1794 42 r~~~~~~~~~~~A Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Table of Contents: _ __ i. Foreword iii. Preface 1. Chapter 1: Environmental Issues Prior to the Basic Law 19. Chapter 2: Recent Environmental Developments & Trends 37. Chapter 3: Institutional Responsibilities & Procedures for Environmental Management 51. Chapter 4: Regulations. Standards & Agreements 71. Chapter 5: Other Government Policy Instruments & Support Mechanisms 93. Chapter 6: Industrial Responses to Environmental Concerns 113. Chapter 7: Assessment of Performance and Relevance for Developing Countries 125. Bibliography 127. Photographs 129. Annex Directory 131. Annexes Table of Contents Foreword _1 Program Coordinator (NPC). The NPC coordi- MEIP: the Context for the Study nates all MEIP activities and is responsible for developing the environmental network of gov- T he UNDP-assisted, World Bank-executed ernment, private sector, non-governmental Metropolitan Environmental Improvement organizations (NGOs), research institutions, Program (MEIP) began work in 1990 in five and communities. MEIP supports workshops, Asian metropolitan areas-Beijing, Bombay, demonstration projects, and community envi- Colombo, Jakarta, and Metro Manila. In 1993, ronmental actions, and links these growing this intercountry program began its second environmental network efforts with govern- phase and Kathmandu joined as the sixth MEIP ment policy and investment initiatives. city. MEIP is a constituent partner of the UNDP Urban Management Program for Asia and the A further focus of MEIP is the exchange of Pacific (UMPAP). experience and sharing of information among MEIP cities. This has been carried out through MEIP's mission is to assist Asian urban areas a series of intercountry workshops that review tackle their rapidly growing environmental the city work programs, exchange useful expe- problems. The MEIP approach emphasizes the cross-sectoral nature of these problems and address the failure of traditional, sectoral devel- MEIP has established the city programs, set opment strategies to adequately address urban in motion a variety of city subprojects, and mobi- environmental deterioration or the linkage lized the intercountry exchange. MEIP pub- between industrial and urban development. lications are intended to share insights and experi- ences developed from the MEW process and its The work program in each city is therefore projects. The six MEIP city programs work inde- guided by Steering Committees and technical pendently, with each other, and with international working groups that reflect the cross-sectoral, partners to reverse urban environmental degrada- interagency nature of urban environmental tion and provide useful and replicable lessons in issues. The policy and technical committees urban environmental management. develop Environmental Management Strate- gies (EMS) for their metropolitan regions; incorporate environmental considerations into the work of economic and planning agencies; MEIP and Urban Environmental contribute to the strengthening of environmen- Management Experience in Japan tal protection institutions; and identify high priority environmental investments. To assist developing countries strengthen insti- tutional capacity to control pollution and The MEIP city office serves as secretariat to manage environmental resources, learning the Steering Committee and is managed by a from countries and cities that have experienced local environmental professional, the National similar problems is a particularly effective tool. Foreword Japan has had a large measure of success in deal- ing the 1960s and '70s is directly relevant to the ing with environmental problems associated environmental management challenge facing with rapid industrialization and urbanization. MEIP cities. As a developed country in Asia, its urban envi- On behalf of the MEIP team, I would lke to ronmental management history affords an express appreciation to Shunsuke Aoyama and excellent opportunity to derive lessons and case studies. his colleagues at EX Corporation for their superb efforts in conducting the study. We are T'his study undertakes a detailed review of especially grateful to the report's principal Japan's experience in urban environmental authors, Mr. Aoyoma, Jeremy J. Wlarford, protection and clean-up. The focus was to elab- Kiichiro Sakaguchi, Nahoko Nakazawa, and orate experiences of particular relevance to Hiroshi Naito for their exacting work and care-, MEIP cities, and to other cities in Asia and else- ful analysis. Profound thanks are due to where in the developing world. Professor Michio Hashimoto, Chairman, and to the other members of the Steering Committees Theo raeprs rteniviewu of natrio al eperivene at both national and local levels. Finally, we are also makes extensive use of material derived indebted to the Government of Japan for the from the concurrently conducted case studies support that enabled us to undertake this pro- Ofa three metropoitanyushu. ciTi ses- aokama, ject and to the unflagging efforts of Kazuhiko tOsaka, and Kitakyushu. (These cases are sum- Takemoto of the Japan Environment Agency maried i theAnnees ad pulishd by and of Katsunori Suzuki, our colleague at MEIP as companion volumes to this report.) or Bank. MEIP-World Bank. Some useful conclusions concerning the applicability of Japan's experience for develop- ing countries can be drawn. The study David G. Williams demonstrates that, while much of the technolo- gy and present management practice mnay not P M be easily transferrable, the way in which Japan Metropolitan Environmental Improvement tackled pressing environmental problems dur- Program The findings, interpretations, and condusions expressed in this publication are entirely those of the authors of this study and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the con- venience of the readers; the designations and presentation of material in them does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its board or member countries concerning the legal status of any country, territory, dty, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affiliation. Likewise, the material in this report should not be attributed in any matter whatsoever to Governments, Non-governmental Organiza- tions, any other institutions or individuals who participated in the Japan Study or Japan Study tour, and related workshops and seminars. Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Preface T his study comprises Japan's experience in ernment agencies. Each local committee includ- handling urban environmental issues, with spe- ed senior environmental experts and staff of the cial emphasis upon developments since the end Environmental Protection Bureaus (EPBs) and of the second world war. Like all countries, related departments in the city. The case studies Japan has its own unique characteristics, not are presented in a separate, companion volume least of which has been its phenomenal rate of to this one, entitled: Urban Environmental Man- economic growth in recent years. Nevertheless, agement in Japan: The Experience of Yokohama, its efforts to deal with urban environmental Osaka and Kitakyushu.1 A brief summary of the problems, many of which stem from the process case study report is contained in Annex 1. of economic growth itself, may afford valuable Major sources of information and data for the lessons for cities in developing countries, not study are the reports annually prepared by the only in the Asian region, but throughout the Environment Agency of Japan entitled Quality world. of the Environment in Japan, from which many figures and tables have been drawn. The study is comprised of two main ele- ments. The first one, contained in this report, The study forms part of the World Bank- consists of an overview of Japan's experience, UNDP Metropolitan Environmental Improve- and draws general conclusions about the rele- ment Program (MEIP), which is a collaborative vance of this experience for developing effort, aimed at improving urban environmental countries. More detailed treatment of the management, and facilitating appropriate Japanese experience is contained in the second investments in major cities in Asian developing element of the study, which consists of three countries. The current study gained much from city case studies conducted in Kitakyushu, interaction with other members of the MEIP, pri- Osaka, and Yokohama, which are among the marily at two international events. The first of largest cities in Japan. The overall study draws these was the Intercountry MEIP Workshop in upon, but is not restricted to, the material from Colombo, Sri Lanka in December 1992, at which the city studies. time an interim report of the study was present- ed and discussed. The second was a study tour The work has been conducted by staff of in Japan (see Annex 2, Program of MEIP Japan EX Corporation, under the direction of its Pres- Study Tour) which was attended by officials ident, Mr. Shunsuke Aoyama, and guided by a from the MEIP cities as well as other developing Central Steering Committee under the chair- country participants and staff of concerned manship of Dr. Michio Hashimoto. Three local international organizations, and which culmi- advisory committees were also established in nated in the Conference on Urban En- close collaboration with the case study cities. vironmental Management in Asia, held in The central committee consisted of senior envi- Kitakyushu in October 1993. This conference ronmental experts, representatives of the local was jointly sponsored by the City of Kitakyushu, committees, and senior staff of concerned gov- the World Bank, UNDP, and the United Nations Preface Center for Regional Development. A major Authors of this report are Shunsuke Aoya- objective of these meetings was to determine ma, Jeremy J. Warford, Kiichiro Sakaguchi, how Japanese environmental experience can be Nahoko Nakazawa, Hiroshi Naito and other used to help cities in developing countries tack- staff of EX Corporation, Tokyo. le their own environmental problems. Note: I This document is referred to as Case Studies in the following text. iv Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 1: Environmental Issues Prior to the Basic Law __ T his chapter begins with a brief outline of the Area by Land Categoy / Figure 1.1:y Total area 380,000km2Fiue1 general geographical and historical background Coastal line length 21,000km Japan: Major relevant to the development of environmental Forest 250,000km2 S Industrial Cities Farm land 50,000km2 and Areas concern and policy in Japan. The chapter is Urban area 27,000km2 mainly concerned with the evolution of govern- Others 5 ment environmental policy, citizens' move- ments and legal developments, as wel as trends in environmental conditions up to around 1967, this being the date at which landmark legisla- tion, namely the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control, was passed.TOY Geographical and Historical Background Japan has a land area of 378,000 square kilome- ters, and is surrounded by ocean. The map of Japan (Figure 1.1) shows all cities with popula- tions in excess of one million, among which are time its economy and culture developed into a the three cities selected for special study in this system based upon agriculture and primary exercise, namely, Yokohama, Osaka and industry. After the samurai-centered feudal Kitakyushu. Although not a large country, society was dissolved 130 years ago, a form of Japan extends between the latitudes of 20 and democracy was introduced under the Emperor; 45 degrees north, and encompasses a wide vari- for about 80 years after that until Japan's defeat ety of climatic conditions, ways of life, and in World War II, national policies, especially natural resources. those for enhancing the wealth and military A great trading nation, Japan nevertheless strength of the country, were promoted, with the military and the "zaibatsu", or industrial continues to possess an insular individuality, mines, as the keyipays. and while importing foreign technologies and cultures, invariably molds them to its own style. In accordance with this policy, heavy Except for the period when it was temporarily industries such as steel manufacture were occupied by the Allied Forces after World War developed in the Keihin, Hanshin, Chukyo, II, Japan has not been invaded by other coun- and Kitakyushu economic areas, and a net- tries since prehistory; indeed, it closed its doors work of national trunk roads and railroads was completely to foreigners for 300 years, this peri- created. (See Annex 3, Transportation Net- od of isolation ending in the 1860's. During this works and Land Use in Japan.) These Chapter 1 investments stimulated heavy rural to urban sion was abolished, and farmers and workers migration. became able to participate in the political Serious environmental problems were assod- process, and to articulate their concerns about all matters, including environment. The system ated with these changes in the country's economic of eletiobt en structure. Rapid industrialization brought with it people of local g air -and water polLution, poor working conditions, leaders, the Diet and the district asserbly was and mineral poisoning (exemplfied by the Ashio established, and the basic conditions for people to reflect their opinions in legislative district copper mine case), but industrial growth, neces- adiitrto weescrd.hspoesas say to promote the military strength and wealth of adminstration were secured. This process also involved a significant shift of governmental the country, took precedence over these problems. . The enviroanmental damage and ill-health caused responsibility from the center to municipal and local governments. Paralleling these develop- by ndutril olltio wre gnoedby oven- ments, educational opportunity became more ment for many years. There were however some positive developments during this period; these democratic, and more widely available. induded the introduction of primary education for In the immediate post-war period, recon- all, and improved urban water supply and sanita- struction of public and industrial infrastructure, tiorn measures. Improved night soil collection and food production (agriculture and fisheries) and liquid waste disposal, essental for the promotion housing construction were top priorities. Hous- of public health, were given high priority ing construction placed great demands on wood Following World War HI, a number of de- suppLies, and resulted during this period in con- siderable deforestation in the country. velopments created conditions favorable to environmental improvement in Japan. These Secondary industry in Japan began to be restored during the Korean War, which brokce included the dissolution of the system dominat- ed by the miltary, financial and large land- out in 1950; by 1951 increased demand generat- owningclasses. Po.tical and econoed in part by this conflict stimulated levels of production in mining and manufacturing indus- tries and real personal consumption had Fire 1.2: regained their pre-war levels. Since then, Japan's Figuretr on yen1rat Japanese GNP 400 rate of economic growth has been extremely 1950-1988 500 rapid; its GNP exceeded that of Germany by real 0 311i _ i ll -250 1969; and it is now the second largest economic r1 ll 5D power in the world (see Figures 1.2 and 1.3.) 5og Not only the total volume, but also the 1950 i a 0 6 70 75 85 88 structure, of the Japanese economy has changed significantly over the post-war period. As Fig- Note: ure 1.4 demonstrates, the share of primary At 1980 pces industry, in terms of value added, has declined, 2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Growth Rate (%) | Figure 13: 12 - Average Annual Growth in GNP I Major Countries 1955-1985 year 4 - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1955-1960 I 1960-1965 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1965-1970 1970-1975 1975-1980 Japan USA U.K. (West) Germany Fance 1980-1985 being replaced mainly by tertiary industry. Pri- industries, land designated for these purposes mary industry's share of GNP fell from 25% of still accounts for only about 5% of the national total value added to less than 5% during this land area. One consequence of this has been that period, while its labor force decreased from 18.6 urban land values have escalated to levels that million in 1950 (52.0% of total labor force) to 4.5 are unmatched elsewhere in the world. Howev- million (7.3%) in 1990 (see Figure 1.5). er, completion of the agricultural land designation before the modernization period Paralleling these changes, while the total greatly contributed to conservation of the nat- population of Japan increased from 83 million ural environment in Japan during the process of in 1950 to 103 million in 1970, 117 million in urbanization and industrialization. 1980, and 123 million in 1990, the urban popu- lation figures were 40 million in 1970, 72 million in 1980, and 79 million in 1990 respectively. Clearly, these changes in industrial structure Environmental Consequences and population movements have had substan- of Rapid Industrial Growth tial implications for the environment. Since as early as 1900, there have been many Table 1.1 lists the amount of land used for complaints about the quality of the environ- various purposes in Japan. Land designated for ment in Japan. Air pollution, consisting of forest (about two thirds of the total land area of offensive and toxic gas, soot and smoke were the country) and agriculture is roughly the clearly starting to damage the well-being of the same as that which prevailed at the end of the population well before World War II. Even at feudal period in the 1860s. Despite the rapid this early stage, citizens' movements led to law- growth in demand for residential land to meet suits concerning pollution, (summarized in the needs of the increasing population and Annex 4 Anti-Pollution Activities by Citizens' Chapter 1 3 Groups, 1890-1975). The Tokyo Hygiene Labo- and constituted the vast majority of complaints ratory started measuring dust fall in 1927 and by citzens about environmental matters. Under at that time observed 18 tons of dust per square this administration, the introduction of measures km/month at the center of the city.1 This origi- to counter factory pollution were discouraged. Furthermore, after the China Incident of 1937, the 0 20 40 60 80 100 ( centraUly planned and controled economic and Figure 1.4: war policies exacerbated industrial pollution on Industrial 1950 Structure (Share 1960 _ >. ;;M l the populace. The expansion of the war industry of'\T9\ GNP) 1970 ,f_______________________ increased pollution, but despite an increasing of GNP11) 1970 mcre 1950-198 amount of attention to this subject in the House 1980 of Representatives, (see Annex 5, Pollution Prob- Source: 1987 1 lems Discussed in the House of Representatives), the Economic 1 _ t > -. F ~~~~~~~government largely ignored the problem urifl Planning Agency Primary Industry Secondary Industry Tertiary Industry the war ended. Tlhe post-war reconstruction period, and the nated from road particulates (exhaust gas and clouds of dust from unpaved roads), and emis- emergency demands due to the Korean War, brought about economic prosperity. Japan then entered into its national industrialization period such as gas, tannery, foundry, food processing, and designated new industrial cities and special and spinning industries. Most air pollution was industrial areas. During the next 20 years, air referred to as "neighborhood pollution", since and water pollution seriously worsened. Until it was mainly caused by factories located close it was mainly causedbyfactorieslocatedclose the latter half of the 1950s, residential areas in to residential neighborhoods. many large cities had high factory densities, and Militarism during the Showa Era (from 1926) air pollution originating from small and medi- promoted the construction of large factories such um-sized factories also became widespread. The as those in the steel and chemical industries, number of factories in Tokyo was 47,300 in 1955, which caused large-scale air pollution. Noise and which was almost double that of 24,900 in 1928, vibration also became of increasing importance, and constituted 10% of the national total. Approximately 40% of these factories had less in million than four workers. Air quality in Tokyo in the in million Figure 1.5: 7 - [3 Primary industry mid-1960s was particularly poor. SO2 and N02 Changes in 6 - X Secondary industry levels reached their peak at that time. As Figure Industrial F - 7 Terary ustry - 2 1.6 shows, subsequently there has been general Labor Force 4.'~ 1950-1990 ..l . improvement in all indicators. 2- By the late 1960s, the quality of rivers and 1959 1955 _ ___ . _ _E i0 !lakes had also begun to deteriorate significantly. 1950 19551969 1965 1970 1975 1990 1 1990 A rough indication of water quality conditions is 4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Area (in ten thousands of hectares) Table 1.: 1963 1972 1989 Land Use In Type of Land Use Area % Area % Area % Japan Agriculture 655 17.4 596 15.8 538 14.2 Source: Forest 2,508 66.5 2,529 67.0 2,526 66.9 "A White Paper Plain 66 1.8 49 1.3 28 0.7 for Lands" and" Lakes and Rivers ill 2.9 127 3.4 132 35A Summary for Roads 79 2.1 83 2.2 113 3.0 Housing 64 1.7 70 1.9 97 2.6 Statistics of Industrial/Commerce 14 0.4 40 1.0 62 1.6 Lands", published Others 272 7.2 281 7.0 281 7.4 by the National Total 3,769 100.0 3,774 100.3 3,777 100.0 Land Agency demonstrated in Figure 1.7 which shows the super-express train between Tokyo and Osaka BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) densities of started operations in October, 1964. Though major rivers in Tokyo Prefecture in 1969. In "Shinkansen" was designed and developed by many of the tributaries of these rivers, the densi- using the most modern technology with ty was in excess of 30 ppm, and the DO respect to velocity, safety and operational eco- (dissolved oxygen) of the major rivers was often nomics, its effect on residents' living environ- only 1-2 ppm. ment was not taken into account. Complaints about noise continued to grow The following figures show how the num- during this period, with the spread of radios and ber of pollution complaints in Tokyo changed phonographs, the automobile, and high speed during the pre and post-war periods. Figure 1.8 railways exacerbating the problem. By 1949,70% refers to total number of complaints about of citizens' complaints about the environment industrial pollution between 1924 and 1936 2: concerned noise pollution. Still more problems these were primarily about noise and vibration, arose from the introduction of jet aircraft and followed by air pollution. Table 1.9 shows that construction of the international airports. In the noise and vibration continued to be of dominant late 1960s, noise nuisance from international air- importance after the Second World War. How- ports and defense facilities came to be treated as ever, trends over time are perhaps more useful a general social problem, since urbanization than comparisons between different types of expanded around the airports. In some cases, pollution. Indeed, the number of complaints residents around the airports undertook law- nation-wide continued to increase for some suits aimed at prohibiting airport operations at years, increasing from about 20 thousand in night, and to claim compensation. 1960, to 65 thousand by 1970 (it has stayed at about this level ever since). High speed railways started to become a major source of complaint with regard to noise Most of the complaints related to emis- and vibration. The "Tokaido Shinkansen" sions from small and medium-sized factories. Chapter 1 5 wide air pollution caused by the steel and ppm Figure 1.6: 0.1 SO2 petrochemical complexes (in Yokohama-shi, Air Pollution 009 Oxidant Kitakyushu-shi, Chiba coastal area complexes, Trends in Tokyo 0.07 . o 1963-79 0.06 -Yokkaichi-shi, etc), as weL as by small and (Annual average /0 / NO medium-sized factories and by heating of build- concentrations) 0.03 / ' ~ ings, was widespread. Indeed, air pollution in 0.02 __/ " 0.01 Japan was at its worst in this period. This stim- 0 B 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 i4 75 76 77 78 79 ulated a series of legislative and regulatory initiatives, primarily at the local government Metal, machinery, chemical, ceramic, and spin- level. In 1964, another initiative with far-reach- ning industries were the primnary source of ing consequences was taken; this was the these complaints. Pollution Control Agreement (referred to below 3) between the City of Yokohama and the After 1960, the Korean War expanded Isogo Coal Thermal Electric Power Plant. This industrial demands dramatically, and this important milestone set a precedent for other stimulated the construction of large-scale steel agreements (now numbering more than 37,000) and petrochemical complexes. Severe air pol- nationwide, in which local voluntary agree- lution originated from these complexes as weLL ments arrive at standards that are higher than as from thermal electric power plants. City- the national ones. FinalLy, the Basic Law for Figure 1.7: Water Quality of Major Rivers ( in Tokyo I Prefecture'mN (1969) s-.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Source: \, '\ _ "Pollution and BOD < 5 ppm '-.1 Tokyo", Tokyo = 5 ppm < BOD < 10 ppm . Research BOD > 10 ppm V Institute for Pollution Control 6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 50------- ------i- - ____ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Figurel1.8: 50 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Complaints about Industrial 40 --Polluton in Tokyo, 30-- 1 - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1924-36 20---- ~~~~ v-I- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Tokyo C9 C9 C 14 n m Metropolitan Government Enviroinmental Pollution Control was enacted introduce the term "pollution", although in 1967. water poRution ~~~~was actually an incidental issue. The Mining Law was issued in 1905 and the Factories Law in 1911. The Factories Law Government Initiatives stated that when a factory or facility endan- Prior to the Basic Law gered or damaged public health and interest, the administrative agencies should order the Although, as described below, local governments factory owner to control or remove pollution. had traditionally exercised responsibility for urban In case of necessity, the agencies could stop a sanitation since feudal times, one of the earliest total or partial operation of the factory or fadi- efforts on the part of government to address pollu- ity. However, because the main objective of the tion issues was that of the city of Osaka, which, in Factories Law was protection of labor, it was 1888 issued an ordinance banning the construction not very effective in regulating emissions of of factories with smokestacks within the old Osaka pollutants. The legal system related to mining city. During the Meiji Era (1868-1911), large cities has been reorganized and developed since such as Tokyo and Osaka started to respond to World War II. Environmental pollution c'aused growing numbers of labor accidents and problems by mining operations has been addressed in stemming fr-om inadequate hygiene, taking a num- the following laws. ber of measures in the 1880's and 189(Ys which reg- (a) Mine Safety Law (1949): This basic law ulated factory location and operations. focuses on the protection of workers in mines. The law confirmns the following elements: At the national level, the River Law was Obligation of midne pollution preven- established in 1896. This act was the first to tion, such obligation to be maintained upon the Chapteri1 7 Pollution Total Share of Noise Vibration Toxic Waste Dust Smoke Other Table 1.2: Total (%) Gas Water Total Number Total (%) 6062 - 3323 747 729 98 360 542 263 of Complaints 100.0 100.0 54.8 12.5 12.0 1.6 5.9 8.9 4.3 aboutIndustrial Metal 1886 31.1 1102 249 219 28 102 152 34 Pollution Machinery 919 15.2 663 140 38 6 21 32 19 in Tokyo, (Chemecal 825 13.7 197 55 333 48 47 121 24 1949-59 Electricity 102 1.7 63 9 17 3 3 6 1 1949-59 Gas Ceramics 253 4.2 121 22 9 0 36 58 7 Textile 224 3.8 72 15 11 2 83 35 6 Sawmill 411 6.5 335 26 7 0 22 8 2 Foods 401 6.5 214 41 36 5 12 88 5 Printing 487 8.0 328 126 18 0 2 5 8 _ Others 565 9.3 228 64 41 4 32 37 157 transfer of mining rights; M Implementation of rehabilitation works * Obligation to report on mine pollution by the organizations established by national prevention plans; and government (Coal Mine Damage Corporation * Pollution prevention measures to be and Metal Mining Agency of Japan); and taken after a lapse of mining rights (the order * Creation of a reserve fund and payment carn be issued during 5 years after the lapse of system to the above organizations by mining mi]ning rights) right owners. (b) Amended Mining Law (1950): This law The mining related laws in Japan have fol- conitains the following: lowed the regulation of liability without fault in * Oblgation to provide compensation the Mining Law of the Meiji Era. The laws estab- for mine pollution damages; and lish responsibility for pollution damage * Deposit system in order to create a com- pensation fund (a fixed amount ton of per coal copnain Thyfrhrsiuaeta ea pensation fund (a fixed amount ton of per coal bilitation in the case of mine pollution should be production must be deposited) secured by a reserve fund funded by holders of (c) Temporary Law for Coal Mine Damage mining rights and national subsidy. Re:habilitation (1952), (d) Coal Mine Damage Compensation During the Taisho Era (1912-1925), -the Urban Temporary Law (1963), and District Building Law, currently known as the (e) Special Law for Mining, Pollution Con- Building Standard Law, was passed. Although trol in Metal Mining Industries, etc. (1973): this law, enacted in 1919, did not regulate pollu- These three laws contain the following regula- tion directy, it designated industrial areas and tio:ns. contributed to environmental protection by sepa- * Establishment of long-term planning of rating residences from dangerous factories. rehabilitation of mine damages caused by coal During the subsequent Showa Era, the population and other mining; and number of industrial plants in large cities 8 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program such as Tokyo increased dramatically, and more This is illustrated in Annex 6, Pollution Control factory regulations were introduced. The Tokyo Measures Taken by the Tokyo Municipal Govern- government enacted the Factory Regulation in ment in the Post-War Years. 1929, this being subsequently revised in 1937 and With regard to noise and vibration, the agam in 1943. This regulation controlled factory Tokyo Metropolitan Police Office established a construction through a license system, protected Loud Tone Regulation in 1937. In 1943, the personal property and safety, and regulated noise, Tokyo metropolitan government enacted the vibration, offensive and toxic gas, and waste Regulation on the Prevention of Pollution and water. This became a model for the Tokyo Munic- Accidents in Factories. By this regulation, the ipal Factory Pollution Prevention Ordinance government tried to prevent public nuisances established after World War II. The 1943 revision and disasters stemming from factories by con- of the regulation introduced the word "factory trolling factory location and maintaining pollution" for the first time, and stipulated pollu- adequate distance between factories and resi- tion prevention as one of its objectives. dential areas. After World War 1I, the Tokyo In 1932, the Osaka government issued the Metropolitan Government introduced a Factory Soot and Smoke Prevention Regulation. Indus- Pollution Prevention Ordinance to prevent pub- trial pollution countermeasures in other large lic nuisances. This ordinance regulated not only cities were also gradually expanded. Generally, dust, soot and smoke, but also noise and vibra- however, measures to address neighborhood tion. Building or rebuilding factories required pollution, in particular factory relocation, the permission of the local governor, and in the moved slowly. Furthermore, as indicated case of rebuilding, facilities had to be improved above, the China Incident of 1937 and the con- in line with the requirements of the ordinance. trolled economic policy gave clear priority to In 1954, street noise caused by commercial industrial production. advertising led to the Noise Prevention Ordi- nance, which established standards for the The Water Quality Conservation Law of loudness of public address equipment. Other 1958 and the Factory Effluent Control Law of local governments enacted similar ordinances 1958 were the first laws to specifically address during this period. Measures addressing noise pollution at the national level. However, nei- pollution before the 1960s, however, only ther law included the designation of water applied to fixed point sources. areas or the establishment of water quality standards. These did not materialize until the Until the mid-1950s, public health at the designation of the Edo River in 1962. With national level in Japan had focused mainly on regard to air pollution, designation of areas and the prevention of contagious diseases such as standards did not appear until the Smoke and tuberculosis, by providing basic sanitation, Soot Regulatory Law of 1962. Municipal gov- garbage collection, sewage disposal, and pro- ernments, led by Tokyo, Yokohama, and Osaka motion of labor hygiene. In low income areas took the leadership role during this period.4 there were still common lavatories and com- Chapter 1 9 Figure 1.9: Places Where Environmental * Cadmium pollution area Pollution - Nationally designated pollution disease Caused Serious Health Damage The numbers below the boxes indicate the number of patients in December 1987. Total 103,737 Outbreak in 1964 2nd Minamata Disease 489 Outbreak in 1972 Itai-itai Disease 18 Chronic Arsenic Poisoning 7 z0,> ;Asthma 46,437 Asthma 3,635, -- .-- i $ e ~~~~~~~~~Asthma 7,447 f s ~~~~~~~~Asthma 40,609 \ ~~~~~~Asthma 2,632 \ Ou~~Otbreakinl1972 Chronic Arsenic Poisoning 93 Source: Outbreak in 1953 Minamata Disease 1,352 Japan Environment Agency 10 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program mon wells provided by local governments. m Except for such public sanitary activities, there per 1,000births Figure 1.10: Egypt Intemnational were few policies on water pollution, and hghppt Comprionao 150 / ------ Philippine Comnparison of urban rivers become in effect open sewers, ----Thailand Infant Mortality receiving household and factory effluents. t\ Japan Rates ,, ,,/ XX / X ~~~~~~1950-80 However, industrial pollution was becom- > \ \ 1950-8 ing recognized as an increasingly important \ threat to human health. The Morinaga arsenic V -a-- milk incident (1955) involving parathion toxica- tion of agricultural chemicals was widely -- publicized. The press then publicized a hitherto Source: unlknown disease at Minamata. This was a peri- Ministry of od when pollution, while often latent, was ...... ,_,, ,, ,,Health and expanding rapidly. In the latter half of the 1950s, S60 7X 8 Welfare frequent smog warnings, and noise associated with industry and transportation started to cre- River. Effluent standards were determined by the ate health problems in large cities. Economic Planning Agency, but actual implemen- In 1953, the Ministry of Health and Welfare tation was hampered by complex bureaucratic (MHW) investigated the number of cases of air requirements involving five ministries. However, and water pollution, noise, and vibration, and in 1970, laws concerned with water quality regu- damages suffered by the population on a lation such as the Prevention of Manne Pollution national scale. In 1954, the Ministry also con- and Maritime Disaster Law and the Water Pollu- sulted with the Japan Public Health Society on tion Control Law were established. The Sewerage desirable environmental pollution control stan- Law and Poisonous and Deleterious Substances dards. Based on the result of this consultation, Control Law were also revised. the Mfinistry then (1955) tried to submit a bill In 1956, due to increasing incidents of land entitled the Living Environmental Pollution Control Standards Law. However, the Ministry sbiec,terglto ntepmigo Contol tandrdsLaw.Howver,theMinitry underground water for industry was upgraded failed to submit it because other concerned to a Law. In 1960, the public health division of ministries, local governments, and industries the environmental sanitation bureau at the concluded that the timing was premature, and successfully opposed it. Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW), which was responsible for environmental sanitation, In 1959, the Factory Waste Water Regulatory initiated measures for pollution administration Law was established as a direct result of fishermen at the national level. breaking into the Edogawa Honshu Paper Manu- facturing Company to protest against the In 1961, the MHW and the Ministry of discharge of factory waste water into the Edo International Trade and Industry (MITI) pre- Chapter 1 pared a bill which culminated in the Soot and ppm of SOx concentration drastically increased Smoke Regulatory Law. They agreed that: 1) the number of asthma cases. In 1964 the both ministries had responsibility relating to Kurokawa Commission, which consisted of top the soot and smoke regulation, (MITI being ranking specialists in the fields of metrology, responsible for pollution sources, MHW for urban planning, factory location, combustion environmental aspects and impacts; 2) the bill technology, factory safety, environmental sci- should contain general inspection and emer- ence, labor hygiene, and public health, and gency measures; 3) the bill should establish which was sent by the MHW and the MITI to regulations based on the relative emission Yokkaichi, made a series of important strategic concentration method; 4) the bill should not recommendations. These included: conversion include a preventive regulation for new to low sulfur fuel, spreading emissions by tall sources of pollution; 5) the bill should not smokestacks, and introducing pollution control include exhaust gas regulation; and 6) the facilities; the use of common facilities in com- objective of the bill should include a phrase, plexes as a pollution control mechanism; a "preserving the national health and protecting holistic approach to pollution control in com- the living environment which harmonizes plexes, including city remodeling, health care, with healthy economic development". Al- and work safety; and special health care ser- though the Diet passed the bill in 1962, public vices to reflect the correlation between asthma opinion as well as the mass media referred to cases and the existence of SOx at the level of 0.2 it as "toothless". ppm concentration. The University of Mie find- ings and the Kurokawa Commission recom- The Soot and Smoke Regulatory Law cre- mendations had great influence on subsequent ated legal controversy over the relationship air pollution policy. between existing local ordinances and the new law. The MHW, MITI, and Ministry of Home Paralleling these developments, the admin- Affairs (MHA) then revised the law to accept istrative structure started to change at the local ordinances. At this time, the petrochemi- national level. In 1963 the MITI created an cal complexes in Yokkaichi and other sites industrial pollution division, and an Industrial started their operations, and public complaints Pollution Committee in the Industrial Structure and many cases of asthma-like disease were Council4, and developed pollution control reported. The SOx automatic measurement measures to be implemented by industry. The equipment, which was installed at Yokkaichi MHW created the pollution division in the in 1962 frequently recorded almost 1 ppm. hygiene bureau in 1964 and also established an Environmental Pollution Council. Also, in 1964, The Mie University in Mie prefecture con- both Houses of the Diet introduced a special tinuously conducted epidemiological research committee for industrial pollution control on the correlation between air pollution and which provided an on-going opportunity to asthma-like cases, and found that more than 0.2 discuss relevant environmental problems. The 12 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Environmental Pollution Control Service Cor- Although pollution complaints and litiga- poration (now the Japan Environment tion were common in the succeeding years, Corporation) was also established. The Corpo- there was considerable time before they ration aimed at developing technology for became important political or social issues on a investment in plant and equipment, and assist- national scale. First, residents, factories and ing in providing finance for pollution control. local governments began to participate in joint The Corporation has played a critical role in efforts to address major problems, often in an stimulating pollution control activities among informal way. Second, although anti-pollution small and medium-sized enterprises, and con- movements (including farmers, fishermen, and tinues to do so (its activities are described in urban residents) became widespread, real polit- more detail in Chapters 3 and 5) ical power lay in the hands of the main culprit, i.e., the mining and manufacturing industry which was central to the government's policy Residents' Movements and of enhancing the military and industrial Pollution Litigation strength of Japan. Such industries were also Citizens' protest movements against industrial very profitable, and were able to deal with pollution have a long but intermittent history. complaints by providing compensation, rather One of the earliest examples was by the resi- than taking dramatic pollution abatement mea- dents of Yatani Village who suffered from toxic sures. Pollution litigation before the war was wastes emitted by the Ashio copper mine in the limited to small scale neighborhood suits for 1890s. This was a major milestone in which the damages, and never developed sufficiently to citizens' grievances were taken seriously by the influence environmental policy at the national courts, with major steps taken to address them. level. The time necessary for legal proceedings 200,000 2000 - dysentery - cholera Figure 1.11: typhoid paatyphoid Cases of - typhoid infectious diarrhea Waterborne 1S0,000 o- o trachoma 1500 \ - - shhistosome Disease 1950-80 IV 100,000 - lOD0 i <\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' \\ / \ \ V~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ \ 50,000 - 500 - \ \'. \>Source: \\.. -' \\*~ -_- _ Ministry of 0 0 v e ' Health and 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 Welfare Chapter 1 13 was also a major deterrent to taking legal action Illegality on the part of the polluter was to redress complaints. determined by whether the pollution exceeded tolerable limits in the community; the defini- Fuelled by the Korean conflict, the high tion of tolerable limits depended on whether growth period after the Second World War was existing rules had been observed, and local characterized by increasingly serious industrial characteristics, including land use, and the and urban pollution, laying the foundation for damage prevention measures taken by the pol- a series of major disasters (e.g., the Minamata, luter. In many of the cases related to Itai-itai, and Yokkaichi asthma outbreaks, neighborhood pollution, damage compensa- which are described in the next Chapter). tion was obtained by litigation assisted by local Although, Japan had achieved very high health government arbitration. At this time, however, standards overall, there were a number of local- despite evidence of damage to human health ized pollution-specific health incidents of resulting from pollution, parties damaged were dramatic proportions. Figure 1.9 shows the reluctant to enter litigation because of difficulty location of some of these incidents. As epi- in proving fault on the part of the polluter. How- demiological relationships between human ever, in the late 1960s the growing severity of health and the discharge of industrial pollu- pollution-related health problems gave impetus tants became increasingly understood, to a series of lawsuits; as detailed below,. These anti-pollution protests became more sophisti- all resulted in findings in favor of the plaintiffs, cated, and were directed at construction of and, taken together, were of major importance in industrial complexes and large scale land recla- influencing the national government's attitude mation projects. However, pollution litigation toward environmental matters. continued to be dominated by local concerns, with general civil law procedures and prece- _ __ dents being followed. Urban Sanitation Until the 1950s, most of the pollution related problems in Japan consisted of neighbor- During Japan's feudal period important basic hood pollution such as noise, offensive odor, sanitation measures began to be introduced. soot and dust, and the violation of the right to Wells were used for securing city water. In Edo sunshine. Despite arbitration involving local (later renamed Tokyo), the Tamagawa water governments, and instructions to enterprises, supply project was undertaken to provide peo- many pollution-related damage suits were filed. ple with drinking water. With respect to In order to claim damages under civil law, the garbage removal and disposal, cleaning and injured party was generally required to prove disposal systems for burning and land filling of fault or intention on the part of the other party, collected garbage in major towns already exist- and causal relationships in cases of neighbor- ed. In suburbs and villages, individuals simply hood pollution had to be verified. disposed of waste material on vacant land. 14 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program At that time most night soil was collected hygiene, and supplied nutritional and other by wooden pails from toilets and used as com- knowledge necessary for health maintenance. post for rice fields and plowed land. Night soil at the lord's mansion or public toilets in towns During this period the Public Cleansing was collected by private operators, and com- Law was introduced. This aimed at shifting prehensive collection was generally achieved. from traditional waste disposal methods to Most cities had side ditches for clean water and municipal systems, and required cities to be for domestic drainage water, which was then responsible for solid waste and night soil treat- directly discharged into rivers. Because night ment. National health insurance was soil was also collected and used separately, introducedforallcitizensinl938.Whiledevel- major towns were able to maintain high sanita- oping these policies, Japan introduced sanitary tion standards. engineering and medical technology obtained from the US and Europe, particularly Germany. In the Meiji Era (the latter part of the 1800s) The national Public Health Institute, financed after the national isolation policy ended, the by a donation from the Rockefeller Foundation government planned to break from feudal soci- in 1937, also conducted and promoted research ety. Under the military and industrial strength on public health. policy, cities became densely populated, and The use of night soil as compost in agricul- contagious diseases such as cholera broke out tural villages decreased with the widespread on a large scale. Due to such epidemics, the use of chemical fertilizer in the post war period. government set urban sanitary improvement For this reason, treatment facilities for night soil as one of the national priorities, and began and ocean dumping disposal were accelerated. extensive construction of the infrastructure Improvements in night soil collection vehicles necessary for providing citizens with clean and the diffusion of digester chambers led to drinking water. Implementation of sewerage the upgrading of household facilities in addi- systems in large cities took place in addition to tion to the expansion of sewerage systems. improving night soil collection. Garbage collec- As a result of these public health develop- tion was systematized, some disposal of solid waste by incineration was introduced, and land ments, urban sanitation standards in Japan by the 1960s had become comparable to those in filling disposal methods were established else- where. Health centers were also established, Europe and the United States. Among indica- tors of success in this area, infant mortality per aimed at preventing imfectious and communi- cable disease. Prioritizing the prevention of 1,000 births, which was about 30 in the 1960s, was just over 10 in the 1970s. The rate has con- contagious disease and parasites, and promot- tne odcie n otne ob oe ing infant health, the health centers functioned than that of the US (see Figure 1.10). as a link between local communities and doc- tors in order to carry out health examinations Morbidity due to contaminated drinking such as stool tests and improved personal water (for diseases such as typhoid) was 50 per Chapter 1 15 0.1 million in the 1940s, became 1.0 in the 1960s, the new political reality exemplified by these and below 0.5 in the 1970s. Because of progress problems, as well as by the series of lawsuits and in local health care, mortality from tuberculosis growing public opposition to polluters, and they and gastroenteritis, which was about 100 per 0.1 in turn placed pressure upon the national gov- million in 1950, fell to around 10 in 1970. These ernment to take positive action. Legislative indicators have remained relatively unchanged action at the national level took time to develop, since that time. Life expectancy increased from but as an interim measure, was preceded by the 59 years in 1950 to 65 in 1960, and 69 in 1970. It provision of subsidies and guidance for small is now about 74 (see Figures 1.11). and medium industry, and instructions and Healt-h centers (about 800 in total), which guidance for large industry. Predictably, these measures were inadequate, but had some were primarily formed as the basis for local heath care, came to function as the lower reaches of impact because of continued and growing pop- ular demand for environmental improvement. admirnistration and subsequently responded to the challenges posed by industrial and urban pol- This encouraged city leaders to take stronger measures against polluting industries; their lution. They also functioned as important centers for training of technical staff who later took power to do so was also growing as industry's demand for scarce urban land (use of which was responsibility for pollution administration. Large der ter corol incrased. city administrations such as Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and Yokohama accumulated expertise Designation of city areas according to use on urban sanitation and thereafter supplied started to become more systematic at this time, skilled personnel to the rest of the country. These and the City Planning Law, introduced in 1968, persons, who often became leaders in national required separation of residential from industri- pollution control efforts, were able to function al areas. Voluntary Pollution Control quickly and effectively in large part due to their Agreements also started to come into effect. prior experience in urban sanitation work. Local governments began to obtain financial assistance from the national government to __ assist medium and small enterprises by con- struction of collective wastewater treatment Summary of Events works and to subsidize their relocation to Leading to the Basic Law coastal reclaimed land. However, the latter pol- icy, while assisting in pollution control, caused By the late 1960s, economic growth in Japan mc etuto ftentrlsoeie much destruction of the natural shoreline. had led to a wide variety of urban sanitation and pollution problems, and many ways of It is clear that the long history of urban san- addressing them. (These are summarized in itation and the accumulation of experience in Annex 7, Evolution of Urban Sanitation and Pollu- human resources and technology in this area tion Problems and Measures Prior to 1970). Public have helped to provide a solid foundation for officials at the local level were the first to react to subsequent progress in dealing with pollution. 16 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Although local governments had addressed and in government policies which allowed this urban sanitation for many years, comparable practice to occur. Encouraged by the press and actions against industrial pollution lagged well television, popular movements against pollu- behind, being limited to measures on neighbor- tion intensified everywhere, and it became an hood pollution. As noted earlier, during the increasingly important topic in local politics pre-war period these were subordinated to the and mayoral elections. The local governments development of the country's military and that emerged from this process recognized that industrial complex. However, as industrial pol- they could not deal adequately with environ- lution became increasingly serious during the mental problems by themselves, and put first high growth period in the 1950s, citizens' pressure on the national government to become complaints about damage caused by pollution more heavily involved. Finally, the national placed growing pressure on public authorities government took concrete action. In 1967 the to take action. In practice it was the local gov- Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control ernment authorities that were the primary was enacted. The process of decision-making recipients of these complaints; and it was at this by which the substance of this law was deter- level that pollution control activities, such as mined is described in Annex 8, Case Studies in authorization of industrial siting and emission Government Decision-Making. Evolution of the levels were initially introduced. Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control, However, this piecemeal approach, involv- 1967 and Revision of NOx standards, 1978. ing inconsistent and sometimes competing In summary, the content of the Basic Law efforts among local governments, was very for Environmental Pollution Control was as fol- inefficient, and only impacted upon the most lows: extreme polluting activities. Meanwhile, indus- - - 1|19~~~~~~~~~ The stated objective was to protect the trial pollution became ever more pervasive nation's health from damage caused by pollu- throughout the country, as economic growth contnuedapac thrughthe 960s Serous tion, to preserve the living environment in continued apace through the 1960s. Serious harmony with economic development, and to pollution-related diseases such as Minamata, contrib te tonpublic wele. Itai-itai and Yokkaichi asthma broke out, and MI Environmental standards were estab- opposition movements to sites for waste dis- lished to protect human health and to preserve posal and industrial complexes intensified, as the environment. The government was required did pollution litigation. Industrialists began to t to make a scientific examination of environmen- realize that this situation might threaten profits. tak an scperioic andto evisetm tal standards periodically and to revise them if The role of the mass media became of great necessary. importance in stimulating awareness of the 11 Emission and effluent standards were impact of pollution on human health and of the established for settling environmental disputes. causal relationships involved. It also alerted cit- 1 Subsidies through fiscal instruments izens to the shortcomings in industrial practice should be made available to small and medium Chapter 1 17 sized businesses for pollution control. errnent, local governments, enterprises and * The pollution control strategy should des- residents in pollution control, were defined. igpate special pollution control areas in which (More detail on the Basic Law for Environmental Pol- comprehensive measures should be applied. lution Control is presented in Annex 9.) a The responsibilities of the national gov- Footnotes: 1 In general, the best information about enviromnental conditions in the years prior to the Basic Law relates to the Tokyo Prefec- ture. In this section, therefore, much of the illustrative material refers to the Tokyo area. 2 And is also described in detail in Case Studies. 3 Further details on other cities are to be found in Case Studies. 4 The Industrial Structure Council is a high level body which includes scholars and representatives of industry and local govern- ment, and which advises the government on national industrial policy. 18 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 2: Recent Environmental Developments & Trends against the enterprise which had discharged Pollution Litigation in the Early 1970s the pollution-causing effluent, and won the case in the first trial in 1973. Compensation was A s noted in Chapter 1, years of disregard 930 million yen including legal costs. Standard for the environmental consequences of certain compensation was 18 million yen for each industrial operations in Japan culminated in a death and 16 to 18 million yen to the survivors. series of public health disasters which did Subsequently many more victims of Minamata much to stimulate governments to take serious disease have been identified, and legal pro- action against pollution. Cooperation on the ceedings continue. part of industry was also assisted by the results of fou landark cses i whic victms ofItai-itai Disease Itai-itai is a disease caused industrial pollution csuedsth indutial ncte- o by cadmium poisoning causing intense pain industrial pollution sued the industrial enter- truhu h oy rcu'gbns n prises concerned for the damages suffered. The even resulting in death. In 1968 victims and courts found in favor of the plaintiffs in all four eir families (8 people Incuig1 vic - cases, the trials all being concluded during the first half of the 1970s. Brief summaries of the tims), having identified causal relationships, filed suit to claim damage against the mining cases follow below; further details are to be found in Annex 10, enterprises for having discharged effluents containing cadmium and won the case in the Niigata Minamata Disease Minamata - first trial in 1971. At the second trial in 1972 named after a small town in which the disease with actual guilt established, compensation was first observed - is a disease in which the was 2.3 billion yen: 12 million yen for each organic mercury in factory effluent is accumu- death and 9.6 million yen per survivor. lated inside the human body through con- Yokkaichi Asthma. Inhalation of sulfur sumption of fish. Numbness of limbs, difficulty oxides is a major cause of chronic bronchit in walking, and sometimes insanity and death bronchial asthma, and pulmonary emphysema. result. The disease can affect unborn babies. . . ~~Yokkaichi asthma causes bronchospasms and Over 1,800 people are presently certified as suf- fering from the disease. Plaintiffs, consisting of difficulty in breathing. Today about 900 people in Yokrkaichi city are still recognized as suffer- victims and their families, filed suit in 1967 to ing from this disease. In 1967 residents filed a dicharmdamged from the pollution-causewhing hesuit to claim damage and compensation against sixteen enterprises comprising the local indus- They won the case in 1971. Compensation paid trial complex, having identified the causal was 270 million yen to 77 victims and their relationship between asthma and the sulfur families. oxides discharged. A second trial was conclud- Kumamoto Minamata Disease In 1969, the ed in favor of the plaintiff in 1972. In the first plaintiff consisting of the victims and their fam- trial the enterprises were jointly required to pay ilies (31 families, 141 people), claimed damages the plaintiff a total of 90 million yen. At the sec- Chapter 2 19 ond trial, the plaintiffs, consisting of 140 peo- this shifted a part of the victims' responsibility ple, won compensation of 10 million yen for for verifying causal relationships onto the enter- each death, 6.5 million yen for an in-patient, 5.5 prises. This ruling has had a major impact on million yen for an out-patient and 3 million yen subsequent litigation. for each child: Total compensation amounted to In the same case, judgement was reached 569 million yen. regarding air pollution caused jointly by sever- These cases established a number of impor- al different enterprises. The court found that tant principles, which assisted in instituting the with regard to the overall causal relationship Pollution-Related Health Damage Compensa- between the pollution caused by joint emis- tion Law in 1973 and in introducing the sions of several factories and actual damages, principle of no-fault-liability which was a fea- the factories can be held commonly responsible tuire of the Air Pollution Control Law of 1972. for the purposes of determining compensation. They also resulted in the elimination of the This ruling has had a greater impact on indus- "harmony with economy" clause in the Basic try than any other pollution litigation. In Law for Environmental Pollution Control. addition to health damage, property damage can also be included in compensation payable. First, conventional judicial precedents had established that as long as enterprises had Suspension of Projects Suits have also been taken reasonable measures to reduce pollution, filed for the suspension of projects which might they were not legally at fault. However, in the generate pollution later, instead of simply four major cases referred to above it was deter- claiming damages after the event. Such litiga- mined that enterprises should take maximum tion was applied to Osaka International Airport preventive measures if damage to human life (filed in 1969), Nagoya Shinkansen (Bullet train or health is involved. In the Itai-itai case, for noise filed in 1974), and to suspend the example, proof of fault was deemed unneces- Kawasaki Steel Chiba factory expansion plan in sary and only verification of the causal 1975. Results included the suspension of night relationship was required. flights at the Osaka International Airport in 1974 and further suspension resulted from a Also, the plaintiff, as in general civil law, had second trial in 1975. On the other hand, the previously been required to prove the existence claim for suspension was rejected in the first of a causal relationship in a damage suit. But, in trial of Shinkansen Noise Litigation in 1980. the Itai-itai case, a different judgement was reached: as long as there are sufficient facts to During the 1970s, many other cases were assume the causal relationship between the act filed for suspension of operations in public and the damage, absent strong counter-proof to facilities or projects, such as the Hanshin that assumption, enterprises must take responsi- Expressway, and several raw sewage treatment bility for the act - even without complete plants, factories, roads, and oil pipelines. How- verification and strict scientific study In effect ever, after a ruling in the Supreme Court on the 20 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program case of Osaka International Airport in the environmental degradation in its many forms 1980s, that abstract claims for suspension were was becoming increasingly of concern, the not legitimate, the suspension of projects rela- national government's role had been little more tive to aircraft and Shinkansen pollution than to provide guidance. Such efforts howev- became problematic, and many claims were er were extremely weak; national policy was denied or withdrawn. Legal action to construc- heavily oriented toward industrial growth, and tion because of their potential environmental cities were reluctant to impose strict controls as damage became less and less frequent. they competed with each other to attract indus- Although litigation, or its possibility, has try. Indeed, they contributed to the problem by land reclamation schemes in the coastal areas, led to greater anti-pollution measures in public as well as the construction of massive industri- projects, the court rulings have meant that al complexes, often with little attention to their Japan's Environmental Impact Assessment . c environmental consequences. Law and associated procedures are not as effec- tive as they could be. Pollution litigation has, Around 1970, the Japanese government began by establishing the principles of liability and to assume a more substantial role with regard to compensation, and by creating publicity harm- environmental problems. This was largely in ful to the reputation of the concerned response to the growing awareness of the Japanese enterprises, contributed greatly to the promo- people about environment, and increasing knowl- tion of anti-pollution measures after damage edge of the risks to health brought about by has been done, and therefore acts as a deterrent environmental degradation, particularly pollution. to the generation of more pollution. However, Wide publicity given by the media to the major more direct avoidance of pollution by legal environmental disasters referred to above were of challenge to individual projects in advance of extreme importance in stimulating government their construction would seem to merit more action at the national level. support from the courts. Prevention is indeed, Environmental degradation, in particular better than cure, and is certainly better than that caused by the discharge of industrial compensation. wastes, had therefore become a major political issue by the middle to late 1960s. In 1970, a spe- _________________________________________ cial Diet session focusing only on The Emerging Role environmental pollution issues was held. It of the National Government was the so called "Environmental Pollution Diet." During this session, 14 bills were estab- Prior to the 1970s, virtually total responsibility lished into law. Although the theme of for pollution control, if it existed at all, had harmony with economic development was at been with local governments. All major gov- the heart of these laws, a number of measures ernmental initiatives were taken at the local which were to have a major impact upon level, primarily in the large cities. Although industrial operations were enacted. For exam- Chapter 2 21 ple, in 1971 the existing Basic Law was revised victim, the Pollution-Related Health Damage and the artide stipulating that anti-pollution mea- Compensation Law of 1973 was established. sures should be subordinate to economic Although the Law concerning Special Measure development objectives was deleted. Every facto- for the Relief of the Pollution-Related Patients ry in Japan, not only as hitherto, those in only covers health care relief, the 1973 law can designated areas, was now to be subjected to anti- compensate those who have lost income due to pollution legislation. Local governments were pollution-related disease. The law covered given authority to set up emission standards issues such as the definition of a pollution- more stringent than the national ones. Polluters related victim, amount of compensation, and themselves should be primarily responsible for cost-sharing. However, it also created a system paying for the cost of pollution control. for reimbursing victims of air pollution where specific cause and effect relationships between With respect to the relief of those suffering an individual polluter and victims cannot read- from illness that resulted from pollution, the ily be established; i.e., in those frequently Yokkaichi city government in the late 1960s encountered cases in which victims and introduced a system in which it covered 100% sources of pollution are widely dispersed. of the medical expenses of pollution-related ill- ness. With this background and the provision Despite these events, the national govern- of the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution ment, which was eventually taking the lead in Control requiring the implementation of a pro- Japan's environmental program, was still doing cedure for compensation of victims, the Law so somewhat reluctantly. In the early years, it concerning Special Measures for the Relief of continued to subordinate environmental con- the Pollution-Related Patients was established cerns to its policy of industrial promotion. The in 1969. Based on this law, Japan's Federation of Japanese Environment Agency was established Economic Organizations (private industrial cir- in 1971, and MITI, the Ministry of Construc- cle) established a health care foundation, to tion, and Ministry of Health and Welfare which industry voluntarily donated money. reorganized and reinforced their anti-pollution The foundation did not specify the responsibil- activities, and set up the Environmental Pollu- ity of polluting industry and did not attempt to tion Control Service Corporation, later to identify causal relationships. Funds from the be known as the Japan Environment Corpora- foundation were paid to local governments in a tion. These agencies constituted the national designated account through the Environmental government's administrative base for it efforts Pollution Control Service Corporation. to combat pollution. However, MITI, and the Ministries of Construction, Transport, Agricul- Following the legal victory of the Yokkaichi ture, and Forestry and Fisheries, were at that residents in 1972, in which the court ruled that time still not convinced about the seriousness epidemiological analysis could be used to iden- of the environmental problem, and policy tify the cause of damage to an individual still primarily reflected the views of industry on 22 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (ppm) Average for 22 continuously-monitoring automobile exhaust monitoring stations 0.05 - Figure 2.1: 0.040 O.4042 0.043 _037043 0.042 0 .041 0.042 Ambient Air 0.032 0.04 ~ °037 "~~oo-4-0- 00.042 .042 0040O _o,o3 Quality Nitrogen dioxide < 0.03 0.034 0.027 0.027 0.028 00276 Indicators: (NOs) n 0.02 0°0°2 0.020 0025 0028\ 0028 0.028 0.028 0.025 0.024 0.028 028 N ational 1 5Average for 15 continuously-monitoring Averages general environmental air monitoring stations 1971-88 '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 (ppm) 0.07 059 Average for 15 continously-monitoring 0.06 -0.5 0 055 general environments air monitoring stations 0.05 0.5 Sulfur dioxide a0 (SO2) < 0.04 -0.043 0037 'g0.03- 0.02 =010 0.01 0.010 0.010 0.020 0.017 0.02 0.012 0.012- 0.02 0 '65 '66 '67 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 (ppm) 6 66 5.3 Average for 15 continuously-monitoring 5 - 5.4 4.54 - 7/ automobile exhaust monitoring stations 5.0 O 4s Carbon monoxide 4.2 3 2 (CO) ; < 2 2.9 26 2.4 2.4 24 2.4 2.6 2.5 2. 1 2 - 2.4 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 (ma/rm) 0.070 - 0.060 _ 0.059 Average for 40 continuously-monitoring u° \ O 051 g general e~~~nvironmental air monitoring stations L 0.050 - Suspended particulate 043 0 041 00041 0.041 matter(SPM) 0.040 ¢ 0.030 _ ~~~~~~ ~~~~0.036 0.037 0.041 .0303 .~0.030 0.020 Source: 0.010 fJapan Environment '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 Agency Chapter 2 23 S02 (ppm) _____________ - NOz (ppm) Dust Fall NMHC Figure 2.2: SPM (mg/m) (t/ka'/month) (ppm) Ambient Air 0.08 20.0 - 0.8 Quality: 0.07 5 0.7 General ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~0.06 hT)ltFl PM''', - 15.0 - 0.6 General 0.0 Environmental Yokohama 0.05 Monitoring _ Stations i002 SO0 0.2 (Yokohama, 0.01_ 2.5 0.1 Osaka, and i 0 Osak,an I 55 60 65 70 7.5 80 85 90 0 Kitakyushu) 1955-90 City Measures NOx Total Emission Control i Establishment 1st Pollution Control of Regulatory Guidelines for Agreement Authority Hydrocarbon, SOx & Dust Fai Fall NOz (ppm) Dust Fall NMHC SPIvl (mg/m) (t/kma/month) (ppm) 0.25 25 1.0 0.20 Pall 20 0.8 I Osaka ~~~~ ~~~0.15 _____ - NIJ 15 0.6 Osaka l s-o6 0.10 - ------ ~~~~~~~~~_ __ __ 10 0.4 0.05 = SO2 5 0.2 5 5 6 °00 65 701 i5 80 485 O ° Soot and Smoke Clean Air P Control Month Pan '71 New Clean Air Plan Financial Assistance Regular Smnong Systemn for PollutionAiPoltn Monitoring starts ArPluinAbatement Equipment Purchase AmsirollReuta tinPa ___________ Air Pollution Emission Reduction Plan City Measures| Control Standard SO2 (ppm) NO2 (ppm) Dust Fall NMHC SPM (mg/AW) (t/kms/month) (ppm) 0.10 25 -OF 0.08 D2t F \0 0.4 0.05 ____ \-@/'\' |15 0.3 Kitakyushu 0.04 P M- - SO . 10 0.2 0.02 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 0 0 55 60 65 70 j 75 80 85 90 The Central Govt. Guidelines for __|_City_Measures__ Entrusted the Mayor NOn pollution Control Measures Source: City Measures ~~~~~~~~with the Authority of Source: Issuing Smong Warning Pollution Control Ordinance Case Studies Pollution Control Agreement 24 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program this subject. Key positions in the newly created was established, the existing Soot and Smoke Environment Agency were initially occupied by Regulatory Law was revised and enacted as the staff transfenred from Ministries with special inter- Air Pollution Control Law. This act, which ests, which did not obviously coincide with established ambient air quality and emission environmental objectives. Thus, persons in charge effluent standards, was the first major measure of air and water pollution were transferred from to counter air pollution at the national level. MM, motor vehide pollution from the Ministry of Accompanied by efforts of national and munic- Transport, and soil pollution and agricultural chem- ipal governments with the co-operation of icals from the Ministry of Agriculture. private industry, the act accelerated the improvement of combustion processes, conver- As awareness of the seriousness of environ- sion to low sulfur fuel, and installation of air mental degradation and its consequences for meonomc dgrowththas matured, itsconhasethenevfolu pollution control facilities. During the latter half economic growth has matured, so has the evolution ofte17smaursordceirpuin of the 1970s, measures to reduce air pollution of the government's environmental policy. Key positionsfin the gvenuenmentiAgencalpohcy Key were greatly improved. This is illustrated in Fig- ure 2.1 on a national level with regard to NO2, ingly being filled by staff from ministries likely to be S°2 and CO. These national trends are illustrat- more sympathetic to environmental concens, such as heMinsty o Halt ad Wlfre.Neertles, ed in more detail by the experience of as the Ministry of Health and Welfare. Nevertheless, Yokohama, Osaka, and Kitakyushu (Figure 2.2). the Environment Agency still only has the power to the EnviTon'nent Agency sbfl only has the power to It will be noted that dramatic improvements in "coordinate" environmental decision-making with- these indicators followed enactment of the Air in the national administration, and often has to .. .. ~~~~Pollution Control Law. confront a powerful coalhtion of Ministries, politi- cians and private industry in trying to effect reform. Measures to reduce NOx also progressed, It cannot intioduce any new environmental regula- and emissions from exhaust gas, which is one tion without the agreement of the government as a of the major sources, decreased sharply on a per whole. The Environment Agency in many cases automobile basis as a result of stringent regula- represents and articulates the views of the people in tions imposed on the automobile industry. dealing with the rest of the national administration, However, as Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show, total and drafts measures accordingly; ultimately, how- emissions have remained relatively stable over ever, its success depends upon the strength of the last twenty years due to the growth in auto- popular support for environmental improvement, mobile traffic. Consequently, in this respect, ambient air quality standards in the large cities have not yet been achieved. Pollution Control Measures and Trends Water Quality Extensive pollution control in Environmental Indicators activity followed the Water Pollution Control Law, which was introduced in 1971. This estab- Air Quality At about the same time as the lished uniform national effluent standards for Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control specified facilities from which effluents are Chapter 2 25 (%) remains particularly low, although some im- Figure 23: 100 provement has been observed in recent years. Compliance with Water Although the quality of industrial effluents Quality 80 8. has considerably improved over this period, Standards 78.2 Rivers (BOD) 1979-89 70 7 .0 improved ambient water quality has been 60 - 65.0 hampered by the decreased water flow of 50 urban rivers due to growing industrial abstrac- 40 41.8 3 3 tion, as well as by delays in controlling 30 Lakes and reservoirs (COD) domestic waste discharges. Generally, the Source: 20 - expansion of sewerage systems and associated Japan investment in sewage treatment has been an Environment 10 important factor in improving ambient water Agency 79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 quality. As Figure 2.4 shows, in Yokohama, Osaka and Kitakyushu, where there is discharged into publc waters, and also estab- extremely high access to sewerage, consider- ished ambient water qualty targets. Noting able improvements in river quality have been that in some water areas uniform national stan- observed in recent years, although indicators dards may be insufficient to achieve en- for coastal waters are less impressive. vironmental quality objectives, the law pro- As illustrated in Figure 2.5, the record of vides that stricter standards can be set under compliance with national environmental qual- prefectural ordinances. A comprehensive sys- ity standards relating to human health has tem for establishing standards and counter- been good, with major improvements being measures was then set up (this is summarized observed during the early 1970s. Owing to in Annex 11, Water Pollution: Responsibilities for strengthened regulations, dredging of polluted Standards and Countermeasures). However, the sediments, and implementation of contain- quality of en-closed water areas (bays, inland ment operations, significant reductions in the seas, ponds, and lakes) and rivers running discharge of heavy metals and other pollutants through urban areas, which are contaminated influencing human health have been achieved, by organic pollutants, still does not adequately and health-related environmental quality stan- meet ambient standards. Progress in water pol- dards are now attained in most water areas. lution control may be assessed in terms of compliance with established standards Noise and Vibration It was not until the (details of which are to be found in the next enactment of the Basic Law for Environmental Chapter). As Figure 2.3 demonstrates, the Pollution Control in 1967 that strong measures reco:rd of compliance with BOD or COD stan- to reduce noise were promoted. The regulato- darcis has improved slightly over the last ry measures were laid down in the Noise decade. Compliance for lakes and reservoirs Control Law of 1968, and the Vibration Control 26 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program BOD & COD Access to Sewerage(%) figure 2.4: 25 iver BOD 100 Water Quality in Public Waters 20 80 and Access to Sewerage by | 15 \:/ ./ ' 60 Residences Yokohama (Yokohama, 10 | , : . \t 40 Osaka, and ________ Coast il Water COD Kitakyushu) Access to lewerage 20 1955-90 0 0 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 BOD & COD Percentage of Sewered Area %) 40 -. 100 4/ ercentag eof0 30 Area_ 1 ___ 75 Osaka 20 - I - - BOD 50 10 A - 25 _______ _______ ~asta Wter 0 0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 BOD & COD Access to sewerage(%) 25 - 100 20 - - - - 80 River B7D 15 6 Kitakyushu 10 4 Access to Se'Verage 5 20__ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ Cpastal water OD 0 I 0 O 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Source: Case Studies Chapter 2 27 both residences and industry, measures were Figure 2.5: 07 - taken that included building insulator fences Non-Compliance 0.63 and relocation of factories to other areas. Since with ol Environmental many of the factories concerned are small or Quality 0.5 _ medium scale enterprises, some supporting pro- Standards 0.4 X grams have been promoted, including loans for Related to relocation by the Small and Medium Enterprises Human Health 0.2 8 23 Finance Corporation and construction of indus- 0.2? - 09)0.17 trial estates for relocation managed by the Japan 0.1 0 . 