan Shanxi 0.172 0.162 0.126 0.16 0.053 0.109 0.104 0.035 0.086 0.089 0.041 0.071 0.056 0.03 0.046 0.025 0.072 Yantai Shandong 0.074 0.068 0.061 0.044 0.029 0.055 0.041 0.033 0.07 0.046 0.04 0.078 0.045 0.038 0.044 0.04 0.082 Yinchuan Ningxia 0.132 0.122 0.09 0.054 0.025 0.097 0.048 0.027 0.092 0.049 0.025 0.084 0.049 0.021 0.044 0.031 0.09 Zaozhuang Shandong 0.099 0.101 0.077 0.06 0.025 0.083 0.06 0.024 0.102 0.07 0.043 0.113 0.069 0.032 0.076 0.036 0.14 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Zhengzhou Henan 0.107 0.111 0.109 0.059 0.039 0.111 0.06 0.044 0.105 0.069 0.045 0.094 0.06 0.047 0.053 0.046 0.099 Zibo Shandong 0.103 0.097 0.097 0.053 0.029 0.097 0.055 0.031 0.093 0.051 0.032 0.102 0.079 0.03 0.099 0.034 0.12 Total 0.1493 0.1278 0.112 0.0631 0.04 0.1129 0.055 0.035 0.105 0.056 0.0357 0.096 0.051 0.0338 0.0498 0.0345 0.0976 (AVG.) 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 SOUTHERN KEY CITIES INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA City Name Province PM10 PM10 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 PM10 SO2 NO2 SO2 NO2 PM10 Beihai Guangxi 0.05 0.043 0.042 0.009 0.003 0.038 0.013 0.003 0.048 0.014 0.008 0.013 0.014 0.054 Changde Hunan 0.103 0.118 0.089 0.077 0.015 0.093 0.065 0.022 0.104 0.06 0.022 0.112 0.072 0.026 0.064 0.024 0.094 Changsha Hunan 0.135 0.14 0.122 0.081 0.036 0.111 0.082 0.039 0.104 0.065 0.041 0.097 0.053 0.043 0.039 0.042 0.092 Changzhou Jiangsu 0.117 0.118 0.112 0.041 0.033 0.097 0.025 0.022 0.104 0.029 0.027 0.098 0.043 0.03 0.04 0.032 0.091 Chengdu Sichuan 0.118 0.115 0.125 0.077 0.052 0.123 0.065 0.049 0.111 0.062 0.049 0.111 0.049 0.052 0.038 0.055 0.111 Chongqing 0.147 0.142 0.12 0.073 0.048 0.111 0.074 0.047 0.108 0.065 0.044 0.106 0.063 0.043 0.053 0.037 0.105 Deyang Sichuan 0.12 0.095 0.085 0.088 0.022 0.088 0.065 0.022 0.072 0.065 0.028 0.058 0.067 0.02 0.049 0.033 0.057 Fuzhou Fujian 0..08 0.074 0.072 0.016 0.042 0.072 0.02 0.049 0.065 0.027 0.055 0.071 0.023 0.046 0.014 0.04 0.064 Guangzhou Guangdong 0.099 0.099 0.088 0.053 0.068 0.076 0.054 0.067 0.077 0.051 0.065 0.071 0.046 0.056 0.039 0.056 0.07 Guilin Guangxi 0.034 0.046 0.029 0.036 0.032 0.03 0.046 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.029 0.034 0.042 0.031 0.038 0.028 0.049 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 SOUTHERN KEY CITIES Guiyang Guizhou 0.104 0.083 0.076 0.063 0.013 0.083 0.065 0.017 0.085 0.055 0.023 0.082 0.064 0.023 0.058 0.026 0.074 Haikou Hainan 0.03 0.033 0.041 0.01 0.012 0.043 0.009 0.012 0.043 0.009 0.017 0.007 0.016 0.038 Hangzhou Zhejiang 0.119 0.11 0.112 0.06 0.058 0.111 0.056 0.057 0.107 0.06 0.057 0.11 0.052 0.053 0.041 0.052 0.097 Hefei Anhui 0.1 0.11 0.095 0.018 0.025 0.099 0.024 0.032 0.116 0.023 0.026 0.134 0.022 0.025 0.023 0.027 0.111 Huzhou Zhejiang 0.1 0.097 0.086 0.03 0.042 0.088 0.032 0.038 0.089 0.035 0.044 0.098 0.028 0.033 0.018 0.046 0.085 Jingzhou Hubei 0.111 0.098 0.08 0.038 0.022 0.077 0.031 0.021 0.079 0.034 0.024 0.089 0.043 0.027 0.038 0.022 0.085 Jiujiang Jiangxi 0.091 0.092 0.07 0.037 0.088 0.071 0.039 0.079 0.049 0.024 0.078 0.039 0.022 0.03 0.02 0.061 Kunming Yunan 0.086 0.085 0.082 0.055 0.038 0.091 0.062 0.044 0.075 0.068 0.042 0.067 0.051 0.039 0.041 0.046 0.067 Lhasa Xizang 0.065 0.052 0.07 0.01 0.025 0.062 0.009 0.026 0.057 0.007 0.027 0.051 0.005 0.024 0.008 0.021 0.05 (Ang) Liuzhou Guangxi 0.091 0.064 0.072 0.032 0.055 0.094 0.038 0.039 0.072 0.029 0.037 0.071 0.031 0.035 0.054 0.063 Luzhou Sichuan 0.153 0.127 0.119 0.076 0.029 0.127 0.069 0.033 0.118 0.068 0.04 0.082 0.074 0.035 0.059 0.04 0.072 Maanshan Anhui 0.104 0.093 0.092 0.022 0.027 0.092 0.02 0.022 0.092 0.02 0.023 0.086 0.022 0.024 0.021 0.025 0.078 Mianyang Sichuan 0.078 0.075 0.067 0.061 0.022 0.096 0.053 0.027 0.084 0.046 0.03 0.066 0.03 0.02 0.026 0.02 0.074 Nanchang Jiangxi 0.1 0.099 0.089 0.05 0.031 0.086 0.056 0.032 0.083 0.054 0.034 0.083 0.05 0.036 0.054 0.037 0.079 Nanchong Sichuan 0.128 0.101 0.099 0.066 0.027 0.067 0.059 0.032 0.063 0.049 0.029 0.054 0.046 0.027 0.038 0.032 0.052 Nanjing Jiangsu 0.12 0.121 0.11 0.052 0.054 0.109 0.063 0.052 0.107 0.058 0.051 0.098 0.054 0.053 0.035 0.048 0.1 Nanning Guangxi 0.072 0.078 0.067 0.058 0.038 0.066 0.059 0.035 0.064 0.059 0.048 0.056 0.04 0.044 0.032 0.028 0.05 Nantong Jiangsu 0.1 0.097 0.094 0.043 0.041 0.089 0.038 0.039 0.088 0.042 0.035 0.09 0.032 0.03 0.019 0.021 0.077 Ningbo Zhejiang 0.078 0.079 0.081 0.047 0.066 0.089 0.044 0.055 0.09 0.047 0.054 0.09 0.049 0.047 0.04 0.046 0.086 Panzhihua Sichuan 0.251 0.256 0.139 0.06 0.045 0.116 0.059 0.04 0.108 0.073 0.04 0.105 0.076 0.044 0.075 0.043 0.101 Quanzhou Fujian 0.087 0.081 0.081 0.026 0.018 0.066 0.026 0.016 0.067 0.028 0.02 0.064 0.026 0.019 0.023 0.018 0.056 Qujing Yunan 0.08 0.084 0.085 0.068 0.023 0.094 0.063 0.028 0.089 0.065 0.028 0.086 0.052 0.027 0.047 0.027 0.08 Shanghai 0.097 0.099 0.088 0.061 0.061 0.086 0.051 0.055 0.088 0.055 0.054 0.084 0.051 0.056 0.035 0.053 0.081 Shantou Guangdong 0.048 0.059 0.053 0.035 0.041 0.065 0.023 0.035 0.067 0.02 0.022 0.064 0.022 0.024 0.023 0.035 0.059 Shaoguan Guangdong 0.118 0.104 0.077 0.047 0.027 0.077 0.056 0.023 0.067 0.053 0.028 0.053 0.055 0.022 0.051 0.026 0.062 Shaoxing Zhejiang 0.107 0.072 0.08 0.044 0.04 0.09 0.045 0.05 0.094 0.047 0.043 0.096 0.054 0.037 0.054 0.036 0.1 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 65 ANNEX 1 66 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 