r a t ; } 1 V 41-- I- g rs o-X S@GlC it ;4 EDI LEARNING RESOURPCES SERIES Leveling the playing field Giving girls an equal chance for basic education- three countries' efforts THE WORLD B -:- WASHINGTON, D.C. © 1996 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W Washington, D.C. 20433, USA All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing May 1996 The Economic Development Institute (EDI) was established by the World Bank in 1955 to train officials concerned with development planning, policymaking, investment analysis, and project implementation in member developing countries. At present the substance of the EDI's work emphasizes macroeconomic and sectoral economic policy analysis. 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The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, Banque mondiale, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 1020-3842 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leveling the playing field: giving girls an equal chance for basic education-three countries' efforts. p. cm. - (EDI leaming resources series) "Economic Development Institute of the World Bank"-CIP galley ISBN 0-8213-3601-0 1. Women-Education-Developing countries. 2. Women-Education (Elementary)-Pakistan-Balochistan. 3. Women-Education (Elementary)-Bangladesh. 4. Women-Education (Elementary)-Malawi. 5. Right to education-Developing countries. 6. Basic education-Developing countries. 7. Educational equalization-Developing countries. I. Economic Development Institute (Washington, D.C.) II. Series. LC2572.L49 1996 376'.9172'4-dc2O 96-12164 CIP Contents Foreword .......................................v Acknowledgments ...................................... vi Leveling the Playing Field .......................................1 Building on Traditional Values in Balochistan ....................................... 7 Making Schooling Free and Gender-Sensitive in Malawi .......................... 21 Creating Partnerships for Education in Bangladesh ................................. 29 References ...................................... 38 LE-.-E'LING THE PLAYING FIELD iii Acknowledgments This booklet was prepared by Profes- from Audrey Aarons, Barbara Bruns, sor Nelly Stromquist of the University Mae Chu Chang, Eileen Kane, Eliza- of Southem Califomia and Paud Mur- beth King, Minhchau Nguyen, phy of the Economic Development Armand Van Nimmen, and Carolyn Institute. Vinod Thomas had the orig- Winter. Nevertheless, any errors inal idea for the paper and provided remaining are the responsibility of the overall guidance. Kowsar Chowdhury authors. Mir Bashir Ahmed, William carried out much of the preliminary Damell, Noel Kulumeka, Bashir research to identify countries and Parvez, and Owaise Saadat helped to sources, helped with the logistical make the field visits successful. Bruce arrangements for fieldwork, and con- Ross-Larson was principal editor, and tributed to the final text. The authors Glenn McGrath provided considerable are grateful for extensive comments support. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Foreword Educating girls lifts their eaming handbooks, videos, and training man- potential and their nations' economic uals for officials, and created targeted growth. It also reduces child mortality, handouts for joumalists. Building on fertility rates, and the spread of AIDS. this ongoing work, as a contribution to It increases the duration of girls' own the Fourth UN Conference on lives and the human potential of the Women, EDI prepared this profile of children they will bear. And it has three countries that are taking innova- important environmental benefits. tive and courageous steps to level the Ultimately, getting more girls into playing field in education for the ben- school is critical for reducing poverty efit of girls. The World Bank's education lend- In describing the activities of the ing increasingly supports govern- three govemments and their partner- ments' efforts to target girls. Despite ships with bilateral and multilateral these efforts, girls' education still lags organizations and with NGOs, the behind that of boys in many develop- booklet draws lessons that will be of ing countries. The causes are a com- value to policymakers in other coun- plex mLx of cultural, economic, and tries. It strives to let the people who are school-level factors. working on girls' education in these As part of the World Bank's efforts countries, the parents of the girls who to enhance women's participation in are benefiting, and the girls themselves economic development, the Economic tell their own stories about how these Development Institute (EDI) is work- changes are affecting their lives. We ing to demonstrate to policymakers hope that the lessons from these coun- the advantages of educating girls, to tries will guide government officials help planners and educators design and NGOs in other countries as they effective approaches, and to educate increase their efforts to let education the broader public about the social unlock the full human potential of girls. and economic benefits of educating girls. As part of its work, over the last Vinod Thomas several years, EDI has held seminars Director for government leaders, developed Economic Development Institute LF-:.-1N THE PLAYIN;- FIELD v Leveling the Playing Field Giving Girls an Equal Chance for Basic Education-Three Countries' Efforts Governments and collaborating institu- Many other developing countries tions must listen more carefully to the share these problems. What is note- voices of individual women ... and to worthy about these three countries are women's groups. By working with others the serious and innovative attempts to identify and implement policies that they are making to equalize the partic- promote gender equality, governments ipation of girls and boys in school. can make a real difference to thefuture The Bangladesh Rural Advancement well-being and prosperity of their people. Committee (BRAC) has been actively (Toward Gender Equality: The Role of involved in this effort for more than ten Public Policy, World Bank, July 1995) years. Efforts in Pakistan's disadvan- taged Balochistan Province began more How do governments grapple with the than five years ago. In Malawi, although deep-seated cultural, institutional, efforts to equalize access are less than and political factors that underlie the five years old, huge changes in enroll- gender disparity in access to school? ment are being reported as earlier pro- How do parents and communities feel grams to get more girls in school are about these attempts? What is the being expanded under the new, demo- impact of reform efforts on the people cratically elected government's pro- involved in managing and running gram to promote education for all. the school system? What happens to the girls? This booklet examines What are the results? the efforts of three developing coun- The descriptions in this booklet are tries to increase the number of girls in based on short field visits to each of the school. three countries. During the visits, a wide range of ministry of education Why these countries? officials, personnel in nongovemmen- Bangladesh, Malawi, and Pakistan all tal organizations, teachers, parents, and have severe problems of access to edu- students were interviewed. Classroom cation: in 1990 gross enrollment ratios interactions and school facilities in at the primary level were 77 percent in urban and rural areas were observed. Bangladesh, 66 percent in Malawi, and Schools, teachers, and students were 42 percent in Pakistan, and net enroll- chosen at random for observation and ment ratios were much lower. All three semistructured interviews. countries rank in the bottom third of While full measurement of the developing countries on UNESCO's impact of these countries' reform Basic Education Index (UNESCO efforts is difficult, each has clearly suc- 1993b). The gender gap in the gross ceeded in increasing the number of enrollment rate at primary school is at girls in school. Bangladesh's BRAC has least 10 percentage points in each been extremely successful: from a total country of twenty-two schools serving 676 stu- LE':ELING THE PLAYIXG FIELD 1 dents in 1985, BRAC is now adminis- development of new gender roles, and tering almost 30,000 schools serving changes in classroom practices that 900,000 children. More than two- foster more confident and self-reliant thirds of these children are girls. Over girl students. a five-year period in Balochistan the number of girls in school doubled, and Lessons from the countries 279 community schools were estab- The interaction of cultural, institutional, lished. In Malawi, the enrollment of environmental, and political factors girls increased by 44 percent between underlying gender disparities in educa- 1989 and 1992 (compared with an tion makes it extremely difficult to draw increase of 29 percent for boys). In lessons from one country that can be 1993, for the first time in Malawi's his- applied directly to another. No single tory, the number of girls enrolling in approach can solve the problems of primary school exceeded the number inequity of access in all the countries of boys. that face this problem. Nevertheless, There has also been progress in experiences in these three countries retaining girls in school. Enrollment is reveal factors and processes that are much more sensitive to supply mea- likely to be important in successful sures than are retention and comple- attempts to equalize access to schooling. tion, which require persistent demand strategies, particularly efforts to Government's role is key develop supportive attitudes toward Broad policies and initiatives within girls' education within families and and outside the education sector have communities. More than 90 percent of an impact on the attractiveness of edu- BRAC's students move on to grade four cation and the attendance of girls of government schools, and a further (Bellew and King 1993). One key to 78 percent of these move on to grade successful interventions is an active five-a significantly higher percentage and supportive government. In Mala- than among children who have stud- wi, the government's decision to ied only in government schools. In remove primary school fees indicated Balochistan, the primary school com- to the community the level of impor- pletion rate for girls increased by 11 tance attached to education by percent between 1989 and 1994. officials. In Bangladesh, the govern- Achievement is particularly affected ment's establishment of compulsory by the time spent on learning. In BRAC education, joint efforts between the schools, the time spent annually in government and nongovernmental school in the first two years is greater organizations (NGOs) to develop new than the time spent in government schools, and the willingness of gov- schools, while a study of seven districts ernment schools to take in BRAC grad- in Balochistan shows that the commu- uates are all important features in nity schools operated twice as many BRAC's success. In Balochistan, the days during the school year as govern- Society for Community Support for ment schools. Primary Education (the Society) These figures leave undocumented works closely with the government, significant qualitative changes-such which actively promotes and supports as students' acquisition of knowledge, efforts to increase the number of girls aspirations for further schooling, the in school. 