0.08 0.02 Environmental Corporation. . OE9~~~ 0.07 .0 0.02 0.0 0.07 0 -8 The Noise Control Law and the Viibration '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 Control Law enable the Environment Agency Notes: to establish maximum permissible limits for 1. The non-compliance ratio consists of samples exceeding EQS to the total traffic noise. If measured levels of noise or Source: number of samples. Japan 2. EQS on health aspects specify that cyanide, organic phosphorus, alkyl vibration exceed the standards, the local gover- Environment meracry and PCBs should not be detected, cadmium should be less than nor should ask the corresponding local public Agsironmeny 0.01 mg/I, and total mercury should be less than 10.005 mg/l. order committee, which is also concerned with Agency 3. The value for mercury is not included in this figure. traffic affairs, to take measures according to Law of 1976, and national ambient noise stan- provisions of the Road Traffic Law. dards were established in 1971. Public nuisance lawsuits such as those relat- ing to the Osaka airport and the Shinkansen In regulating point sources, local governors sue-xrstaiinNgyhvefecdte entrste cit maors o asignares tobe eg- super-express train in Nagoya have affected the entrusted city mayors to assign areas to be reg- development of policy concerning traffic noise. ulated. Factories with designated facilities or The Osaka airport lawsuit led to certain legal designated construction activities, as listed in nmeasures such as the promulgation of ambient the provisions, are regulated by this system. standards for aircraft noise (1973), the amend- Individual standards are established by the ment of the Aircraft Noise Nuisance Prevention local governor within the ranges established by Law (enacted in 1967 and amended in 1974), and the Environment Agency. Legal obligation was establshment of responsibility for development assigned to designated factories, or to designat- around the airport area (1974). Administrative ed construction activities. If they appear to measures have included compensahon for relo violate the standards or to degrade the living cation by the authority; implementation of environment, the local governor can comment countermeasures to abate noise nuisance such as on the plan and can order that improvements the installation of insulators; and limitations on be~~~~~~~~~~~~~h carriedho out.ltr; n lmthso be carried out. airport operations at night and restriction on the In areas where noise and vibration became number of flights. Similar measures were devel- critical problems because land was used by oped for the Shinkansen train such as the 28 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program promulgation of noise standards; guidelines for are now closely regulated by public authorities. vibration, and Cabinet agreement in 1976 con- In addition, large solid waste dischargers such cerning the principles of railroad noise as building contractors are typically required to countermeasures which provided the basis for ensure that their waste is delivered to municipal compensation for relocation or for installing waste disposal sites or incinerators operated by insulation for noise reduction. However, the local government. Municipalities continue to despite such progress, traffic noise from these be responsible for the overall management of various sources remains an important problem solid waste, and for ensuring that the contrac- in Japan. tors operate efficiently. Large waste dischargers have for many years been required to pay fees for solid waste Solid Waste and Urban Sanitation collection and/or disposal based upon volume Solid Waste Traditionally, solid waste collection or weight. Prior to the 1960s, householders paid fees which were sometimes based on house size and disposal was carried out by private indi- and sometimes on a fixed amount per house- viduals and firms, but local governments have hlold. This practice tended to die out in the started to assume responsibility for this due to following decades, when costs of solid waste complaints about poor service and over-charg- collecin addsp were siml fance ing. Today, responsibility for managing solid - ~~~~~~~~~~~~out of local taxation. However, there are sig>ns waste disposal rests virtually entirely with otflcatxan.Hwvrtheaesis that practice is changing again. In fact, the Japan municipal governments. Many cities, such as Yokohama, actually operate the system them- Municipal Mayors Association recommended in 1993 that householders should pay fees based selves; others contract out to private enterprises. Others employ both their own city workers and upon volume. About 20% of the municipalties private contractors. In Tokyo for example, actu- already do this. The predominant method for collecting fees is for the municipal authorities to al waste collection isvdonelby city e oees, sell certain types of plastic bags to householders but they use collection vehicles (and drivers) at a predetermnined price. The municipality con- belonging to private contractors. The overall credewinly ce Te puot int cerned will only collect waste put out in these national framework for solid waste manage- ment is contained in the Waste Treatment Law bags. Alternatively, households may purchase special stickers which identify waste bags autho- of 170 wich et u a sstemof spervsion rized to be collected by the municipality. Some and guidance, specifying the responsibilities of local governments, ordinance-designated cities municipalities have adopted systems of progres- and other organizatinsinthisarea.sively higher fees, the greater the volume of and other organizations in this area. waste. Charges for the collection and disposal of In general, there is a growing trend to rely solid waste from industrial establishments more upon private contractors for solid waste depends upon the volume or weight of such collection, but in contrast to earlier times, these wastes.5 Chapter 2 29 Recent initiatives to introduce this kind of The total amount of solid waste generated in system have had good results, reducing total Japan was roughly 1,000 g/day/person in 1970 solid waste generation by up to 50%. So far, and since then has increased in line with the these measures do not appear to have generat- growth in population. The total amount gener- ed much private, illegal dumping. Since most ated was 138 thousand ton/day, or 50.4 nillion of the local governments concerned are in rel- ton/year in 1990. Taking Tokyo as an example, atively small towns, social pressure might be roughly 40% of solid waste is generated by an important explanation for this; it is not nec- households, the remainder from industry and essarjily the case that this would apply in public facilities. About 70% of solid waste is col- bigger cities. It is however, obviously true that lected by the municipality, the remainder being the institution of any measure to raise fees self-hauled. The composition of solid waste in requires a parallel institutional capacity, con- Tokyo is depicted in Figure 2.6. sumer education, or the existence of social conscience on the part of the public to make it As reported by the Environment Agency in work. Formal policy mechanisms of this kind 1989, of the total amount of solid waste generat- cannot necessarily be transplanted from one ed by industry, about 36% was in the form of situalion to another and work successfully sludge, 13% slag, 16% demolition waste, and unless a range of other institutional and social 20% livestock excretion. Of the 8,768 operators instruments are in place. Clearly, this example of industrial waste disposal facilities, 6,553 were is illustrative of a principle that is of more gen- enterprise operators, 1,318 were licensed indus- eral application. trial waste disposal operators, and 897 were (Unit: %) Figure 2.6: Household/Municipal Industrial Composition of Metal 13 Glass 10 Solid Waste in Others Tokyo Rubber/Leather 0.2 Ceramic/Stones Ceramic/Stones 3.2 Plastok 7. 80.3 39 Garbage 8.1 Plastic 7.8 Others 3.5 1\ l S \ / \ l Pla2p.1 rS Textiles 5.1 Wood/Leaf 7.3 lass Wood/Leaf 1.9 'Textiles 4.2Pa27 Textiles 4.2- 11 ! l l 11 4a6.2 lG.( l Others 1.0 1l ! t / ;-A | | ~~~~~~~~~~astic/ \ Garbage / \ Metal ~~~~~~~19.8/ Rubber/Leather Source: 2.2 Tokyo 89.4% Combustibles 28.2% Metropolitan 8.0% Inappropriate 22.0% Government for incineration 2.6% Incombustibles m 49.8% 30 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program public bodies. About 60% of the facilities were a) Local governments spend a large for sludge dehydration, and about 17% were for amount on investment and operation of the plastic crushing and incineration. With. regard treatment systems. The cost of waste treatment to final disposal, of the 2,083 sites, 625 were works was 1,390 billion yen, or 11,000 yen/per- operated by the enterprise concerned, 1,296 by son in 1990. licensed industrial waste disposal operators, b) Focus has been on treatment and dis- and 162 by public bodies. posal, with less emphasis upon measures to actually reduce the amount of waste generated Given the rate of economic growth, espe- by industry and households. Little has been cially the growth of tertiary industry during done to combat a "throw away" mentality. this period, stabilization of the amount of final c) One third of total waste is still disposed waste per capita in Japan over the last two of by landfill, and large cities depend on the decades has been a considerable achievement. reclaimed land. This has caused destruction of However, this has not been achieved by mea- the coastal environment. sures to reduce solid waste generated at the d) The present system of incineration-land- household level. Incentive systems such as fill does not include waste reduction deposit-refund systems or other inducements mechanics. Also, the countermeasures are not for recycling are not significant in Japan. Also, satisfied for CO, and groundwater pollution as noted above, it is only recently that charges has been caused by dioxin from incinerators based upon volume of waste have started to be and leachate from final disposal facilities. introduced. Instead, control of the volume of final waste created in Japan has been achieved Urban Sanitation In 1965, about 8% of at great cost, by means of a massive construc- Japan's population, concentrated in large cities tion of incineration facilities: thus, by 1990, such as Tokyo, Osaka, and Yokohama, had incineration facilities with a total capacity of access to sewerage,. More generally, night soil 173 thousand tons per day (which exceeds the was collected by vacuum trucks from septic total amount of waste) were in place. This tanks ("joukasous") and dumped into the heavy reliance upon incineration has been crit- ocean. Until World War II, night soil was usual- icized in that it increases the emission of ly put in buckets, and carried from villages by greenhouse gases, but this effect is offset to carts and boats. Night soil had been sold for some extent since the process is also used in the fertilizer since the 1600s and was replaced by generation of electric power. The growing chermical fertilizers after the 1960s. Additional reliance upon incineration in major cities is sewage treatment facilities were then required. illustrated by the experience of Yokohama, Demand for flush toilets has also increased. Osaka, and Kitakyushu (Figure 2.7). Wastewater from flush toilets has been collect- ed in joukasous and discharged into rivers after In summary, some features of the present individual treatment. This system, called the treatment system are as follows: "single-function septic tank" has been widely Chapter 2 31 Figure 2.7: Solid Waste Amount Disposal Collected Amount (thousand t) (g/d/person) (Yokohama, 1,400 E Non Incinerated Amount - 1,400 Osaka, and 1,200 It1 ,200 Kitakyushu) 1,000 00 1955-90 Yokohama AmounIper ay /800 600 -per Person 600 400 . . | - f jL||f E| s!a-. R-s - ;400 200 _p3TlI!!!!9 .4.200 055 60 65 70 80 85 90 "War Against Waste" Amount Collected Amount (thousand t) (g/d/person) 2,500 4 Non Incinerated Amount 2,100 w rIcii ,erated Amount 1,50C _ 0 Osaka 50 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Amount Collected Amount (thousand t) (g/d/person) 700 1,400 C Non Incinerated Amount 6001 l 1,200 50 *Inci ierated Amount j^ .0 Kitakyushu 300 Pe 200 Source: 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Case Studies 32 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program thousand people trillion yen- 45,000 2.5 Figure 2.8: Access to Sanitafion; 40,000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Connection to Public Sewerage Septic Tank and 35,000 1 1 Sept~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Spic Tanksn.. andInetet 35000 2.0 Public Sewerage; and Investment 30,000 Investment in Sewerage i Seerg 1963-1988 1.5 25,000- 20,000- :1.0 15,000 10,000 0.5 5,000 -4-4- 4 -- --4--_4 - _ A _ _ -_ _ _ _ -_ Source: |t Water Pollution Control Law Ministry of Law for Emergency Measures Welfare for Sewerage Development used, and in 1965 about the same number of have promoted combined septic tanks, and pro- people used this system as had access to sewer- vided subsidies, induding low interest loans to age. (For a description of the relevant tech- cover the difference between construction costs nologies and costs see Annex 12, Technologies for of combined and single-function septic tanks. At Night Soil Treatment and Septic Tanks.) the present time one quarter of the septic tanks used in Japan are combined ones. In the 1980s to combat water pollution caused by wastewater from households (i.e., Development of sewerage systems in Japan kitchen and washing uses), in areas without had progressed, mainly in the large cities, until sewerage systems, local governments encour- interrupted by World War II. The Sewerage aged the adoption of the "combined septic Law of 1958 and the Sewerage Equipment tank" which can treat not only night soil but Emergency Measure Law of 1967 provided the also household wastewater. Local governments impetus for expansion of sewerage; invest- Chapter 2 33 septic tanks, as well as investment costs cover- Figure 2.9: 40 (thousand persons) ing the period 1963-87. By 1990, collection of Cases of On- night soil and household wastewater by vari- The-Job Victims of Pollution ous means was as follows: 1973-89 s 197_-89 30 a) Households connected to a sewerage system ... 36.4% 20 b) Households with combined septic tanks (including small scale sewerage sys tems)..................................7.1% Source: c) Households with single septic Japan taniks..................................20.3% Environment r d) Households served by collection and Agency '_73 74 _75 '76 '77 '78 79 '80 81 82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87' 88 '89 treatment of night soil . .36.2% This system continues to allow serious ments increased, and improved equipment was water pollution because untreated waste water introduced. Introduction of sewerage often te from c) and d) (i.e., 56.5% of the total) is dis- came after urbanization, substantially increas- ing its cost. Nevertheless, its expansion at a rate charged into rivers. Local governents are therefore accelerating their efforts to ensure of about 1% per year, combined with reduction thaalhousehldr waste wefris colected in factory effluents, has helped to achieve a either by sewerage or by use of combined sep- substantial improvement in ambient water tic tanks. Industrial wastewater may also be quality in Japan. discharged into public sewers on condition that In the 1970s, demands for better facilities in it meets certain standards of water quality. the home (particularly flush toilets) began to Indeed, industrial enterprises are required to exceed the rate at which sewerage schemes connect to sewerage systems where they are could be implemented. Domestic effluents available and where the quality of liquid waste therefore became a major source of water pol- is appropriate. lution. Given this background, small scale Municipal authorities charge fees for using septic tanks, digester chambers and common the sewerage system depending on the volume treatment systems (subsidized by local govern- of wastewater discharged. This is calculated, ments with low interest finance) were for domestic sewage, on the basis of overall established, and have continued to develop water use of the household, in some cases using since the latter half of the 1970s in parallel with the monthly water bill as a proxy. They may the more expensive sewerage systems). also apply a progressive scale of fees, the Figure 2.8 shows the trend in numbers of greater the volume of wastewater, the higher households with access to sewerage or using the fee charged for each increment in volume. 34 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program The number of complaints Figure 2.10: Pollution 80000 Complaints 60000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1970-90 1 40000 - Others 20000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Major 20000 of inutra efflents ofiiaiisae o ieo t ctzn.Freapera ae pollution Source: 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Environmental Disputes Note: Coordination The seven major issues are; air, water, noise, pollution vibration, soil pollution odor and subsidence. Commission The same generally applies to industrial waste- recent years mn addressing pollution in its various water discharged into public sewers, but in the forms, and in so doing, has imnproved the quality case of industrial effluents, municipalities are of life of its citizens. For example, urban water authorized to charge an additional fee depend- supply and sanitation facilities and solid waste ing upon the quality of the wastewater, i.e., disposal are handled extremely effectively, and concentration levels of various pollutants and major progress has been made in relation to var- other indicators of water quality such as BOD ious types of air, water, and noise pollution. One and COD. Out of 825 public sewerage and useful indicator is the number of cases of occu- sewage treatment systems surveyed in 1991, 637 pational ill-health caused by industrial pollution. employed progressive rates based upon volume The trend in this indicator since the early 1970s discharged, and 60 levied specal pollution or water has been almost consistently downward, as Fig- quality charges.6 ure 2.9 shows. m7 = -- Nevertheless, important issues remain unre- solved. The number of citizens' complaints about Progress and Challenges the environment has remained relatively con- stant over the last twenty years. While reduction Information on environmental trends is not pre- in actual environmental problems may to a large cise, and the actual impact upon fundamental extent be offset by growing citizen awareness indicators of well-being, such as human health, and willingness to complain, the large numbers are difficult to determine. Nevertheless, it is clear involved (see Figure 2.10) leave no room for com- that Japan has made substantial progress in placency It is noteworthy that while complaints Chapter 2 35 about noise continue to be dominant, "other" increasing risks to water resources, soils, and issues are becoming more important; these human health. include complaints about illegal dumping, As noted, Japan places heavy reliance on amenity, aesthetics, and sunshine exclusion, and extremely expensive incineraton for solid waste are those associated with a generally high stan- disposal. Final disposal of. much industrial waste is still dependent on low-cost landfill using A generic issue is that while the quality of reclaimed land and inland sites. Few measures for individual emissions tends to show systemat- waste reduction and recycling have been ic improvement, total emissions (of water- or employed, and there are still many inappropriate air-borne waste, or noise) have built up due to waste disposal sites being used. Although increased economic activity. This is illustrated increases in waste disposal fees have started to by the various problems stemming from the encourage recycling, and while the present quan- rapid growth in automobile use. As in all tity of waste treatment is manageable, the unused other countries, these problems continue to capacity of final disposal facilities is small. Solid grow year by year. Moreover, environmental waste disposal therefore continues to pose poten- damage caused by new chemicals, combined tial threats to soil and water resources. These are with the residual effects of toxic and haz- exacerbated by enforcement of air and water pol- ardous wastes discharged from factories in lution control measures, since dust and sludge previous years under less strict controls, poses containing toxic substances has increased. Footnotes: 5 Details from Kazu Kato, The Use of Market-Based histruments in Japanese Environmental Policy, mimeo, 1993. 6 Source: Kazu Kato, op. cit.. 36 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 3: Institutional Responsibilities & Procedures for Environmental Managent RZ esponsibility for environmental decision- environmental objectives. The former group making in Japan, as in all countries, falls to includes the Japan Environment Agency, the various levels of government. The overall gov- Ministerial Pollution Control Measures Meet- ernmental administrative structure as it relates ing, which is located in the Prime Minister's to anti-pollution measures is shown in Figure Office, and the Central Pollution Control Coun- 3.1. Features of key organizations are summa- cil. Although the Environment Agency is rized below. The primary distinction is between responsible for environmental administration national and local level governmental authori- in the country, the Pollution Control Meeting is ties, and their respective roles and respon- the supreme decision-making agency, and sibilities. Decision making processes at the ensures coordination of environmental mea- national and local government levels, and sures with other policy measures between national and local governments are described. Details are also provided on the func- _ _ tions of agencies with specific environmental T responsibilities. In this regard, the Japan Envi- ronment Agency is of course of prime The Japan Environment Agency came into importance, but the roles of the Japan Environ- being on July 1, 1971, its overall mission being ment Corporation and other agencies are also the promotion of environmental protection discussed. Local government responsibilities, with a view to ensuring a healthy and civilized mainly concentrating on those of the large cities, life for the people of Japan. Its general respon- which have powers and duties equivalent to the sibilities include the planning, drafting and Prefectures, and a brief outline of some other promotion of basic policies relating to protec- organizations active in environmental work in tion of the environment; overall coordination of Japan is presented. Organizational arrange- the various branches of the Government ments with regard to basin-wide planning are responsible for environmental protection; coor- also discussed, and the chapter concludes with a dination of budgetary policies for pollution summary of the range of environmental man- control-related expenditures; and centralized agement instruments employed by the various management of appropriations for environ- government agencies. mental research and development. Both nature conservation and pollution control fall within Pollution-related organizations in govern- it jursdcton ment can be divided roughly into two categories. First are those organizations estab- The head of the Environment Agency, the lished specifically for pollution control and Director General, is appointed to the Cabinet environment. The second consists of units with the rank of a Minister of State. When the which have responsibility for pollution mat- Director-General deems it necessary for the ters, but are located in government ministries protection of the environment, they have the and other agencies that have primarily non- power to request information or explanations Chapter 3 37 co t 2 2 v t 3~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 - 3 3 ~ Pollution Control Measures Meeting (the Prime Minister's Office) -Environmlental Agency i ,vrnn -Environmentally related sections in the line Ministries Planning Adjustment Bureau Central Pollution Control Council 1) Ministry of Health and Welfare--Environmental Water Service Nature Concervation Bureau Department. etc. 2) MITI--Site Pollution Bureau, etc. Air Preservation Bureau Water Quality Preservation Bureau 3) Ministry of Construction--Sewerage Department 4) Ministry of Transport--Port and Harbor Bureau, Environmental Improvement Dept., etc. 5) Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery National Institute for Environmental Research| 6) Scientific Technological Agency + National Training Institute for Environmental Pollution Control | 7) Economic Planning Agency 8) Ministry of Foreign Affairs 0 Prefectural Pollution Control Measures Council Pollution Control Measures Bureaus in Prefectures and Other Bureaus in Prefectures and Ordinance- i | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ordinance-Designated Cities | Designated Citiesl 3C| Public Health Center] |[|Research Institute Related toEnvironmental Sanitation| City-Town-Village Pollution Control Measures Council City-Town-Village Pollution Control Measures Section Bureau Other Local Government L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __Bu r e a u s from the heads of other administrative agen- al Institute for Environmental Studies. The cies. The Director-General is also empowered Planning and Construction Bureau also to make recommendations to them with respect includes the Global Environment Department, to important matters. which is responsible for planning, promotion As shown in Figure 3.2, the Agency com- and comprehensive coordination of fundamen- prises four bureaus: 1) Planning and Coor- tal policies on global environmental problems dination, 2) Nature Conservation, 3) Air Quali- and for international cooperation in the field of ty and 4) Water Quality; and two departments: the. environment; planning, promotion, and 1) Global Environment and 2) Environmental comprehensive coordination of policies on spe- Health, in addition to Minister's Secretariat. The cific problems such as global warming and Agency is subdivided into 24 divisions, and deforestation, and programs of studies and nine offices, employing a total of 921 civil ser- research on global environment. vice personnel as of March 1991. Also included is the Environmental Health Department which was created to assure full The Planning and Coordination Bureau is enforcement of the law on Pollution-Related responsible for planning and implementation Health Damage Compensation that was enact- of basic policies relating to environmental pro- ed at the 71st session of the Diet, and other tection and overall coordination of environ- tasks including certification of pollution vic- mental protection measures undertaken by tims, scientific determination of causes of Government agencies concerned. This includes health damage caused by pollution and pay- responsibility for environmental impact assess- ment of compensation to pollution victims. ment, specifically 1) basic policy planning and promotion of environmental impact assess- The Air Quality Bureau is responsible for ment, 2) overall coordination of related works establishing environmental quality standards in environmental impact assessment by agen- and the enforcement of the various pollution con- cies concerned, and 3) scientific and technical trol laws relating to pollution caused through questions concerning environmental impact atrnospheric media, namely, air-pollution, noise, assessment and examination and guidance in vibration and offensive odor. It administers ser- specific cases. vices relating to the establishment of emission standards, and the proper use of fuel to control air In addition, the Bureau is responsible for a pollution. The Water Quality Bureau is charged number of other subjects, including supervi- with establishing environmental water quality sion of the Japan Environment Corporation, standards, and enforcing standards controlling preparation of the annual report on the quality water pollution, ground subsidence and soil con- of the environment and long-term environmen- tamnination. Included within its jurisdiction are tal conservation program, formulation of basic administrative services relating to the treatment policies concerning regional pollution control of industrial and domestic wastes, and those programs, and general management of Nation- related to the control of agricultural chemicals. Chapter 3 39 o~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m- a Central Council for Environmental Pollution Control .............. ... -Nature Conservation Council The Seto Inland Sea Environmental Conservation Council Assistant to Deputy Vice Minister *5 Special Certificabion Council for Minamata Disease Personnel Management Division Office of Public Relations Minister's Sectetariat General Affares Divis RegionalAffarsOfficers (DeputyVice Miister)Accounts Division _ Perliamentary Environmental Information and Statistic's 5 Vice Minister Councilor (2) Program Coordinator Planning and Coordination Division Assistant to Director-General (2) Minister of State Planning and Coordnation Environmental Management Division Director-General Bureau - Environmental Impact Assessment Division Minister in charge of Environmental Research and Technology - Environmental Research Coordinator Global Environment Division Problems ,rblm Administrative Global Environment Planning Oivision Research and Information Office Advisor Vice Minister Department Environmental Control and Office of Oversea's Environmental Cooperation Division Cooperation 5.Pianning Division r Office for Special Diseases . Environmental Health Office of Special Diseases Certificaton Department _LE Health and Welfare Division Office of Health Studies -l Planning and Coordination Division Office for Promotion of Communicatng 5 Natural Parks Planning Division Natonal Garden Offices (4) Nature Conservation Bureau Na-nlGre fie 4 0 1-' .-Conservaton and Management Division -Nabtonal Park Offices (t1o ) 0o .i -Recreational Facilities Division _ Assistant to Director-General Wildlife Division Office of Natural Environment Survey Office of Wild life Mnagement Planning Division 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ult ueuAir Pollution Conlrol D~ivison Office of Traffic pollution Control B . - Air Ouality Sureaup-cia Polution Division Office of Global Atmospheric Protection - Automotive Pollution Control Division Assistant to Direcor-General r-Office of Maritne Pollution Control Water Quality Bureau PlanningDivision and Waste Management Water Quality Management Division Assistanto to DirectL-General CD 5 r Natonal Institute for Environmental Studies Water Pollution Control Division CD " - E National Institute for Minamata Disease Soil and Agricultural Chemical Division LOffice of the Seto Inland Sea Pollution-related Health Damage Compensation Grievance Board Environmental Conservaton 0 As noted earlier, at the time of its establish- Centers: the Environment Information Center; ment the Environment Agency was staffed the Center for Global Environmental Research; mainly by personnel transferred from govern- and the Training Center for Environmental ment agencies having special interest in specific Affairs are attached to the Institute. This train- environmental problems; and in practice major ing system for pollution control is in addition positions were occupied by staff from the to the sanitation training system operated by authorities heavily involved with the environ- the National Sanitation Institute and the Envi- mental issues concerned. This situation has now ronmental Sanitation Center. The National changed, and although the Environment Institute for Minamata Disease is another Agency has gradually assumed leadership in research institute attached to the Environment environmental matters, its ability to carry out Agency. This institute carries out clinical policy measures is clearly limited by its subordi- research relating to the method of medical nate position in relation to other ministries. treatment for the Minamata disease, and basic medical research concerning the Minamata dis- ease, such as epidemiological investigations and studies. Other National Level Institutions Environmental Responsibilities in Line Mi- The Japan Environment Corporation (JEC) istnies Together with organizations specifically One of the most important instruments of designed for environmental purposes, existing environmental management in Japan, the JEC authorities have also expanded their activities (known until 1992 as the Environmental Pollu- to address environmental problems. For exam- tion Control Service Corporation) exists to ple, in the Ministry of Construction de- provide technical and financial support to pri- partments have been established to deal with vate industry in addressing environmental measures against noise concerning road traffic problems. Financial support is also provided and car exhaust gas and with environmental by the Japan Development Bank and the Small problems due to road construction. Another and Medium Enterprise Finance Corporation. deals with the environmental preservation and Further details of the role of these agencies are restoration of rivers, lakes, swamps, and water provided in Chapter 5. quality along the coastline. Other departments Other agencies include The National hiti- deal with municipal sewerage and sewage dis- tute for Environmental Studies which is attached posal, urban planning and noise. to the Environment Agency. Its mandate The Ministry of Transport has also became includes environmental research, including spe- active in dealing with traffic pollution such as cific issues related to global environmental aircraft and Shinkansen noise, and marine con- problems and regional development problems tamination due to land reclamation, port-and as well as fundamental and exploratory stud- harbor environment and vessels. The Ministry ies. To support these research activities three of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery promotes Chapter 3 41 pollution control in order to preserve agricultur- develops industrial pollution control technolo- al irrigation water and the living environment in gy and technologies for enhancing efficiency in agricultural and fishing villages. The Ministry of energy and water use. Health and Welfare, which has traditionally been responsible for water supply, sewage disposal, solid waste and hygiene, continues to be active in assisting local governments in these areas. National Level Decision Making Structure for Industrial Pollution Control The Ministry of Home Affairs extends The Ministry of HomeAffairsextenThe policy-making structure for industrial pol- financial aid to municipalities for environmen- lution-related measures is consistent with tally related work and projects. The Scientific Technlogial Agncy andls tecnoloical general industrial policy-making procedures in Technological Agency handles technological Jpn h eta oennn ae ei deveopmet an nucear owerwork The Japan. The central government makes deci- sions on national measures in cooperation with Education Ministry is in charge of subsidiaries . . ~~~~national industrial groups and with affected for environmental scientific research and the . . . ~~local authorities. Where policy is developed at establishment of related universities. In addi- tion, the Foreign Ministry provides financial the local level, negotiations take place between the local government and the local industry, aid and technical assistance to address environ- which itself often involves the relevant nation- mental problems in foreign countries. al industrial organization. Taken together, these Among them all, the MITI has become the measures achieve cohesion between national most heavily involved in Japan's pollution and local policies, as well as between govern- problems, together with the Environment ment and industry. Agencv. The MITI has encouraged pollution I ~~~~~~~~~~~For the past 40 years, with the Liberal control measures in industry in many ways, Democratic Party until recently almost continu- including negotiations over standards, financ- ally in power, the Diet has had little influence on ing mechanics, and technology development, decision making for national measures. Most of In addition to the environmental research the measures have been submitted as govern- institutions mentioned earlier, relevant re- ment proposals and already developed within search in other Ministries or institutions affili- the administration. With regard to environment, ated with them includes programs in the the policies in which the Diet became involved Meteorological Agency on climate fluctuation were limited to the period when pollution-relat- and the atmosphere; in the Public Works ed laws were instituted around the late 1960s Research Institute; in the Construction Ministry and early 1970s. All the others have been led and on environmental issues related to water and developed by the administration. Therefore, in roads; and in the Environmental Resource developing Japan's national policies, the deci- Research Institute on resources and energy. The sions arising from negotiations within the Industrial Technology Institute of the MITI also administration are key to the whole process. 42 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Anti-pollution initiatives are primarily The process of negotiation and consensus developed by the Environment Agency which building is in practice absolutely necessary negotiates with the industries involved, and prior to acceptance by the government or sub- with relevant Ministries and government mission to the Diet. The Environment Agency offices in charge of public works and which generally tries to propose measures and devel- have responsibility regarding the proposed op them with the support of public opinion, measure. The Environment Agency generally local government and mass media, while other consults MITI first of all and then submits the governmental departments concerned, at both amended proposal to the competent authorities the national and the local level, consult the such as the Ministries of Construction and business interests which will be affected by the Transport for further review. measure, and ask the relevant section commit- Following this review and amendment tee of the ruling party for its support. Without process, the Environment Agency refers the cooperation from the rulng party the measure cannot in practice be proposed to the Diet. revised proposal to a consensus-building instru- ment, namely the Central Pollution Control The above approach has been extremely Council, which consists of representatives from effective in forming a cooperative approach by academia, industry, citizens' and workers' the authorities concerned and in steadily groups, and local government. The proposal is developing measures which are certain to be then submitted to the Pollution Control Mea- implemented in practice. But on the other sures Meeting, to be finalized as national policy hand this has led to a mechanism where policy or legislation. This Meeting, comprised of the is decided with established environmental Prime Minister's Office (the Prime Minister is ideas which make it difficult to take positive chairman) and the Ministers of related authori- action and make policies in advance. It has in ties makes the ultimate decision. However, other words tended to be a reactive policy almost all substantive work has been completed only; this is a limitation of the consensus build- before the measure is submitted. ing approach. While negotiating with other authorities Another aspect of Japan's anti-pollution concerned as described above, the Environment measures is that they have been incorporated Agency consults the pollution and environmen- in national land urban and industrial policies tal departments in local governments. The local and developed as a whole within those poli- authorities take into consideration the relevant cies rather than treated as separate industrial group that will be influenced by the anti-pollution measures. This is clearly demon- measure, their way of the dealing with it if the strated in the mid-term 5-year Economic Plan business should be affected by the measure, and National Comprehensive Land Improve- financing and cost-sharing arrangements, and ment Plan, and the Multipurpose Land other assistance to cope with it. They then con- Development strategy. The latter affects the vey their views to the Environment Agency. subordinate Urban Development Plans, and Chapter 3 43 concerned local governments are involved in 13, Staffing of Local Government Environmental drawing it up. This has also been influential in Activities. guiding industrial sites and population move- ments both nationwide and in urban areas and prCities, towns and villages have always taken in making rules for traffic, energy, water sanprimary responsibility for basic environmental resources and other regional development,.aiain n otnu ob epnil o sewage collection, treatment and disposal. As observed in Chapter 2, roughly one third of the - ; -- . households in Japan have access to sewerage, Environmental Responsibilities about the same number rely upon night soil col- in Local Government lection, and the remainder use septic tanks. In each case, the local government is responsible Forty-seven prefectures and nearly 3,000 cities, for manement of toperatis although town an vilage hae loal elf-oveing for management of the operations, although bodies. Local governments covered in this actual collection may be delegated to private bodies. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cntatos Loca govrnmnt covere in thiscee report refer primarily to the prefectures and contractors. The same kind of arrangement applies to solid waste; again, local authorities theirequialent theordinnce-esignted nave overall responsibility, but private contrac- large cities. The prefectures have some organi- tors ray also beinvolved. zational units which correspond to and deal t with national level environment units. These With these traditional responsibilities, local include Construction Bureaus which corre- governments were readily able to adapt their skills spond to the Rivers and Roads Bureau in the to cope with urban and industrial pollution. Pre- Construction Ministry, and Environmental San- fectures and larger cities have assisted in the itation Bureaus for relevant matters handled by solution of technical problems, and engaged in the Environment Agency and the Ministry of training activities on behalf of small and medium Health and Welfare. They also have Planning sized cities, towns and villages, and also devel- Adjustment Bureaus which handle overall oped national measures in the regions in which strategic planning; Industrial Economy they are located. In fact, the eleven large ordinance- Bureaus which primarily deal with industrial designated cities such as Yokohama, Osaka, and promotion, and City Planning Bureaus which Kitakyushu are given as much authority and oblig- deal with municipal planning, which typically ations as the prefectures with regard to industrial includes environmental issues. Prefectural and urban pollution, and in addition are directly institutions also monitor industrial and urban responsible for implementation of pollution con- pollution and perform regulatory functions trol measures. Some of the smaller cities, with including establishment of local standards; populations of less than one million, have also they also provide technical assistance to sec- been granted these powers and duties. ondary cities, towns and villages within their Local government attitudes toward pollu- jurisdiction. Staffing of local government envi- tion problems tend to differ from those of the ronmental activities is summarized in Annex national government for several reasons: 44 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program * As distinct from the national govern- tion), enabling local government leaders direct- ment, local governments deal directly with ly selected in the election, especially the anti-pollution measures, and have to respond prefectural governors and the leaders, to use directly to citizens' complaints; their own discretion to a large extent. 1 As the leaders are selected by the citi- The importance of local government with zens, they are obliged to be aware of trends in l public awareness toward pollution; and rear topluinmteshscniudt *ublcal a uarenessthowrit envlution;entldep increase. For example, the Environment Agency ilE Local authorities' environmental depart- rgl ryecagsoiin n ae ments negotiate directly with local industry to regularly ex chan es o ino and make ad&ustments on measures with the relevant set their own standards and goals, and (step- Bureaus in the local governmnent, and reflects by-step) stricter standards. They are not, as at , local governments' opinions on ambient and the national level, subjected to major influence effluent standards, as well as designation of from MITI. However, in arriving at Polludon Control Agreements between the local admin- r istration and individual enterprises, businesses Frrom 1960 to the mid-1970s, when antipl at the local level consult the relevant nation- lution measures by industry were at their height, wide organization (e.g., the Electric Power colaboration between the MITI and industry Project Association or Steel Association) to make sure that the local standards do not plye anipratrl'netbihn h nation's ambient and effluent standards. But the exceed the nationwide ones. national government's influence through the industrial measures has become weaker as industry has started to take longer term mea- sures and each industry has dealt with Relationships Between National environment as one of it business activities. and Local Governments Instead, the local governments, which have had great contact with direct environmental mea- The national government has significant influ- sures such as factory sites and itS expansion1, ence on local governments' measures because it have become incrasingl infletial. takes the initiative in national land planning, industrial site policies and major infrastructur- Local governments are capable of using al improvement plans such as traffic, energy their discretion to a fairly large extent in envi- and water resources, as well as having the ronmental matters, but these are restricted to power to subsidize and issue bonds for local industrial and urban pollution measures. As for public works. However, Diet members elected large scale works such as land reclamation, from the local district can monitor administra- trunk roads, railroads, port and harbor con- tion of subsidies (the central government's struction, and water resource developments, all intervention to the local administration using of which may threaten the natural environ- subsidies as a weapon and its arbitrary induc- ment, the national government is in control of Chapter 3 45 the environmental impact assessment process are to be found industrial associations such. as (see Chapter 4 for further discussion). This, the Petro-chemical Federation and Federation plus the fact that the great area of nationally- of Iron and Steel Industry, and Consulting owned land is located along the coast and Association for Water and Sewerage. The among the mountains, severely limits the Industrial Machinery Promotion Association power of local governments. This is one of the has played a particularly important role in reasons why natural environmental resources, developing pollution control technology and especially along the coast, are being destroyed unified views among industries for national even as urban and industrial pollution is being polludon control policy. considerably improved. Labor unions, women's groups and con- sumers groups have also been important. Labor __________________________________ unions have been concerned for many years about working condihtions, and specifically work- Other Organizations Involved related accidents. Until the mid-1960s, however, in Pollution Control Activities they had seldom taken action with regard to hi addition to national and local govenunents, industrial pollution. Since that time, industrial many adotin toraniations andflonca govrnments, labor groups, led by those in the chemical indus- mnoterviromental porniz.Tinse infludencemiapane try in which the most serious occupational health environmental policy. These include semi-public dagehveocrd,aepomtdasis organizations for regional development such as of measures in cooperation with academics and andthe Housiong/UPrban tionand Development Cresidents' groups. Consumer organizations have andCtheoRegiona Promotion an Deeopment also become increasingly involved in pollution Corporation. These institutions play important ise ihatost rmt ulchat roles in large-scale development of housing and industrial parks, and in developing urban infra- through consumer education and by pressuring structure, through development of housing and companies to produce environmentaly benign industrial districts. consumer goods. There are also a number of foundations and In recent years academic and legal groups other non-profit organizations aimed at pro- have become increasingly important in assist- moting the achievement of specific social ing anti-pollution activities. For example, local objectives approved by national and local gov- school teachers led movements against con- ernments. These include the Environmental struction of the Mishima-Numazu industrial Health Center for promotion of training and complex, as well as the industrial activities technological development, and the Japan which caused Yokkaichi asthma. However, Environment Association for diffusion of envi- although individual scholars, teachers, lawyers ronmental education. Other organizations and medical doctors participated in early anti- promote certain public causes among industri- pollution movements and contributed their al and commercial enterprises. In this category skills, formal academic or professional groups 46 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program generally provided assistance only after the Japan. CBPSS is a supreme master plan in movements had been established by popular which present and future pollutants from all will. Professional groups therefore tended to sources are calculated for river basins or other have been followers rather than leaders. water bodies. CBPSS serves as a framework when the necessity for the construction of sewage systems in a planning area is evaluated. Basin-Wide Planning The planning area for CBPSS is basically the whole basin of the water body, however, for prac- The Ministry of Construction has primary respon- tia esn,ajcn ra ol eicr sibility for basin-wide water resource planning. tca depending o res and pectiv porated depending on present and prospective Acting mainly through its River Basin Bureau, it land use. BOD is used as the index in river basins has traditionally given priority to actual use of whereas COD is used for lakes and coastal areas. river water, and integrated and multi-purpose If standards are set on Nitrogen and Phosphorus water resource development, induding municipal and industrial water supply, agricultural water use, hydroelectric power, and flood control. How- Sewage departments in prefectures take ever, in recent years, it has become increasingly care of CBPSS in cooperation with planning, concerned with pollution issues. While the Min- river, agricultural, environmental and financial istry's Urban Planning Bureau (Sewage Division) sectors. Steering committees composed of rele- handles municipal issues, the River Basin Bureau vant sectors and scholars are organized collaborates with it in basin-wide sewage and pol- especially when the basin covers more than lution matters. Central to this is the program two prefectures. known as the Comprehensive Basin-Wide Plan- The main points to be determined in a ning of Sewage Systems (CBPSS) 7. CBPSS are: 1) Basic Strategy to construct sewage facilities, 2) The areas to be covered by The Japanese Sewage Law states that mas- wastewater treatment systems, 3) Location, ter plans for sewer systems should be drawn des and capatm ajo sewae faties out for the bodies of wate-r where water quality deinadcptyomjrswgeffiis in the above area, and 4) Priority for construc- standards are set by the Basic Law for Environ- mental Pollution Control. The objectives of the tmon of swg SStems nthe are master plans are to satisfy water quality stan- Cmoet fCPSipeetto r basic survey, calculation of pollution loads fol- dards by reducing pollutants from various lowed by pollution analysis and sewage sources in the basins by measures such as planning. These components are described in sewer system construction. Because of this, Annex 14, Comprehensive Basin-Wide Planning of CBPSS has been implemented since 1971. As of the end of fiscal 1992 (March 1993), master Sg Systems. plans have been authorized by the Construc- The proposal by Ministry of Construction tion Minister for 73 basins and water bodies in that large scale treatment facilities should be con- Chapter 3 47 Table 3.1: Features Features Enviroamental 1. Environmental and effluent standards * Consideration of the capacities of the three parties: Manatrments citizens, governments and enterprises. Instruments * Enforcement of government environmental and effluent standards. * Supplementary provisions by local governments to national standards for emissions of gas and waste water. U Designation of water system and regional cate- gories for establishment of standards. * Phasing of regulations and standards. * Voluntary observance standards for private com- panies in pollution control agreements. 2. Introduction of Pollution Control * Environmental pollution control programs (desig- Program nated areas for pollution control). * Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure. 3. Education/Training/Self Control in * System for managers in charge of pollution control. Industry U Training system for pollution control. * Establishment of guidelines and organization of technical training. * Environmental education. 4. Monitoring and Guidance U Development of monitoring system. * Obligation for on-the-spot inspection and submis- sion of information. 5. Financial Support * Special taxation measures (special depreciation, reduction and exemption from tax). 6. Technical Support and Development * Joint Technology development and financial sup- port for development. * Technical guidance and support. 7. Pollution Control Projects U Public works for sewage/water supply construction and management. * Works for waste disposal. * Cooperative works, collective facilities to dispose industrial waste, relocation works, construction of buffer green zones. 8. Compensation Schemes U Basin-wide planning. * Environmental dispute coordination commission. * Pollution related Health Damage Compensation Law. U Law concerning Entrepreneurs' Bearing of the Cost of Public Pollution Control Works. 48 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program structed at the mouth of rivers, was against by cit- dominantly on sewer system development, and izens and scholars in terns of the following other activities in the river basin tend to be taken points: as established data; optimal planning obviously * 1) water flow in the middle and lower requires a more comprehensive approach to be reaches is reduced and river environment deteri- employed. orates, * 2) large scale sewerage system may not enable municipalities in the river basin to take their own measures considering local conditions; Summary of Governmental Instruments and and 3It will be apparent from the foregoing that pub- M 3) the cities in the upperstrem cannot hlic authorities at the national and local levels in use the sewerage system until the trunk sewers are onsrude. Tese bjetion hae le to Japan have a wide variety of instruments at their disposal to assist in the management of opposition movements to large scale sewerage construction and increased public awareness of pluincnrlatvte.Teeaesma construction andncrasepucwarized in Table 3.1. (A more detailed form of this protection of river environment. Also the sewer- Table is in Annex 1, Summary of Government's age planning such as dispersion of wastewater Environmental Management Instruments.) Local treatment plants can be seen considering the and national governments address environ- above points. mental issues in three main ways. First, they In practice, the CBPSS still has a number of develop ambient and emission standards, issue shortcomings. For example, there have been regulations, and provide for penalties in the occasions in which waste water management event that the regulations or standards are not has had adverse environmental consequences. observed. Second, they provide many forms of Actual projects have not always recognized the technical and financial assistance to private possibility that conveyance of waste water to industry and individuals in order to encourage treatment plants at the mouth of rivers may, by improved environmental behavior, or to ame- reducing river flow, also reduce dilution fac- liorate the social and economic effects of tors, to the detriment of river quality. Basin polluting activities. Third, they actually plan, management plans should also be closely inte- construct and operate pollution control projects grated into overall land use plans, including or associated facilities. These various methods urban, forest and agricultural uses. However, are discussed in more detail in the next two the CBPSS as currently defined focuses pre- chapters. Footnotes: 7 The following is taken from "Comprehensive Basin-Wide Planning of Sewage Systems", by Hidetoshi Kitawaki in INTEP Newsletter, No. 2 June 1993. Chapter 3 49 50 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 4: Regulations, Standards & Agreements practice this has been the tendency throughout General Responsibilities Japan. T'I Along with environmental quality stan- The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution dards, national level effluent standards for air Control, enacted in 1967, was followed by a pollution, water pollution and noise emissions series of legal and regulatory measures, which have been enacted. These standards are catego- involved, inter alia, the establishment of specific rized by area, type of pollution source, and emission and ambient standards. Of major dependence upon their relationship to existing importance were the Air Pollution Control Act or new facilities. Also, many local governments of 1968, the Water Pollution Control Act of 1971, have established stricter emission/effluent stan- and the Noise Control Act of 1970. National and dards by ordinance or regulation. Furthermore, local governments as appropriate are required to local governments have concluded pollution establish scientifically based environmental control agreements with individual private standards or targets, and revise them periodical- enterprises and thereby secured implementation ly if necessary. Environmental quality standards of stricter pollution control measures. for air, water, and noise have already been estab- lished at the national level, and standards In order to meet the given ambient standards, relating to soil pollution are presently being con- emission control is determined by setting up sidered. Although environmental standards do eimission standards at the following three levels: not have any actual legal enforcement power, Level 1: The common nationwide standard they are extremely important in determining rel- determined by the central govem- evant emission standards. ment. ,Level 2: More stringent standards deter- The national government establishes envi-mieathepfcurlev. ronmnental quality standards to protect humanmieathepfcurlev. ronmentalnqualityestandardstoiprotevirhumant. Level 3: Emission reduction targets set up by health and to preserve the living environment,.ahidvda aresaeidsr each individual large-scale industry For protecting human health, uniform standards u prevail throughout the country. Although governments an the i d alf national ambient standards have been estab- tories. tories. lished for the living environment, different standards are applicable in different situations. This system has functioned effectively to meet Prefectural governments are empowered to varying emission standards at the regional level. place locations in various categories for this pur- pose, depending on local conditions such as the As in the case of ambient standards, emis- amount of residential housing, type and concen- sion standards are determined first at the tration of industry, and so on. Local govern- national level. The standard first categorizes ments have therefore been allowed to set up sources of pollution by kind and scale, and sets stricter standards than the national ones, and in up the allowable degree of emission, effluent, Chapter 4 51 Table 4.1: Substance Facility Standard value Emission j Cadmium and [l Baking fumace and smelting fumace for manufacturing glass using cad- 1.0 mg/Nm3 Standards for its compound Harmful I mium sulfide or cadmium carbonate as raw material Substances 3 Calcination fumace, sintering furnace, smelting furnace, converter and Uune 1971) [ 1I drying furnace for refining copper, lead or cadmium L Drying facility for manufacturing cadmium pigment, or cadmium carbonate Chlorine I Chlorine quick cooling facility for manufacturing chlorinated ethylene 30 mg/Nm3 3 Dissolving tank for manufacturing ferric chloride i Reaction fumace for manufacturing activated carbon using zinc chloride - Reaction facility and absorbing facility for manufacturing chemical products ' Hydrogen - Same as above 80 mg/Nm3 chloride i Waste incinerator 700 mg/Nm_3 Fluorine, hydro- Ez Electrolytic fumace for smelting aluminum (Harmful substances are emit- 3.0 mg/Nm3 sgen fluoride, and ted from discharge outlet) m] Electrolytic fumace for smelting aluminum (Harmful substances are emit- 1.0 mg/Nm3 ted from top) I Baking fumace and smelting fumace for manufacturing glass using fluo- 10 mg/Nm3 rite or sodium silicofluoride as raw material [ Reaction facility, concentrating facility and smelting fumace for manufac- turing phosphoric acid a Condensing facility, absorbing facility and distilling facility for manufactur- ing sodium tripoli-phosphate I Reaction facility, drying facility and baking furnace for manufacturing sodi- um tripoli-phosphate i Reaction fumace for manufacturing superphosphate of lime 115 mg/Nm3 - Baking fumace and open-hearth furnace for manufacturing phosphoric 20 mg/Nm3 Lead and its I Calcination furnace, convertor, smelting fumace, and drying fumace for 10 mg/Nm3 ,compounds refining copper, lead, or zinc E* Sintering fumace and blast fumace for refining copper, lead or zinc 30 mg/Nm3 El Smelting fumace, etc. for secondary refining of lead, for manufacturing lead 10 mg/Nm3 pipe, sheet, wire, lead storage battery or lead pigment I Baking fumace and smelting fumace for manufacturing glass using lead 20 mg/Nm3 oxides as raw materials Note: Prefectures may, by decree, set more stringent standards. 52 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program and noise for each categorized facility. For exam- lower standards were sometimes permitted ple, soot and smoke emission facilities, which are on a temporary basis; and defined in the Enforcement Ordinance of the Air 1 enforcement of the new effluent stan- Pollution Control Law, includes 28 kinds of dards was initially limited to the largest equipment such as boilers, heating furnaces, and effluent dischargers, and then gradually waste incinerators. Separate emission standards, extended to smaller-sized factories. varying according to size of the facility, are deter- In general, the governing principle has con- mnined for each type of equipment. For example, tinued to be that improvement in standards is standards pertaining to certain harmful substan- gradually carried out taking into account tech- dards are as set out in Table 4.1. nological progress as well as the financial To achieve a smooth application of derived c o t emission standards to the designated facilities, the following transitional measures were origi- -________ nally taken: IM for factories for which it was difficult Air Quality Standards to immediately meet the given standards, Environmental or ambient standards for air a 2 to 5 year grace period was given and quality, originally introduced in 1968, relate to Substance Standard Values Measuring Methods _____________________________- Table 4.2: Sulfur Daily average of hourly values shall not Conductometric method Ambient Air dioxide exceed lOppm, and hourly values shall Quality not exceed 2ppm. Standards Carbon monoxide Daily average of hourly values shall not Nondispersive infrared analyzer exceed lOppm, and average of hourly method values in eight consecutive hours shall not exceed 20ppm. Suspended Daily average of hourly values shall not Mass/concentration method based on particulate matter exceed 0.10 mg/m3, and hourly values filtration collection. Alternatively, the shall not exceed 0.20 mg/m3. light-scattering method, the piezo-elec- tric microbalance method, or the Beta-ray attenuation method yielding results linearly related to the values of the mass/concentration method. Nitrogen dioxide Daily average of hourly values shall be Colorimetry employing Saltzman I within the range between 0.04ppm and reagent (with Saltzman's coefficient 0.06ppm or below. being 0.840). Photochemical Hourly values shall not exceed 0.05ppm. Absorptiometry using neutral potassi- oxidants um iodide solution, or coulometry. Chapter 4 53 Figure 4.1: (UNIT) (In million Nm3/h) Installation of 2,000 - 1,843 200 Exhaust Total number of units of facilities installed (reading at left) 1,810 Desulfurization -1,741 1 ' 3 Facilities N 1972-91 1,500 - 1u583 b 150 - 13621,~~~~~~~,12 2u 1,000 -Io f 500 - l 10 0 1972 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 (FY) Source: Japan Notes: Environment 1. Sunrveyed by the Environment Agency. Agency ~~2. The figures for FY1982 and the preceding years are those as of January 1 of the given year, whereas those for FY1 983 and the Agency ~~subsecquent years are those as March 31 of the given year. five polluting substances (see Table 4.2). Emis- factories and business establishments, strict sion effluent standards were established for adherence to emission standards will not be specific facilities and types of equipment at this sufficient to achieve environmental standards. time. Environmental standards for NO2 were In these areas, local governments establish total revised in 1978, when the 0.04-0.06 ppm daily emission reduction programs and implement average requirement was relaxed. For details of total emission controls. In Tokyo, Yokohama how this revision was arrived at, see Annex 8, and Osaka, total emission control began in 1982 Case Studies in Government Decision Making: and has been applied to existing factories and Evolution of The Basic Law for Environmental Pol- business establishments since 1985. By 1990, a lution 1967, and Revision of N02 Standards, 1978. total of 24 total emission control areas had been designated. Increasingly strict emission control T'he national government designates spe- for individual industrial plants, often accord- cial areas where, due to the large number of ing to pollution control agreements, has taken 54 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program place in these and in other areas. This is exem- plified by investment in desulfurization 400 Figure 4.2: facilities, and by the introduction of low NOx 160 Exhaust combustion technology and improvement of 350- Totalprocessingc-punity 340 140 Denitrification denitrification facilities, as depicted in Figures (re3di2g3atright) Facilities 130 4.1 and 4.2. 30 lotal number of units 305 120 1972-90 2L of facilities installed Under the Air Pollution Control Law, the readingsatleft)110 250~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Environment Agency has the power to deter- 100 23~~~~~~9 mine limits of exhaust gas, and has gradually 0 90 strengthened NOx controls with regard to vehi- cle emissions since 1973, as shown in Table 4.3. However, due to opposition from the transport 140 22 5~~~~~~~~~00 industry, progress has not been as rapid as 100 9400 hoped. Emission controls for diesel vehicles and 7 71 ~~~~~~~~~~~30 large lorries was delayed, and they only apply 30 4 20 to new cars. However, although the number of 210 cars has doubled, a combination of emission 1972 0 04 l 0 0 19273 74 75 0727 79 00 01 8203 8 58 78 99 controls, improved traffic management and mass transit systems has stabilized the level of NOx over the last twenty years or so. Notes: As shown in Table 4.4, in comparison with 1. Surveyed by the Enviromnent Agency. 2.The figures for FY 1984 and the subsequent years are based other major industrialized countries, Japan's on the reported data pigeonholing project associated with facilities which ernit soot. ambient air quality standards are relatively 3.The figures for FY1982 and the preceding years are those high; this applies in particular to SO2 and SPM. as of January 1 of the given year, whereas those for FY1983 and the subsequent years are those as of March 31 of the CO and NQ2 standards are less strict. How- given year. ever, it is important to re-emphasize that the national standards are typically exceeded by which determine the maximum allowable lev- locally determined ones. els of polluting substances such as cadmium and mercury are equally applied to all public water bodies throughout the country. The lat- ter, such as pH and BOD are determined Water Quality Standards according to type of water body (river, lake, Environmental or ambient standards are pre- sea, etc.) as wel as by water use. scribed for water quality items relating to With regard to human health, environ- human health, and items relating to the preser- mental standards for eight substances were set vation of the living environment. The former, in 1971, thereafter being periodically revised, Chapter 4 55 Q" I 0~~~~~~~~~~~ t" I (In -m~~~~~~~~~~~~~e, 0 tI) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tl C 'ontrols in force Short-term Target Long-Term Target of autos exhaust gas Mean Value Year Enforced Target Ear Reduction Target Reduction Value Enforced Rate Value Rate Li ht weight avtos Oxide (NO.) 0.9g/km 1988 0.6g/km 33% 0.4g/km 56% Particulate Matter (PM) _ _ _ _ 0.2g/km - - - 0.08g/km ; 60% Dirjeto 38Oppm 1988 A35% A65% Medium-woight NO. I------------------------ 1.32/km 0.7g/km . autos (GVW:1.7Indirect 260ppm 1988 1933 0% 46% ] a 0 2.5tons) P!vPM _ _ 0.25g/km - - - 0.09g/kmn 164% 1Direct _ Injection 400ppm 1989 6-0g/kwh 17% 38% Heauyweight NO. ----------------------------------------- - - - - - 4.5 glkwh------- autos Ini 2 1989 5.0g;kwh 1994 A 2% 5g/12% (GVW : 2.5tons-) ________Injection 260ppm199 50kw 194 212 PM _ _ - - 0.7/kwh - - - 0.25gkwh a 64% CD TElW, 1.25t 0.7g/km 1987(AutosW/aurtimabcitoa) (0.5g/km) (1990) (A 29%) A 43% a as e ge O ------------- ----Passenger----------------------O---- ------- 0 gg km ------- 10 qgA.~~~~~~~~~~IW 25 1986(AutosW/mnina/Trar'nLion)'0 tw Cars EIW > 1.25t 0.9g/km 1AsWT (0.6g/km) (1992) ( 33%) a 56% PM _ _ _ 0.2g/km 1994 - - - 0.08g/km - 60% <:, _ All types Black Smoke 50% 1972 40% A 20% 25% A 50% B C B Trucks Medium-weight autos 0.7g/km 1989 - - - - - 0.4g/km a 43% Buses Heavy weight autos 6iOppm 1989 5.5g/kwh 1992 A 19% 4.5g/kwh A 34% 0 5D asUr B _ ____ _ So2 SPM CO NO2 Table 4.4: (ppm) (mg/m3) (ppm) (ppm) Country-by- Country Comparison Japan 0.04 0.10 10 a/ 0.04-0.06 a/ I of ~~~~~- Ambient Air Canada 0.06 0.12 5 b/ 0.03 c/ Quality U.S.A. 0.14 0.26 9 b/ 0.05 c/ Standards West Germany 0.06 - 9 C/ 0.04 c/ France 0.38 0.35 - - Notes: Source: Japan a/Daily average. Environment b/Average of 8 hours. c/Annual average. Agency with PCB being added in 1975. Subsequent- momentum, standards relating to certain toxic ly,much effort has been made to reach the chemicals, identified in Table 4.6, were added to standards (shown in Table 4.5) for these items, and the environmental standards concerned with the they have now generally been attained. As protection of human health, and the standard val- detailed in Annex 16, Revision of Water Quality Stan- ues for lead and arsenic were strengthened. dards in Japan, following the introduction of new In order to achieve specified environmental drinking water standards, the standards were raised aga in March 1993 and new ites standards, effluent standards which apply duced, as shown in Table 4.6. throughout the country, have been established for effluents discharged to public water areas from For the living environment items, standard specified factories and offices. These effluent stan- values are set according to the type of water use, dards are classified into two groups: standards such as waterworks, fishery, agriculture, or indus- relating to toxic substances apply to all facilities try in each water area. The relationships between type of water use and the environmental standards ITEM STANDARD VALUES Table 4.5: for rivers are given in Table 4.7. Ambient Water Cadmium A 0.01 mgli or less Qualty Environrnental standards relating to the living Cyanide Not detectable i Standards environment have been introduced gradually Organic phosphorus Not detectable Related to since 1970, and, once established, have not been Lead I 0.1 mg/i or less HumanHealth extensively revised. However, growth in the pro- Chromium (hexavalent) 0.05 mg/i or less March 1993) duction and use of chemical substances, and the Arsenic 0.05 mg/i or less introduction of new chemicals has rnade pollution Total mercury 0.0005 mg/i or less Source: of the surface and groundwater by toxic sub- Alkyl mercury Not detectable Japan stances a growing problem. In order to respond to PCB Not detectable Environment this issue and with the 1993 Basel Convention as a Agency Chapter 4 57 1 Water Quality Preservation in 'Closed Water" Areas Table 4.6: ITEM NEW VALUES Serious damage caused by the "red tide" has New Ambient ___ (mg/l) occurred since around 1970 in the Seto hnland Sea. In Water Quality193teLwCne gSpcMesrsfron Standards for Lead below 0.01 1973 the Law Concerning SpecialMeasures for Con- Human Health Arsenic 0.01 servation of the Environment of the Seto hIland Sea (After March Dichloromethane 0.02 was passed. This law ains at the reduction of the 1993) Tetrachlorocarbon 0.002 e 1 ,2-dichloroethylene 0.004 effluent load of Seto blad Sea mto one half of Fat 1,1-sichloroethylene 0.02 in 1972, and limitations on effluent loads was dis- Cis-1-2-dichloroethylene 0.04 tributed to each local government on its coast In 1, 1,1 -trichloroethane 1 1,1,2-trichloroethane 0.006 conformity with this law, the local governments Trichloroethylene 0.03 concerned established stricter regulations and accel- Tetrachloroethylene 0.01 erated investment in sewerage and sewage 1,3-dichloropropane 0.006 eaten wovesTm e i age and Wage Thiram 0.006 treatment works. The Lakes and Ponds Water Source: Simazine 0.006 Quality Preservation Special Measure Law of 1984 Japan Thiobencarb 0.02 further established the general principle that Environment Benzene 0.01 Agency Selenium 0.01 improvement in the quality of inland dosed waters should be addressed by controlling the total amount specified by govemment ordinance as potential- and quality of effluent discharged into them. ly serious polluters, while standards relating to the living environment only apply to specified - facilities which discharge more than 50 m3/day Noise Standards of effluent. Following the Noise Control Law of 1970, These general standards, if applied to all national ambient standards for noise were factories throughout the country, would in established in 1971, and are determined by some cases make it difficult to achieve environ- time of day for each categorized area. As Table mental, or ambient objectives. Where 4.11 demonstrates, noise restriction require- population density and factories are highly ments are substantially less in areas that face concentrated, stricter effluent standards are roads of two lanes or more; moreover, grace required. For this reason most local govern- periods have typically been available to exist- ments have established higher standards. For ing industries before achievement of the example, as Tables 4.8 and 4.9 indicate, effluent standards. In addition to noise emanating standards in the Osaka Prefecture are generally from fixed sources, special standards have higher than the general (national) standards for been applied to motor vehicles, aircraft, and both the health and the living environment the Shinkansen trains. Details of these stan- items. Sometimes the differences are quite con- dards are contained in Annex 17, Noise siderable, as the example of Kanagawa Standards: Motor Vehicles, Aircraft, and Prefecture shows (Table 4.10). Shinkansen. 58 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program _ Item Standard values Table 4.7: Biochemical Suspended Dissolved Number of Ambient Water pH Oxygen Demand Solids Oxygen Coliform Standards U _______________\_(BOD) (SS) (DO) Groups Related to AA Water supply, class 1: 6.5 -8.5 1 mg/ Q or less 25 mg/ P or.less 75 mg/ Q or more 50 MPN/100 Conservation of conservation of natural m Q or less the Living environment, and uses Environment for 3isted in A -E Rivers A Water supply, class 2: 6.5 -8.5 2 mg/l or less 25 mg/ Q or less 7.5 mgl/Q or more 1,000 MPN/ ishery, class 1; bathing 100m Q or les and uses listed in B-E B Water supply, class 3 6.5 -8.5 3 mg/ 9 or less 25 mg/ P or less 5 mgl P or more 5,000 MPNI fishery, class 2; and uses IOOm P or less listed in C-E C Fishery, class 3; 6.5 -8.5 5 mg/PQ or less 50 mg/P or less 5 mg/ Q or more industrial water, class 1' and uses listed in D-E D Industrial water, class 6.0-8.5 8 mg/ P or less 100 mg/ Q or less 2mg/lQ or more 2 ; agricultural water, and uses listed in E E Industrial water, class 3; 6.0-85 10 mg/ P or less Floadng matter 2 mgl / or more conservation of the such as garbage environment should not be observed Notes: 1. The standard value is based on the daily average value. The same applies to the standard values of lakes and coastal waters. 2. At the intake for agriculture. pH shall be between 6.0 and 7.5 and dissolved oxygen shall not be less than 5 mg/I. The same applies to the standard values of lakes. 3 Conservation of natural environment: Conservation of scenic spots and other natural resources. 4 Water supply, class 1- Water treated by simple cleaning operation, such as filtration. Water supply, class 2- Water treated by nor- mal cleaning operation, such as sedimentation and filtration. Water supply, class 3- Water treated through a highly sophisticated cleaning operation including pretreatment. 5 Fishery class 1- For aquatic life, such as trout and bull trout inhabiting oligosaprobic water and those of fishery class 2 and 3. Fishery, class 2- For aquatic life, such as fish of the salmon family and sweetfish inhabiting oligosaprobic water and those of fish- ery class 3.Fishery, class 3- For aquatic life, such as carp and crucian carp inhabiting B - mesosaprobic water. 6. Industrial water, class 1 - Water given normal cleaning treatment such as sedimentation. Industrial water, class 2- Water given sophisticated treatment by chemicals. Industrial water, class 3- Water given special cleaning treatment. 