SOUTHERN KEY CITIES Shenzhen Guangdong 0.07 0.076 0.064 0.021 0.039 0.064 0.03 0.053 0.064 0.023 0.054 0.063 0.016 0.047 0.013 0.042 0.057 Suzhou Jiangsu 0.118 0.116 0.1 0.04 0.043 0.096 0.038 0.038 0.093 0.046 0.05 0.096 0.042 0.045 0.035 0.049 0.089 Wenzhou Zhejiang 0.073 0.068 0.072 0.047 0.059 0.077 0.039 0.058 0.08 0.037 0.055 0.082 0.036 0.053 0.028 0.054 0.076 Wuhan Hubei 0.133 0.13 0.119 0.054 0.05 0.121 0.057 0.049 0.123 0.061 0.055 0.113 0.051 0.054 0.044 0.054 0.105 Wuhu Anhui 0.063 0.089 0.085 0.023 0.025 0.068 0.028 0.021 0.072 0.022 0.022 0.076 0.02 0.021 0.027 0.025 0.064 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Wuxi Jiangsu 0.118 0.118 0.1 0.069 0.038 0.094 0.059 0.038 0.083 0.065 0.038 0.083 0.059 0.031 0.046 0.037 0.083 Xiamen Fujian 0.067 0.063 0.064 0.025 0.045 0.07 0.03 0.049 0.074 0.028 0.049 0.073 0.026 0.049 0.021 0.04 0.059 Xiangtan Hunan 0.14 0.153 0.138 0.088 0.04 0.126 0.093 0.039 0.13 0.09 0.037 0.103 0.071 0.035 0.059 0.033 0.097 Yangzhou Jiangsu 0.132 0.123 0.099 0.044 0.023 0.101 0.033 0.018 0.1 0.034 0.018 0.102 0.034 0.015 0.029 0.017 0.085 Yibin Sichuan 0.149 0.136 0.105 0.127 0.042 0.092 0.092 0.035 0.09 0.061 0.035 0.085 0.073 0.029 0.062 0.03 0.072 Yichang Hubei 0.06 0.129 0.08 0.049 0.039 0.097 0.054 0.035 0.084 0.047 0.027 0.088 0.078 0.042 0.05 0.027 0.086 Yueyang Hunan 0.133 0.146 0.129 0.073 0.033 0.125 0.064 0.024 0.125 0.065 0.028 0.123 0.055 0.028 0.035 0.029 0.101 Yuxi Yunan 0.078 0.082 0.071 0.044 0.012 0.067 0.041 0.015 0.065 0.039 0.016 0.071 0.039 0.018 0.059 0.019 0.085 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA Zhangjiajie Hunan 0.106 0.112 0.112 0.067 0.025 0.081 0.048 0.021 0.071 0.055 0.022 0.084 0.051 0.025 0.039 0.027 0.071 Zhanjiang Guangdong 0.058 0.05 0.05 0.013 0.013 0.05 0.017 0.013 0.048 0.013 0.012 0.047 0.013 0.011 0.012 0.011 0.043 Zhenjiang Jiangsu 0.108 0.123 0.09 0.033 0.02 0.108 0.04 0.034 0.089 0.034 0.038 0.095 0.037 0.035 0.022 0.033 0.092 Zhuhai Guangdong 0.049 0.046 0.041 0.018 0.033 0.044 0.02 0.036 0.048 0.016 0.035 0.05 0.017 0.039 0.015 0.029 0.048 Zhuzhou Hunan 0.165 0.171 0.101 0.09 0.027 0.106 0.081 0.03 0.103 0.074 0.03 0.101 0.076 0.036 0.065 0.036 0.101 Zigong Sichuan 0.154 0.151 0.099 0.037 0.026 0.094 0.06 0.039 0.082 0.066 0.045 0.082 0.057 0.049 0.041 0.032 0.089 Zunyi Guizhou 0.11 0.115 0.095 0.096 0.022 0.091 0.112 0.035 0.089 0.13 0.028 0.084 0.093 0.029 0.061 0.035 0.078 Total 0.1027 0.1011 0.09 0.0524 0.03 0.0862 0.05 0.034 0.083 0.048 0.0347 0.0813 0.045 0.0337 0.037 0.033 0.0767 (AVG.) ANNEX A2 The Administrative Measures for Urban Air Quality A Brief Introduction â…· Since China started its reform and opening up levels of economic development, there is signiï¬?- policy, development in urban areas has been cant variation in air pollution levels and air pollu- increasing rapidly and the urbanization rate— tion characteristics among cities. that is the share of the population living in urban During the 12th Five Year Plan Period areas—has increased from less than 20 percent (2011–15), the government of China will to the current rate of 41.7 percent. Urban areas strengthen the management of ambient air qual- have a major supporting role in China’s eco- ity and strive for environmental air quality nomic development. They account for about improvements and reductions in air pollution 65.5 percent of China’s GDP, 64 percent of the through both air pollution prevention and con- value of secondary industries, and 86 percent of trol systems. In May 2010, the General Ofï¬?ce of the value of tertiary industries. the State Council—with the Ministry of Envi- The development of urban areas also has cre- ronmental Protection and eight other min- ated strong pressures on the quality of life; for istries—developed a notice entitled “Guiding example, production and transportation have Opinions on Pushing Forward the Joint Prevention resulted in substantial pollution. The primary and Control of Air Pollution to Improve Regional pollutant affecting air quality in urban areas is Air Quality.â€?29 The notice stresses that (a) urban particulate matter, while sulfur dioxide concen- air quality management should be strengthened; trations remain high and the problem of soot pol- (b) multifaceted pollution prevention and con- lution has not been completely resolved. With the trol measures should be promoted; (c) by 2015, accelerated urbanization process, pollution from the air quality in key regions—such as Beijing, motor vehicles has become an important urban Tianjin, the Yangze River Delta, and the Pearl air pollution source. In recent years, various River Delta—should be at or better than the regions have experienced a shift from coal-burn- Grade II National Ambient Air Quality Stan- ing as the main pollution source to a combination dard;30 (d) acid rain, haze, and smog pollution of coal-burning and smoke from motor vehicles. should be signiï¬?cantly reduced, and regional and Moreover, due to different natural conditions in urban air quality should be substantively many cities and different industrial structures and improved; and (e) comprehensive and clear 29 Chinese edition: http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2010-05/13/content_1605605.htm. English edition: http://www.chinafaqs.org/ ï¬?les/chinainfo/ChinaFAQs_Joint_Prevention_and_Control_of_Atmospheric_Pollution_by_State_Council_translated.pdf. 30 China’s Ambient Air Quality Standard, Chinese edition: http://www.nthb.cn/standard/standard03/20030411161748 .html. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 67 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT requirements for air quality management work in mental Protection (No. 39 [2005] of the China should be put forward. General Ofï¬?ce of the State Council).32 PURPOSE AND MEANING MAIN CONTENT The notice clearly states that by 2015 all cities The draft Administrative Measure for Urban Air in key regions should reach an air quality at or Quality includes eight chapters with forty-nine better than the Grade II National Ambient Air paragraphs. With the exception of the chapter Quality Standard. Therefore, linked with entitled “General Principles and requirement,â€? China’s 12th Five Year Plan (2011–15), the the main content is as follows: preparation and implementation of the Admin- istrative Measure for Urban Air Quality will play 1. Based on national standards, macro strate- an important role in safeguarding the progress gies, and general principles, guidance is pro- of improving air quality, eliminating heavy pol- vided to compliant and non-compliant cities lution, ensuring that urban air quality work is in different regions. smoothly carried out, and enhancing public 2. In line with the 11th Five Year Environmen- satisfaction. tal Protection Plan (2006–10), which divides China’s cities into “key citiesâ€? and “normal citiesâ€? with differentiated management BASIS FOR PREPARATION between the two forms, the government is The Administrative Measure for Urban Air implementing differentiated urban environ- Quality (draft) uses the following documents as mental air quality management. references: 3. Management ideas focus on both pollution emissions and improving air quality. (i) the Law of the People’s Republic of China on 4. The entire air quality management process the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric has ï¬?ve components: (1) source; (2) policy; Pollution31 (3) action; (4) assessment; and (5) adjustment. (ii) other national and local environmental laws, 5. Based on the air quality situation in each city, regulations and standards the imposition of different compliance dead- (iii) the Guiding Opinions on Pushing Forward lines for different cities. the Joint Prevention and Control of Atmos- 6. Process and action-orientation as the basis pheric Pollution to Improve the Regional Air for the assessment. Quality, issued by the General Ofï¬?ce of the 7. The use of monitoring sites that are repre- State Council with the Ministry of Environ- sentative of the area and the exposed popula- mental Protection and other eight other tion as the main basis for evaluation. ministries (No. 33 [2010] of the General 8. Giving the responsibility to government Ofï¬?ce of the State Council) departments as well as administrative senior (iv) national and local environmental protection ofï¬?cials, so local environmental quality will plans for the 12th Five Year Plan period be promoted through coordination among (2011–15) various departments. (v) Implementation of the Scientiï¬?c Outlook on 9. Encouraging the public to play an active role Development and Strengthening of Environ- in environmental protection work. 31 Chinese edition: http://www.envir.gov.cn/law/air.htm. English edition: http://english.gov.cn/laws/2005-09/07/content_ 29877.htm. 32 Chinese edition: http://www.law-lib.com/law/law_view.asp?id=120425. English Edition: http://english.mep.gov.cn/ Policies_Regulations/policies/Frameworkp1/200712/t20071227_115531.htm. 68 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX A3 Technical Guidelines for Compilation of Urban Ambient Air Quality Control Plan Summary of the Draft â…· 1. PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE pollutants and reinforce atmospheric environ- mental management as the main methods. The current situation in the urban atmospheric Moreover, make clear the main objectives with environment in China is very serious. Traditional urban air pollution control, make annual plans, coal burning-based air pollution has not yet been deï¬?ne main tasks and outline construction pro- brought under control, while ozone and ï¬?ne par- jects and supporting measures that together will ticles—characterized by complex forms of pollu- promote a substantial improvement in urban air tion—have become increasingly prominent. The quality.â€? next ï¬?ve to ten years will become a critical period The ï¬?ve fundamental principles of the com- for China to accelerate its urbanization process. pliance program are: (1) hierarchical manage- At the same time, conflicts between urban areas, ment and differentiated guidance for different population, resources, and the environment will areas, (2) coordinated development and struc- become more challenging. In this context, the tural improvement, (3) energy-saving, recycling, preparation of an urban ambient air quality com- and reuse, (4) strengthened control and a focus pliance plan (referred to as a “compliance planâ€?) on key tasks, (5) improved mechanisms to is signiï¬?cant. In order to improve the scientiï¬?c strengthen regulations. and demonstrative capacity of the compliance plan, and enhance its operability and relevance, Technical Guidelines for Compilation of Urban 3. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Ambient Air Quality Control Plan (draft) (referred The scope of implementation of the compliance to as “technical Guidelinesâ€?) have been prepared. program is administrative zones at the city level, with a focus on the urban part of the city. The time limit for a city reaching compliance 2. GUIDING IDEOLOGY is determined by the exceeded level. The time AND PRINCIPLES limit for cities reaching Grade 3 and above shall The guiding ideology of the compliance plan is: be ï¬?ve years. The time frame can be lengthened “In order to achieve compliance of urban ambi- to an appropriately longer extent for those reach- ent air quality as the ultimate objective, apply ing lower levels, but in principle should not be improvement of the industrial layout, adjust longer than 10 years. industrial structure, strengthen clean energy For cities where air quality does not comply use, carry out integrated control over multiple with the standards set by the city government, INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 69 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT they must prepare compliance plans. For cities (iii) Determine Objectives and Index Systems that comply with the standards, they should pre- for the Compliance Plan pare continued improvement plans. This includes the three aspects of objec- Compliance plans for key cities approved by tives for urban air quality, control objectives provincial governments should also be submitted for the total amount of major pollutants, to the Ministry of Environmental Protection for and objectives of environment management. further approval before implementation. Com- Among them, it is required that the ambient pliance plans or improvement plans for other air quality index speciï¬?es by which year the cities should be submitted to provincial govern- city will reach the targeted number of clear ments for approval before implementation. days and the targeted average values of SO2, NO2, and PM10. Cities in key regions should also develop indexes for ozone (O3) and 4. WORK TASKS PM2.5 and non-compliant cities should spec- There are six main areas in the work tasks of the ify by which year they will comply. Control compliance plan: objectives by year for total amount control should be made for SO2, NOx, industrial (i) Assessment of Status Quo of Atmospheric dust, and soot. Cities in key regions should Environment and Analysis of Problems also set objectives for total amount control Carry out a systematic review of the current of volatile organic substances (VOCs). urban ambient air quality and the situation of Based on the urban environmental manage- pollution emissions, evaluate historical trends, ment index, it is also required that the sta- and apply CALPUFF/CMAQ models to bility rate of major pollution sources—the determine the most important pollution central heating rate in urban areas, utility sources by including all sectors and all main rate of clean energy, amount of tail gas of pollution sources. For cities that have particu- motor vehicles that reach the standard, late matter (PM) concentrations that cannot etc.—are being set for the target year. In reach the national Grade 2 standards for air order to effectively match the air quality quality, source apportionment should be car- objectives with the total amount indicators, ried out where every source contributing to the CALPUFF/CMAQ should be applied to the PM10 concentrations is analyzed, as well as assess the attainability of the ambient air the quantity and volume of the PM10 sources. quality indicators. If it is not possible to (ii) Estimate Growth of Urban Air Pollution comply with the quality index, further seri- Emission and Analysis of Environmental ous measures for total emissions control Pressure should be carried out. Based on the regional 12th Five Year Plan (iv) Determine the Main Tasks in Complying of the national economy, energy develop- with Urban Air Quality Standards ment, and transportation development, and First, improve the urban industrial struc- according to pollution emission standards ture to ensure a rational division of indus- and requirements in environmental sector tries in urban areas. Follow the principles of plans, project the quantity of air pollution zone management, delineating key control loads. On this basis, apply the CALPUFF/ zones, implementing stringent industrial CMAQ model to simulate urban air quality access control requirements, and ensuring a and forecast pressures in air pollution con- rational distribution of local industries and a trol in the target year. structural optimization. 70 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 3 Second, reinforce the clean use of energy Fifth, to improve the capabilities of urban in the city: (a) promote clean energy devel- air quality management, undertake atmos- opment plans, (b) scale up the development pheric environmental quality monitoring, of urban central heating, (c) plan construc- online monitoring of businesses, environ- tion projects for district heating and develop mental inspection and law enforcement, and facing-out plans for small coal-ï¬?red boilers, also base responses to pollution on scientiï¬?c and (d) specify clean-coal control require- research. Propose urban air quality compli- ments, including requirements for spatial ance and capacity-building tasks. distribution of coal consumption. Require- (v) Prepare a Standard List of Major Construc- ments for