2 OVEHVIEWV But it must work in partnership A clear message from Balochistan with others and Bangladesh is that partnerships Resource constraints and competing between government and NGOs can be interests make it impossible for govem- 'a powerful tool for social progress. The ments to work alone. In each of the three government can benefit from greater countries examined, partnerships with communit)y outreach, innovative ideas, intemational and donor agencies were and more efficient delivery of services. crucial to success. In Malawi, the United NGOs can benefit from securing regu- StatesAgencyforlntemationalDevelop- lar sources of funding, thus enabling ment (USAID), by supporting the work them to reach a larger number of peo- of Girls'Attainment in Basic Literacy and ple, and having some of their ideas Education (GABLE), showed the way for institutionalized. These partnerships the new government to implement poli- are likely to be more fruitful if they take cies, while the Forum for African full advantage of the different resources 'Women Educationalists (FAWE) helped and perspectives that each partner can to promote the work. In Balochistan, bring. The flexibility of NGOs in cur- USAID for a time and now the World riculum, program duration, and per- Bank have supported the programs. In sonnel is valuable. BRAC, for instance, Bangladesh, BRAC is supported by a appeals to rural girls through its alter- multiplicity of donor agencies. Support native curriculum that is not only from international agencies can leverage gender-sensitive but also attractive to local resources and, equally important, children, incorporating songs, dance, can make possible activities that might and poetr, However, the status, reach, be difficult for local agencies to promote and quality control that government initially can ensure are needed as well. VI- A A , i,. ,,, M r f-s s~~~~1W, Priniars school girls are benefiting fromn the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Comnnmittee's work L. . FLNG F.iE PLAY!,NGc FIELD 3 NGOs often do not introduce totally efts the society as a whole as parents new ideas but instead capitalize on become more active as citizens, relate opportunities for social change. One of more to public institutions, and con- their greatest assets is the abtlity to tribute to developing a more partici- identify and work with individuals patory-and thus more democratic with new visions. Cultural norms are -everyday life. not hermetic. There are groups in every community or society that can When planning: Envision a demand- more clearly see the benefits of modi- supply interaction fying the status quo and the inequities A number of lessons emerge for plan- of traditional patterns of behavior. The ners. First, the expansion and im- work of the Society's promoters and provement of girls' education is best BRAC's program organizers and assis- seen as a demand-supply interaction. tants occurs precisely in these inter- On the supply side, more schools and stices of the social fabric. classrooms, female teachers, and gender-sensitive curricula are needed. And the involvement of Work on the demand side calls for the community is crucial both convincing parents of the value of Most important, these experiences education for their daughters (and show the value of community involve- therefore of the need to reduce girls' ment. In Balochistan and Bangladesh, household chores) and providing the contributions by parents in moni- incentives to offset the opportunity toring school attendance and student costs of girls' labor. The three coun- appearance and performance reduce tries' experiences indicate that bring- the resources that governments need ing classrooms closer to girls' homes to apply to these efforts. The provision can diminish the costs of girls' school- of facilities and furniture for tempo- ing. Introducing female teachers, con- rary schools and the subsequent structing separate lavatories for girls, granting of land for permanent and making the curriculum more schools reduce government capital gender-sensitive made the schools costs. These measures affect costs and more acceptable to parents. qualitv-monitoring by the commu- Efforts on the demand side were no nitv contributes to less absenteeism, less important. They influenced parents less repetition of grades, and better to support the education of girls and academic performance. Data for the diminished the private costs of school community schools in Balochistan, attendance. The connection between the satellite schools in Bangladesh, supply and demand is substantial. As and the BRAC schools in Bangladesh Colclough (1994) notes, policies to indicate that attendance increased improve the availability and quality of substantially and retention for the first schools affect demand. Reductions in two or three grades surpassed that of the distance to school reduce the the public system as a result of com- opportunity costs and perceived dan- munitv mobilization and project gers of attendance for girls. Qualitative monitoring mechanisms. Involving improvements in training and curricu- parents and the wider community in lum content make schools more enjoy- the provision of education not only able and their graduates more promotes personal gains but also ben- productive. 4 O':Di\:I'. Identify an appropriate package of retraining of staff, and by continued "girl-friendly" measures review and monitoring during imple- Second, a package of "girl-friendly" mentation-principles that apply to all measures is likely to be more successful 'dynamic processes. than any one measure. Although the In the case of efforts to improve the content of the package will vary across status of girls and women, which call regions and countries, some elements for changing deeply ingrained atti- are especially important: locating tudes and practices, additional mea- schools close to communities, waiving sures are required. Constant reminders fees, recognizing girls' special needs are needed to persuade communitv (for privacy, single-sex classes, appro- members that the education of women priate learning materials, and so on), has benefits for themselves and for and having locally based, preferably their communities. Individuals open female, teachers and flexible school cal- to changes in gender relations must be endars and timetables are all important. identified and brought into the change process as leading actors. It is possible And target girls to generate community support, but A third lesson for planners is that pro- promises to the community must be grams to improve girls' education require fulfilled. vigilance to ensure that the intended Multifaceted approaches in which beneficiaries-girls--indeed benefit. various elements support one another Overall improvements in education appear promising. Interest and enthu- are always desirable, but special atten- siasm must be kept alive through tion is required to level the field for group and individual contact. All this girls. The experiences of Malawci and calls for close coordination of the var- Bangladesh suggest that if reforms are ious moving pieces of the innovation implemented without explicit identifi- as well as for constant fieldwork. As cation of girls as targets, gender dis- one of the leaders in the Balochistan parities may not be reduced and may educational change expressed it: even widen. In Bangladesh, establish- ing a target enrollment for girls The model of change should not over- ensured their greater participation in power the situationfrom outside but let it BRAC schools. By contrast, the satellite flow from within. You need to have own- schools did not set an enrollment tar- ership. We do lots of things that are unnec- get, and the same number of boys and essary but that are important to maintain girls enrolled as a result. constant relationships, making peoplefeel it belongs to them. Much of the lesson we Implementation is important have gained is that it is not the form but While ideas are important, attention to the process of letting ideas evolve. detail in implementation is essential for success. Underlying the three Effective implementation requires countries' diverse approaches are some staffs with a significant number of constant features. Efforts became sUc- women. The greater the involvement cessful not simply because of good of women in the planning process, the ideas but also because they were more likely that "girl-friendlv" mea- accompanied by the selection of good sures will be introduced and the more personnel, by frequent training and likely that barriers to the participation LrEFLNG THE PLAY:f'NG F:IELLD 5 ~~-A -=- - Boys and girls learn together in Balocihistani of girls will be identified early Having Balochistan are designed to bring new more women in decisionmaking posi- girls into school, they should be tions also allows perceptions of planned to minimize the effect on women's conditions to change as stu- enrollments in existing schools. dents (both girls and bovs) come into contact with women in professional Conclusions roles. Providing more posts for under- While these lessons wvill be of assistance. qualified female teachers creates policymakers must also face the ques- opportunities for professional work tion of whether these initiatives to that were not always available in the expand and improve the education of illages- Their pay, though modest in girls generate benefits that exceed the comparison with pay in other occupa- costs. This study did not collect program tions or with that of certified teachers, cost data. Clear answers to this question enables them to join the public sphere therefore await future evaluations. with recognized social status and One additional finding in these three enables them to think of themselves in countries is worth mentioning. Efforts more autonomous terms. to improve the education of girls also Finally, effective implementation contributed to broader improvements requires attention to the basics. At one in the education system. By leaming level, it is important to ensure that about the conditions of girls' education efforts to butild up a greater demand for in Balochistan, govemment officials also education are timed to coincide wVith leamed of numerous `ghost schools," available school places (and that plans characterized by severe teacher or to increase available places are based student absenteeism. In Bangladesh, on demand). At another level, BRAC's success led to other areas of efforts-such as those in MIalawi-to cooperation between NGOs and the write gender-sensitive textbooks must government. And in Mala\vi, efforts to be supported by the timely and effi- eliminate obstacles to girls' education cient delivery of the textbooks to prompted actions to eliminate obstacles schools. While incentive programs to the education of boys and to improve such as those in Bangladesh and the overall qualitv of education. 6 OVERIUEV; Building on Traditional Values in Balochistan Balochistan is the largest and poorest primary schools registering a 68 per- of the four provinces of Pakistan. It has cent dropout rate and girls 93 percent. a very scattered population and dis- The main cultural obstacle to girls' tinct tribes with strong notions of fam- education in Balochistan is the tradi- ily and tribal loyalty and honor. The tional belief that women should marry separation of the social spheres occu- early and stay at home. Unlike in pied by men and women is strong. NMalawi and Bangladesh, where Through the influence of the mass women and girls contribute daily to media, mass transportation, and immi- laborious tasks of fetching water and gration into Balochistan, however, res- fuel, Balochistan culture-because of idents are gradually becoming aware of the seclusion of women-reduces the the social and economic changes tak- domestic labor of women to cooking, ing place outside their community cleaning, and childrearing. With tribal Many realize that, given the arid con- norms requirinng female chastity, work- ditions of their territory, one of their ing outside the home by women is gen- greatest resources is their people, who erally viewved with disapproval. Early must be educated to achieve a better marriages, often arranged between life. families without the bride's consent or With a literacy rate of about 10 per- even the grooms initiative, have cent, compared with 26 percent for the impeded the creation of opportunities country as a whole, Balochistan lags to challenge existing norms. behind the rest of Pakistan. Its dis- Until a few years ago, government persed population produces large officials-acting on the assumption of urban-rural disparities in educational limited social demand for the educa- services. In rural areas, men have a lit- tion of girls-contributed to the dis- eracv rate of 10 percent, women 2 per- mal state of girls' education by not cent (AED 1994). Boys traditionally