7 Conservation of the environment- Up to the limits at which no unpleasantness is experienced by people on a daily basis. Chapter 4 59 Table 4.8: tEffluent Standards General Standards Stringent Standards Effluent Standards for Items (Water Quality Pollution (Osaka Prefectural Regulation) Standards for Prevention Law) E_E Water Relating-- -1 - Wt Reain Cadmium 0.1 i 0.01 Sustances .Cyanogen 1 Not detected S Organic phosphorous 1 Not detected (Health Items) Lead 1 0.1 General Chromium(hexavalen) 0.5 0.05 Standards and Arsenic 0.5 0.05 Osaka Total mercury 0.005 0.005 Standards Organic Not detected Not detected PCB 0.003 0.003 Sosac:y Trichloroethylene 0.3 - 0.1 Table 4.9: Effluent Standards Items General Osaka Standards - Effluent pH 5.8-8.6 5.8-8.6 Standards Pulp, paper, and processed paper manufacture (Neyangawa) Daily average volume of effluent of the factory already Relating to the established (m3/day) Living 30-50 50-1,000 1,000-5,000 more than 5,000 Environment BOD Highest 160 150 100 65 40 (General (daily average) (120) 120 80 50 30 Standards and SS Highest 200 200 150 110 80 Osaka (daily average) (150) 150 120 90 60 Standards) Oil (mineral oil) 5 5 5 4 3 Animal and plant oils 30 30 30 20 10 Phenols 5 5 Copper 3 3 Zinc 5 5 Iron 10 10 Manganese 10 10 Chromium 2 2 Fluorine 15 15 Boron 2 Source: Number of Coliform (3,000) (3,000) Osaka City Color or Odor No color nor odor which hinders where it is discharged Table 4.10: _ Effluent Standards (mg/1) Comparison of Effluent National Level Kanagawa Prefecture Standards: BOD 160 20 National Level COD 160 20 and Kanagawa SS200 50 Prefecture Source: Phenol 5 0.005 Yokohama City Fluorine 15 0.8 60 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (A) Areas Facing Roads Table 4.11: Ambient Noise X Area category Time category Standards Daytime Morning-Evening Nighttime A areas facing roads with 2 lanes 55 dB(A) 50 dB(A) 45 dB(A) A areas facing roads with more than 2 lanes 60 dB(A) 55 dB(A) 50 dB(A) B areas facing roads with not more than 2 lanes 65 dB(A) 60 dB(A) 55 dB(A) B areas facing roads with more than 2 lanes 65 dB(A) 65 dB(A) 60 dB(A) (B) Other Areas Area category Time category Applicable areas Daytime Morning - evening Nighttime Areas designated for each classilication of land areas by AA 45 dB(A) 40 dB(A) 35 dB(A) aprefecturalgovemorbased on the provision of Arlde 2 of A 50 dB(A) 45 dB(A) 40 dB(A) the Cabinet Orcder relating to the elegation of Authority to Designate Water and Land DB 60 dB(A) 55 dB(A) 50 dB(A) Areas for Environmental Quality Standards (Cabinet Order No.159 of 1971) Notes: Al. "Lane" refers to a longitudinal strip of road with uniform width requisite to allow a single line of cars to travel safely and Source: without hindrance Japan B1. Areas falling within category AA requires such special quiet as where there is a concentration of convalescence facilities. Environment B2. Areas coming within category A are used mainly for residential purposes. A B3. Areas coming within category B are used considerably for residential purposes as well as commercial and industrial purposes. gecy Standards for vehicle noise have been been combined with comprehensive traffic con- raised several times since 1971. A reduction of trol in urban areas, and construction of by-pass 6-11 phons (92-75% reduction when converted routes and loop highways around cities. As an to energy levels) is contained in present stan- emergency measure, subsidies have also been dards, which, on a per automobile basis is a provided for insulation to reduce noise in indi- strict requirement. In spite of the enforcement vidual houses close to national highways;. of this regulation, however, success in improv- 44,000 households had been subsidized by 1991. ing ambient standards remains low, because of the rapid increase in traffic; as noted earlier with With regard to aircraft noise, a combination regard to air pollution, emission standards have of noise reduction and administrative controls Chapter 4 61 has been developed. Though standards have dards. On the other hand, installation of insu- been achieved in only a few areas, nuisances lating material has been completed per in- have been reduced by a variety of measures. dividual households in areas where the noise For example, a Certification System for the level exceeds 75 phon; the indoor environment Adaptation to Aircraft Noise Standards, which is therefore equal to that required for achieve- prohibits the operation of aircraft emitting ment of the standards. Regarding vibration noise exceeding the standard levels, was estab- nuisance, installation of insulating material and lished in 1975, and was reinforced in 1978. subsidization of relocation are implemented -in Departures and arrivals of jet aircraft are pro- areas in which vibration levels exceed the rec- hibited between 11 pm and 6 am at Narita ommended 70 dB (decibel) standard. Nsoise and Tokyo International Airport and Haneda vibration countermeasure concerning railroads (Tokyo) International Airport, and from 10 pm other than the Shinkansen train have also been to 7 am at Osaka International Airport. Noise implemented. This applies, for example, to the reduction plans are applied according to the Tsugaru Straits line and the Seto Ohashi line location and situation of other airports. In areas which opened in 1988, and in which public con- where noise cannot be adequately reduced, cern led to various kinds of countermeasure. other measures such as subsidization for insu- lation; compensation for relocation; or estab- lishment of green belt buffer zones, are under- taken. Finally, Osaka International Airport and Pollution Control Agreements Fukuoka International Airport are designated as airports with development promotion areas, A unique characteristic of Japan's approach to because the areas around the airport have environmental problems is the presence of vol- been urbanized. The development authority is untary agreements between local govermnents established and financed jointly by the national and major industrial enterprises operating, or and local governments, implements redevelop- proposing to operate or expand facilities in ment schemes and preparation of relocation sites their area. The local government negotiates as part of the airport area development plan, in with individual plants to arrive at a detailed line with overall local government plans. written agreement on pollution control mea- sures. In these so-called "Environmental Noise standards for the Shinkansen train Pollution Control Agreements", quantitative were established in 1975. Comprehensive mea- emission levels are determined, based on dis-- sures have been taken, including improvement cussion between local governments andi in the design and reduction in weight of the enterprises. Local resident groups rnay be train car itself, installation of improved noise involved in the agreements. These levels are abatement walls, and improvement of wiring not regulatory but depend on voluntary com- and adjustment of rails. However, some areas pliance by the enterprises. In fact, almost all still have not yet achieved the ambient stan- enterprises comply with the agreed emission 62 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Types of Penalty 1980 1981 1982 Table 4.12: Penalties for Suspension of operation and damage 282 438 447 Violations compensation Applying responsibility for compensation 188 199 205 under the no-fault Pollution Act Source: Pollution Control Other penalties 272 293 476 Agreements by _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - … - In d u stry levels. In addition, some agreements cover on- had no legal authority against pollution, made the-spot inspections and compensation the enterprise agree to take measures against payments in case of accidents. About 2,500 pollution. The agreement, which provided for cases of agreement are concluded annually; a specific pollution control objective, was the number of valid agreements in effect having based upon sound scientific and technical increased from about 2,000 in 1971 to 37,000 20 data on air quality, and was extremely effec- years later. tive in practice. Yokohama city subsequently In fact, it is indispensable for industrial concluded agreements with other enterprises enterprises to obtain approval and coopera- newly locating in the city, as well as with exist- ing large-scale businesses when they invested tion of local governments and the residents if in new facilities. their operations are to run smoothly. The Environmental Pollution Control Agreement Following the Yokohama precedent, is generally recognized as a critical element in agreements on pollution control became wide- this process. The first major agreement was spread throughout the country. At that time it between Yokohama City and the Isogo ther- was common to conclude agreements with mal power plant in 1964. For an example of a enterprises which had immediate plans to specific pollution control agreement, see establish industrial complexes. However, as Annex 18, Sample Pollution Agreement.8 In this pollution issues became more tangible and agreement Yokohama City, which at that time resident movements intensified, cases of Form of Residents Participation in Pollution Control Agreement Table 4.13: Resident 1982 1985 1988 1990 Participation Participation as one of the parties concerned 13 43 51 80 Source Participation as witness 47 40 87 110 Qualityof the Environment in Participation as a single party 222 205 214 339 Japan Chapter 4 63 agreement with enterprises whose activities industries, mainly the service sector. Thus, could potentially create pollution at some recreation facilities, restaurants and the trans- future date increased. The contents of the port industry have increasingly concluded agreements also gradually became more such agreements. detailed. As the agreements are decided on the basis of discussions with each enterprise From the viewpoint of the local government according to the individual situation, local gov- or the population living in the vicinity of potential ermments and community organizations tend pollution activity, the system is useful in that thie to take a positive attitude toward the enterpris- agreed standards are specifically basecd on local es with the objective of determining a geographical, natural, social, and economic con- reasonable and effective regulation for each ditions. From the viewpoint of the business individual enterprise. This has been an impor- establshments, the agreements provide a good tant factor in determining the success of this opportunity to obtain the official sanction arid mechanism. The agreements are not limited to support of the neighboring population as well as secondary industries, the major origin of indus- of the local government with regard to its overall trial pollution, but now also apply to tertiary business or industrial activities. Figure 4.3: The number of specified business The number of Number of establishments (,OOOs) improvement orders Specified l__ _2___ Business 500 2,00 Establishments and Improvement Orders 1971-91 1,500 Specified business establishments 1,000 200[ -1 Improvement orders 500 I0 -- Source: I Japan Environment 0 0 O Agency 1971 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 64 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program In trouble with Figure 4.4: pollution complaints The Pollution Dispute - - - __ __ __ - - __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----Processing '4/ K 8 K System (Pollution grievances) (Pollution dispute) (Consultations) (Application) (Applicaton) (Presentation of appeal etc.) V~~~~~~~~~~~~ Reception Pollution Coordination Perf ecturalCor desks of Comitt polluton screening and municipal c divisions in _ charge of o. pollution, etc. t V _ t Serious case Existence/ Serious cases, Case non ecistence of Seriou sced , ~- processed responsibility for cases over wide damage processed over area compensation wd ra A area * ~~~Clarification of (excluding) A f s cause and effect Grievance £ processing by pollution k Arbitration, Judgment kbitraon, grievance mediation, mediation, consultants, intercession intercession etc. ----- - _ | |Solution by Source: Vt V > ; } judgment, Japan _______________ mediation Environment | |Solution under the pollutioR dispute processing system lAgency Pollution control agreements typically set Out of 2,187 pollution control agreements out actions to be taken in case of agreement vio- concluded between October 1987 and Septem- lations. Penalties for violation may be very strict ber 1988, 1,967 were made between local as Table 4.12 indicates. governments and enterprises, while the Chapter 4 65 remaining 222 were made between residents' the discharge of effluent if it does not meet the groups and enterprises. The form of such par- effluent standards. If such orders are violated, ticipation varies, as shown in Table 4.13. penal action may ensue. This system is illus- trated in Figure 4.4. It is, however, rare that extreme steps are Monitoring, Inspection, and Penalties taken. The threat of other measures, including ultimately being taken to court, is usually suffi- Prefectures and ordinance designated cities cient, not only because of the financial or other have responsibility for carrying out on-site fac- penalties that might result, but also the adversie tory inspections and providing guidance to publicity arising from such an event. In practice, private industry on pollution control matters. nearly all issues are resolved early on in the Trends in the number of specified sites, the sequence of on-site inspection; guidance; request number of on-site inspections performed, and for information; and recommendations on the the number of improvement orders are shown part of the local authority. The process has there- in Figure 4.3. This Figure suggests that the com- fore been effective. Through monitoring and bination of on-site inspections (which are on-site inspections, local governments have performed in about one third of all specified accumulated knowledge and data on the pro- sites per year), combined with guidance by duction processes of various industries, and a local governments has been effective in reduc- better understanding of the causes of pollution ing the need for improvement, and thus and of means of reducing it. The system of mon- provide the background in which regulations itoring and guidance began to function in at such as the effluent standards can be achieved particularly effective manner with the introduc- Plans to establsh, expand or alter specified tion of the notification system for designated facilties must be submitted to the prefectural facities which could become sources of pollu- governor or in the case of the ordinance desig- tion, and the establishment of the industrial nated city, the mayor who can order changes in responsibilty system, described below. the plans on environmental grounds. If stan- dards are not met, the factory will not be _ gg, allowed to operate. As noted above, local stan- The Idusial Responsibility System dards are often much higher than those required at the national level. The local govern- To prevent industrial pollution, it is indispensable ment also monitors construction; if to establish pollution prevention systems in the construction takes place without local authori- factories. One of the contributions of MJ11 is the ty permission, the industrial operation may be introduction of a self-control system for industry suspended. Similarly, the governor or mayor through the promulgation of the Law for Estab- also has the authority to order the improve- lishment of Organization for Pollution Control in ment of the facilities or temporarily suspend Specialized Factories, which was enacted in 1971. 66 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program * Principles for Guidelines Preparation of draft EIS Related prefectural Figure 4.5: implementing EIA (the competent (surveys, prediction, and governor and the Environmental (Environment Agency) Minister) evaluation) related mayors Impact I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ipc Z X E Z Z Assessment Procedures Public announcement of draft EIS and public review (project undertaker) Holding of explanatory meeting(s) (project undertaker) Comments of the residents in the related area Summary of the Comments of the comments of the related mayors residents i Comments of the related prefectural governor Preparation of EIS Related prefectural (project undertaker) govemor and the related mayors u Xublic announcement of the final EIS and public e ireview (project undertaker)| Envronnen Relevant ulorie v authorities I Agnc e conipetent Minister) ||(refectural governor) Views of Minister * ,Source: Japan * if the competent Minister requests. Integration of the results of assessment Environment l into national administration Agency According to this law, factories over a certain size examinations in order to acquire credentials. have to appoint a pollution control supervisor and a pollution control manager who have formal At present, about 23,000 pollution control quaflications in pollution control. Pollution con- supervisors and about 40,000 pollution control trol managers are required by law to pass national managers hold these positions. They bear person- Chapter 4 67 al responsibility for in-plant control. In the case of plete understanding of the actual and potential serious or deliberate environmental non-compli- sources of pollution in their area. In particular, ance, they may even be arrested based on the law. changes, or planned changes in plant opera.- Accordingly they have strong motivation to com- tions must be reported. This information is ply with discharge standards set by relevant laws checked by frequent on-site inspections. or voluntary agreements. They are also motivated to perform in such a manner that the benefit ____ would be maximized and the cost would be min- imized for their factories because they are Environmental Impact Assessment themselves factory staff. They usually achieve In June 1972 when the national government this goal through close cooperation with approved the document "On Environmental process engineers. This situation facilitates the Preservation Measures Related to Publc Works", development and deployment of cleaner pro- environental assessment in Japan has been duc-tion technologies in industry. promoted under the Public Water Body Recla- To a large degree, therefore, industry itself mation Law and other specific legislation, has been required to take formal responsibility administrative directives of ministries and agen- for ensuring the environmental soundness of cies, local ordinances, and plans of various its operations. The responsibility system con- administrations. The decision to implement an sists of several specific elements. First, there is environmental impact assessment procedurie the obligation to keep records of operational was taken by the Cabinet in August 1984. In the management and pollution load discharges "Implementation Scheme for Environmental from specified facilities. A number of other Impact Assessment," a uniform rule applicable duties are specifically required to be carried out to large-scale projects undertaken with the par- by pollution control managers. For example, ticipation of the government was defined. This with regard to air pollution, they are formally calls for the adequate survey, prediction, and responsible for checking of fuel and raw mate- evaluation of possible environmental impact rials; inspection of facilities emitting soot and before the implementation of projects that could smoke; operation, inspection and repair of the significantly affect the environment. The results facilities treating soot and smoke; maintenance are announced to the public, and the opinions of of measurement instruments; taking emer- the local inhabitants are gathered, so that suffi- gency measures in case of accidents involving cient precautions can be taken to protect the specified facilities; and reducing emissions of environment. Thus far, however, environmental soot and smoke in emergency situations. impact assessment in Japan has not been en- shrined in national statutory legislation. The Air Pollution Control Act and the Water Pollution Control Act both require strict A large-scale project that could significant- record keeping on matters relating to industrial ly affect the environment must be subjected to effluents, so that the local authority has a com- the procedures of this Implementation Scheme 68 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program if the project is to be operated or licensed by the of the environmental impact before the reclama- State. The Implementation Scheme covers the tion license is issued. The competent minister construdion of roads, dams, railroads, airports, must ask for the opinion of the Director General land reclamation (induding filling and drainage), of the Environment Agency when he is to issue and land readjustment. Figure 4.5 details the pro- the license for a reclamation project exceeding 50 cedures to be followed. hectares or if the reclamation project calls for spe- cial consideration on the conservation of the The procedure requires that project under- eironmentimilar environment. Sirnilarly, environmental assess- takers must survey, predict, and evaluate the ment for the location of power plants is possible environmental impact of the project mn o h oaino oe lnsi possibeto thenv uironent wimpct ofe dethenpjec conducted under the administrative directives of according to the guidelines which are determined thMisryoIneainlTadadIdury by the competent minister (the minister authoriz- the deliber ationat TriPe develop- ing the particular project) through consultation ment Coordination Council should include with the Director General of the Environment discussions on the conservation of the environ- Agency. The results must be induded in a prelim- ment. In each case, the Environment Agency's mary resort of the envpronmental lmnact authority is restricted to giving an opinion on assessment before the project is implemented. sc rjcs The project undertakers must make public such proects. notices, exhibit the preliinmary report, and hold Similar procedures are in place at the local an explanation meeting; they must also endeavor level; however, local governments have their to determine the opinions of local residents. The own environmental impact assessment regula- project undertakers must listen to the opinions of tions, and are not subject to national level ones. It the municipal mayor and must then request the should also be noted that procedure requires for- opinion of the prefectural governor concerned. mal representation of citizens' views at key Based on these opinions, the project undertakers stages in the process, at both the national and must reexamine the preliminary report, prepare local level. Indeed, this is a characteristic of many the environmental impact assessment report, and of the procedures in place in government to publicize it. The concerned department can, if achieve environmental objectives. This formal- necessary, ask the Director General of the Envi- izes the impact of citizens' movements which ronment Agency to express an opinion on the have been so considerable in the past in bringing assessment report. about progress in environmental management in In addition to the foregoing procedure, envi- Japan, and, subject to certain reservations about ronmental impact assessment is also required actual implementation, referred to below, is high- under specific legislation. For example, construc- ly relevant for other countries. tion and utilization of harbors developed under Although the foregoing procedures repre- the Port and Harbor Law must be subject to envi- sent a major step forward, the environmental ronmental impact assessment. The Public Water impact assessment process in Japan still has a Body Reclamation Law requires an examination number of shortcomings. Instead of being used Chapter 4 69 as a tool to evaluate the feasibility of a project impact process, and decides whether or not to by assessing the environmental impacts of vari- take them into account. The ability of local res- ous alternatives to the project - and possibly idents to have their views considered depends being a cause for rejecting a proposal altogether upon how successful they are in organizirng - environmental assessment is used as a tool to movements able to wield sufficient polihcal assess the impact of a project with a view to con- power to influence the project. taining such impact within allowable limits, and Environmental assessments are used by within a pre-determined project framework. local governments in their consideration of Consequently, while it may be effective in deal- ing with problems that can be prevented within dopmen plan,icli their ow pbic works projects. In practice, assessment is coun- the scope of a project, it is less effective in pre- ducted by a developer, and the assessment venting damage that a bad project location and design would incur. Moreover, environmental This eviewedo b tocal g eren assessments do not address the issue of social This examination process may result in require- ments that the plans should be changed, or disruption incurred by the displacement of resi- environmental protection measures upgraded. dents by a project, other than the standard Once more, as the administration has widle financial compensation. ranging discretionary power, the outcome in Another shortcoming is that environmental any particular case tends to be determined by assessments of road, port, airport and river pro- the political power of the developer and that of jects which are directly managed by the the local residents affected by the plan. The national government are conducted by the political influence of the developers has tended national government itself. Local governments to be reduced in recent years due to the liberal- in most cases only have the right to express ization of access to official information, and the opinions. Similarly, local residents may express growing awareness of environmental issues their opinions, but the project implementation among the population at large. body actually conducts the environmental Footnotes: 8 For fuirther details see Case Studies. 70 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 5: Other Government Policy Instruments & Support Mechanisms _ A s described in the previous chapter, national and local governments establish environmen- Govnment pndture on Pollution Control tal and emission standards and regulations, monitor activities and provide for penalties in Local governments are primarily responsible cases of non-compliance. However, to comple- for construction, operation and maintenance of ment this regulatory role, governmental public sector pollution control facilities, includ- agencies also provide a variety of means of ing sewerage and sewage treatment works, support to communities and industry to assist solid waste and night soil management facili- them in achieving environmental objectives. ties, establishment of parks and green zones, This takes the form of actual environmental and noise prevention. However, the national investments and other expenditures by gov- government assists them with subsidies which ernment, as well as financial and technical generally cover a part of the construction costs. support explicitly designed to achieve envi- Expenditures at the local level now constitute ronmental goals. In addition, a number of roughly three quarters of total public expendi- other government policies, e.g., those related tures on pollution control, the remainder being to energy, water resources and transportation, carried out by ministries and agencies of the have significant, and generally positive, impli- national government, for the various purposes cations for the environment, even though they reviewed in Chapter 3. Table 5.1 shows expen- have not been specifically designed for that ditures on pollution control equipment (i.e., purpose. excluding civil works and site develop- Private Local Exports Total Table 5.1: Government (Domesfic Expenditures on Iroducton) Pollution Production) Control by Type (1+2+3) of Equipment (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (1991) Investments 262 640 55 957 (billion yen) (27.48%) (66.9%) (5.7%) (100.0%) A. For prevention of l air pollution 61.1% 2.9% 77.9% 23.2% B. For prevention of water pollution 29.6% 51.4% 11.2% 43.1% C. For solid waste Source: treatment 6.6% 45.% 10.8% 32.5% Japan Industrial D. For prevention of JpnIdsra noise pollution 2.7% 0.7% 0.1% 1 1.2% Machinery ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Associaion Total 100% 100% 100% 100% (1992) Chapter 5 71 Table 5.2; (billion yen) Public Sewerage Solid Waste Night Soil Total Ratio of (d) Ratio of (d) and Sewage Management Management (a+b+c) to GNP to Public Investment in Treatment Facilities Facilities Works Pollution Investment Control (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 1967-91 Annual Average during 1967-1971 186 20 12 218 0.56% 2.4% Annual Average Source: during 1972-1975 520 116 33 669 0.55% 3.7% 1990 Sewage Annual Average Year Book issued durin 1976-1980 1 500 163 50 1,713 0.84% 8.6% by Water Supply Annual Average Industryd1360 222 56 2,638 0.92% 7.7% Industry Annual Average Newspaper during 1986-1991 2,440 281 64 2,785 0.74% n.a. ment) by industry, government (i.e., primarily equipment (mostly incinerators) (45%). It also local government), and exports by private shows that while investment in water pollution industry. The table shows that public invest- prevention and solid waste management falls ment is dominated by two items: namely, primarily in the public domain, that for air equipment for prevention of water pollution quality improvement is primarily a private sec- (51%), and municipal solid waste treatment tor responsibility. trillion yen Share % Figure 51: 1.8 -1.6 National budget - 1.6 Government 1.6 1.5 Expenditures - 1.4 Related to 1.4 - - 1.3 Environmental / - - 1.2 Management 1.2 1.2 (1 967-92) 1 1.1 1 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.4 -0.6 0.2 -0.5 0 ~~~~~~~~~~F 0.4 Source: '67 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '92 Japan Environment L.....JC'onservation of natural environment Agency Pollution control 72 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program X______________ _______________ (billion yen) Table 5.3: Public Sewerage & Municipal Night Soil Total Expenditure on Pollution Sewerage Solid Waste Management (a+b+c) Control, Cost Treatment Management Recovery, and Subsidies (c) (b) (c) (d) (1991)(estmiated) 1. Capital Costs 92 9405 92 3,812 (65%) 2. Operation & 283 881 283 2,023 (35%) Maintenance 3. Total (1+2) 375 1,286 375 5,835 (100%) 4. Cost Recovered 54 52 54 1,2944 (22%) 5. Cost Recovery 14% 4% 14% 22% Ratio 6. Subsidy by 12% 53 12 748 Central I Government Notes: Source: Ministry of 1. Capital Costs are comprised of depreciation (62%) and interest payments (38%). Health and 2. Interest payments are estimated assuming that (a) construction costs that are not covered by subsidies are finance by loans; (b) Welfare loan interest rate is 5% and repayment period 20 years. Total public investment in environmental By comparison, in fiscal year 1993 the national conservation has generally increased since government budget for public works amounted to World War II both in absolute amounts as well 8,560 billion yen, or 12% of its general budget. 29% as in proportion to GNP and total investment in of the public works budget was used for road con- public works. During the period from 1986 to struction, 17% for the management of mountains 1991, annual average government pollution and rivers, and 17% (1,455 billion yen) is invested control investment amounted to 2,785 billion in environmental sanitation, including water sup- yen, or 0.74% of GNP. Figures for investments ply and sewerage systems. Figure 5.1 shows trends in all public works for this period are not avail- in national expenditures related to environmental able, but in the previous five-year period, management between 1961 and 1992; this indi- government investment in pollution control cates that expenditures peaked around 1990, and was 7.7% of total public works investment, as now constitute about 1.1% of the national govern- shown in Table 5.2. ment budget. Chapter 5 73 --- cally have been, about the same. However, as Figure 5 2 s Trillion yen(knominal price) Ratio to GNP(5M Figure 5.2: Tio noted earlier, local expenditure on pollution Soo - 100 Nafional and National and control is about three times that at the national Local40- Governlment 400 - < level. (The figure also indicates a generally Expenditure declining trend of government expenditure as a and GNP 5 proportion of GNP over the last 20 years). (1965-90) i.D ( 200 / Construction costs for environmental con1- 100 /~---~-~~ ~-------*-----_ -. servation facilities are partly subsidized by the l0_ X national government. Ratios of subsidies vary 0 o1965 _ 70__5_ _3__485_86__7 _ o depending on kinds of facilities, and whether Source: I 'GNP or not construction sites are located in specially Economic _(The ratio of the snm of national and local expenditures to the GNP) designated areas. Subsidies form two thirds of Economic (~~~~~~Net total of oational and local expeaditrers) Planning Agency (Total local expenditure) construction costs for inter-municipal sewerage construction; one half for public sewerage; and In 1991, investment (including interest one quarter for incineration and final solid payment) in environmental conservation facil- waste disposal facilities. The subsidies are ities by local governments approximated 4,000 applicable to only those facilities that meet the billion yen, total expenditures, including oper- government standards and guidelines. This is ation and maintenance being of the order of why the actual ratios of the paid subsidies to 6,000 billion yen. As shown in Table 5.3, cost actual construction costs are lower than those recovery from beneficiaries was about 22% on shown above. average. Subsidies from the national govern- Local Public FiLnance Local governments ment amounted to about 20% of total capital obtain a variety of subsidies from the national costs, or about 13% of total costs. government for pollution control. Allocated It is estimated that total government expen- according to the financial capacity of the local diture on pollution control for construction, authority concerned, direct grants and low-inter- operation, and maintenance of sewerage, solid est loans are available to help meet construction waste and night soil management facilities, in costs of sewerage, sewage treatment and dispos- addition to parks, green zones, and noise pre- al, and solid waste facilities. Even the larger cities vention is currently about 2% of GNP. receive some subsidies from the national governi- Implementation of pollution control measures ment; for example, Table 5.4 shows that 12.4% of is essentially a local responsibility, and there- Yokohama City's revenue in 1990 was obtained fore local government expenditure for this from the national government. As shown in Table purpose is a much larger proportion of total 5.5, expenditures on pollution control, solid expenditure than it is at the national level. As waste, and sewerage, which in 1960 amounted to Figure 5.2 shows, total expenditure at the about 5 % of the city's total expenditure, were 22 national level and local levels are, and histori- % in 1980 and 18 % in 1990. 74 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Year Total Revenue Own Prefectural National Table 5.4 Resources Subsidies Subsidies Sources of (in million yen) (%) (%) (%) Revenue: City of Yokohama 1960 17,358 83.3 2.7 13.9 1960-90 | 1965 1 47,498 812.9 3.6 14.5 1970 107,701 72.8 5.5 2'.7 1975 287,712 72.5 4.4 23.1 1980 557,800 73.8 4.3 21.9 1985 756,091 80.9 3.8 15.2 Source. 1990 1,093,208 82.3 5. 15.4 ase Stuies _ _ pose of industrial wastes. In 1992, the EPCSC Technical and Financial Support: was renamed the Japan Environment Corpora- The Japan Environment Corporafion tion (JEC). In 1963, the Government began to provide loans Using an investment fund and government on favorable terms through the Japan Develop- subsidies, JEC has become a major instrument ment Bank and Small Business Finance of government policy to promote pollution Corporation to facilitate investment in pollution control measures in industry. Its work now con- control in industrial operations. However, as sists essentially of site construction and demands grew, a special organization became transfer, financing and technical advice. Site necessary to evaluate investments and provide construction and transfer includes building of financial and technical support for pollution facilities for collective use or for public welfare, control measures and so in 1965, the Environ- and provision of industrial sites to which fac- ment Pollution Control Service Corporation tories can be transferred. Factories transferred (EPCSC), financed entirely by the government, are primarily small and medium sized indus- was established. At that time, most of the aid tries, which have, over the years, gradually consisted of subsidies for a wide range of pur- expanded in sites adjacent to residential areas poses such as the prevention of underground with air and water pollution, ground sub- water contamination, and joint facilities to dis- sidence, solid waste, noise, vibration and smells Share of Total City Expenditure g (%) 1960 1 1965 1970 1975 1980 i 1985 1990 able5.5: I__I_I I__________________ __________________ __ _ __ __ Enviromnental Pollution Control (A) I 0.00 ! 0.02 0.10 0.32 0.20 0.19 0.18 dTotal Solid Waste (B) 1.87 2.28 2.02 4.46 3.39 2.38 i 2.33 Sewerage (C) ! 3.18 5.15 7.56 11.17 18.77 18.95 15.72 I Expenditures Environmental Expenditure City of Yokohama {(A)+(B)+(C)}/(D) 5.05 7.45 9.68 15.95 22.36 21.52 18.23 1960-90 Total City Expenditure {D) (in million yen) I 29,202 98,768 228,874 518,553 954,436 1,351,895 1,913,795 i Chapter 5 75 posing threats to human health and general wel- concerned enterprises. It also provides them fare in their neighborhoods. with long-term (up to 20 years) loans at lower interest rates than the market. This intermingling of industry, commerce and housing became increasingly serious dur- By the end of 1988, over 3,500 enterprises ing the 1960s, and it became clear that separate had moved to new sites under JEC projects; industrial estates, at some distance from resi- total JEC expenditures up to that time were dential areas, were required. Economies of about 380 billion yen. A further 192 billion yen scale in site acquisition and infrastructure was spent on green park buffer zones; the total development, including municipal waste dis- area handled under this project is about 1,000 posal measures, have made assistance from the hectares, which is 90% of all the green buffer public sector indispensable, and the JEC now zones in Japan. Total loans up to the end of 1989 performs this role. In practice, joint facilities were 740 billion yen, the total number of con- include provision of open space to reduce the tracts being 3,738. Loan amounts have declined impact of air pollution, development of natural in recent years, while construction and transfer parks and green belts, and investment in col- activities have increased. Total low interest lective facilities to dispose of industrial wastes. loans made by the JEC and loan balances dur- Where joint disposal methods cannot be used, ing the last four years are shown in Table 5.6. the JEC assists in measures within factories to The Japan Environment Corporation is not switch to less polluting processes, building pol- the only source of subsidized loans for indus- lution control facilities within plants, or trial pollution control; indeed, it is by no means improving buildings to make them more the largest source, and it now finances a very sound-proof. The JEC in most cases undertakes small proportion of total investment in indus- any site acquisition that might be required, and trial pollution control. It has, however, played carries out all construction work required for an important financing role in the past, partici- environmental purposes. Where appropriate, it larly in the 1960s and 1970s when other private then transfers the completed facilities to the banks were reluctant to lend for investments (100 million yen6 Table 5.6: 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Budget of JEC Projects Construction & transfer 490 490 50 540 630 Loans 200 250 300 350 370 Total 690 740 800 890 1000 Source: _ Japan Borrowing from Financial Investment and Loans Environment Corporation Debts 485 538 683 783 865 76 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program that were not perceived to be directly produc- existing premises in order to mitigate excessive tive. However, its most important role now is in congestion and prevent pollution. terms of its technical contribution to the solu- U Loans by the Japan Development Bank: tion of environmental problems. Thus, in the Japan Development Bank has advanced addition to site acquisition, construction and loans for general industrial-trial development financing, JEC also implements technically since 1960. Total lending in 1992 was 2,533 bil- advanced projects, and provides technical lion yen of which 3% was specifically for guidance and leadership to industry, especially pollution control (76 billion yen). to small- and medium-sized enterprises. U Others: In addition, loans for pollution control have been advanced by the Hokkaido _____________________________________ and Tohoku Development Corporation, the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery Finance Cor- Other Financial Support Mechanisms poration and the Metal Mining Agency of Japan. Loans In addition to sole financing by the JEC, The amount of lending for environmental pro- several other loan systems have been devel- tection in 1992 was 1.1 billion yen for oped at the national level. Often depending Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery Finance Cor- upon the technical evaluation of the planned poration and 2.4 billon yen for Metal Mining facility by the JEC, and frequently jointly Agency. financed with the JEC, these include: Favorable Tax Treatment Special deprecia- tion measures have been formulated for * Loans under the Funding System specified facilities for pollution control at the for Modernization of Facilities of Medium and national level. These measures are applied to Small Businesses: Prefectures serve as field facilities which are directly effective in pollu- offices in advancing loans. As part of the sys- tion prevention, as designated by the Minister tem, loans are available for pollution prevention of Finance. In the first year, in addition to ordi- facilities specified by government. Systems also nary depreciation (about 10%), a further 21% exist to permit leasing of facilities by lending can be written off as special depreciation for institutions established by prefectures. In many pollution control. instances local government loans are adminis- trated by commercial banks.The amount of At the local level, property taxes for facili- lending in 1992 was 44.5 billion yen. ties related to pollution control may be exempt or subject to reduced rates depending on the a Loans by the Small Business Finance facility concerned. The range of facilities which Corporation and People's Finance Corporation: may qualify for local tax breaks is wider than These institutions advance special loans for that for the special depreciation measures. industrial pollution prevention and other facili- Moreover, even if the company concerned ties and also special loans to assist medium and makes financial losses, special measures are small businesses' factories to relocate from available. Firms may obtain exemption from Chapter 5 77 Table 5.7: Sources of Finance for Unit: billion yen Environmental Application Total Sources of Investments Investment Indus- l Private Prefectural & Local Japan Other Central Protection try's Banks & Governments Environ- Govem- Government Investments in Own Other ment mental (equal to Finance Com- For Private Self- Corpora- Lending For Local Own 1991 the sum mercial Industry inancing tion Insti- Govemment Program (Estimated)9 of Items 1 Insti- Loan Grant of Own (JEC) tutions Loan Grant Expen- to I 0) |tutions Subsidy Programl Loa LonSbid diue 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A. Pollution Control Investments by Private 493 349 19* 6* 30 89 Industry (100 %) (71 %) (4 %) (I %) (6 %) (18 %) l[12.8 %] _______ B. Government Investments l in Environmental Facilitie i 1. Sewage piping & 2,3328 698 234 698 8 sewage treatment (100 %) (30 %) (10 %) (30 %) (30 %) [60.5%) l . l 2. Solid waste 273 82 55 82 54 management (100 %) (30 %) (20 %) (30 %) (20 %) [7.1 %] _ _ _ __ _ 3. Human waste 62 12 19 12 management (100 %) (30 %) (20 %) (30 %) (20 %) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ [1.6 % I I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 4. Green & nature conser- 625* 289* vation in urban areas (100 %) (46 %) (54 %) l ______________________ [16.2% ] l I 5. Pollution monitoring & 69* 29* 40* Study (1 00 %) (42 %) (58 %) rl.8 %1 _ _ _ _ l l ~~~~~~~~~~~3,357 l796-19 799 4 Sub total of B (1+2+3+4+5) (100 %) (24 %) (18 %) (24 %) (33 %) (I %) l _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ [87.2% ] l___ I__ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l j 3,850 1,148 19 6 619 30 799 1100 40 C. TOTAL (A + B) (100 %) (29.8 %) (0.5 %) (0.2 %) 16.1 %) (0.8 %) (2.3 %) 20.7 %) 28.6 %) (1.0%) _[100%] _ I L- Data Sources: Environment White Paper 1993, Environment Agency of Japan (All data marked with ) Brochure of JEC (Item A of Column 6) Sewage Statistic Book 1991, Japan Water Supply and Sewerage Association (Items B1, B2 and B3 of column 0) Ministry of Industry (Item A of Colurnn 0) Respective lending institutions and author's own estimation based upon the past trend (Item A of Column 7) special land holding taxes and reduction of tax burden by 1% of the value of the facility urban planning taxes and business taxes in case concerned. of extension and establishment of new facili- ties. Normal rates for the fixed property tax and Other Subsidies Subsidies for research and urban planning tax are 1.4% and 0.3%, respec- development in the field of pollution control tively. Since the rate of property assessment is has been provide by the MITI. Loans at favor- 2/3 of actual value, tax exemption reduces the able rates to small- and medium-sized 78 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Types of Subsidies Estimated Present Values Tblle 5o8: of Net Benefits to Firms Subidie for Pollution 1. Direct subsidies by prefectural or local 6 billion yen (1.2 %) Control governments Relative to the 2. Indirect subsidies in the form of tax breaks and Investment low-interest loans Amount in 1991 a. Exemption of local governments' property tax & 28.3 billion yen (5.7 %) (mated) urban planning tax on the pollution control facilities b. Reductions in corporate income tax through 13.6 billion yen (2.7 %) application of accelerated depreciation method fo investments in pollution control facilities c. Subsidy portion of low-interest loans (difference 8.7 billion yen (1.8 %) between commercial and government lending rates) Sub-total of Item 2 50.6 billion yen (10.2 %) Total Subsidies (1 + 2) 56.6 billion yen (11.4 %) Pollution Control Investments by Private Firms 493.0 billion yen (100 %) Technical Note on Methods, Assumptions and Data Sources Used for Estimation of the Present Values of the Subsidies: (The following item numbers correspond to Item No. of Table 5.8) 1. Direct subsidies by prefectural or local governments. Data source: Environmental White Paper 1993, Environment Agency of Japan 2.a. Present value of the exemption of local governments' property tax and urban planring tax on the pollution control facilities. Methods and Assumptions for the Estimation: A x B x C x (D + E) = 5,000 bilion yen x 1/2 x 2/3 x (1.4% + 0.3%) = 28.3 billion yen where, A: Estimated total purchase value of all the pollution control facilities instaUed and operated by private firms as of 1991 [assumed to be 5,000 bilion yen with the folowing calculation: Annual investment in pollution control facility (500 bilion yen/year) x 10 years = 5,000 bil- lion yen] B: Ratio of the 1991 accounting book value of all the pollution control facilities instaled and operated in Japan to the above Item A (assumed to be 05) C: Ratio of taxable property value to accounting property value used by local governments (2/3) D: Rate of the Property Tax imposed by local governments (1.4%) E: Rate of the Urban Plannig Tax imposed by local governments (0.3%) (Note: This tax break is applicable to all firmns with pollution control investments irrespective of whether or not the firms generated profits,) 2b. Present value of the reductions in Corporate Income Tax through the application of accelerated depreciation method for investments in pollution control facilities. The folowing assumptions are used: 1. Normal depreciation period is 10 years, and annual depreciation is 10% of the facility purchase value. 