sulfur and dust emissions of direct tion Projects coal-burning in urban areas are to be deter- According to the main tasks of the compli- mined, as well as requirements to control ance plan for urban ambient air quality, con- excessive urban coal consumption. sider the attainability of the main emission Third, strengthen the prevention and control targets and the factors of economic control of major pollutants—including sul- and technical feasibility, and develop a stan- fur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), dard project list that includes backward pro- industrial smoke, dust, and VOCs—and duction capacities, removal and closing down bring forward requirements for pollution of seriously polluting enterprises, clean energy control. use, pollution control, capacity building, and Fourth, strengthen motor vehicle emis- development of other projects. Fix construc- sions controls, apply new emission standards tion projects on an annual basis. According to for vehicles, implement plans for comple- the standard list of the pollution control pro- mentary oil, phase out the use of “high emis- jects, make investment projections. sion vehiclesâ€? (Huang Biao Cars), and (vi) Determine Supporting Measures for Imple- accelerate the use of low-speed freight mentation of the Compliance Plan trucks. Speciï¬?c proposals for motor vehicle According to the leadership of the organi- environmental protection labeling are to be zation, estimations, capital investment poli- put forward, while policies on environmen- cies and regulations, scientiï¬?c and technical tal management for vehicles are to be support, promotion and education, imple- revised. ment the compliance plan. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 71 ANNEX A4 I. Summary of the Questionnaire Survey â…· 1. SUMMARY/INTRODUCTION PM10 sources, reduction measures and 12th FYP targets, while 7 cities (Baiyin, Baoji, Dezhou, At the China Air Pollution Control (APC) sem- Erqin, Kaili, Gearmi and Shizuishan) provided inar in Beijing on December 6-7, 2010, a ques- the monitoring (PM10) information only (some tionnaire were circulated to all the participating cities provided TSP information for the ï¬?rst 4 cities (see part 2 of this Annex 4). The seminar years). Chongqing was the only city providing included also a session presenting and discussing PM2.5 research results. the questionnaire. Following the seminar, 6 cities (Zunyi, Chongqing, Jingmen, Jinan, Weifang 2. ANALYSES OF THE MATRIX and Hefei, all cities belonging to the 113 focused INFORMATION cities for APC in China) provided quite complete questionnaires, including information about 1. Analyses of PM10 concentrations: FIGURE 1.1 Development in PM10 2001 to 2009 for the Following Cities* * Following the order from top to bottom in the ï¬?g: Baiyin, Baoji, Dezhou, Erqin, Hefei, Kaili, Gearmi, Weifang, Jinan, Jingmen, Chongqing, Shizuishan, Zunyi and average (black line). INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 73 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT For some cities, the data are for TSP for being reduced in 2008 and going up again the ï¬?rst 4 years. in 2009. Different from that, Shizuishan According to Figure 1.1, at present has had a consistent downward trend over among all the medium and large scale 13 the entire period 2004–2009, while Baoji cities that have provided information, about had a downward trend towards 2006 and half of the cities have an average PM10 con- a steady level since then. centration level above level 2 (100 µg/m3) in Figure 1.3 shows how the change in the recent years. From the black line that the development trend for PM has been illustrates the average PM10 concentrations in the four cities. With the exception of level for all the 13 cities, there is not much Jinan, the cities reached class 2 level of change in the average PM10 level between PM10 in 2006, but after 2006 the PM 2004 and 2009. However, for some of the concentration has increased again so they individual cities there are large variations became all above the 2nd level of 100 from year-to-year. See the following sec- µg/m3. Jinan City has continuously tions for comments on such variations. exceeded class 2 levels. The main causes The above map shows the trend in aver- why the 4 cities are having high PM con- age PM10 concentrations in 4 cities in North centrations are: (i) The climate conditions West China. According to Figure 1.2, 3 of for these cities are dry with limited rain the 4 cities were above the national class 2 and more bare ground making them often standards for PM10 in 2009. In these cities, exposed to pollution. (ii) The cities are there is a considerable contribution to PM10 mainly coal-based for heating during the in air from natural sources, such as desert winter, which leads to substantive smoke and dust/sand as well as coal-based pollu- and dust emissions. The cities have had a tion during the winter. rather steady level of PM10 over the 6–7 Baiyin had very high concentrations in years, except Hefei which experienced a 2005–2007, and Gearmi in 2006–2007, substantial increase in 2007 and 2008. FIGURE 1.2 PM10 Concentration Levels in 4 cities (Baiyin, Baoji, Gearmi and Shizuishan) in North West China 74 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 4 FIGURE 1.3 PM10 Development Trends from 2001 to 2009 for Cities in Eastern China: Dezhou, Hefei, Weifang and Jinan (from top to bottom) FIGURE 1.4 The Trend for PM Concentrations in Four Cities in the South: Kaili, Jingmen, Chongqing and Zunyi Figure 1.4 shows the trend for PM concentrations for cities in the South are concentrations in the four cities in the rather complex, beside emissions from south. The PM concentrations in industries and transportation, PM con- Chongqing, Zunyi and Kaili went down centrations in some cities are caused by while the PM concentration levels for energy extraction, which is an important Jingmen went down before 2007 and reason. Chongqing has had a steady then went up. The sources for the PM downward trend over the entire period INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 75 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT since 2001, which may indicate a success- try and non-ferrous metal industry are the main ful air pollution control program. Jing- sources to the atmospheric PM pollution. men has also had a downward trend up Among these industries, the iron & steel indus- until 2007 but with a substantial increase try and the cement industry are comparatively since then. large (as main sources) for the population The number of cities in each of the weighted PM concentrations in Jinan and regions (Northwest, South, East) may not Chongqing and in Zunyi the non-ferrous metal be large enough to assess the general dif- industry is comparatively large (as main source) ference in PM10 levels in these regions. for the population weighted PM concentra- However, among the cities represented tions. Although the number of cities included here, the average PM10 situation in 2009 here is not large enough to say much about was similar in the Northwest and East regional differences, that is, differences between cities, and a bit lower in the South cities. cities in Northwest, East and South, the ï¬?nd- There are large, and presumably inter- ings are in line with general observations about esting, differences between the cities in the differences (e.g. about increased soil dust terms of the trend over the period as well content in North and West China). as in the year-by-year variations. This pro- In Figure 1.6 we can see power plants, vides a useful basis for a study of city spe- construction and road dust, soil dust and ciï¬?c development (industrial, economic, vehicle emissions are the 4 main sources of population) and the air pollution control population weighted PM concentrations. situation in each city, to provide experi- Looking at Figures 1.5 and 1.6 together: ences on successful, and not so successful, In totality, the sources contributing most to pollution control efforts. the population exposure (PWE) for PM10 are 2. Analyses of the sources of Air PM pollution: power plants, construction and road dust and In the provided material for PM sources for iron and steel industry, then vehicles and the cities, iron and steel industry, cement indus- cement industry. In addition, a commonality FIGURE 1.5 Main Industrial Sources of Population Weighted PM Concentration Industries along the x axis: Iron and steel industry, cement industry, non-ferrous metal industry, extractive industry and other industries. Cities from top to bottom: Zunyi, Shizuishan, Chongqing, Jinan and Weifang. 76 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 4 FIGURE 1.6 The Main Non-industrial Sources of Population Weighted PM Concentrations Source along the x axis: Power plants, medium-sized HOBs, small-sized HOBs, vehicles, bio (quality) combustion (mate- rial) (I believe it is here meant biofuel), construction and road dust, soil dust, other sources, secondary PM sources. Cities from top to bottom: Zunyi, Shizuishan, Chongqing, Jinan and Weifang. between most cities is that power plants whether the tall chimneys of the power plants account for a comparatively large share of have been taken sufï¬?ciently into account, in population weighted PM concentrations. In that the tall stacks give very effective disper- the provincial cities (capitals) of Chongqing sion of the emissions and much reduced con- and Jinan vehicle emissions contributed com- centrations at ground level. paratively much to the population weighted 3. PM10 reduction measures: PM concentrations; a different point is that in It is apparent that the cities consider that the cities in the North soil dust, construction and most effective PM10 reduction options are con- road dust contributed comparatively much to nected to shutting/moving old industrial the population weighted PM concentrations, plants, reducing dusting from construction and and in the southern city of Chonging (as well reducing the use of bio-fuels. There is consis- as in the Northern city of Shizuishan) sec- tency between the cities’ assessment of sources’ ondary particles contributed relatively much contribution to population exposure (PWE) to the Population weighted PM concentra- (shown in Figures 1.5 and 1.6) and their assess- tions. (However, it should be noted that the ment of which sources are most important to Northern city of Shizuishan has a high con- control. The use of bio-fuel is an exception. tribution of secondary particles while the According to Figure 1.6 biofuel is considered a Southern city of Zunyi indicates no sec- rather minor source for PWE, but in Figure 1.7 ondary particle contribution so pattern may it is ranked as an important source to control. be challenging to draw