providing enough girls' schools, forc- have enrolled in school in greater ing girls to walk long distances to reach numbers than girls, a condition re- the few schools that did exist or pre- inforced by the fact that more than 90 venting them from attending alto- percent of the primary schools are for gether. While some girls were enrolled boys (BENIIS 1994). Even in urban in bovs' schools, cultural norms man- areas, participation in primary educa- datLing the separation of men and tion is far from universal, with 64 per- wvomen reduced their attendance at cent of the boys and 46 percent of the schools wvith male teachers, especially girls enrolled. The situation is worse in as girls became older. rural areas. with 30 percent of the boys The government, first with grant enrolling and only 3 percent of the support from donor agencies and girls (AED 1994). Dropout rates are today wsith the added assistance of remarklablv high, with boys in rural international loans, has since 1990 - EL HNG THF PIAYIN FIE: D 7 Community schools are educating girls in Balochistan implemented measures to expand and Expanding the supply improve primar-y education. These of schooling efforts seek to benefit both boys and Massive expansion of classrooms and girls. However, given the particularly improvement of school facilities have weak condition of girls' education, sev- increased both the availability and eral measures are directed toward girls. accessibility of schools. Benefiting both Of special interest in Balochistan is the girls and boys, these measures have establishment of community schools, been important in developing a sense which work well because of various among the community that the gov- supportive measures. emment is interested in providing edu- The government created the Pri- cation for all. Interviews with parents mary Education Directorate to address and students reveal that the proximity' problems in primary education and of the school to their homes has been a conducted an education census to take major factor in sending children to pn- stock of the gender composition mary school. In 1983, only 33 percent within the province. Confirming that of the villages in Balochistan had pri- there were many more boys' schools mary schools within one kilometer, than girls' schools, the census also and only 6 percent had girls' schools revealed-to the surprise of some gov- wxithin this distance. Only a few years ernment officials-that about 28,000 ago, 60 percent of the schools (3,150 girls (or 21 percent of all girls in pn- schools) were improvised or "shelter- mary enrollment) were attending boys' less" schools-structures operated out schools. This local, previously unno- of buildings that usually had no drink- ticed effort by families for their daugh- ing water or toilet facilities. During ters' education gave authorities in the 1988-90, no construction funds were Primary Education Directorate confi- assigned to primary schools. dence that the community would But a school construction program is respond positively to efforts to increase now in effect. The first priority is build- schooling for girls. ing new girls' schools (typically, these 8 B' Lr ON II ON Tf..D1LFI..N. VALIS EN B ocv.:.E are one-classroom, multigrade schools been the Society for Community Sup- with capacity for only forty students) port for Primary Education in and converting temporary girls' Balochistan, popularly known as "the schools into permanent classes or 'Society" Though very young (founded schools. The second priority is improv- in 1993), the Society is staffed by expe- ing existing girls' schools, the third is rienced leaders who have attracted replacing temporary boys' schools in young and bright staff members, 80 which girls are enrolled, and the fourth percent of whom are women. The is replacing temporary boys' schools. Society carries out its mobilization To allay parental fears about their efforts through community participa- daughters' safety, security walls are tion teams, each of which is composed being built on existing school perime- of two community education promot- ters. Latrines also are being con- ers (a man and a woman), a driver, and structed, with girls' schools the pnronrty a van. The actual mobilization work is These measures-greater access to conducted by the promoters, who school and improved safety and con- speak at least one local language in venience for girls-are reported as par- addition to Urdu. After teams visited ticularly important by parents, 900 villages, the Society had estab- teachers, and school administrators. lished 198 girls' primary schools by To increase further the participation of November 1994. girls in schools, the government has The requirements for becoming a decided that all new primary schools promoter are strict. The work has been will be "genderless" schools, defined to difficult and even risky because it have at least one girl for every three sometimes requires promoters to enter boys. This ratio falls short of parity but hostile communities to convince reluc- is radical in that it shows the govern- tant parents of the need to educate girls ment's willingness to educate both (box 1). Promoters often must visit a sexes in the same buildings. community several times before they can identify "sparks," or people willing Community schools and able to act as change agents. for girls Promoters spend repeated periods Although the notion of engaging par- of about two months in the field, visit- ents in support of schools is not new in ing new communities, monitonrng other parts of the world, it is a novelty schools assigned to them, and provid- in Balochistan-and certain features ing technical assistance to communi- contribute to make it a reality. First, ties and schools requesting it. community involvement has been Periodically, the monitors meet as greatly facilitated by the work of an a group in Quetta, the capital of NGO familiar with mobilization tech- Balochistan, to review and exchange niques. Second, provincial authorities, experiences and to receive further after declarations that they would sup- training. port the community school, have con- Convinced parents have played a sistently supported teachers' salaries substantial role in endorsing the con- and the provision of educational mate- cept of community schools for girls. rials. The promoters have assisted in the cre- An important actor in the effective ation of village education committees mobilization of the community has (VECs) comprising only fathers, given L. LING THE PL.'YINr; FivcLL 9 - |~~%i the separation of the sexes as adults. the daily attendance of children, pro- The V-ECs have as member-s only par- v~iding guidance and information to ents of students attending the the women in the viqllage, servring as a school-an innovative feature. By liaison between students' parents and establishing dialogue directly withi governiment eduicational authorities, parents, "responsibility fOr educating and-within three years-finding and children has been placed in the hands transferring a plot of land tO the Pri- of their parents, not in the hands of mary Education Directorate for the older family or community' members, constr-uction of a permanent school. as iS the traditional practice" (O'Grady Persuaded that parental participation 1994). is important, the directorate decided Th e work of the VECs is not that as of 1995 all new schools would assuimed to be automatic-, the proimot- have a formally organized vEC. ers provide an important double check Mtothers education committees by' ensur-ing that VEC members visit the have also been set up in rural areas to schools and meet regularly as a body. To engage their close monitoring of the Facilitate the creation oF community children's cleanliness and attendance. schools, the Society, after an intensive, The mothers educationi committees one-year pilot, developed a fourteen- are proving instrumental1 in fostering step sequience (box 2). new norms about coming to school The responsibilities of the VECs regularly, on time, and clean. In a soci- include securing a facility free of et-v where women are not supposed to charge to serve as a temporary school, ventLure beyond their homes, commit- providing security' for the school aind tee members attend monthly' meet- the teacher, monitoring teacher atten- ings regularly, and often are less dance and performance, mionitoring reluctant than fathers to intervene 10 B N TAi TION' > V`X bi K `< Box,2 Fourt-.een atep inBetf up a,cmait when families fail to send their chil- and, since the world is progressing so dren to school. rapidly, education provides a way to Despite the traditional dress of the catch up with changes. women and their total lack of school- One mother said that she knows ing, discussions in two mothers edu- that education reduces prejudices cation committees revealed that their between groups. Another commented v~iews can be exceptionally supportive that since the government had ignored of education. Some, feeling that being her community in educationat and iltiterate had been a great handicap in health matters, the parents themselves their lives, did not want their daugh- had to worry, about the education of ters to be similarly disadvantaged. In their children. -"We don't say that edu- their view, educationi would make the cation is important only for boys," she girls better people and better citizens. said. "Wve also believe that girls should And they indicated that educated be educated. Wve need to educate all women can become better mothers members of society." The mothers' Lz. FLINC, TIE PLAYING FILD I I views about their daughters'education and is still at home, 'society wonders reflected a notion of the girls' future why your daughter is not getting mar- role as mothers. A common saying is, ried." These mothers were also aware "Educating a good mother is educating that "if the girl gets married young, all a nation." the in-laws will dictate to her, and she The mothers described how they will not feel a fully grown person nor encouraged the schooling of their become an independent manager in daughters by ensuring their hair and her household because she will not be body cleanliness, by encouraging them allowed to develop." not to be absent, and by giving them Although almost all of the mothers time to study at home. Several moth- were illiterate, they showed much ers indicated that another way they respect for education and indicated encouraged their daughters was that they were willing to support their through rewards: "if my daughter does daughters' education as much as pos- well in her studies, I fulfill her small sible. When asked, "Are you willing to wishes, such as preparing her favorite face an economic sacrifice?" they food." responded, "Economic sacrifice? It is a Many mothers are becoming con- girl's right to get education." scious of the need to reduce their Unquestionably, one of the features daughters' domestic labor by assigning the mothers liked most about the com- them such tasks as sweeping and munity school was its proximity to childcare less frequently, and instead their homes. But other features of the assuming those tasks themselves. They school were also identified as impor- nevertheless feel that girls must be tant: having a teacher responsive to given home responsibilities "as train- parents, being able to visit the school ing for their future life [as wivesl." to see classes functioning, and seeing They acknowledged that if the girl the teacher closely supervise the less reaches sixteen to eighteen years of age crowded classes. It was clear that many Mothiers edutcationi conmiltiiecs mieel reguilarly to protmote thie cdlucatioti of girls 12 BxIILDINC; .DN VArrc I xl - "I OC:SA of these perceptions have been shaped tated, but their local residence ensured by the promoters' frequent visits to the that they would serve as teachers in school and community the target communities. The scarcity of women with a min- The Mobile Fremale imum level of education to serve as Teacher Training Unit teachers required important changes Teaching in primary schools in rural in the criteria for civil service employ- areas in Balochistan