2. Firms with pollution control investments can apply an accelerated depreciation method, which alow the firms to depreciate 31 % of the pollution control facility purchase value m the first year, and 10 %/year for the next 6 years, and 9 % in the last 8th year 3. Corporate Income Tax is 40% of firm's profit. 4. 80% of the firns with pollution control investments make profits. 5. Tax reductions arising in future are discounted at 7%/year to translate the future reductions into the present value. 7. Total investment in the pollution control Table was 493 bilion yen m 1991. 2.c. Present value of the subsidy portion of low-interest loans (benefits arising from the difference between conmercial and government lending rates). The following assumptions are used: 1. Interest rate of the government lending institutions is 5 %, two percent lower than a commenial lending rate of 7%. 2. Loan period is 10 years for both government and commercial banks. Source: 3. Private firmns borrowed a total of 119 billion yen in 1991 (Based on Table 5.7) Case Studies Chapter 5 79 industries for commercialization of new government provides local governments with domestically-produced technology are also subsidies, which typically cover 20% - 30% of available. Another form of subsidization is the the approved part of the programs. The central conduct of joint research and development government also provides the local govem- between MITI and the private sector. Manufac- ments with loans, which also typically cover turers of pollution control equipment also 20% - 30% of the approved part of the program. receive government support; the Japan Indus- A part of those programs are financed by com- trial Machine Manufacturers' Association mercial bank loans, which typically cover one receives subsidies from the Machine Industry third of the investments. The remaining por- Promotion Fund, particularly with regard to tions, which usually ranges from 10% to 20% the advance surveys required prior to embark- are financed by local governments' own funds. ing upon major investment programs in pollution control equipment. Finance of Private Firms' Pollutioni Control Although, the Japan Environment Colporation mommosomm, _emoma (JEC) and other lending institutions such as Japan Development Bank and Small Business Finance of Environmental Protection Finance Corporation, and People's Finance by Sources Corporation as well as local governments play This section attempts to provide an overall pic- an important role in the provision of financial thre on the finance of the environmental incentives for pollution control, their overall protection activities of both private and govern- financial contribution is not as large as general- ment sectors in Japan. Table 5.7 shows the ly thought. Of the total amount (493 billion amounts of finance by sources estimated based yen) invested by private firms in the pollution on several different data sources and assump- control facilities in 1991, 71% was financed by tions. The data presented i the table is of one either firms themselves or by commercial bank year period in 1991. However, the table is still loans, 24% was financed by governmental useful in understanding relative ratios of finan- lending institutions, and the remaining 5% by cial contributions among several different prefectural or local governments. financial institutions as these ratios have not much in the past. M~~~bagnitude of Subsidies Relative to Pollu-X changed much in the past.A tion Control Investments Types of subsidies and Finance of Governmient Investments in their respective magnitude relative to the pollu- Environmental Protection Facilities Most of the tion control investment amounts are summarized government investment programs for manage- in the following table. The present values of the ment of sewage, solid waste and human waste, subsidies are estimated to be 56.3 billion yen in as well as for the nature conservation are total in 1991, corresponding to 11.4% of the total implemented and managed by local govern- pollution control investments made by private ments. As shown in Table 5.7, the central firms in the same year. 80 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program I concerning Special Governmental Financial Mea- Regional and Urban Planning sures for Pollution Control Projects. Under this law, some of the pollution abatement projects such as Regional Environmental Pollution Control Pro- sewerage and sewage works, development of solid gram The national government designates waste treatment facilities, and household effluent areas where pollution is sufficiently serious as treatment works have been carried out with the to require special attention and integrated financial assistance of the central government. actions. These areas qualify for assistance under the Regional Environmental Pollution Similar types of efforts were also made to Control Program (REPCP), and are primarily counter air and water pollution. Based on the selected following application by local govern- Water Pollution Control Law, the central gov- ments in the areas concerned. Once an ernment has designated certain dosed areas of application is approved, the local governments water as heavily polluted areas and area-wide concerned prepare a regional environmental total water pollution load control plans were pollution control program. This program is formulated for each area by the relevant local revised every five years and only ends when governments. Concerning air pollution, the pollution has reached acceptable levels. Works area-wide control plans for soot and smoke implemented according to the programs were also established based on the Air Pollu- receive more favorable national aid than works tion Control Law. Automobile pollution control in non-designated areas. programs such as that developed by the Yoko- The Basic Law for Environmental Pollu- hama City Government10, and regional tion Control states that the regional pollution environmental management plans, now formu- control program is to be formulated by the lated by various local governments, are results local government of nationally designated of the REPCP. areas in accordance with the basic policy made REPCPs were formulated in most of the by the central government. However, it also stipulates that the central government has to major urba and idsra areas inwapan between 1970 and 1976. From 1977 onwards, consult with the relevant local government prior to the formulation of basic policy. There- change of economic and social conditions in fore, the central government . cannot in- each region. Currently 39 regions are designat- dividually determine the basic policy without the deliberation and coordination with the regions represent about 9% of Japan's total local government. ln,ad5%o t oa ouain The REPCP generally consists of pollution land, and 54% of its total population. abatement measures and actions taken by the local Development Policies for National Land government as well as by the private sector. Finan- and Districts Japan's agricultural tradition and cial assistance may be available to promote the the strong political power of the agricultural, implementation of these programs under the Law forest and fisheries industries had for many Chapter 5 81 Figure 5.3: Designated 1st Area Areas for the 2dAe Egionial E ] 3rd Area Pollution[7]4hAe Program Elll5th Area [z] 6th Area L I 7thArea Source: Japan Environment Agency years been instrumental in protecting the rural when national and local land use plans tended environment, despite the fact that most explicit to ignore environmental considerations, and environmental measures were aimed at indus- rapid development started to impact adverse- trial and urban pollution. However, this ly upon the natural environment. For situation became increasingly threatened dur- example, national land planning led to the ing the period of rapid economic growth, concentration of population and industries 82 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program along the Pacific coast. Growth in this area in sprawl, and has helped to preserve nature and the 1950s and 1960s was a major cause of the the various environmental functions of water destruction of the natural environment and resources in suburbs; it has also facilitated the massive industrial pollution. supply of water and provision of sewerage facilities in all urban areas. In light of this kind of threat, environmen- tal considerations started to become According to the Building Standards Law, increasingly significant elements of national local governments may reduce negative environ- land planning in the 1970s. Thus, the mental impacts in the process of granting National Land Development Plan and the approval for construction of buildings. In particu- Capital Region Development Improvement lar, large buildings are often required to contain Program (which include the distribution of facilitates to store waste, to circulate waste water population, utilization of land, water and and to release effluent at night, in order to reduce energy development, improvement in infra- pressure on waste collection and disposal capaci- structure, housing and urban areas) are now ty of sewerage. Conditions are also imnposed on systematically coordinated with the relevant the height of buildings (in order to allow others to economic plans. Sectoral programs and poli- retain views or sunlight); free planting require- cies relating to industry, transportation, ments are also common. energy, water resources and urbanization are National and Local Paris Many specially built into overall economic planning, and this designated areas have been established at the provides the opportunity for environmental national and local levels. The location of the issues to be addressed in a coherent way. isss tcountry's national and quasi-national parks is Among other things, this process assists in shown in Figure 5.4. These parks exist for the regulating urban and industrial pollution, and protection of nature, wildlife and historic land- has established an orderly and consistent uti- scape, historical legacies, and conservation of lization of land on a national basis. rows of houses and stores. Measures to control City Planning and Construction Standards development in designated areas, and assistance City planning and policies relating to construc- for preservation is also available. Implementa- tion standards have contributed to improve- tion of development projects requires survey of ments in urban and industrial pollution in a ruins or historical sites in the area, and govern- number of ways. For example, local public bod- ment approval to interfere with them is ies can designate areas for specific uses. Zoning required. for land use and density of land utilization per- mits them to segregate industrial, commercial and residential land uses, and assists in achiev- Education, Training, ing low cost means of waste disposal by Standardization of Technology creation of joint facilities for industrial parks. Organization of pollution administration in Japan City planning also establishes limits on urban is based upon relevant experience that has been Chapter 5 83 Figure 5.4: _J Location of National and Quasi-National Parks National Park Ez] Quasi-National Park ,,d 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 Source: Japan / Environment Agency built up over many years, particularly in the major were also instrumental in hastening the develop- cities. The accumulation of existing technical exper- ment of environmental pollution control. tise in sanitation/health and industrial processes Training mechanisms in the area of pollution has provided a solid foundation for more compre- control were formally organized around 1970. hensive environmental efforts. In the field of Since then, research, technological development, monitoring and guidance, utilization of existing and training, as well as the necessary organiza- skilas and human resources owned by construction tional restructuring have all proceeded rapidly in management authorities and police departments both the public and private sectors. Enterprises 84 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program now routinely employ managers whose duties unteer activities which try to improve environ- are related solely to pollution control. Pollution mental living conditions. Observation activities Control Associations (whose members consist and dissemination of household account books mainly of industrial enterprises) have been estab- on environment are other measures. However, lished throughout the country to promote undoubtedly the most important means of gen- discussion and collaboration with local govern- erating pubic awareness about environment ments on pollution control. Numbers and has been coverage by the mass media. qualifications of environmental staff have been significantly expanded in local government orga- The national g ermeto proides nizations; their status has increasingly risen, job valuable sppror wit r d p tiosndrd security enhanced, and payment levels match teonoand Apl of pollutincntr those in he privat sector.technology. All environmental measurements those in the private sector.v are carried out using methods standardized Japan has made much use of imported tech- according to the Japan Industrial Standard nologies to form the basis of pollution control (JIS). Local governments and business estab- technologies such as water supply, sewerage and lishments can undertake pollution control combustion system. However, industrial pollution measures, using common standards of evalua- control required new technological development tion and measurement, so that comparability and introduction of appropriate technology to can be assured. In 1975, a registration system individual factories. Development and expansion was introduced for all business establishments of technology have been implemented by public authorized to approve environmental measure- and private sectors working together since the lat- ment. Official environmental data submitted to ter half of the 1960s. Government has played a national and local governments must be mea- major role in developing a pollution control equip- sured by registered business establishments. ment industry. Air and water pollution control technology was introduced and developed by the joint efforts of government and industry. Further- more, technical information for small- and Rehabilitation Works and medium-sized industries such as guidelines for pollution control technology has continued to be Japan has had for many years a system for an important responsibility provided by engineers rehabilitating land areas after the shutdown of in local govermnents. mines, by using funds that are collected from Environmental education in primary, sec- mining operations, according to their size. ondary and high schools has been accelerating. Until recently there was no similar system for National education on environment has also rehabilitation or compensation for damage been promoted by issuing Annual Reports on caused by industrial pollution. Consequently, Environment, and setting up "environmental landowners, polluters and the local govern- weeks". Local public bodies also support vol- ment carried out rehabilitation on an ad hoc Chapter 5 85 basis, and damage costs were reimbursed by work carried out by local governments. Such mutual agreement or through lawsuits. How- works include improvement of water quality ever, a compensation system for pollution- in rivers and bay areas, dredging operations, related health damage was set up in 1969 and, railroad noise abatement measures, and cre- following the Yokkaichi asthma case, a pollu- ation of green buffer zones. tion-related Health Damage Compensation System was established in 1974. Under this system, polluters therefore share expenditures such as medical expenses Energy Policy with those who are damaged by pollution. This system was acceptable to enterprises In addition to the underlying macroeconomic, which were becoming increasingly subject to poltical and cultural determinants of environ- neighborhood lawsuits, but has been criti- mental performance and the range of spe- cized by victims on the grounds that the cific environmental polcy instruments referred to amount of compensation has been insufficient. above, there are many policies at the sector level An important characteristic of the compensa- which, often unintentionaly, have hac a major tion procedure in Japan is that if sources of impact upon Japan's environmental situation. pollution cannot be pinpointed accurately, vic- Perhaps foremost among these has been Japan's tims may obtain compensation from the energy policy. government. The compensation fund is derived from the general sources of pollution, such as automobile owners and specific pol- Enerio polchcntri bed o indst luting industries; the latter pay into the fund pol ution (poe entlin anumber oflas according to type and quantity of pollutants i air polluon (directly) and water pollu- tion (indirectly). The switch from coal to heavy oil emitted, location, and so on. Since the Health in the 1950s; the subsequent use of low-sulfur Damage Compensation Law requires compa- niesato contributeito thewcompensationofund heavy oil, and then the change from heavy oil to nies to contribute to the compensation fund LGadaoi nryhv -peete ai based upon their emission of pollutants, the osLNG and atomic energy have represented vari- ous phases in Japan's energy policy. Stimulated burden for financing the fund is shifted to companies with financimprvefndisyst fther to initially by the oil crisis in the 1970s, a strict ener- comprovid awstrong incentived forte, moern- gy conservation policy has developed. Assisted providing a strong incentive for moderniza- b ehia n iadlassac rmgv tion~~ ~ an uprdn.f aiiis by technical and financial assistance from gov- ernment, and more rational pricing policies (see Another law concerning the requirement next paragraph), industry has been encouraged that entrepreneurs should bear the cost of to integrate energy efficiency and conservation public pollution control works was enacted in measures throughout their production processes. 1970. Under this law, enterprises causing pol- Air and water pollution loads have declined lution must share the cost of pollution control sharply as a result. 86 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program In the 1950s and 1960s, charges for electricity had been set at low rates to promote industrial Nominal Price(Yen/kwh) Figure 5.5: growth, and large consumers were treated partic- for Electricity ularly favorably. Declining block rates, or Electric light Supply in Japan promotional rates, in which the larger the con- 30 Electricity 1970-90 AveragepriceI sumption, the lower the price at the margin, were common. However, in the 1970s, rapidly increas- 20 - ing costs led to substantial increases in energy prices, and introduction of progressive charging 10 i systems. In addition, all of the ten power com- Source: panies in Japan have introduced peak load o _FederatIon of Japan Electric pricing for certain classes of consumer. The 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Industry explanation for the increase in energy prices is quite straightforward. The increase in interna- loads. This is a classic example of a policy tional oil prices in 1973 in a country almost. .. which satisfies numerous objectives; fiscal and totally dependent upon imported fuel, had to tota-y dependent upon irnported fuel, had to financial (by raising revenue); economic effi- be reflected in domestic price increases. Since that time, domestic electricity prices have grad- cencys(b reducigwsef en ofmscarc ually declined. However, they have been rsucs,ad fcus,evrnetl Energy consumption per unit of GNP for Japan maintained in real terms: the continued appre- has consistently been far below that for other ciation of the yen (reducing the effective price of imported fuel) is the explanation for this trend. OEur ce a s Average charges for electricity supply over the last two decades are shown in Figure 5.5. Such comparisons however must be inter- The above policy recognized that while preted with care. The GNP figures used here are not based on purchasing power parity. various measures to encourage efficiency, such Structural differences in economies are also as education, guidance, and appeals to social conscience, were extremely important, they important explanations of inter-country differ- ences in energy use. Such comparisons are were not enough. Regulations and advice need to be combined with measures to make it in the particularly difficult to interpret with respect to financial self-interest of consumers to be effi- developing countries. Thus, while commercial energy consumption is relatively accurately recorded, developing countries often have The change to a progressive charging sys- large non-market economies, which tend to tem plus the general increase in rates, has now overstate the relative size of energy consump- resulted in highly efficient energy use in Japan, tion. On the other hand, non-commercial and has been a major contributor to the (poorly recorded) energy consumption is also decrease in air pollution and water pollution often significant. Chapter 5 87 _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~and coastal waters without any treatment. Until TOE/million $US (at 198S constant market prices)ancoslwtesihutnyramn.Ufl Figure 5.6: this time, apart from pumping costs, the factories Primary 700 incurred no cost for water supply or its disposal. Energy Con- England sumption per U.S.A. However, pumping up large amounts of ground- Unit of GNP o _ = water caused ground subsidence in coastal areas in Japan and 50 . and the consequent enlargement of the areas in other OECD 400 Germany ' which ground height was under the sea surface, Countries France (1960-90) 300 which also resulted in extensive flood damage, Source: particularly during the typhoon season. This has OECD 1960 1965 0970 197?5 8 1985 1990 been a particularly severe problem in Csaka.11 fi light of this, the Industrial Water Law was estab- lished in 1956; the regulation of underground Perhaps a more useful indicator iS the water pumping was strengthened, and develop- amount of energy required to produce certain outputs. As shown in Figure 5.7, Japan has ment of industrial water supply systems as a substitute water source took place. shown major progress over the last two decades in reducing the amount of energy used In developing industrial waterworks, large per unit of output in major manufacturing sec- factories estimated their future water needs and tors, such as pulp and paper, steel, cement and submitted this information to the industrial water petrochemicals. undertaking organization (primarily operated by local governments). The factories paid for part of -__________________________________ the investment costs as they were incurred, sub- sequently paying a periodic lump sum for watei, Industrial Water Supply based upon the contracted amount, as long as There are simiIaritiesbetweenenergtotal consumption was actually less than the con- There are smularities between energy andy water policy in Japan as they impact upon the tracted amount. However, because of the environment. In both cases, the real costs of decrease in water demand caused by energy con- consumption have been increasing over time; servation and development of overseas policies to induce more efficient use for eco- production bases, actual water demand was much less than that estimated. So the factories nomic or financial reasons have also had beneficial environmental consequences. Those had surplus water sources at their disposal, and policies have essentially rested upon increasing did not make any effort to introduce even low the costs to consumers, and in particular to the cost water rationalization schemes. hitherto subsidized industrial users. As economic growth accelerated, placing pressure on existing water resource capacity, Up to 1950, many factories in the coastal areas and as pollution problems became more seri- of the large cities heavily exploited groundwater ous, the need for greater efficiency in water resources, and discharged the effluent into rivers use was recognized. The water charging sys- 88 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program tem was then changed from the contract water (1973 1_9) quantity system into one based upon actual 120 Figure 5.7: Energ consumption. At the same time, large increas- 11- paper/pulp rgy steel manufacturing Consumption es in industrial water charges were loo z:__ ..- - cement introduced. Since then, prices have in general - petrochemical Production (by been maintained in real terms (see Figure 5.8). 8 Weight): Combined with expansion of sewerage sys- NK. Standard tems, and the accompanying requirement that 70 - Products of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ jMajor Industries firms discharge waste into them (for a fee) 60 1975 1980 1985 1990 (1973-90) 1973 17 9018 90 17-0 rather than discharge waste into rivers, this policy has created the incentive for efficien ru reserve fund for construction and maintenance water use and effluent reduction by compa- of private railways. nies, resulting in the reduction of the factory effluent load. Further measures were taken in Ilndustrial Policy and Land Reclarnoatlon 1975 to restrict new abstraction of ground Industrial concentration along the Pacific belt water, and the areas in which this is permitted area dates from the years prior to World War have been continually reduced ever since. II. During the rehabilitation period after the war, industrial concentration in this area developed still more. In the 1970s a new industrial structure started to emerge; indus- Other Sectoral Policies trial decentralization took place, accompanied by a change from heavy industry to high tech- Transportation Rehabilitation of railways, and nology and machine industries. The emphasis construction of major highways, rapid transit upon heavy industry in the earlier period was systems such as the Shinkansen ("Bullet a cause of major environmental problems with train"), and other transportation infrastructure subsequent changes in industrial structure such as harbors and airports, have all con- easing them considerably. tributed to the industrial decentralization. In urban areas, railways have been constructed Charge (Yen/M3) Increase Raze (%) mainly by the private sector, and land develop- 28.00 1 Figure 5.8: ment along the railways has tended to form the 16.00 30 Average Charges core of large cities. Railway development has 14.00 / \ 25 for Industrial 12.00 20 Water Supply in had an important role in restraining automo- 10.00 Increase Rae from Japan 1970-91 bile growth and its resulting pollution. 8.00 Pvious Year 15 6.00 1 Government policy has been to encourage 4.00 mass transit by means of a large amount of 2.00 0 Source: investment into national railways and favor- R MrTI able treatment for land acquisition, subsidies, Chapter 5 89 The policy of acquiring industrial land by environmental degradation caused by industri- reclamation of coastal areas has contributed to alization and urbanization. Hydrologic industrial development as well as rapid and conditions provide further rationale for the eco- large-scale destruction of the natural environ- nomic protection given to rice growers, whose ment in coastal areas. However, land activities play a major role in water resource reclamation has contributed to improvement of management. Certainly, abandonment of rice urban and industrial pollution through provid- operations would require massive compensato- ing lands for sewage treatment and final ry expenditures on flood and pollution control, disposal facilities, relocation of small- and and in water supply schemes. More conven- medium-sized industries in urban districts, tionally, continued protection of traditional and establishment of parks. water rights and controlled use of common property (forests and fishery) has, in effect, also Agricultural Policy In the agriculture sector, benaimottisruntfevrne- the large landowner system that had prevailed tae managment. until the end of World War II was changed tal management. under reforms implemented under the post- Water Resources Policy and Policies for war occupation. In the 1950s, the agricultural Forestry Conservation and Flood Control Some population was nearly 50% of the total labor forests, which are important for water manage- force, and the growth of powerful farmers' ment, and control of landslides and flooding, organizations such as the agricultural coopera- receive special protection. This has contributed tives made the political influence of farmers not only to conservation of the forests them- extremely effective. Reflecting this political selves, but also protection of wildlife, and to power, Japan's economic policies have empha- reduction in soil erosion, and silting up of sized agricultural protection; trade, fiscal, and reservoirs. Large-scale water resource develop- urban policies have all combined to protect and ment schemes, such as multi-purpose dams enhance, not only agriculture, but fishery and have, however, damaged the ecology of rivers; forestry. thus, although the water quality in rivers has Protection of these sectors has often been at improved by the introduction of environmental the expense of other development activities in measures, other natural conditions have in rural areas and has therefore helped to control many cases deteriorated irrecoverably. 90 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Footnotes: 9 Note: Investment Scale Proportions of Sub-Components are as follows: Investment Components Approximate Proportion 1. Sewerage piping & sewage treatment facilities a. Sewerage piping 80% b. Sewage treatment facilities 20 % c.Total(a+b) 100% 2. Solid waste management facilities a. Waste collection and haulage (vehicles 15 % and transfer stations) b. Treatment (mainly incineration) 70 % c. Final disposal 15 % d. Total (a + b + c) 100 % 3. Human waste management facilities a. Collection & haulage. 14 % b. Treatment 85 % c. Final disposal 1 % d. Total (a + b + c) 100 % 1. Proportions of sub-components are rather constant over time. 2. Proportions of the Government subsidies and loans change by types of components, but do not change much by types of sub- components except for vehicles for collection of solid waste and human waste for which no subsidies may be provided. 10 See Case Studies. 11 See Case Studies. Chapter 5 91 92 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 6: Industrial Responses to Environmental Concerns incentives and regulations, in order to simulta- Integration of Environment neously address the objectives of environment, into Industrial Policy energy efficiency, and industrial development. Japan's rapid progress in carrying out pollution control measures in the 1970s owes much to the conscious efforts of the MITI to build environ- Investment in Pollution Control mental considerations into industrial and energy policy and operations rather than as Perhaps the best indicator of how industry has treating environment as an "add-on". Al- responded to environmental concerns in recent though Mill and the Environment Agency often years is the amount that has been invested in differ over the degree to which environmental pollution control equipment. The pattern of measures should be taken, once agreement has investment has differed systematically between been reached, Mill's contribution is generally large scale industry, dominated by the mining Since the 1970s it has promoted pollu- and manufacturing sectors (defined here to include electric power and gas), and small and tion control technologies, assisted in the development of an envirorunental sanitation tmedium size industry Expenditures on pollu- and pollution control industry, and facilitated tiocontro byparge a lldr r joint industrial pollution measures with enter- prises. All Industry Figure 6.1 shows an interesting pattern of investments in pollution control by In the early years of the government's large scale industry over the period 1965-1990. efforts to address environmental problems, It will be seen that investments started to there was a tendency to react on an ad hoc and become significant in the late 1960s, peaking unsystematic basis, often under pressure from sharply in the mid-1970s, with smaller year to public opinion, to the most obvious problems year changes taking place in subsequent years. arising from industrial activity or urbanization. At their peak, in 1975, investment in pollution This was obviously an inefficient and costly control was about 1,300 billion yen, or about procedure; however, this situation has changed 14% of total private investment and 0.63% of radically during the last thirty years or so, and GNP in that year. In 1990, the figures were the strategy now is clearly to adopt a preven- about 460 billion yen, 3.1% of total private tive rather than curative approach. The investment, and 0.12% of GNP. integration of environment into industrial development policy now involves continual In view of the huge investment in environ- close collaboration and negotiation between mental pollution control in the mid-1970s, the government and industry, with national and policies, attitudes and motivations at that time local governments providing finance and tech- are critical in explaining Japan's success in nical assistance and introducing economic dealing with industrial pollution matters. It is Chapter 6 93 Figure 6.1: I (billion yen) EPC:TPI EPC:GNP Investment in on (n) PoRution ~ 1400 - 16.0 0.7 Control: All 1200 J 14.0 0.6 Industry I 12.0 1965-90 1000 0.5 - 10.0 800 - - 0.4 6x~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 8.0g 600 -0.3 400 - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0.2 4.0 200 - ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2.0 0.1 Sources: ~00 0 Sources: Ss'65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 MITI and Japan Research Private EPC Investment (billion yen at 1985 prices) Institutel (nOrigina | o Ratio of Private EPC Investment to Total Private Investment (Origial investment data * Ratio of Private EPC Investment to GNP at current prices) i at first sight surprising to note that the invest- al production changes were taking place. The ment peak came two years after the 1973 oil decline in pollution control investments follow- crisis that depressed the Japanese economy so ing 1975 was followed by increases again severely that it recorded a negative economic during 1981, 1982 and 1983, which again were growth rate in the following year (the only year in part attributable to a further round of oil since World War II that this occurred). One rea- price increases, and the accompanying invest- son for the investment peak in 1975 was that a ments in energy conservation. regulation to control SOx emissions began to be There are other possible explanations as to implemented in that year. This however was why investment in pollution control peaked in compounded by another factor: the increase in the mid-1970s, some years after the introduc- international oil prices triggered immediate tion of the Basic Law. One is the stimulus increases in domestic fuel costs, which stimu- afforded by the results of the court cases relat- lated extensive reorganization of industrial ing to the serious pollution incidents which processes in order to achieve greater fuel effi- were concluded in first half of the 1970s. As far ciency. It was in many cases convenient and as air pollution control - the prime target of efficient for firms to introduce environmental private industry - was concerned, the initial protection measures at the same time as gener- response to the Basic Law, the Air Pollution 94 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Type of Industry 1974 1990 Table 6.1 __________________===_________=_______________ _ ______ Private Power 18% 65% Pollution Chemicals 18% 3.8% Control Investments in Steel manufacturing 17% 8.4% Mnufaturin Oil refinery 13% 3.0% and Mining Paper and Pulp 5% 3.6% Sector Others 29% 12.5% Total 100% 100% Control Law, and associated regulations was of manufacturing and mining sector, which cur- course to take the easiest and cheapest mea- rently carries out about 80% of such sures first. For SO2 reduction, this was investments. Between 1974 and 1990 there have substitution for high sulfur content fuels. By been substantial changes in the relative impor- the mid-1970s these opportunities had been tance of pollution control measures in various exhausted, and continued improvement in sub-sectors. Table 6.1 shows that while in 1974 standards required very expensive desulfuriza- three types of industry (electric power, chemi- tion equipment. Indeed, at this time, cals and steel) accounted for about half of total investment in desulfurization equipment, pri- pollution control investments, by 1990, invest- marily by the power industry, dominated ment in the power sector alone accounted for industrial investment in pollution control. 