up). This may not be consistent. It should also be noted that the estimated 4. Summary: contribution from power plants seems to be Although the PM pollution work has made quite high, and in that context to consider some progress, several cities are still not INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 77 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT Figure 1.7 Reduction Measures The 9 measures outlined along the x axis are: (i) eliminate outdated (old) energy producers, (ii) replacement of small HOBs, (iii) replacement of biofuel, (iv) reduce dust from power plants, (v) reduce dust from main industries, (vi) clean dust from construction (sites) and roads, (vii) clean coal, (viii) commercial coal with less emissions and (ix) other mea- sures. The cities from top to bottom: Zunyi, Chongqing, Jingmen, Jinan, Weifang and Hefei. reaching the 2nd PM level and in some cases tant conclusion which can be shown more also facing a rebounding situation. The situa- clearly now, exactly as a result of this exercise. tion in China’s Northern and Southern cities The other conclusion is that the data from has also differences and also PM sources are the 5 cities that have provided rather com- different. In the North, PM sources are to a plete information could be used as a study larger extent generated from coal used for basis for providing good and bad experiences heating during the winter, construction and concerning PM control programs, or lack of road dust as well as natural PM sources. In the programs, in Chinese cities. south, the situation is more complex. In addi- It is questionable that the contribution tion to construction and road dust, also sec- from power plants, with very tall stacks, is ondary PM sources and biofuel are important quite a bit higher than the contribution from PM sources. In view of this situation, the pre- Heat Only Boilers (HOB)s. This could mean vious “one size ï¬?ts allâ€? management model that small and medium sized HOBs with cannot be applied to sufï¬?ciently address the large emissions have largely been eliminated present PM pollution control work, but have from the 5 cities. to address the different PM pollution charac- In any case, the exercise has provided use- teristics of different areas and to come forward ful material that support conclusions that with targeted PM pollution control measures. pollution control programs should be city The statement above is really the main con- speciï¬?c, and that the cities here should be clusion from this exercise. And it is an impor- studied to learn from their experiences. 78 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX A4 II. Questionnaire Matrix â…· INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 79 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 80 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 4 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 81 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 82 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 4 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 83 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 84 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 4 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 85 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT 86 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX A5 Analysis Investment Cost of Various Dust Collectors â…· Research shows that installation of electrostatic there is a combined dust collector (both one- precipitators (ESP) and other high efï¬?ciency piece and separated type), 2 ï¬?elds are used dur- PM collectors in power plants may have 60 ing electric dusting collecting, with an efï¬?ciency times higher beneï¬?ts than costs, compared to no of 90%, and the ï¬?ltration rate of bag ï¬?lter is control (Vennemo and Yan, 2008). The cost for 1.2m/min. Detailed costs are shown as follows: investing in dust collectors includes the cost of dust collecting devices, electric fares, annual Cost of Devices operation expenditure and occupied area. For The ï¬?lter bags used in the bag ï¬?lter and the elec- the purpose of this report, a dust collecting tro-bag combined dust collector are made from devices supporting a 600MW unit is taken as an PPS/PPS, imported ï¬?ber, 550g/m2, surface ï¬?n- example, with the amount of flue gas to be dis- ished with PTFE. Their service life is 4 years, posed set at 3,600,000m3/h. The electric precip- while that of the cage frame and the pulse valve itator has 5 electric ï¬?elds and bag ï¬?lter has a is 8 years. Table 1 shows the cost of different ï¬?ltration speed of 1m/min; for the electro-bag types of dust collector. TABLE 1 Cost of Different Dust-collecting Devices Electro-bag combined Electric Item Bag filter dust collector precipitator One-piece Separated Relative cost of devices 1 1.02 1.1-1.2 1.1-1.2 Expense for changing Ï?ilter bag and cage frame 250 0 208 208 (RMB 10 thousand/year) Electric fares (RMB 10 thousand/year) 483 447 422 494 Annual operation expenditure (RMB 10 733 447 630 702 thousand/year) INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 87 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT TABLE 2 Electricity Cost of Different Dust-collecting Devices Electro-bag combined Electric Item Bag Ï?ilter dust collector precipitator One-piece Separated Power dissipation of draft fan caused by 290 1410 940 1180 resistance (kw) Power