is difficult, espe- ment. It was also necessary to raise the cially for women. An effective level of formal education of several response by the educators proposing young women in order to enable them community schools was to train to meet the criteria for selection as pn- women from the community in which mary school teachers. In several cases, a new school was to operate. To this only male teachers were available in end, the Mobile Female Teacher Train- the community They became tempo- ing Unit selects young women from rary teachers while assuming tutorial the local villages to attend short-term responsibility for the young women training for about three months in who would later replace them. nearby sites. Not only was their par- Today, the scarcity of women teach- ticipation in training sessions facili- ers continues. In one community ~~isedtoir-irn C=g _9~~~1 w L ZLC gTiHE PLAYING FIELD 13 school, a girl of fifteen helped the reg- e ular teacher handle the second class- room. This young girl had been able to complete grade 5 in the community school, and inow the teacher was tutor- ing her for the exam for grade 10 so that she could qualify as a teacher (box 3). Because of the reluctance of exper-i- enced women teachers to serve as teacher trainers in remote rural areas, the Primary Education Directorate had to rely on male trainers. Fears that the Ruquiya donated landfor a new school community would oppose male train- ers for young female teachers were not bation and when the DEO examines realized. the plan of action proposed by the pro- The unit has provided training for moters, discusses it with them, and most of the teachers serving in the suggests changes. newly formed community schools- A reflection of the solid cooperation 279 in June 1995. A powerful incen- between the Society and the govern- tive for women to become rural ment is found in the initiative by gov- teachers has been the government's emient officials to involve DEOs in commitment to establishing regular the first three steps of the community teaching posts for them, duly regis- school creation process. According to a tered as a budget item. The unit is now high-level education authority (a developing a new curriculum (similar woman), "The male DEOs move into to that approved for the Primary more villages. Why not make them Teachers Center), to be given to com- active in the process of setting up new munity school teachers over three con- schools?" An additional device for good secutive summers. and close relations has been the NGO's appointment of a heterogeneous board NGO.government of directors, writh members from the cooperation political and intellectual establishment The Society has worked in close co- in addition to popular educators. operation with the government. In the Society's view, the work is 'a partner- Growth of community ship with shared responsibilities." schools Communication between the Society What is remarkable about the commu- and the government is constant, en- nity schools is their vigorous expan- sured by the presence of Society staff at sion and their powerful influence on the Primaiy Education Directorate. educational decisionmakers. Many see Although ties are not free from suspi- the community school as a way to cion, promoters keep regular contact modify parental attitudes toward girls' with district education officers (DEOs). education. Two important points of NGO-govem- A strong indication of the success of ment cooperation are when the DEO the community schools is their rapid accepts the community school for pro- growth. From fourteen in 1992, there 14 BU!I.DANC ON THRADITIONAL Vi..E.F: I? 3 were 279 in June 1995, with 12,000 texts, exercise books for students, and girls enrolled. With approximately the first-ever guides for teachers. 375,000 boys and 150,000 girls The instructional materials devel- enrolled in primary schools in opment cell has distributed to all Balochistan, the girls in community schools a box of reading readiness schools represent 8 percent of the girls' materials for kindergarten, the level enrollment in primary education. with the highest dropout rate. The While girls' participation in primary group also has produced integrated school is still low-at about 29 percent student and teacher materials for of the total enrollment-their numbers grades 1 to 3 (combining Urdu, social increased by 54 percent between 1990 studies, sciences, and religion) and and 1994. Although the dropout rate expects to test textbooks and related for girls between kindergarten and first materials for grades 4 and 5 by 1996. grade has held at about 40 percent, the According to the plan, new textbooks dropout rate between grades 1 and 3 for all grades will be available for pri- now is equal to that of boys. The work mary school students in Balochistan by of the village education committees 1998. and the mothers education committees The instructional materials devel- has been very effective in reducing stu- opment cell has produced materials dent absenteeism and dropout. that permit student-centered instruc- The growth of community schools tion, such as flash cards and games. It will challenge the Society's promoters. also has been working to ensure equal Although the Society has been fortu- representation of girls and boys in the nate to attract active and resourceful illustrations and characters in the text- university graduates, promoters face book stories. And attention is being an increasing number of tasks, from paid to discussions of the roles that monitoring the schools to responding women can play Some illustrations in to requests for new community the textbooks, for example, depict schools. Efforts are under way to bring women joining their husbands on NGOs from other parts of the province bazaar outings. into primary school work. Using desktop publishing software, a group of textbook writers that in- New textbooks and other cludes curriculum specialists as well as educational materials classroom teachers, and instructional In 1992, shortly after the community technology experts from abroad, the schools began to function, a unit was instructional materials development created within the Primary Education cell is producing low-cost, camera- Directorate to work on textbooks and ready materials that are printed by related teaching aids. Known as the local firms. This group is demonstrat- instructional materials development ing that in-house production of text- cell and comprising curriculum spe- books can be better tailored to local cialists as well as primary school teach- needs-and inexpensive as well. ers, this group has been developing and field-testing new materials to Changes in the implement the centrally designed cur- civil service riculum. It has produced textbooks Although not intended as a specific with appealing illustrations and clear strategy for girls' education, several LE.ELING THE PLAYING FIELD 1 5 modifications in the civil service entry-level teachers are being recruited became necessary. An important coun- at the district level. terpart to the community education promoters at local levels has been the Girls' fellowship schools district education officers of the gov- In both urban and rural areas, girls' fel- emnments Primary Education Direc- lowship schools operate primarily to torate. The separation of students into facilitate the expansion of girls' educa- boys' and girls' schools has tradition- tion. If a community has more than ally meant the existence of male and 200 girls aged four to eight and is not female DEOs in charge of boys' and served by government schools, it may girls' schools, respectively be targeted for the fellowship program. When efforts to expand and im- The program began in February 1994 prove primary education in Balochis- and now has twelve urban schools, tan began, most DEOs were male, as with nine more to be added in 1996. were almost all those in higher edu- Thirty rural fellowship schools oper- cation positions. Efforts had to be ated in May 1995. made to enable women to attain the The fellowship schools started with ranking needed to become DEOs a donation of 4.5 million rupees (G-18 in the Balochistan civil service). ($150,000) by the provincial govern- Despite the support of the highest ment to the Balochistan Education authorities, it took several attempts Foundation (an entity created to for this change to become accepted, administer the funds). Social Welfare because of resistance in the mid-level will donate 25 million rupees in 1996, bureaucracy In 1990, only three while an international development women (out of forty) were in a DEO agency has promised 32 million position or above. By 1995, there rupees. Foundation officials state that were eighteen, fourteen of them the endowment investments have been DEOs. But because there is not a generating annual profits of 14 to 16 female DEO for every district, some of percent, ensuring expansion of the the fourteen DEOs must cover two or program. three districts, which results in more The establishment of a fellowship fieldwork and less efficient adminis- school follows a procedure similar to tration. that of a community school and For primary school teachers, the involves the Society in the implemen- criteria for hiring had to be lowered to tation. According to the criteria for permit recruitment of women with an setting up a fellowship school, a mini- eighth-grade education-on the con- mum of 100 girls must be registered. A dition that they complete the tenth parents education committee is grade within three years. Previously, formed, and a school operator (a man) only women with a tenth-grade educa- is appointed to maintain a connection tion could become teachers. Flexible between the community and the edu- age limits for female teachers in rural cation authority (usually DEOs). The areas were also adopted. In the past, school operator must have a tenth- only women eighteen to twenty-five grade education and three years of years old could be hired, today, the age school management expenence and range is fourteen to forty years of age. must not be a civil servant. The school To accelerate hiring, 50 percent of new operator ensures that the number of 16 B IJU-1-N T2'L1TZDACN.EL VAI. !F . Buj,cc.H:S-N boys does not exceed 25 percent of the The parents education committee total enrollment (box 4). negotiates with the school operator on The Balochistan Education Founda- matters of fees, uniforms, syllabus, and tion provides funds for the acquisition selection of teachers. Both parties set of school materials, supplies, and facil- up a joint bank account, and then look ities equivalent to 200 rupees per reg- for a suitable building. The committee istered girl. The foundation also grants and the school operator decide which each fellowship school 10,000 rupees 100 girls will be covered by the sub- a year to cover the fees of girls (100 sidy Parents pay 15 to 25 rupees a rupees per girl) and 5,000 rupees at month for the tuition of each of their the end of each quarter as an atten- daughters. Boys who wish to enroll in dance bonus. The subsidy is gradually these schools must pay 50 rupees or decreased each year to force the com- more (each fellowship school sets its munity to become self-sufficient. The own fees). fellowship school requires the com- Fellowship schools may not survive munity to save 50 percent of the quar- without extemal support. But because terly 5,000-rupee grant, so that by the they are more easily monitored and end of three years reserves will enable less expensive than other private the school to absorb some costs. schools, they have attracted a positive were Vh M.., . :-- ;! -Hs&c 4 -~ ' __ p'di,6iG~~~~~ w. ring :[t,f9='' LE'ELING iEHE PLAYN} FIELD 17 response from the community School dents, they are finding it difficult to education committees made up of par- serve mostly girls. ents manage them, but since parents are generally poor and inexperienced, Food incentive program close monitoring of the committees is To encourage students in tow-income needed. areas to attend classes, vegetable oil was A major impact evaluation of these distributed to them monthly According schools is being carried