65% of the total, this being mainly for SOx and NOx and SMP removal facilities. Although 1975 was a peak year for invest- ment in SC)2 reduction, it had an apparently small Paralleling the overall trend, pollution con- effect on recorded emissions and ambient quality trol investments in the manufacturing and at that time. A possible explanation for this is that mining sector fell from 14% of total investment most of the investment was carried out in power in 1974 to 3% in 1990. Also, while in 1974, the stations. These were often located in rural areas, power sector invested 47% of its gross invest- but monitoring stations were primarily located in ment in pollution control, it was only 4.9% in urban areas. Another explanation could be that 1990. Similarly, while investments in pollution economic growth at that time was extremely control in oil refineries, chemicals, and paper rapid: tightening of ernission controls for individ- and pulp were 27%, 25%, and 24% respectively ual plants could be entirely consistent with of total investment in 1974, by 1990, the compa- aggregate increases in emissions. rable figures were 1.8%, 2.2% and 6.0%. Predictably, the bulk of investment in pol- The above data refer to total pollution con- lution control was and continues to be in the trol investments, including both equipment Chapter 6 95 and civil works. As far as actual pollution con- corresponding ratio for large industries. There- trol equipment (roughly half of the total fore, SMSIs investments in pollution control pollution control investment) is concerned, in relative to sales value of products is also about the mid 1970s 60% was for desulfurization 15% of that for large scale industry. facilities, and 30% for prevention of water pol- A variety of factors explain decisions to lution. Current (1991) distribution of pollution invest in polution control equipment. Just as control investment by large scale industry is quite similar to that in the mid 1970s, i.e., 61% large scale utrie ctro itheo nt co making pollution control investment coincide for prevention of air pollution, and 30% for pre- with reorganization of productive processes vention of water pollution. necessitated by energy price increases, SMSIs Snmall and Medium Size Industries It is esti- have often invested in polution control when mated that small and medium size industries they have relocated. Indeed, government poli- (SMSIs)12 which employ 79% of the labor force cy of relocating SMSIs has often been and produce 62% of total output in Japan, are dominated by environmental concerns; the responsible for roughly 20% of all private sec- relocation itself combined with process tor investment in environmental pollution changes and modernization have been power- control. According to a survey made by fapan ful means of bringing about environmental Research Institute, 60% of the SMSIs judged improvements. that pollution control facilities were required in As described in more detail in the Case Stud-- their enterprises, of which about 93% had actu- ies, the main reasons for relocation included the ally invested in them. In contrast to large scale necessity of modernizing production processes industry whose main investment has been in in the 1970s; strong neighborhood protests air pollution control measures, followed by against pollution; and a variety of financial water pollution, SMSIs largest investments incentives provided by government. The latter were made for prevention of water pollution, included availability of inexpensive land; favor-- follov,ed by prevention of air pollution and able prices for vacated premises; and low interest then noise pollution. This is attributable to the loans for moving and modernization. fact that many of the SMSIs are engaged in food processing industries, which are large water A survey conducted by the Japan Research consumers, as are the plating, dyeing and Institute found that a number of other factors leather industries. also explained SMSIs decisions to invest in pol-- lution control equipment. These included There is not much difference in the ratio of improvement of corporate image; residents' pollution control to total investment between complaints; tighter enforcement of regulations; SMSIs and large industries. However, the ratio and instructions or advice from government or of SMSIs general investment amount relative to trade associations. Technical issues were also sales value of products is about 15% of the an important explanation; in addition to the 96 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program opportunities afforded by relocation, process subsidized interest rates. These agencies, the changes and introduction of new technology; Japan Development Bank, the Japan Environ- expansion of production capacity; and obsoles- ment Corporation, the Small and Medium cence of existing pollution control facilities Enterprise Finance Corporation, and the were also significant determinants of invest- National Finance Corporation, between them ment. Although the survey only related to made available about one third of the invest- SMSIs, similar findings would almost certainly ment funds required for pollution control result from a survey of large scale industry. investment in the 1975 peak year. (See Table 6.2 Financing Pollution Control Investmenits in below). As has been observed earlier, while the Ja an Environment Corporation was not the the Mid-1970s As described above, by the mid- Jr 1970s a combination of regulatory and economic largest lender, it has played a major role in ensuring the technical soundness and cost- forces had resulted in huge investments in pollu- en essn ofh specific poutin contr tion control, which at one stage reached 14% of . . . investments. While specializing in the financ- tota invstmet i themanuactringand in- ing of end of pipe pollution control facilities, ing sector. This placed great pressure, not only ing ofe of pie pollutionmcntrolac the work of the Japan Environment Corpora- upon the financial, but also the technical capacity tion has been complemented by that of the of Japan's industrial sector. New mechanisms other lending agencies which, in assisting were required to ensure that funds were available industries in plant modernization and upgrad- to industries to improve their environmental per- ing, play an equally important role in overall formance, and at the same time ensure that those environmental improvement strategy. funds were used as efficiently as possible. Achievement of these objectives was facili- Two thirds of the cost of pollution control tated by the lending operations of a number of investment was from industry's own resources, public agencies, all of which loaned funds at including commercial bank borrowing. In the LEADING INSTITUTION INTEREST REPAYMENT MAXIMUM LOAN Table 6.2: RATE PERIOD LOAN AMOUNT AMOUNT Government (Billion Yen) Lending for Pollution Control 1. Japan Development Bank 8.0% 10 years 50% of investment 72.3 Investments 2. Japan Environment Corp. (JEC) 6.85% 10 years 80% of investment 26.5 (1975) 3. Small & Medium Enterprise Finance Corporation 7.0% 10 years 15 billion per loan 18.0 4. National Finance Corporation 7.0% 10 years 1.8 billion per loan 1.7 5. Total (1+2+3+4) 318.5(34%) 6. Commercial Banks 9.1% 7 Gross Private Investments Source in EPC 928.6 (100%) OECD Chapter 6 97 mid 1970s the ability of firms to invest heavily in pollution control was facilitated by the fact Impact of Pollution Control that the technologies were well known and Expenditures on Production Costs established, and the increase in Japan's inter- national competitiveness allowed them to The financial impact of carrying out environ- cope with increasing standards and costs. For mental protection measures obviously varies the domestic market, achieving uniformity of considerably by industry. In the mid-1970s, the action within industrial groups was an impor- costs of pollution control were very high for tant characteristic of industry's response. Self certain industry groups, and as Figure 6.2 interest also provided a necessary impetus; shows, this had at that time a considerable legal regulations became stricter, the principle impact on their profitability. Thus company of liability for damage became increasingly profits in the textile and steel industries were established, and demands grew for industry reduced in years of peak pollution control to show evidence of social responsibility. investment by over 90%, while for non-steel metals, substantial losses were incurred as a Potential costs of not taking anti-pollution result of such investment. Subsequently, how- measures include suspension of business ever, the impact of pollution control operations if effluent and noise standards are expenditures on costs and profits is shown to not met; cost of compensation for damages have declined sharply, eventually becoming caused by pollution; damage to production insignificant. equipment caused by pollution (metal corro- sion, etc.); and decrease in product sales due The various support mechanisms offered by to the lowered image of the enterprise. Anoth- government referred to in Chapter 5 were critical er important consideration is the impact of in deternining the ability and willingness of poor environmental practice on the working these industries to invest heavily in pollution con- conditions, well-being and productivity of trol in the mid 1970s, for in many cases these employees. While the Industrial Safety and measures permitted them to remain competitive. Hygiene Act strengthened measures to protect In the case of electric power, the utilities were in workers, the general improvement in environ- effect local monopolies, and although they mental management within enterprises has incurred exceedingly high pollution control costs, itself had a beneficial impact; the overall they were able to pass much of this burden on to improvement in the record of occupational the consumer. Figure 6.3 shows the gloomy pre- health with regard to pollution is indicated in diction of the electric power industry about the Figure 2.9 above. These measures also had an impact on its profits if SOx and NOx standards educational aspect, in that they contributed to were enforced in the mid 1970s. In the event, the enhanced awareness of unions, engineers apart from one year, actual profitability was vir- and management as to the adverse effects of tually unaffected by the heavy investment in industrial pollution. pollution control by this industry. 98 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Rate of profit drops Figure 6.2: (%) Textile (%) Paper and pulp (FY) Trends in the l°s°o l0so°- Impact of 60- so- Pollution 70- 70- Control on 60- 60 Cmpn 50- 50- Company 40- 40- Profits: Selected 30 -30 Idsre 20 20n Industries 10 Io-__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1i a JJ j ~J1969-84 0 0 '70 '75 '80 '70 '75 '80 (%) Chemical (%) Iron and steel 100 100- 9 _ 90 -9 80 ' '08 70- 0 60- 0 50- 0 40- 0 30 -3 20 -2 Il00 .. nLI 10 0 '70 '75 '80 '7'5 0 (%) Electric power (%) Nonferrous metal 100- 100- Source: 90- 90- 80 - 80- Prepared by the 70 - E 70 - Yearbook of Note:0 Corporate 40- 40 - Statistics and the 30 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~30 20 ~~~~~~~~~~~~20 Ja pan 10 10 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Development 0 '75 180 ~ ~~~~~ ~~~0 7075'80 Bank, 'Survey on Trends in Note: Investments in Left axis shows "rate of profit drops by added outlays for pollution control = added outlays for pollution control / (added outlays Equlipment" for pollution control + pretax net termn profit). At the present time, the economic impact of production costs. In 1967, the Economic Planning pollution control expenditures on the mnining and Agency (EPA) estimated average ratios of desul- manufacturing industry as a whole are relatively furization costs relative to product production small. In 1991, pollution control costs (including costs for various industries. Assuming a unit both capital and operating costs) were estimated desulfurization cost of 1,000 yen per kilo liter of to be 0.7% of value added in the mining and man- fuel, the estimated average ratios were 0.39% in ufacturing industries, here defined to include the mining and manufacturing industry, 0.19% in electricity and gas. In the case of electric power, agriculture, forestry and fishery, and 0.11% in pollution control was estimated to be 6.1% of total transport and traffic sector.13 Chapter 6 99 Figure 6.3: Rate of profit Predicted and (%) Actual 22 Profitability of____ Prftblt of 20 -Actual Results Electric Power A Industry 1 - --- Case A Following 16 - -----Case B Enforcement of 14 - Higher 1 Emission Standards 1X 6- 4 - 2 - A2- A4 AL6- A8- AlO- I ~~~~~~~ I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Reduction Rate (% year 1975 1980 1985 1990 Source., MITI and Japan Notes: Development Bank Case A - SOx Control only __________Case B - BMUMSO and NOx Control Pr-oduct prices consist of many cost elements, liter in 1988, 22% of the 1982 price. Compared to indluding raw materials, energy, transport, land, the size of these price fluctuations, the additional machinery, labor, safety measures, sales promo- costs mncurred by industry in achieving pollution tion, administration, licenses, insurance, ad- control objectves have been very small. vertising, and enviromnental pollution control. In addition, there are varous prce vanation factors In any case, product prices have often been including rates of foreign exchange, taxes, tariffs, reduced through technological innovation. and iinterest rates. The magnitude of the variation Japanese industry has constantly improved its of some of these factors has been very large over international competitiveness since World War time. In particular, the yen has continually appre- II through innovations in product manufactur- ciated over the last two decades. The domestic ing and energy conservation. Environmental price of oil which was 55,000 yen/kilo liter at its management in particular has benefitted from highest level in 1982 decreased to 12,000 yen/kilo technological innovation both directly, through 100 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (Unit in Million yen) Polluters Type of Annual Cost of Annual Benefit-Cost Table63: Pollution Environmental Cost of Ratio I Costs and Damage to EPC Benefits of Polluters Measures Pollution (A) (B) (C) Control 1. Oil Air Pollution 1) Compensation to Measures:Three Company in SOx victims for Yokkaichi health damage: 21,007 14,795 1.4 Serious Pollution Cases 2. A nitrogen Water 1) Compensation to Fertilizer pollution victims for Producer organic health damage: 7,610 Minamata mercury 2) Cost of removal City of polluted sea bed of Minamata Bay: 4,271 3) Compensation to fishennen: 689 Total: 12,570 123 102 3. A Zinc Contaminatio 1) Compensation to Mining n of soil with victims for Company at cadmium health damage: 743 Jintsu river 2) Compensation to farmers: 882 3) Cost of cleaning of polluted agriculture land: 893 Total: 2,518 662 4.2 the production of increasingly efficient and pollution control expenditures may be judged cost-effective pollution control equipment, and from the private industry perspective. There indirectly, through general industrial process have been an exceptional number of cases improvement and plant modernization which where firms can justify investment in pollu- results in more efficient use of raw materials, tion control without legal pressure because less generation of waste, and higher quality they are financially feasible. An excellent products. example is provided by an edible oil compa- ny in Yokohama that invested in new a0 ~ MEN= _ _ _ _ a _manufacturing technology that contributed Financial Justification and to energy saving, reduction in manpower Macroeconomic Impacts of requirements, and major reduction in the Pollution Control Expenditures emission of pollutants. An extremely high rate of return was obtained from these ini- Japanese experience has demonstrated a vari- tiatives. (For a summary see Annex 19, ety of scenarios by which the impact of Profitable Investment in New Production Chapter 6 101 Technology and Pollution Control: An Edible Much therefore depends upon the extent to Oil Manufacturer.14 which the government actually implements a pol- lution control policy, or whether those damaged Investment in pollution control actually can obtain compensation through the court sys- increases production costs in most cases; never- tem. Clearly, this works in Japan; a willingness to theless such investments may be justified because not only follow national guidelines, but indeed to they will permit the company to avoid costly liti- enter stricter agreements with local authorities gation, liability for damages, and other costs. In suggest that the finms see this in their own interest other words, the costs of pollution control are To some extent this tends to result in a fairly effi- smaller than costs arising from not complying dent determination of standards, since with the environmental laws such as penalties externalities are internalized by the court system. and compensation to victims, as well as possible decline in sales due to lowered corporate image. Note however that the compensation paid Indeed, there are numerous examples, as through court cases - and therefore the damage described in Annex 10 (Details of Key Court estimates in Table 6.3- has to date been very con- Cases) in which extremely heavy damages have servative, with 80% of lost earnings being the usual been paid by polluting firms. limit. It dearly ignores other pain and mental anguish, as well as damage to property. However, Some estimates have been made of the com- where firms can ignore environmental laws and pensation costs that firms would have incurred or standards, it follows that much less than optimal avoided depending upon whether or not pollu- investment in pollution control from a societal tion control measures were in force.15 For point of view is likely to be achieved. Indeed, since example, one study estimated that the costs of compensation is less than total damage costs to compensation to victims of SOx air pollution society, industrial acceptance of existing standards throughout Japan would be 12.6 times the cost of implies that the latter, and therefore actual pollu- desudfurization and fuel conversion if these tion control expenditures, are generally readily improvements had not taken place. Other exam- justifiable in social cost-benefit terms. ples of the high costs incurred by industry as a result of three serious pollution court cases, and a It is therefore likely that investment in pollu- comparison with the costs they would have tion control by the private sector, which is subject incurred in investing in environmental pollution to the discipline afforded by the prospect of litiga- control (EPC) measures are shown in Table 6.3. tion as described above, can be expected to be quite Although one cannot generalize from the results, efficient in size and scope. This however is less like- these are cases in which prevention would clear- ly in the public sector; while government may also ly have been preferable to cure, not only in be subject to court action for damages caused, it humanitarian terms, but also in financial ones. does not have the profit incentive to avoid over- Thus the benefit-cost ratio of taking preventive investing in environmental management, for measures varies from 1.4 to 102. example, in highly expensive incineration. 102 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Figure 6.4: Economic 2 case with private investment in Consequences of 0 pollution control Private real GDP 1 Investment in 0 Pollution case without private investment in Prevention real private-investment 5F (%o) pollution control 1965-75 real private investrnent 5- in facilities _ 0 real current overseas H I surplus (price= 1970) 3 -Y 1OO bill _i_ 2 -%) index of wholesale prices I - 0 '65 '70 '75 Notes: 1. Estimated by the integrated environmental model of Environmental Agency 2. After simulating two cases; with private investment in pollution control and without private investment in pollution control, the results (differences) are shown in terms of rate and real value. Finally, efforts have been made to estimate the was slightly inflationary; and it reduced the real various macroeconomic impacts of private invest- current overseas surplus. This time was the period ments in pollution control. The integrated of rapid investment in environmental pollution economic-environmental model developed by the control. The subsequent reduction in investments Japan Environment Agency was used to simulate would show a drop-off in these graphs. two scenarios; one with private investment in pol- lution control, and the other without such _ investment. The impact of the pollution control investment on a number of indicators over the Other Incentives: 1965-1975 period was estimated, the results being Electricity and Water Pricing summarized in Figure 6.4. This shows, among other things, that private investment in pol- The reaction of the Japanese government to the lution control slightly increased real GDP; it also 1973 oil crisis and at around the same time to Chapter 6 103 Figure 6.5: _1 SOx Ernission (Index) Reduction by Measure / Decrease of emission by increased /- . . . desulfurization 100- Decrease of emission by changes in fuel composition Decrease of emission by energy 50- saving Decrease of emission by changes in production composition Increase of emission by increased O ! ! actual SOx emission 1974 1986 estimated SOx emission l I without measures Notes: 1. Prepared by Environment Agency. 2. For the index, the emission of 1974 is set at 100. the increasing real costs of industrial water sup- more to energy efficiency improvements, plies prompted a reappraisal of the existing brought about in large part by price reform, than policy of subsidizing industrial enterprises by to specific environmental regulations. Thus the electricity and water prices that were less than introduction of cleaner industrial production the economic cost of supply. The large increases, processes appear to have been much more sig- referred to in Chapter 5, have been extremely nificant in reducing pollution loads than "end-of important in inducing firms to be more efficient pipe" measures (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). in their use of energy and water resources, and A similar set of conclusions can be drawn this has had a beneficial environmental impact. about the industrial water supply pricing In particular, it has been extremely important in reforms of the mid-1970s, which were cor- stimulating the use of cleaner production tech- bined with an expansion of sewerage systems, nologies and those which reduce wasteful use of and the accompanying requirement that where energy and water. available, industries should connect to them, ]ndeed, it has been16 estimated that the de- and pay for the collection, treatment and dis- cine in industrial air and water pollution owes posal costs involved. This increase in the cost of 104 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Figure 6.6: COD Load in 400 T g Black Liquor |In pr cess (T84S Paper and Pulp 4 00 _XW :en rann Industry 197SithofPrdut Reduction by (1970 and 1989) (58%) Blak Liquor In process Tech. Recovery(8% (26oo) IF~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I 200- vvith 2ifferentEffluent Treatment 0 V ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(160o) 0 <>~~~~~~~~~~~< ~~~ 20~ 1970 1989 Notes: The largest bar in 1989 shows the estimated COD load with measures. The rightmost bar (the shortest one) in 1989 is the actual COD load with cleaner production technology and end-of-pipe measures. The two bars in the middle show the estimated loads with different cleaner production processes. water supply and its disposal for industrial changes internalized the external costs hitherto users was made still greater by tightening imposed by private abstractors on society, so restrictions on groundwater abstraction. The that water prices began to reflect more accu- environmental benefits of such a policy can be rately social costs. By increasing water supply illustrated with reference to the impact on land and disposal costs to industry, the legislation subsidence, and by indicators of the extent to also prompted them to engage in recycling on a which water recycling has increased in recent much larger scale than hitherto, this being illus- years. trated in Figure 6.8. The environmental impact of the ground- water legislation was considerable. First, LLLZ______ Figure 6.7 shows that land subsidence, a major Organization of Pollution Control problem in many parts of Japan, has effectively Measures in Business Establishments ceased in many areas. Since industries were increasingly required to purchase water from As noted above, pollution administration in municipal suppliers, additional capacity was Japan has involved considerable monitoring required by water supply authorities, and costs and guidance on the part of government. In and prices therefore rose. In effect these order to implement industrial pollution control Chapter 6 105 Figure 6.7: Amount of Land subsidence Landi Subsidence in (cm) 1900 1950 1990 year Certain Areas of 0 I ,' W Japan Muikamachi, inland area of Niigata Prefecture (1900-90) 100 Saga Plain, Saga Prefecture North Kanto Plain(Inland), Saitama Pretecture Owari Plan(near seashore), Mie Prefecture 200 Niigata Plain(near seashore), Niigata Prefecture Osaka Plain (near seashore), Osaka 300 ___ Source: 400 EnvironuMent Agenc__ measures, pollution control systems in factories The 1961 Law stipulates that specified fac- and business establishments have evolved in tories (those with facilities designated by para:llel with the administrative developments. government ordinances as causing soot and In order to assist this process, in collaboration smoke, waste water, noise and vibration over certain limits) have primary responsibility for wasinthrmdusenalhgroups,wthe ntonal govertheir own pollution control programs. It also sets out the qualifications that responsible per- M a notification system by factories/ sonnel within each enterprise should have. As business establishments for specified facilities; described in Chapter 4, these include chief E monitoring of factory operations; engineers in charge of pollution control, other * preparation of systems for data keeping technical staff, and pollution control managers, and reporting; who are engineers in charge of management g responsibility system for pollution con- and operation of specified facilities, data analy- trol by factories/business establishments based sis and other technical matters. on "Law for Development of Pollution Control Organization for Specified Factories " of 1961; Pollution control managers must have and explicit qualifications. Engineering managers is training and assignment of engineers in should pass the MITI-controlled examination charge of pollution control. of high level technology and legislation related 106 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program million m3/day water consumption (%) Figure 6.8: Industrial Water 200 80 Use and 70 Recycling ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(1965-90) *- recycling rate (%) 150 60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989 Source:: I _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Japan Notes: Environment Recycling rate = Recycled water / Water consuepylon Atgency to environment. As an example, the mnajor sub- jects of the air pollution examination include Group Decision Making relevant legislation, incineration technology and control of smoke and soot, monitoring and mea- The decision making structure in the private surement technology, technology for treatment of sector with regard to industrial pollution-as hazardous materials, and technology for removal indeed to other strategic issues-takes place at and collection of particulate matter. Certain facili- two levels: one at the individual enterprise ties cannot be installed and operated without level and the other at the industrial group level. pollution control managers. The increase in the The group is an association of enterprises number of qualified pollution control managers which have certain interests in comnmon, i.e., between 1971 and 1991 according to specialty participating in the same trade at the national (water pollution, air pollution and other) are level, or located in the same geographical area. shown in Figure 6.9. These managers have per- Such groups have been of considerable impor- sonal responsibility, which maytbe subjectto legal tance in bringing about the co-operation of penalty in case of default, for their specified envi- industry in the attainment of environmental ronmental duties. objectives. When, in the early 1970s, as a resul Chapter 6 107 Figure 6.9: persons Qualified 2 50, 00 0 Pollution Control E n gineers 2 0.0 , 0 0 0. . .. . .-... .... ... .. ....... ... wXXXX.......................................................... 1971-91 1 00,0 00...... ......... . ... Source: Industrwil 0 Pollutionl 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 Association of Japan Air II Water X Others of social and legal pressure, Japanese industrial cies that affect them, such as energy, regional leaders were forced to take action to improve the development and pollution control measures. environment, industrial associations played a The Federation puts together the opinions of its central role by agreeing on the environmental members and presents them to the govern- protection measures that their members should ment. The national organizations of each take. The economic risk to any particular firm of industry have developed basic measures and taking costly measures was therefore reduced, technology to cope with pollution under the since all member firms agreed to take the same guidance of the MITI. Decisions as to how far kind of pollution control measures.This arrange- industry should take pollution control mea- ment, which continues to day, ensures that sures consider the trend of public opinion, legal investment in pollution control affects firms' sanctions, technical feasibility and costs. Indi- corrmpetitiveness more or less equally. vidual industrial groups decide on their own policy recommendations in light of these fac- The Federation of Economic Organizations tors, which vary according to location. represents Japan's business interests, with which are affiliated the nationwide organiza- Following deliberations, some enterprises tions of each industry. The Federation, as are subjected to strict effluent controls to meet industry's representative, negotiates with the environmental standards. In the case of national and local governments regarding poli- industries mainly made up of large companies, 108 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program nationwide organizations like the above nego- the region, how to achieve them, and also how tiate with the MITI and others while at the to request national level support. This system same time coordinating with local govern- has made it possible for local government bod- ments. This helps avoid cases in which ies to understand the intentions and attitudes acceptance of strict standards in high pollution of local enterprises. It also permits enterprises areas might otherwise be used as a precedent to present opinions as a group to the local gov- for the establishment of similar high standards emient; in many cases this would be difficult in other parts of the country. for individual firms to do. Trade organizations include the Electric The associations are also used for training in Power Industry Association, which consists of the pollution control technology, exchange of expe- nine power companies which supply electric rience, presentation of pollution control power throughout Japan, five of which account measures taken by local governments, and dis- for 85% of all power supplied in the country. Oth- cussion of regulations. The contents of pollution ers are the Japan Steel Association, in which five control agreements among members' compa- enterprises which produce two-thirds of all the nies and plans for implementing environmental crude steel take the lead; the Japan Automobile measures are discussed between members of the Industry Association, which includes the five associations and local governments. Overall, the enterprises which manufacture most of the vehi- associations have contributed a great deal to an cles as well as many suppliers of parts; and the effective cooperation between industry and local Petrochemical Industry Association, which governments. indudes a large number of enterprises, many of which are members of this association. Other Pollution control organizations for most organizations include the Japan Paper Manufac- major industries have also been established, turing Industry Association and Cement Industry some of them having been in existence for Association. many years. These have been engaged in nego- tiations over pollution control measures with Chambers of Commerce and Industry the central government, centering on MITI whose members are local enterprises are locat- under its industrial priority policy. For exam- ed throughout the country. In medium and ple, in the case of the Japanese Federation of small cities, some of the Chambers have spe- Iron and Steel Industry, the following organiza- cialized staff who can be consulted by local tions have been created: enterprises on pollution-related matters. In cities with a large industrial complexes or * Committee for Industrial Waste Water zones, Pollution Control Associations com- in 1954; prised of major factories in the region are set up U Committee for Countermeasures for with the assistance of the local governments. Soot and Smoke in 1964; The local government and the Association U Committee for Location and Pollution decide on how to set environmental goals for consisting of four special subcommittees for loca- Chapter 6 109 tion, air pollution, waste water and waste in 1967; that pollution control measures are necessary to 1 Association of Research for NOx maintain or strengthen the competitiveness of Removal Technology in the Iron and Steel Japanese industry; i.e., pollution prevention pays. Industry in 1973; This self-interest may be defined in termns of a 1L Committee for The Use of Sludge as somewhat longer time horizon than would apply Resource in 1976; and in many countries. One reason for this is the polit- Fl Participation in Committee on Environ- ical stability in Japan, and the expectation of mental Issues in the International Iron and Steel continuity in the fundamental business environ- Institute in 1971 and training for environmental ment. Thus, important factors in determining managers in iron/steel industry from develop- industry's attitude toward investment in environ- ing countries. mental measures indude a desire to avoid doing Similar measures have been taken in other anything that will injure the reputation of the major industries such as paper and pulp, elec- enterprise or that will harm relationships with tricity, petrochemicals, cement, and car local residents. It is also important, for a variety of manufacturing. However, this can only be done reasons unrelated to environment, to keep on for the largest industries. Small and medium good terms with the local administration. This sized industries such as food processing, plat- attitude has facilitated the many Pollution Agree- ing and textiles have taken measures on an ments, referred to earlier. In some cases, there is individual factory basis, although they have another economic rationale for this attitude; a received technical support from their local gov- general expectation that environmental standards emnment pollution bureaus, Japan Environment will continue to increase suggests that it will in Corporation, and manufacturers of pollution many cases be cheaper to invest in advanced pol- control equipment. lution control measures now rather than later. Indeed, this attitude has been actively g= _ _ _ _ Xencouraged by the Japan Environment Agency, Voluntary Agreements which has introduced a stepwise approach to increasing standards, specifically in order to As noted in earlier chapters, a unique characteris- obtain cooperation of industry. Increases in tic of Japan's enviromnental policy has been the standards are spread over periods which paral- willingness of private industry to enter into lel the length of time necessary for the pollution agreerrments with local governments which estab- control equipment to be depreciated. Firms lish environmental standards significantly higher enter agreements because they foresee stepwise than those required by national legislation. Obvi- regulation taking place according to an agreed ously, industrial enterprises make decisions about schedule, and uncertainty is therefore mini- anti-pollution measures based upon financial mized. This is a feature of a more general self-interest. For example, the growth in "green business environment in which there is expec- consumerism" both at home and abroad means tation that past trends in government policy 110 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program will be maintained in future years. (Until very explanation to the other companies, or if the recently this has been related to continuation in measures can be carried out at a cost that does power of the same political party.) not substantially exceed the amount that the other companies spend on pollution control. contherattitudeofo isnotenstirey twalrd ltion TThis policy helps to avoid potentially costly control, therefore, is not entirely altruistic. This competition in pollution control. Moreover, is evidenced by another principle followed by although placing heavy emphasis upon the industrial enterprises, which is neither to alic platins hene s upon to exced orhav lowr ati-plluton tandrds public relations consequences of appearing to exceed orhaeowrani-olutosbe heavily pro-environment, industries in fact than other firms engaged in the same processes in th sam distict.The ame sandad is routinely put great pressure on governments to in the same district. The same standard is keep the standards as low as possible thought to be appropriate. It can be exceeded only when the company can provide adequate Footnotes: 12 SMSIs are defined as follows: Manufacturers - those with paid capital of 100 million yen or less than 300 employees. Wholesalers - those with paid capital of 30 million yen or less than 100 employees. Retailers/Services - those with paid capital less than 10 milion yen or less than 50 employees. 13 Source: Economic Monthly Report, S. Ando, Economic Planning Agency, September 1967. 14 Also see Case Studies. 15 Source: Gohdo Shuppan, Japanese Pollution Experience, 1991. Original source of the Japan-wide SOx damage estimates: report by Yoichi Kaya to Club of Rome. (Compensation was estimated assumiing that (a) SOx concentration would increase at a rate expe- rienced during the 1965-1976 period and (b) compensation would be paid to 15% of people living in major industrial areas of Japan at the same rate paid in 1975.) 