dissipation of air compressor (kw) 0 180 60 60 Power dissipation of freeze dryer (kw) 0 20 8 8 Power dissipation of electric precipitator 1,200 0 400 400 during operation (kw) Total of power dissipation (kw) 1,490 1,610 1,408 1,648 Total of electric fares (RMB 10 447 483 422 494 thousand/year) Power Price Occupied Area The power price is RMB 0.40/kwh and the The area occupied by dust collecting devices operating time is 7,500h/year. For the electric includes the space for inlet and outlet horns, but precipitator, the draft fan and the high-voltage the side slide excluded. The area occupied rectiï¬?cation equipment are the major power respectively by three dust collectors when reach- consumers; and for the bag ï¬?lter, the air com- ing the same efï¬?ciency is shown in Table 3. The pressor and the freeze dryer are the leading price of operating or leasing land is additional to power users. Detailed electric fares are shown in the capital cost. The price varies depending on Table 2. location speciï¬?cs. TABLE 3 Area Required by Different Dust-collecting Devices Item Electric Bag Ï?ilter Electro-bag combined dust collector precipitator One-piece Separated L×W (m) 38×68 33×58 34×66 39×66 Area (m2) 2584 1276 2244 2574 88 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX A6 Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China Announcement 2012 No. 733 â…· GB 3095-2012 February 29, 2012 To implement the Environmental Protection Council may implement the standard in advance Laws of the People’s Republic of China (the PRC) in line with the Guidance on Promoting Joint Pre- and the Law on the Prevention and Control of vention and Control of Air Pollution to Improve Atmospheric Pollution of the PRC, the Ministry of Regional Air Quality (Guo Ban Fa [2010] No. Environmental Protection (MEP) hereby 33) and other policies concerned. Speciï¬?c imple- endorses the Ambient Air Quality Standards as mentation plans, which include geographic scales a national standard on environment quality, and time, will be announced later. Provincial with an aim of protecting environment, reduc- People’s Governments may implement the stan- ing health risks and controlling air pollution. dard in advance according their own state and The standard is jointly published by MEP and needs for environmental protection. the General Administration of Quality Supervi- The standard is published by the China Envi- sion, Inspection and Quarantine. ronmental Science Press and accessible on the website of MEP (bz.mep.gov.cn). • The name and code of the standard is as The Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB follows: Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB 3095-1996), the Revised Version of the Ambi- 3095-2012). ent Air Quality Standard (GB 3095-1996) • As stipulated in relevant laws, the standard is (Huan Fa [2000] No. 1), and the Maximum of a legally binding instrument. Allowable Concentration of Air Pollutants for • The standard will come into force on January 1, Crop Conservation (GB 9137-88) will be inval- 2016. idated once the standards comes into force. Abstracts from part 4 of the standards: Before the above date, the Administrative Agency of Environmental Protection under the State 33 “The National Standards of the People’s Republic of China, GB 3095-2012, Ambient Air Quality Standards,â€? translation of text on p. i and Table 1 on p. 3 of the standards. INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 89 CHINA AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT PROJECT TABLE 1 Concentrations Values for Type of Ambient Air Pollutants Tabl e : No T y p e of Pollu ta n t A verage ti m e C on c en tr a tion v alu es Un it G rad e I G rad e II Year l y Average 20 60 1 SO2 24 hours average 50 150 1 hour average 150 500 µg/m 3 Year l y average 40 40 2 NO2 24 hours average 80 80 1 hour average 200 200 3 CO 24 hours average 4 4 mg/m 3 1 hour average 10 10 4 O3 Daily highest 8 100 160 hours 1 hour average 160 200 µg/m 3 5 PM 1 0 Year l y average 40 70 24 hours average 50 150 6 PM 2 . 5 Year l y average 15 35 24 hours average 30 75 EXAMPLES ON TIGHTENING THE COMPLIANCE TARGETS FOR PM10, GRADE II FIGURE 1 Implications on tightening compliance target from 100 to 70 µg/m3 for selected cities in North China (PM10 levels as of 2009) 90 INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA ANNEX 6 FIGURE 2 Implications on tightening compliance target from 100 to 70 µg/m3 for selected cities in South China (PM10 levels as of 2009) INTEGRATED AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT IN CHINA 91 Foreign Economic Cooperation Office, Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, 5 Houyingfang Hutong, Xicheng District, Beijing P.R. China Postal Code: 100035 Tel: + 86-10-8226.8810 Fax: + 86-10-8220.0510 http://en.mepfeco.org.cn/ http://www.mepfeco.org.cn/ THE WORLD BANK Social, Environment and Rural Sustainable Development Unit, Sustainable Development Department, East Asia and Pacific Region, The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW, Washington DC 29433, USA Tel: + 1-202-473-7556 Fax: + 1-202-477-2733 http://www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment/ Sustainable Development Department, China & Mongolia The World Bank Office, Beijing 16th Floor, China World Tower 2 No. 1 Jianguomenwai Avenue, Beijing 100004, China Tel: + 86-10-5861-7672 Fax: + 86-10-5861-7800 http://www.worldbank.org/china