out by the Pol- to govemment officials, this doubled icy Research Department of the World enrollments. In some cases, however, it Bank and a group of Pakistani was at the expense of nearby commu- researchers. It will examine the impact nity schools, as enrollments shifted on girls in particular. toward the schools involved in the pro- gram. Because the transportation and Home schools distribution of oil is cumbersome, the Unlike community schools, home govemment is pilot-testing the distrib- schools rely on contributions from pri- ution of food stamps valued at 100 vate sector donors, such as Pakistan's rupees. Habib Bank Trust. The schools also aim at expanding NGO-government Government commitment participation in education. to women's education Home schools serve low-income In the 1995-96 budget, Balochistan urban areas. Students pay only 5 to 10 assigned 24 percent of development rupees to attend the school. Twelve spending to education, including a such schools now operate, and another substantial amount for primary eighteen are scheduled to open by schooling. Moreover, the government October 1995. is committed to redressing the gender Before setting up a home school, it imbalance. All new schools will be is first established that there are at least genderless, and all will be govern- sixty girls in the community who are ment-community partnerships and not attending school. A local woman have VECs. between fifteen and forty-five years of age is selected as a teacher. She must Successes and challenges have at least a tenth-grade education. In Balochistan, community schools, as After ten days of orientation, she is well as fellowship and home schools, assigned no more than sixty girl stu- are less crowded and show better dents. A mothers education committee attendance than regular govemment also is formed. After a probation schools. Classrooms are more cheerful, period lasting one to two months, the with posters often lining their walls Society formally appoints the teacher and teachers showing more interest in and signs an agreement with her. their students and classrooms. Com- There are some concerns about munity-supported schools also appear home schools, however. They tend to to be cleaner and better maintained. be housed in any spare space that the The linguistic diversity of the community may find available, and province is a challenge for the schools. some have little room for expansion. There are several local languages- And although the schools have suc- Balochi, Phasto, Brahui, Sindhi, Sir- ceeded in serving low-income stu- aiki. Hindko, and Punjabi. Classes are 18 BiJILL[INC, ON TRLI rrICNA1 :\VAUIUS !1. B. : conducted in Pakistans national tan- reason for liking school. Moreover, guage, Urdu. which is spoken by less most girls hope for further education than 2 percent of the Balochis, forcing (to either tenth or twelfth grade), and children to learn in a foreign language. -the most popular choices for a career This difficulty may explain the stub- are teaching and nursing (box 5). bornly high dropout rate between Expansion of girls' schooling is pro- kindergarten and grade 1. ducing a powerful demonstration Recitation and rote continue to be effect within the province. Educators the main modes of learning. Even so, report that many girls are going better books are reaching students, beyond eighth grade. Girls who and teachers are receiving training and dropped out after grades 5 and 6 are being supported by teacher guides. reentering school; others are getting Many of the students are older girls private coaching and taking the exam from very poor households whose par- for primary school completion so that ents were not sending them to school. they can move into secondary school. Given the cultural concem for girls' According to one person knowl- safety in Balochistan, the proximity of edgeable about community condi- the new schools to the community was tions, "tn the past, a girl in an crucial in the decision to let the girls enlightened rural house would not attend school. Having access to free (or have gone beyond fifth grade. Today, almost free) schooling is important, girls are pursuing more education. Per- too, but it appears to be more a rein- haps a strong incentive is seeing that forcing than a determining factor. many women are becoming primary For the older girls, the domestic school teachers." routine has not changed much. They An intemational expert providing are still responsible for many house- technical assistance to the govemment hold chores, although mothers are to expand and improve primary edu- slowly allowing them time for studies. cation reported, "The people are now Being taught by a woman is often iden- conversant about the role of the com- tified by girl students as an important munity in education. In the past, W_LTF L--7EIN THE PL.\Yi>.G FIELD 1 9 landowners, tribal heads, and the the expertise. Whatever doubts may political leaders were the actors. now have existed regarding the Society the community members are the ones are being dispelled as communities listened to by the DEOs." become beneficiaries of the new The experience of Balochistan offers schools. Work at the community level optimism for the future. In communi- has been possible because of the regu- ties that have long denied women lar visits by the promoters to commu- access to education, there is now a nities. The costs of the Society's willingness to work toward redressing assistance have been underwnritten by what a high educational official calls international development agencies, the "deprivation of the young girl- although community schools are now child." An educational census revealed becoming regular schools and being that many girls were attending boys' absorbed into the state education schools, an indication of the latent system. demand for girls'education. And rural Clearly, the mobilization work of communities-and particularly un- the Society would represent an added schooled mothers-have organized cost to the government if it were incor- themselves to support girls education. porated into the education budget. The Society, with its door-to-door However, while mobilization plays a mobilization program, was crmcial in critical role in awakening the interest persuading parents to change their in, and demand for, girls' schooling, opinions about the education of their this role need not be permanent. After daughters. It also seems that the views five or ten years of Society work, com- of many parents had been assumed munity perceptions about female and rather than canvassed. male education may have changed so The strong collaboration between much that special awareness and the Society and the government works mobilization efforts are no longer because neither claims ownership of necessary. 20 BLll.EIN4 DN fRD'lIT[CONAI. V.*i[.Es'E. N. 3 S-7AN Making Schooling Free, Compulsory, and Gender-Sensitive in Malawi About 85 percent of the population of girls (compared with 21 percent of Malawi lives in rural areas, subsisting boys) who enter primary school con- on small plots of land and using sim- tinue to grade 8. A smaller share of ple tools. The low level of available girls than boys passes the Primary technology results in heavy domestic School Leaving Certificate examina- work for women, who account for tion. most food production. Girls help their Malawi is trying to improve both the mothers with domestic tasks such as quantity and quality of its educational fetching water, hauling wood, and system. Further, it is making serious grinding maize. About 68 percent of attempts to improve the condition of girls report engaging in domestic girls' education. A mosaic of efforts, all chores, compared with 39 percent of based on ideas well supported by the boys. Although women contribute literature, have been instituted since substantially to the agrarian economy, 1992. They include the construction of girls in many poor families are seen as more schools and more housing for burdens-hence the desire to marry teachers, the elimination of direct costs them off early for girls, the provision of more and bet- Parents have cited various con- ter educational materials, the gender straints to sending their girls for sensitization of the teaching force, and schooling: the need to rely on the girls the mobilization of the community in for domestic work, crowded class- favor of girls' schooling. rooms, the distance to schools, and school fees and other school expenses. Reducing educational Malachi, indeed, has a shortage of costs schools and classrooms. Many classes While the govemment has tradition- are held in schoolyards. Under the hot ally provided free textbooks at the pri- sun, students battle to read and write. mary level, it also has required tuition When it rains, there is considerable fees. Because in a number of studies disturbance as students who have been parents identified fees as a major bar- studying outside must crowd into rier to the participation of girls in classrooms to continue their school school, the government in 1992 day adopted a decision that is bold in Educationally, women are worse off the East African context: abolishing than men, with a literacy rate of 35 tuition fees for girls. A crucial sup- percent compared with 60 percent for porter of this idea was the then-minis- men in the 15-45 year age group. In ter of education, a member of the general, the proportion of girls who Forum for African Women Education- enroll in primary school is smaller than alists (FAWE) (box 6). that of boys (48 percent, compared During 1992-94 fees were abol- with 53 percent). Only 15 percent of ished for nonrepeating girl students in L FVFt I NI . THE P LAYI NC F [ EL D 2 1 grades 2 through 8. Education was not passed boys for the first time. Ministry made totally free, since parents still statistics also indicate that the overall had to buy notebooks, pencils, and primary enrollment of girls rose from other educational supplies and pay the 45 percent (760,718 students) to 47 school maintenance fees. But many percent (847,974 students) with the educational actors-parents, teachers, introduction of the tuition waivers principals, ministry officials-state (MIOEST 1993). The story of one stu- that the elimination of fees had a sig- dent, Manis, is illustrative (box 7). nificant impact on enrollment. Some Overall attendance increased from 30 observers believe that this impact was percent in 1988-89 to 38 percent in psychological as much as financial 1992-93, including significant in- because the reduction of fees affirmed creases in the transition from grade I the importance of girls' education and to grade 2. thus acted as an incentive to improve In September 1994, shortly after a performance (Robinson, Davison, and multiparty coalition came to power, Williams 1994). the government decided to waive fees The precise change in girls enroll- for all primary school students. One ment is uncertain. According to offi- government statistic reports an cials, during the first year of the tuition increase of 103 percent in total enroll- waiver, girls enrolling in grade 1 sur- ment between 1993-94 and 1994-95, 22 M ',<.ING SH [Ni FFREL:, COMPNI . A:;:- 3ENDER-SENSIT1VF, N M AL',V1w from 1.5 million to 3.1 million stu- emment policy change-also seems to dents. Girls showed a slightly higher have encouraged greater participation increase, at 105 percent. Another offi- of girls in schooling. The new policy cial source indicates growth from 1.9 states that students cannot be expelled million in 1993-94 to 3.2 million in for failing to wear uniforms. The cost 1994-95, an increase of 68 percent. In of uniforms is about ten times greater any case, primary school enrollment than that of fees, which at most reach expanded. But the disparities between 7 kwacha (about $1.70). The relaxed girls and boys in access to school con- rules on uniforms have also had mixed tinue because the special incentive for results. According to parents, it is a girls has disappeared. relief not to have to buy uniforms. But The consequences of waived tuition many pnncipals believe that uniforms fees for all seem to have been mixed. create cohesion among the students The general waiver increased enroll- (each school has its own uniform) and ment substantially but reportedlv col- help mask class distinctions. ored community attitudes toward Funds that had been used to subsi- education. Several principals and dize the tuition fees for girls in primary teachers affirm that parents feel that if school ($2 million) will now be education is indeed free, the govern- assigned to scholarships for girls at the ment should supply all materials. As a secondary level. Increased opportuni- result, there has been a marked ten- ties for secondary education are also dency by parents to avoid any educa- expected to affect primary education tional investment. bv providing girls with an incentive to Relaxing the requirement that stu- continue their schooling or to perform dents wear uniforms-another gov- well. It will be important to assess the |~~Y a L. FLANG THE P-A IN, F..LL 23 impact of this measure after it is imple- als intensively, so by the end of the aca- mented. demic year they are displaying cramped notebooks and minuscule Accommodating more pencils. Much learning occurs through students extensive copying from the blackboard New classrooms are being built to meet and reading and repeating in chorus, the needs of additional students. Some making it difficult to know which stu- community involvement in the con- dents have understood and which are struction of schooling is taking place, merely mouthing the text. although it seems to depend on the ini- tiative of school principals. There is at Curriculum changes present, however, a deficit of about To ensure that textbooks give attention 30,000 classrooms and almost 40,000 to gender issues, a Gender Appropriate teacher houses. According to 1994 Curriculum Unit was established in official statistics, the teacher-student 1992 at the Malawi Institute of Educa- ratio is estimated to be 1:72, and the tion. Initially staffed by only one classroom-student ratio is even worse person, the unit added a second staffer at 1:119. This situation clearly reveals in 1994. One concentrates on curricu- an increasing tension between quan- lum and textbooks, the other on tity (expanded enrollment) and quality training. in Malawi. The review of textbooks by the gen- Leaming often occurs under diffi- der unit found substantial disparities, cult conditions. Most students sit on with more than 300 references to men the floor of dark and dusty rooms. On and only 17 to women. Women who average, four students share one book. were represented were shown crying Furniture is rare and if available is pro- or carrying babies or water. Men were vided only for fourth and fifth graders. often identified with managerial and Children use their educational materi- other high-status jobs and roles, while women were associated with the home. The textbooks for grades 1 and 2 had already been developed when the _gender specialist was appointed, so she produced supplementary materials such as flip charts with illustrations presenting women and girls in non- traditional activities. (Unfortunatel,v, I & these supplementary materials have not yet been printed.) The textbooks for grade 3 and above w-ill be gender- sensitive, and revised textbooks for all grades will be in the schools by 1998. So far, only the new, gender-sensitive textbooks for grade 3 have reached the classroom. M'vanis is trying to overcome obstacles to The distribution of textbook mate- gaining an education rials throughout the school system 24 SM - A.NJ StFooiirJc, F1r- :`, C -'';EN:ER-SENSITIVE iN MWIAL.A.;l remains a problem. Most informants, force, and a similar proportion is including education authorities, char- enrolled in the Teacher Training Col- acterize the supply of learning maten- leges. There is no policy to bring in als as dismal. Observation in vanous more women as teachers, however. schools close to the end of the acade- Research into instructional practices mic year revealed that some grades had in Malawi reveals that teachers favor not yet received their textbooks. boys during lessons, that girls are some- times ridiculed for failing to answer Teacher expansion what a teacher believes is a simple ques- and training tion, and that boys generally serve as The govemment has taken steps to leaders in practical science lessons increase the number of trained teach- (Hauya 1993). Consequently the sensi- ers by compressing the program in tization of teachers to girl-friendly teacher training centers from two years leaming environments is now included to one. in all teacher training. Gender-sensitive In response to the increased enroll- case study approaches were completed ment produced by eliminating school in the first phase of the GABLE project, fees, some 22,000 new teachers were and there are plans to incorporate them added. These new teachers and others into the teacher training center curricu- already in the system have received lum. Interviews with teachers who some training in gender issues. But received the gender training showed according to the Gender Appropriate that these individuals had a good Curriculum Unit leader, "It boiled understanding of gender-fair practices down to one hour out of two weeks." (box 8). She also encountered substantial To expand suitable girl-friendly opposition from some men: "You are practices in the classroom, the three violating the culture. You want us to assistant regional educational officers wear dresses," are statements she heard for girls will expand their role to frequently Female teachers represent include providing in-service training 35 percent of the primary teaching on gender issues. Inspectors also have LE'. 5._IN3 THE PLAYING FiELD 25 received gender-sensitization training, ment (box 9), drama students have so they should contribute to new been able to make explicit the teaching practices in the classroom repressed fears that act as powerful constraints to girls' education: parental Social mobilization fears that daughters might become campaigns pregnant while attending school, of Social mobilization, which its propo- sexual harassment by teachers, and of nents vehemently contrast with social prostitution and gambling by girls. marketing, is predicated on the notion Cultural practices-such as prepubes- that most change comes from face-to- cent and pubescent initiation rites, face contact and that theater can be an wvhich remain a taboo in everydav dis- effective way of discovering deep- course in the community-surfaced as seated feelings-and thus a potent a result of the relaxation and personal vehicle for attitudinal change. involvement brought on by the impro- Social mobilization efforts have vised plays. Initiation rites, in general, been using the resources of the Depart- act as powerful inhibitors of girls' edu- ment of Fine and Perfonnance Arts at cation. Girls who are initiated sexually Chancellor College (University of and told that marriage is the most Malavi). A pilot project in Machinga important social state for women District during 1994 attempted to reportedly feel that they are adults and identify ways of transmitting to rural ready for marriage. communities the idea that primary In Malawi, where television is education for girls is useful tO the indi- nonexistent and many adults cannot vidual and to society Through a read, an educational campaign empha- process called Theater for Develop- sizing person-to-person and small- 2 LG w~~ ' 3 ffi S S~~~~~VZ S X~~~~~~~~~~~~ :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ t = =i~~~u 2 m I T 1. 1'F 1- i 's T, ;;|I ~~I- , ; ~I 'r4r -Fer- 1 . - w -¢ --- - 1-- ir 1f 1 ,, I , o ~.:, _ . v I- 1 -! -T ts - \S X,- V - - . -1. . - Large groups of children are attending school in Malasii group communication and involving Through the lobbying of a task force extension and rural workers is spearheaded by the Gender Appropri- expected to enable communities to ate Curriculum Unit leader, the min- find solutions Lo problems of girls' edu- istr-y of education adopted a new cation. C,overnment officials intend to policy on pregnancy in December go nationwide wsith the social mobi- 1993. This policy mandaLes that a lization campaign next year. Involved pregnant girl should be `withdraw,n in the disseniination effort w&ill be the from school for one acadernic year and community developnient assistants, be readmitted upon application as members of the Ministry of WVomen long as there is assurance of safe cus- and Children Affairs and Communitv todv for the child" (Secretary of Edu- Services. Each communitv develop- cation 1.993. The policy also states ment assistant is responsible for initiat- that '"a school boy who is responsible inag and supervisind community-based for a school girl's pregnancy shall be activities in ten to twenty vilnages. withdraovn for one academic year and be readmitted upon applicatiori." Changing pregnancy w'ohat is s amportant about the policy is policies that it acuinowledges the problem of Various surveys in Malawi indicate toha pregnancy and no longer marginaliDes pregnanct is n he most common reason the girl. Also important is dhat, for the Lhat gcrla mrop out of school. IAccount- prSL Lme, there are sanctions for male ing for d6 percent of girl dropouts, st cadents. pregnancs is a far greaver cause of leav- The policy h ps been transmitted to all ingschool than the second mosf comn- edlocasion authoneies, but little is mon-illness, Afhich accoun is for te known about its impact. Some pofimaru percent of the dropouts. In the past, school pnncipals report that seversl pregnant girls were expelled frorti girls have resuo ed to schoolr other schoolu curtailing their education. sources indicate that several secondary fr 6 pHE PLAINd FuELtDe 27 school principals are reluctant to imple- additional students. There are severe ment the new policy classroom, teacher, and housing short- ages. Another problem may be the Drawing a balance administration of the system-in par- Several efforts have Laken place in ticular, the distribution of textbooks to Malawi to increase the number of girls schools. in primary school. The elimination of A third problem that affects girls is fees for girls acts as an incentive, and that, although education authorities the curriculum has been modified to are receptive to the idea of overcoming include gender-balanced material. In gender disparities in schools, no inter- addition, training for teachers in gen- nal group is pulling all of these initia- der-sensitive instruction, albeit brief, tives together and fostering greater appears to have had a desirable impact, ownership among ministry staff. The and more regular in-service training on dispersal of the ministry units working gender issues is planned. Finally, a on the various initiatives does not pro- highly promising social mobilization mote the sharing of information-so a campaign will go nationwide next year change in ethos has not emerged. and should shift community and There is some parental awareness of teacher perceptions toward greater the need for further education of girls. support for girls' education. But the potential contribution of par- Despite these efforts, however, ents is neither sufficiently fostered by progress has been slow. One problem education officials nor enhanced by is the inability of the system to take on the efforts of any organization. 28 M ;]NG-i SCHCOIING FREE, COI\`I SDCY, Y ,NI GENDEF-SENSITIVE IN fVIALA.VI Creating Partnerships for Education in Bangladesh Bangladesh has increased primary ate girl-friendly environments in the enrollments considerably since 1992. schools. But although primary schools operate Compulsory education, though two shifts a day, at least 4 million chil- promulgated in 1990, was not force- dren are denied access to primary edu- fully implemented until 1992, when cation. Because girls constitute 47 specifc geographical areas were tar- percent of primary school students, geted. According to government offi- many education authorities assert that cials, this enforcement has increased there is almost total equality for girls enrollment in targeted areas from 75 and boys-and that gender imbal- percent to 90 percent, even though ances mostly affect the secondary level daily attendance rates have oscillated and above. between 50 and 60 percent (Primary Primary school completion rates are and Mass Education Division 1995). low, at around 43 percent in 1993. Since the early 1990s the govern- Girls represent 45 percent of those ment has engaged in a vigorous enrolled in the last year of primary but process of primary school construc- only 37 percent of those enrolled in the tion, but the current supply of schools first year of secondary schooling(1991 meets just slightly more than half the data). The gradual but substantial loss potential need. Access to a school of girls through all levels of schooling remains a dream for many xillages. has been attributed to the heavy Community schools offering grades demand for girls' domestic work and 1 to 5 are being built on sites where the difficult access to rural schools. there are no schools within 2 to 3 kilo- meters. The community donates the Government actions land for the school and gives the gov- The government is expanding access ernment about $250 for maintenance to primary education and emphasizing of the school. The government completion. lt has established the Pri- appoints the teachers and provides mary and Mass Education Division, a books and educational materials for special structure to address primary students. Teacher ratios are main- education, and is enforcing the law on tained at 60 percent women and 40 compulsory primary education. The percent men. Today there are 800 new division, which reports to the community schools. pnme minister, reportedly enables To encourage girls to continue their much greater cooperation from all education, the government offers them ministries and much better follow-up stipends and tuition allowances at the of supervisors' and inspectors' field- secondary level. This incentive is work. Education authorities are trying expected to increase participation of mechanisms to reduce the opportunity girls in pnmary school, who now see cost of girls going to school and to cre- possibilities for further education, but L ;NO 7 T1:E PLA.IN-ic Fl-.-.iL 29 there are as yet no assessments of the * A teacher-student ratio of 1:33, impact of the subsidies. compared with the 1:66 ratio fre- One of the most innovative mea- quently found in public schools. sures to expand the number of primary . Rather than examinations, continu- school students in Bangladesh is the ous evaluation of students. (Fear of use of NGOs. As part of a government exams apparently keeps many chil- experiment begun in 1993, seventeen dren away from school.) NGOs are implementing various edu- * A continuous school year broken cational programs, fourteen in rural only by two ten-day vacations a year. areas and three in urban areas. These Long vacations are avoided because NGOs are running about 4.000 children quickly forget what they have schools or centers with a total enroll- learned. ment of 160,000 students, most of - No homework that requires them six to ten years old-and 56 per- parental help. Most parents are illiter- cent of them are girls. ate and could not assist. The NGOs have different experi- Avoidance of physical punishment ence with and knowledge of primary of students. education. They offer programs that Parents are encouraged to monitor range from two to three hours of student and teacher attendance. classes per day, that provide from two Teachers meet with parents ever,y to five grades of schooling, and that month, depending on the farming sea- use the same government curriculum son, and decide together on the school or offer their own. All the programs schedule. seek to achieve 70 percent enrollment Before setting up the schools, BRAC for girls and to hire female teachers. personnel survey parents on the demand for schools, the number of eli- Working with NGOs: gible children, the availability of qual- The BRAC model ifLed teachers, the proximity of existing The best known. of the NGO models is schools, and so on. Help is sought the program of the Bangladesh Rural from local political and religious lead- Advancement Committee (BRAC). ers, parents, and community organiza- Even before the government's current tions. A list of potential students is experiment, BRAC had been providing draw-n up and checked against enroll- nonformal primary education pro- ments in local government schools in grams for children between the ages of order to ensure that any students pre- eight and fourteen. It currentlv runs *iously enrolled in those schools have almost 30,000 schools or centers, with indeed dropped out. a total student population of nearly One school room is opened for 900,000. (Under the new expenment, every thirtv-three students, giving BRAC takes responsibility [or 900 cen- preference to girls. The community ters serving some 28,000 students.) and local landowners help to choose These BRAC-run primary schools the school site and build the class- aim for a school register of at least 75 room, usually a bamboo or mud- percent girls. Many of the girls in the walled construction writh a thatched or BRAC-run schools either never went to tin roof. The schools do not have toi- school or dropped out in grade 1. lets or tubewells; use is made of those BRAC schools offer: in nearby homes. 30 C iNG:v4o P.\ITNE:l'ELiIr'S ,s-C E -: N I E'I B -'L BRAC has been examining gender issues in both its organization and its curriculum. To support the promotion Z".it._* ' of women within the BRAC structure, the NGO created a Gender Resource tt;t ^re<,'>? - Center in 1994. It is providing oppor- tunities for women to reach adminis- - _ § .'J.,;X U trative positions by allowing teachers to become program assistants. | -- c . . A. !Throughout rural Bangladesh today, women can be seen driving scooters and bicycles-in all probability BRAC program assistants, who must visit A proud Bangladeshi mother who now has evrscolalattweawekTh two daughters attending school every school at least twice a week. The two daghter atteding choolsupervisory position represents both a Each BRAC school's group of thirty- career and a financial upgrade, as its three students begins schooling salary is four times that of a classroom together in first grade and moves teacher. together to third grade. BRAC school An essential unit in the BRAC orga- teachers must be married residents of nization is the logistics unit, which the village (to avoid losing personnel, supplies educational materials to the especially women, to spousal trans- vast network of BRAC schools. The fers) and have nine years of schooling. unit is exceptionally effective, with About 80 percent of BRAC teachers are clearly identified storage and delivery women. Once selected, teachers are procedures. The logistics unit is also given twelve days of training at a under the eye of the nonformal pri- nearby training center, supplemented mary education (NFPE) monitoring by one-day refresher courses at various unit. local sites. The teachers receive an Classes in BRAC schools are run in average monthly remuneration of 500 remarkably similar ways. Classrooms thaka, about $12. are cheerfully decorated, with heavy Each school is run by a manage- use of posters and displays of student ment committee comprising three par- work. Students are well groomed and ents, a community leader, and the bring to school a set of books, note- teacher. Checks and balances ensure books, and other educational materi- performance at all levels. Area man- als. The number of students, agers (responsible for 500 schools) thirty-three, creates a manageable class supervise teams-in-charge (responsi- and allows the teacher to interact with ble for eighty schools), which super- and follow the performance of all stu- vise and train program organizers and dents (box 11). program assistants (responsible for fif- In addition, there is significant stu- teen schools). Area managers are sta- dent-centered instruction. In social tioned in the field and have high levels studies classes in particular, students of education (a master's degree). This undertake several independent pro- structure is supervised by a monitor- jects, often with role playing. To foster ing unit dealing specifically with non- confident personalities, the curricu- formal primary education (box 10). lum includes forty minutes a day of L-.' -.. tEL P1.v,'i,j_. F_LI 31 dancing, singing, and poetry reading. and 2 (four hours in grades 3 to 5) and The girls appeared comfortable per- have two long vacations, one during forming in public. Asked what they Ramadan and the other during the liked most about the school, the girls summer. said classes and teachers, but many Since adolescent girls who complete also referred to the games, songs, and three years of schooling often marry poems. soon afterward and discontinue their The BRAC primary school curricu- studies, BRAC is setting up small vil- lum initially centered on the needs of lage libraries for them. These libraries rural children. But since most students also operate as extension centers. In seek further education, the curriculum addition to books and games, seeds of is gradually incorporating parts of the nutritious vegetables are distributed formal curriculum-English and reli- there, and some training in homestead gious studies, for instance. poultry farming and tailoring has been BRAC schools meet three hours a offered to about 16,000 people. day, sLx days a week, 270 days a year. According to BRAC, there is a high They compare favorably with govern- rate of completion (95 percent), and ment schools, whose students gener- student transfers into grade 4 in the ally attend two hours a day in grades 1 public school system averaged 78 32 CHF_TMNG P.\BNEHZSHIVS Oti ~ En N~ E _ B"; zLADESH percent over seven years. A recent fees or charges (even notebooks, slates, independent preliminary evaluation and w-riting materials are free). indicates that student attendance is According to BRAC staff, however, significantly higher in NGO schools their schools suffered when the gov- than in satellite schools (Sedere eminent introduced its popular Food 1995a). Dropout rates are also lower in for Education Program, which shifted all BRAC programs than in govern- students toward public schools. ment schools. Many officials are unsure about the main purpose of NGO programs in Government views primar-y education. From one perspec- of NGOs tive, the goal of the NGOs is to give Despite the performance of the NGOs, girls access to a basic education suited grovernment officials are ambivalent for rural life. This calls for a simplified about them. The NGOs are appreci- curriculum and flexible scheduling. ated for their ability to reach remote From another angle, the goal could be populations and for their flexible pro- to fuinction as a stepping stone for stu- grams. But some government officials dents to transfer into public schools for cr-iticized the NGOs for offer-ing a dif- additional education. The latter v'iew ferent curriculum from the one in pub- would mean moving the NGO cur- lic schools, for offering programs of riculum closer to the official curricu- short dluration, foir hiring teachers with Ilum and presumably scrapping, the low levels of eduication and paying NGOs' innovative and successful them low salaries, and for spending approaches to nonformal primary edu- too little time on religious education. cation. Some spontaneous competition has Government officials cannot state emerged between programs. Children which NGO model works best and enrolled in public schools have left to whether these progr-ams are more cost- join BRAG schools, where there are no effective than the government pro- LE . TE PLAY[Nr FIELT: 33 grams. Per-student costs of the NGO ment. The number of satellite schools programs ranged from 341 to 939 has been stable, at 200 nationwide thaka ($8-$12). Given the substantial since the program's inception, with a diversity in the offerings of these total enrollment of 21,000 students. NGOs, reaching a precise conclusion The satellite school teachers are about their overall cost effectiveness expected to conduct meetings for will be difficult. mothers twice a month to discuss such issues as hygiene, attendance, and per- Satellite schools formance. The teachers are also This experimental program, which has expected to raise the mothers' aware- operated since 1992 and is coordi- ness of the country's rapid population nated by the director of satellite growth. schools within the education ministry, The satellite schools have attracted expands access to primary education slightly more girls than boys, with girls for all children by establishing schools making up 53 percent of the enroll- in villages more than 3 kilometers from ment. The schools have a 100 percent a government primary school. These completion rate, in contrast with regu- schools offer grades 1 and 2 (in a few lar government schools, which lose cases, grade 3) and are linked to a about 40 percent by grade 2 (Sedere "mother school," which accepts stu- 1995b). Preliminary reports indicate a dents on completion. Each school has high transfer rate (88 percent) into gov- two classrooms, each with a maximum emment schools. Comparisons of satel- capacity of fifty-five students. Girls are lite and government school students in given preference, but there are no spe- grade 3 revealed that satellite school cific quotas for admission. All the children perform better than regular teachers are women. They are paid students. However, satellite students modest monthly salaries of 500 thaka who transferred into the regular schools (about $12). Parents select the teacher, did worse than regular school students who must have a tenth grade educa- in all subjects tested. (The data do not tion. present results by gender.) It is not clear The creation of a satellite school what causes the low performance of begins with the formation of a school transferred students. management committee involving the According to several informants, local administrative authority Other the success of satellite schools is creat- committee members include the edu- ing problems for mother school cation authority for that village, a administrators, who lack the space and female member of the community teachers to accommodate the new stu- nominated by the education authority, dents. With a tentative plan to have the satellite school teachers, the head- 4,000 satellite schools operating by master of the mother school, and vari- 1996, these tensions may mount. ous other community members. This committee secures temporary facili- Increasing the number of ties, basic furniture, and a blackboard women teachers and chalk. It also monitors the schools A recent recruitment policy to have functioning. The committee must women make up 60 percent of new donate land for the school building, teachers has brought their share which is constructed by the govern- among teachers from 18 percent in the 34 CiiL2. 'JC P\i[Nl: RSH!WS FOi El;' i -, N1r B-..L. 'H I - .. .-j q*, .-, . Student populations are expanding rapidlv late 1980s to 22 percent today gender roles and responsibilities, per- Although it will take many years to sonal hygiene, nutrition, and the envi- bring the teaching force into gender ronment. Lessons being developed for parity, the preferential hiring of textbooks for middle primary grades women is having a positive impact on address legal rights of women and self- both the women and the girls they dependence. Educational materials teach. Female teachers provide role used as supplements in the upper pri- models for girls and are reportedly less mary grades focus on the dissemina- likely than male teachers to use phvsi- tion of appropriate technologies. The cal punishment, still widespread in underlying assumption is that the Bangladeshi schools. main difficulties women face are their Bangladesh, like many other coun- low skills in production, not their low tries, is experiencing problems keep- position in society ing female teachers in rural areas. Although some useful knowledge Ministry officials are now recruiting at about the conditions of women in the community level and rehiring Bangladesh is being introduced in the retired female teachers. curriculum, it is contained primarily in supplementary materials. Curriculum changes and Education authorities have pro- textbook production duced several posters about women's In recent years Bangladesh has exten- role in society and the importance sively revised its primary education of education, aimed at encouraging curriculum, seeking to make its con- adults to send girls to school. But these tent "modern and scientific." In partic- posters, reportedly distributed to ular, the curriculum changes have many public agencies and to all made textbooks more gender-sensi- schools, are not in evidence. tive, balancing the illustrations of girls and boys and using names of both girls Other initiatives and bovs in the stories. Topics include Radio messages and television spots effects on ftamilv and social welfare, also are being used to encourage pri- L - 1 I'PE l.V.y F 35 mary education. In one of Lhese spots, forms, teaching aids, and outreach show-n during enrollment season, a programs. local folk singer surrounded by chil- Thanks to these and other programs, dren recounts that primary ed'ucation girls' participation in primary schooling is now compulsory. Other spots con- has grown steadily-from 43 percent of vey to parents the importance of edu- primary enrollment in 1986 to 46 per- cation. For example, one spot shows cent in 1994. According to 1990-91 an illiterate mother confusing rat poi- data, there are no significant differences son with medicine because she cannot between boys and girls in dropout, rep- read. etition, and survival rates. But consid- Under the Food for Education Pro- ering that fewer girls enter primary gram, implemented in 1,000 of the school, it can be assumed that the intel- country's approximately 4,500 unions lectual quality or socioeconomic level (a territorial unit), students receive 15 of the girls enrolled is higher. There are kilograms of wheat a monLh, reducing assertions that more girls are complet- the opportunity costs of sending chil- ing their primary education, but no dren to school. It is said that as a result longitudinal statistics. of this incentive, attendance in those schools is about 80 percent. Ministry Assessing the sources believe that 1.4 million addi- Bangladeshi efforts tional students are attending primary While the country is putting in place school because of this program. measures likely to promote higher Another small experimental pro- enrollment and retention of girls in gram also designed to make school less primary schooling, the efforts do not expensive for parents is being imple- always specifically identify girls as the mented in some 700 schools. Money is beneficiaries. Notable exceptions are distributed to the schools to provide the NGO programs, which target girls school feeding programs, free uni- by seeking 70 percent female enroll- Women teachers lhave becomei role models in Bangladesh 36 CR.A. "IN C- PA\RTNEm:H,1,sH;p.; EZLTi.i-WI N -; B :'J-ADESH ment and by having only female teach- coordinated and monitored with rea- ers. Satellite and community schools sonable frequency by ministry offi- aim at providing schools closer to cials, are outperforming the regular home and with a greater financial con- schools on several indicators. tnbution from the community, but The most positive element in the they are not particularly designed to Bangladeshi efforts to advance girls' favor girls, although teachers must be education comes from the govem- women. ment's willingness to experiment with The government's policy of recruit- NGOs as vehicles for the delivery of ing a new teaching force whose com- altemative or parallel education. With position is at least 60 percent female is 40 million illiterate adults and 4 mil- being implemented. But it is unclear lion children out of school, Bangladesh whether the new teachers (and others needs to rely on many educational in the system) are being trained to cre- providers (PMIED 1995). The public ate girl-friendly teaching environ- education system is already under con- ments. While new textbooks are more siderable pressure, with a teacher- gender balanced, the materials, preser- student ratio of 1:66. Nevertheless, a vice and in-service training of teachers, close relationship with NGOs has not and recruitment of female teachers yet developed, and ways to develop seem weak. greater understanding of the diversity Community participation, when and comparative advantages of NGOs closely coordinated and monitored, as providers of nonformal primary seems to yield the expected benefits for schooling remain to be explored. girls' education. The satellite schools, LiNC THE PLAYING F;ELD 37 References AED. The Prnmary Education Development O'Grady, Barbara. TeachLng Communities to Program, Pakistan. Washington D.C.: Educate Girls in Balochistan. Washing- Academy for Educational Develop- ton, D.C.: Academy for Educational ment. 1994. Development, 1994. Bakhtean, Quratul Ain. "Creating Partner- PMED. Education for All: National Plan of ship with the CommunitLies." Paper pre- Action. Dhaka: Primary and Mass Edu- sented at the regional seminar on girls' cation Division, Government of education, Guilin, China. Economic Bangladesh, 1995. Development Institute, 'World Bank, Robinson, Brandon, Jean Davison, and Washington, D.C. November 1994. James Williams. Malawi Educational Bellew, Rosemary, and Elizabeth King. Policy Sector Analysis. Lilongwe: United "Educating Women: Lessons from States Agency for International Devel- Experience." In Womens Education in opment, May 1994. Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, Secretary of Education, Memo Ref. no. and Policies. Baltimore: John Hopkins Cl/31Nol. IV/104. Ministry of Educa- University Press, 1993. tion and Culture, Lilongwe, December, BEMIS. Spring Census Data 1994. Quetta, 1993. Balochistan: Directorate of Primary Sedere, Mohottige Upali. Non-formal Pri- Education, 1994. mary Education Program. Dhaka: Wvorld BRAC. Nonformal Primary Education. Bank, 1995a. Annual Report 1994. Dhaka: Bangladesh . Satellite School Pilot Program. Rural Advancement Committee, 1994. Dhaka: World Bank, 1995b. Colclough, Christopher. Underenroll- UNESCO. Girls' Education Statistics: A ment and Low Quality in African Global Context. Paris: UNESCO, 1993a. Primary Schooling. Toward a Gender- . Education for All: Status and Sensitive Solution." Working Paper 6. Trends. Paris: UNESCO, 1993b. Nairobi: Forum for African 'VWomen USAID. Girls' Attainment in Basic Literacy Educationalists, 1994a. and Education (GABLE) Amendment. FAVv'E. Girls' Education: An Agenda for Lilongowe: United States Agency for Change. Nairobi: Forum for African International Development, 1994. Women Educationalists, 1994b. %Vanjiku, Mukabi Kabira, and Masheti Hauya, Roy "Report of Workshop on Poli- Masinjita. ABC of Gender Analysis. cies on Girls Education." Mala%i Insti- Nairobi: Forum for African Women tute of Education and Ministry of Educationalists, 1995. Education and Culture, Nlay 1993. WVorld Bank. Toward Gender Equalitv: The NIOEST. Basic Education Statistics Malawi Role of Public Policy. Washington D.C.: 1993. Lilongwe: Planning Division. World Bank, 1995. Ministry of Education and Culture, 1993. 3 3 The World Bank 4 Headquarters EDI Learning Resources are 1818 H Street. NW designed for use in ED! courses and Washington, DC 20433, U.S.A. seminars. They discuss issues in Telephone: (202) 477-1234 economic development policy and Facsimile: (202) 477-6391 lessons from experience in a way Telex: MCI 64145 WORLDBANK that can be understood by persons MCI 248423 WORLDBANK without extensive background Cable address: INTBAFRAD knowledge or technical expertise. WASHINGTONDC They will be of particuar interest to readers concerned with_public World Wide Web: http://www.worldbank.org policy E-mail: books@worldbank.org European Office 66, avenue d'1ena 75116 Paris, France Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00 Facsimile: (1) 40.69.30.66 Telex: 640651 Tokyo Office Kokusai Building 1-1, Marunouchi 3-chome Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan Telephone: (3) 3214-5001 Facsimile: (3) 3214-3657 Telex: 26838 13601 111I I 12331 1 011 030 E924.2 9 780821'336014 ISBN 0-8213-3601-0