16 In INTEP Newsletter, No.2, June 1993 Chapter 6 111 112 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter 7: Assessment of Performance & Relevance for Developing Countries _1 lems in developing suitable sites for landfill; Future Challenges much needs to be done to encourage further A s the preceding pages have shown, there has recycling. been excellent progress in environmental man- Growth in Transport While standards relat- agement in Japan over the last forty years. This ing to individual polluting activities have been is evident from greatly improved air and water systematically raised over recent years, ambi- quality, as well as in terms of social indicators ent quality has worsened in some irnportant such as public health. Although the overall areas due to the increasing scale of economic record is impressive, the country still faces some activity. Total vehicular emissions and trans- major environmental problems. Some of these portation noise are clear examples of this are inherited from the past, such as soil and phenomenon. Transportation in fact continues water pollution from toxic wastes; these prob- to pose severe environmental problems. lems are compounded by the continued Despite the country's wealth, and a mass tran- development of new chemicals, which pose a sit operation that is one of the best in the world, continual challenge in terms of their safe dis- the private automobile poses intractable prob- posal. Though hazardous waste management lems for Japanese environmental management. legislation was completely amended recently, This should be one of the key lessons for the much has to be done for better implementation developing countries; given the high costs on of hazardous waste management. Integration of public finance and high environmental impacts resource use, conservation, recycling, waste it is important for them to make every effort to minimization, waste treatment and disposal, encourage mass transit at the expense of the will have to be further promoted with industri- private car, at an early stage of car ownership al cooperation to allow development of more and use. efficient and socially acceptable industrial Transboundary Problems Although in waste management systems. terms of its achievements in the field of energy efficiency and conservation, Japan is among the There are other issues of growing concern in world's leaders, the threats from acid rain, environmental management. They include dete- global warming, and from the disposal of rioration of urban air quality along the roadside nuclear waste all require continued efforts in and destruction of the natural environment par- research and development; responsibility for ticularly along the coastline, both of which this lies mainly with industrialized countries resulted from the continuous increase of auto- including Japan. Also, in common with other mobile use. Also, despite its heavy reliance upon countries which strictly enforce pollution con- extremely expensive incineration as a means of trol legislation, the Japanese government faces disposing of solid waste - an option that is typ- the issue of environmental pollution in devel- ically not feasible in a developing country oping countries resulting from the activities of context - Japan faces potentially severe prob- direct investment by Japanese firms and their Chapter 7 113 subsidiaries. Aside from the regulatory provi- ful use of resources are typically more environ- sions of the host countries for the firms to mentally benign than those which employ old observe appropriate discharge standards, the fashioned technologies and processes. This investing countries like Japan need to make process has been hastened in Japan by strenuous every effort to facilitate collaborative institution- efforts to learn from western technology, and to al mechanisms for dealing with this new kind of adapt it to the country's specific needs. Indeed, transboundary pollution control problem. among the major lessons from Japan's experi- ence is that the country has taken advantage of -_ new industrial processes which are not only Underlying Economic, Social economically and financially justified in them- and Cultural Factors selves, but also bring about environmental improvements. This industrial efficiency and It is clear from Japan's experience that the design intrnational c Titiondhstals beenc siu andimlemnttio o enioimna poh international competition has also been stimu- and iplemntatin ofenvionmenal plicy lated by water and energy prices (see below). does not exist in a vacuum, but depends heavily upon the interplay between a wide range of fac- In these circumstances, integration of envi- tors. In particular, efforts to reconcile the often ronment into industrial policy - a key feature competing interests of different segments of of the Japanese experience - has been both society, and where possible to achieve a coinci- affordable and acceptable to the private sector. dence of interest between different groups is Determination of national economic policy, always a major challenge of environmental poli- including that relating to the enviromment, cy. In the case of Japan, a variety of economic, depends heavily upon the unique relationship social and cultural factors-some of them unique that exists between government and industry, to the country-have been highly conducive to with the Ministry of International Trade and the achievement of environmental goals, and do Industry on the one hand and the industrial much to explain Japan's success in this area. associations on the other continually working Recognition of the significance of these underly- together to find an acceptable balance between ing factors is necessary to assess the relevance of social and financial objectives. Economic growth Japan's experience for other countries, and some provides the framework within which compen- of them are described below. sation for damages; increasing industrial Economic Growth and Industrial Strategy eemission standards; factory relocation; and large Japan's phenomenal rate of economidc growth is public expenditures on urban solid waste treat- of central importance in explaining its ability to ment and disposal infrastructure can be introduced with relative ease. invest in expensive pollution control measures. A key characteristic of economic development in Political and Economic EqualiyT Another Japan has been a rapid rate of tech- critically important factor is the level of nological innovation and modernization informed political debate and freedom of of industry. Efficient plants, which avoid waste- speech that exists in Japan. The level of political 114 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program debate in a country is often illustrated by its already introduced universal education in the income distribution; Japan has one of the most early 1900s, and had attained one of the highest equitable income distribution patterns in the average educational levels in the world by the world. Environment is typically characterized 1950s. The Japanese people began to understand by conflict of interest. The politically and finan- scientific aspects of pollution problems and took cially powerful tend to benefit from causing great interest in them. Additionally, individual environmental damage at the expense of the scientists, sociologists, and lawyers provided poor and disadvantaged, who often have no intellectual and technical support to anti-pollu- opportunity to articulate their concerns, and tion movements, and this made it increasingly have little hope of government support. In difficult for the government to ignore the grow- many countries, local protest movements are ing and well articulated concerns. Freedom of not effective because of lack of education and the press introduced in the postwar years, the awareness of the problems, and inadequate high standard of literacy, and nationwide envi- support from the media. These conditions have ronmental campaigns by the mass media have not seriously existed in Japan in the years fol- all combined to raise peoples' awareness of pol- lowing the second world war. lution problems and contributed greatly to the formation of public opinion with regard to their lopular TIVI' ''its' iSpecific developments right to be protected from pollution and to live in Japan with regard to the articulation of peo- in a healthy environment. ple's concerns for the environment, and the evolution of awareness, include the establish- Traditional__Re_ s ect $Hr NeSi.ah aEr-ti2eni ment of democracy after the war and the fnenj Until the twentieth century, Japan's key growing neighborhood protest movements industries had been agriculture, forestry and against pollution. Under the occupation policies fishery. Most farmland in existence today was in Japan, all people secured the right to vote, and already well established by 1900. Early consolh- farmers became independent after land reform. dation of the agricultural production base has Freedom of speech encouraged grassroots contributed to the prevention of damage to the protest movements which denounced industry soil and water environment despite subsequent and the government for being slow to take industrialization and urbanization. Sophisticat- environmental protection measures, and ed means of dealing with flood and drought which claimed compensation for damages that date from ancient times, and afforestation had been sustained. This prompted the govern- schemes and ecologically sensitive farming ment and industry to take a more forward- practices were associated with high and sus- looking and preventive approach to pollution tainable productivity, despite a rapidly control. growing population. Although periodically EdQ c &arin a, ue Universal educa- subordinated to other priorities of the national tion has played a key role in the development of government, this traditional respect for the nat- Japan's environmental movement. Japan had ural environment and the economic services it Chapter 7 115 provides has continued to be a factor influenc- furthering national policy. Local administration ing the pattern of Japan's development process, in Japan has for many years depended heavily even though the nation's economic and indus- upon a finandng system in which the national trial structure has changed dramatically government provides funds to compensate for The Impact of Social Pressure on Industrial local variations in revenue-raising ability. This Behavior An almost uniquely Japanese charac- system along with a decentralization of power has played a major role in making local govern- teristic is the widespread concern on the part of ment measures effective. both individuals and enterprises that they should not be subjected to public criticism for National-local government relations with anti-social behavior, in particular, in their local regard to environment follow the conventional community or region. Since environmental pattern, with actual implementation of pollu- problems are largely of this nature - i.e., they tion control, including establishment of local involve damage caused by one party to others - this concern is an important factor in explain- sta rds, enaollutingcontro s, ing why there has been a good record of toringoandmenforceme being etue to local governments. These relations have compliance with environmental regulations and g been confirmed by the Basic Environmental policies. It also helps to explain the existence and Law of 1993 which requires each local govern- effectiveness of voluntary Pollution Control ment to draw up an environmental policy Agreements. Once a governmental policy is operational directive of its own This is an made public, Japanese enterprises tend to be essential element of the overall policy, for local extremely conscientious in carrying it out, for , . , the reason indicated above. However, this also goments aron thec"frontine ent comes to dealing with specific environmental means that they make exceptional efforts to incidents. influence the policy in advance; policies which emerge therefore tend to represent consensus The success of Japan's polution control between government and industry, and there- strategy rests heavily upon the competence and fore have a greater chance of being successful in status of local government officials, which in practice.17 Another result is the amount of time Japan is by tradition extremely high. Indeed, needed for consensus building. while formal mechanisms suggest that the Roles of National and Local Govemment The national government takes the lead in the national government traditionally establishes the development of strategic policies, local govern- overall legislative and regulatory framework for ments have historically been in the vanguard of all domestic policies, provides financial assis- environmental policy reform in Japan. Heads tance to local governments and the private sector, of local governments, as they are elected by and assists in technology development. The local people, were extremely sensitive to the mechanism of financial assistance to local gov- attitudes of local people, and the national gov- ernments has in practice been highly effective in emient cannot morally oppose them, because 116 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program historically they have taken the lead in the pol- trial growth, with little regard for its environ- lution control field. mental consequences. Only in the latter years has environment been accorded a significant pri- Sedtoral Policies Combined with the forego- ortanthsfercsirblcmuiy in are a umbe of ohdesthathavebeen ority, and this after considerable community mng are a number of policies that have been' developed in individual sectors, many of them pressure and, for different reasons, a rapid rise in having important consequences forstheaen - energy and water prices. This experience does not answer the question as to whether develop- ment. Foremost among these is energy policy, ing countries should follow a simlar "grow characterized in recent years by heavy emphasis now, clean up later" strategy. Clearly, one of the upon efficiency and conservation, and encour- hi techicaland reasons why Japan followed this path was that aged by governmental provision of iechrdcal and there was inadequate awareness in the early financial assistance, and by a pricing policy years of the extent to which environental designed to discourage excessive and wasteful degradation in fact threatened economic devel- use of energy. Similar considerations apply to v water supply policy. MlTI's policies of promoting much has been learned, not least from Japan self-control by individual enterprises through itef about lcy fom an requiring employment of well-qualified pollution insent thaty both eonom- investment strategies that satisfy both econom- control engineers is another aspect of Japanese ic and environmental objectives. Pollution experience which could be taken up by develop- control technologies have also improved, and ing countries. In the transportation sector, mass their costs have fallen. In particular, reliance transit policies are also consistent with soundh so upon "end-of-pipe" treatment has been super- environmental management. Other sectoral poli- seded in recent years by much more cies related to agriculture, water resources, cost-effective measures involving modendza- transportation, and urban and regional develop- tion of industrial processes. ment also have a profound impact upon the environment. These impacts are often beneficial, Certainly, Japanese experience in many but not always; for example, land reclamation Cetiny Jaans exeiec in man cases confirms that prevention is indeed better and multi-purpose river basin projects have in than cure, and it provides many examples, high- many cases been effective in pollution control, but ly relevant for developing countries, in which have destroyed natural shorelines and the ecolo- the policy of placing growth before environment gy of rivers. would be incorrect even in narrow economic or financial terms. There remain, however, many areas in which there are significant trade-offs Relevance of Japanese Experience for between environmental management and other Developing Countries18 economic and social objectives; each of these wil Grow Now, Clean Up Later? Japan's eco- have to be determined on a case-by-case basis. nomic development strategy in the immediate Clearly, developing the capacity and incentives in post-war years gave absolute priority to indus- both government and industry to carry out envi- Chapter 7 117 ronmental impact assessments of major projects In most developing countries, improvement or policies is an essential step, as is the need to of urban sanitation is one of the most urgent improve monitoring of ambient water and air issues to be resolved. Therefore, it will be most quality and of effluents, emissions and wastes. efficient if institutional and manpower develop- ment are carried out simultaneously with the Phasir- imrlementation Japan's recentenvi- execution of urban sanitation projects such as ronmental history provides a number of lessons water supply, human waste and solid waste that are relevant for developing countries. Even management. In the short term, if there is inade- though some of the major concerns in Japan quate capacity for industrial pollution control at might not be of the highest priority in developing the local level, the lead must be taken by the cen- countries (e.g. air quality improvements may tral government, which should support local appear at the present time to be of secondary authorities with finance, training and institu- importance compared to urban sanitation), tional development, and by giving them legal issues relating to organization and management; powers for on-the-spot inspections and to achieving the co-operation of various interests; enforce legal penalties for non-compliance with financing mechanisms, and reconciliation with environmental laws. economic objectives are common to many forms Japan has found that non-governmental of enviromnental degradation. In considering support mechanisms are indispensable for effec- the relevance of Japanese experience m specific tve environmental management. This wil be policy areas, one may identify those aspects which provide lessons that can be implemented even r we gover engecinr in te vry earter; tosewhih my b inro- relatively weak, as in most developing coun- tries. Examples of such support, which should duced in the medium term, say in five to ten be encouraged in developing countries, include years; and those which are very long term, or perhaps not even feasible to consider. volun polutian col agreements between industry and local governmnents, and Institutional Reform Some aspects of Japan's the establishment of pollution grievance recent environmental history could be of~ n'=e machinery and pollution abatement associa- diate application; of highest priority for tions jointly organized by private industry and developing countries are those examples of poh- local governents. cies which have involved no trade-offs between Industrial Self-Reliance Developing the economic development and environmental pro- ability of industry to be self-reliant in pollution tection. Many of these relate to institutional control technology development and abate- reform. For example, a major priority for devel- ment is also required. In Japan, installation of oping countries should be to develop the qualified personnel in industry with specific capacity of local authorities since they have the responsibilities for pollution control has been most immediate responsibility for day to day of extreme importance, and is one of the most environmental management. significant lessons of Japanese experience for 118 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program developing countries. Joint implementation of Promoting Pollution Control Most develop- pollution abatement measures by major indus- ing countries will have a shortage of pollution trial firms and the role of industrial associations control technology expertise for the foreseeable in providing technical guidance on pollution future. Central governments can usefully pro- abatement for small and medium industries vide a support system to local governments and has also been important. Additionally, in devel- the private sector by promotion of a pollution oping countries, there are often multinational control industry and consulting services as well corporations which have much experience in as the establishment of technical assistance bod- pollution abatement, and whose expertise ies. The experience of the Japan Environment should be used to disseminate advanced pollu- Corporation, which has played a leading role in tion control technologies. disseminating technologies as well as providing financial assistance, is of relevance here. The Establishment of a partnership between the isiuin fhge dcto ieuieste institutions of higher education like universities public and private sectors has also been shown and professional engineering schools in Japan in Japan to be essential if pollution abatement is have also successfully produced a large number to be reconciled with economic gr-owth objec- of qualified engineers in the field of pollution tives. Industrial pollution abatement measures control. Also, to help pollution control personnel in Japan have always been based upon to enhance career prospects, the governmental detailed discussion between industry groups and semi-govenmental institutions in public and the govemnment. Developing countries health and environmental management provide should make every effort to establish mecha- occasional short courses and training programs nisms for such dialogue to take place in an on, for example, new environmental legislation informed and co-operative manner and for them to obtain national and local profes- Industrial Process Change A number of sional qualifications. immediately transferable lessons relate to pol- lution control technology. In Japan, early Low Cost Technology Japan has accumulat- pollution control efforts were primarily "end- ed extensive experience, of great relevance to of-pipe", but there has been a consistent shift developing countries, with low cost, traditional toward reliance upon industrial process technologies, and demonstrated that they can changes, which are much more cost-effective provide a high standard of service if properly and consistent with the twin objectives of eco- managed. A night soil collection system similar nomic growth and environmental protection. to the Japanese system may be usefully consid- Japanese experience suggests that there are ered for certain urban areas in developing many opportunities for developing countries countries, as long as the treatment of collected to introduce economically and finan- night soil can be managed at a reasonable cost. cially viable process technologies that also The on-site treatment system called Joukasou have positive environmental impacts, and (septic tanks treating both night soil and domes- which should therefore be given priority. tic waste water) may also be appropriate for use Chapter 7 119 under certain conditions in developing coun- Financing Pollution Control Japan's experi- tries, as long as appropriate modifications are ence with regard to financing pollution control made to the design of the system to minimize is also of relevance to the developing countries. energy requirements and more importantly an Pollution control efforts in Japan have clearly appropriate institutional/legislative mechanism been hastened by the provision of low interest for maintenance is established. government loans and tax incentives for pri- Clean and Profitable Production At the other vate industry, mainly for medium and small extreme, Japan is also one of the world's leaders scale industries. Extensive low interest financ- in integrating environmental objectives into ing has also been supplied by the central m~~~~~~~~~~~vrmn togrtm localmeta overnments forth industrial processes, by using what has come to government to local governments for the be known as clean production methods. It has financing of water supply and sewerage been shown that highly sophisticated modem schemes and solid waste management, with technologies may not simply be cost-effective in the central government contribution being tai- reducing polution, but also highly profitable. lored according to local ability to pay. Financial support of this kind is zenerally recognized to Developing countries should therefore carefully i y r assess environmental technologies in terms of have been one of the most important policy their economic justification and ttools in Japan. They have been highly effective thireonmc usiicton ndth ppo..t in the Japanese context, and, subject to the solution might be either traditional and labor- intensive, or modem high-technology. reservations expressed below, should be care- fully considered by developing countries. Other specific technical aspects of Japan's experience, including efforts to overcome past Energy price reform is one of the best exam- failures, are also relevant for developing coun- ples of policies that meet both environmental tries. These include industrial and public sector and economic objectives. Raising prices of training methods; energy conservation and effi- energy to reflect economic costs of supply has ciency technologies; waste recycling, com- discouraged excessive use in Japan, and has posting, incineration and heat recovery tech- stimulated conservation and technological nicues; experience with sanitary landfill; innovation. Underpriced energy is common in hazardous waste management; procedures and developing countries, and reform in this area teclhniques for monitoring and testing; use of should be given extremely high priority; high- planned estates for industrial relocation and the er prices would also raise revenues to enable the achievement of economies of scale in joint waste utility authorities to provide more effective treatment facilities; land reclamation; epidemio- operation and maintenance as well as system logical studies; setting environmental standards, expansion. Similarly, experience in Japan has including linking the staging of standards with shown that raising water and sewerage charges, the depreciation period of pollution control particularly when combined with restrictions on equipment; and river basin, land use and region- private abstraction of water by industry, has al environmental planning. been most beneficial in terms of encouraging 120 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program more efficient water use, recycling, and reduc- Public Participation Perhaps most important tion in ground subsidence. There is also much of all the lessons to be obtained from the Japan- scope for reform in this area in most developing ese experience is that public participation is countries. Other measures, which Japan has not indispensable to satisfactory resolution of envi- employed, could also be relevant for developing ronmental problems. This was demonstrated in countries. These include presumptive charges the early years when citizens' movements - not on industry depending on their calculated pol- formal non-governmental organizations, but lution load, the charge being reduced if the spontaneous reactions to specific events - were individual industry can prove a lower rate of the prime driving force underlying the rapid emissions. development of Japan's environmental policy. Environmental Awareness There are a num- The government, recognizing this, now pro- ber of other lessons from Japanese experience that vides the opportunity for those who are or will be personally affected by environmental pol- might usefully be considered by the developing lution or control measures to participate countries. These include promotion of environ- mentl eucaton nd pbli reltios toimpove formally in the decision making process; this is mental eclucation and public relations to improve exmlfclbthipoanrlefpucha- awareess aout evironent; his sould exemplified by the important role of public hear- awareness about enviromnment- this should insnevromtaipctseset include increased emphasis on health education insnevromtaipctseset procedures at both the national and local levels. and the use of health specialists in pollution con- Even mn Japan, however, there is often mnade- trol policy at an early stage of pollution control, whenther is lak ofa suficent umbe of quate representation of those citizens who will be most directly and personally affected by pro- environmental planners/engineers. The mass - ~~~~~~~~posed large scale development projects. media in Japan has been a major influence pm alerting people to the importance and potential Limits on Transferability It may not be pos- hazards of environmental degradation, and the sibie o imm edatelitpeet some oft presence of a well informed population has othe scefumeases inpmany othe been a major contributor to the improvement of otesucsflmarsinayohrcu- bheenvaimajoronmntributornto the impntrovement.tries. Indeed, some of the most important ones, as noted above, are either of a cultural nature, Development of support systems for those or relate primarily to the country's ability to who have suffered as a result of environmental carry out certain actions (such as the use of pollution should also be considered; involve- highly expensive incineration) because of its ment of those with scientific and legal expertise high per capita income. By definition, progress should be developed by the establishment of which depends upon these factors is not easily formal machinery for the redress of grievances. transferable between countries, in particular The importance of scientific monitoring of ambi- those in the developing world. Nevertheless, ent air and water quality as well as point-source steps might be taken to move in the direction and distributed emissions is critical to establish a suggested by Japanese experience. For example, verifiable basis for compliance. it has been noted that it is essential to build up Chapter 7 121 local governmuent capacity sufficient to take a past, the obvious social consequences of pollu- leadership role in envirom-nental management. tion in Japan may have justified this approach, This will obviously involve considerable admin- and there have obviously been important cases istrative and training needs, as well as in which economic and environmental projects substantial financial requirements, and is clearly and policies are consistent with each other. not a short term undertaking. Similarly, However, improvements in environmental strengthening the technical and financial link- quality tend to increase exponentially in cost as ages between national and local governments- standards rise, while the benefits of additional a key aspect of Japan's environmental policy - improvements tend to decline. Although pre- is not something that can be accomplished cise estimates of the economic benefits of rapidly. pollution control are not possible, use of a cost- benefit framework will become of increasing Economic Valuation It is important to note revactoJpnithfur.Cranl that there are some ways in which Japan's pol- icy and attitude toward environment, while developing countries do not have the luxury to neglect careful comparison of the costs and highly successful in Japan itself, should proba- benefit ofueviomental tues, and Y benefits of environmental expenditures, and bly not be imitated by other countries. One of should be as rigorous as possible in this these relates to the valuation of environmental respect. protection. The importance of public pressure r in stimulating governmental action has been a Enterprise Level Subsidies Another area in consistent theme in the evolution of Japan's which Japan's experience should receive care- environmental policy in recent years. Deci- ful scrutiny in a developing country cortext is sions to introduce environmental regulations with regard to the financing of enviromnental and standards, which typically imply massive measures at the enterprise level. The "polluter public and private expenditures, have been pays" principle is frequently referred to in made largely as a reaction to political realities, Japan, but, as noted above, there are in fact or as an immediate response to accidents, in many ways in which subsidies are provided to other words, only through consideration of enterprises to invest in pollution control. These health impacts. They have typically been made have a number of potential drawbacks; first, on a pragmatic, common sense, basis; if the they are administratively cumbersome and benefits likely to result from such expenditures place great demands upon the government are estimated at all, it is done solely in physical machinery to avoid abuses; second they place a terms, such as improvement in air or water burden on the government's fiscal capacity; quality. third, they may encourage inefficiency in the Measurement of benefits in economic terms use of resources at the enterprise level; and to justify environmental policies or projects in fourth, it may be claimed that they are unfair, an explicit manner is rarely done at the nation- that the polluter should in fact pay the full cost al or city level prior to decision making. In the of damage caused or for remedial measures. 122 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Clearly, however, hn Japan such subsidies assistance to developing countries. It already have provided the financial support necessary provides considerable financial assistance for for many small and medium scale industrial specific environmental objectives, such as operations, which have been the main beneficia- investments in monitoring technology and pol- ries, to invest adequately in pollution control. lution control technologies in industrial firms This assistance has also facilitated a cooperative and municipalities, this effort having increased partnership between industry and government significantly in recent years. In this regard, its in environmental matters, the costs involved role is similar to that played by the national being considered justified in terms of the benefi- government vis-a-vis local governments and cial public health impacts of such a policy. industry in Japan itself. Moreover, helped by the unique gover-nment- Financial Administration Based upon this industry relationship that prevails in the country, experience, a specific area in whiclh Japan could Japan has developed the administrative capacity p to mnag suc a ystm, ad is eficincyand provide techntical assistance is in the financial to manage such a system, and its efficiency and amnsrto fevrnetlpluincr ' ' ~~~~~administration of environrnental pollution co:ii fairness can only be judged in light of its rela- trol programs. For example, while, as ahready tionship to the whole complex web of subsidies observed, subsidy programs are difficult to and taxes that characterize the Japanese policy of implement, they may be a necessary means of promoting industrial growth. It can also proba- achieving industrial co-operation in pollution bly bear the fiscal burden of the subsidy system. control efforts. Japanese experience in identify- It may be argued on the other hand, that none of these factors prevail in most countries, certainly mng the necessary conditions under which such a thesde faetorspievailing most coun tries, where c tert system would be workable in a particular devel- the develioping countries, where tile "polluter opning coitry corntext cou'd be very useful. pays" principle should reign in fact. Neverthe- less, if the necessary safeguards can be Technology Transfer Japan obviously has a developed, subsidies to industry for invest- most important contribution to make with ment in pollution control should not be ruled regard to technology transfer. Two basic types of out. Any subsidies in developing countries technology may be identified. The first relates to should probably focus on achieving a more the integration of pollution control into mod- cost-effective approach to pollution control, em production processes, the second being the especially by small- and medium-scale enter- use of low cost technologies for exhaust gas prises which are less able to afford individual and waste water treatment. However, as one treatment facilities. observer has pointed out, the successful transfer of experience does not simply involve the adop- tion of isolated pieces of externally developed Assistance to Developing Countries technology or policy instruments.19 (Indeed, some of the major unresolved environmental This review suggests some areas in which problems in Japan - such as urban traffic pol- Japan can play a more active role in providing lution and solid waste disposal - ray be Chapter 7 123 explained in part by an undue reliance upon for pollution control, were readily able to technology-based solutions. Rather, it means adapt their training to these new needs. In gen- the enhanced social capability to absorb, imple- eral, this does not apply in the developing ment, and build upon the transferred countries, and remedying this situation is neces- experience. Appropriately trained manpower sary groundwork for development of long term is a necessary, although a far from sufficient environmental policy. condition for this to be achieved. In order to form the basis for substantial Capacity Building In fact, a serious obstacle improvement in environmental management in to rapid adoption of modem pollution control those countries in the next ten to fifteen years, processes in developing countries is the shortage Japan and other donor countries could therefore of technically qualified manpower to implement make an imnportant contribution by providing the new technologies. Thus, while technical assistance, not simply for specific environmen- assistance for specific environmental projects or tal activities, but for technical and managerial problems can be provided quite easily, this does education in general. This would facilitate a not have much of an impact on environmental flexible response to as yet unknown technical problems that exist on a widespread scale challenges in environmental and other areas in throughout the developing world. This requires future years. Such assistance, justified in its own a much more forward looking, longer term right, would clearly fall within the "no regrets" approach. Japan's relative success in dealing category of environmental interventions, i.e., with its environmental problems owes much being justified not simply in terms of environ- to the existence of a large, highly educated, mental objectives, but also of more general technologically advanced population, who, development requirements. while they had not been trained specifically Footnotes: 17 It should be noted that effective action is taken where responsibility can be clearly established. However, there appears to be a less than enthusiastic commitment to environmental improvement where responsibilities are ambiguous. 18 Views expressed by developing country participants in the Conference on Urban Management in Asia (Kitakyushu, October 1993), were extremely useful in completing this section 19 Masahisa Nakamura, "Transferability of the Japanese Experience in Urban Environmental Management", paper presented at Kitakyushu Conference on Urban Environmental Management in Asia, October 1993. 124 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Bibliography Economic Planning Agency, Government of Japan, 1993. "Economic Outline 1992" Tokyo. 1990 1980 1970 1960 Economic Planning Agency "Economic Monthly Report", S. Ando, September 1967. Environment Agency, Government of Japan, 1993. "Quality of the Environment in Japan 1992" Tokyo. 1991. 1990. 1989. 1988. 1987. Envirorunent Agency, 1991. "History of Environment Agency for the Last 20 Years" Gyousei Shuppan, Tokyo. Environment Agency, 1990. "Examples of Pollution Control Agreements by Industry" Tokyo. Environment Agency, 1991. 'Japanese Pollution Experience, 1991" Gohdo Shuppan Tokyo. Environmental Dispute Coordination Commission, 1993. "Annual Report on Pollution Dispute Settle- ment" Tokyo. Government of Japan, 1991. "Environment and Development-Japan's Experience and Achievement; Japan's National Report to UNCED 1992" Tokyo. Hidetoshi Kitawaki "Comprehensive Basin-Wide Planning of Sewage Systems" INTEP Newsletter, No.2, June 1993 Tokyo. Hideyuki Kawana "Pollution in Japan, Vol.1-7", 1991. Ryokufu Shuppan, Tokyo Industrial Pollution Control Association of Japan, 1993. "Environmental Control Regulations in Japan" Tokyo. Kazu Kato, 1993. "The Use of Market-Based Instruments in Japanese Environmental Policy", mimeo. Masahisa Nakamura "Transferability of the Japanese Experience in Urban Environmental Manage- ment", paper presented at Kitakyushu Conference on Urban Environmental Management in Asia, October 1993. Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1993. "Annual Report on Health and Welfare 1992" 1990. MITI, 1989 "Industry and Pollution" Tokyo. MITI, 1991 "Investment Planning of Major Industries" Tokyo. National Land Agency "A White Paper for Lands" OECD, 1977 "Environmental Policies in Japan" Paris. Shusaku Yamatani, 1992. "Public Utility Charges in Japan" Denryoku Shinpohsha. Tokyo. Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency, 1993 "Japan Statistical Yearbook 1992" Tokyo. Bibliography 125 1990. 1980. 1970. 1960. Tokyo Research Institute for Pollution Control, 1970. "Pollution and Tokyo" Tokyo Water Supply Industry Newspaper, "1990 Sewage Year Book" Note: T This document is refenred to as Case Studies in the following text. 126 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program KITAKYUSHU 1. Dokai Bay in the late 1960s: biologically dead sea polluted by heavy metals, offensive odor, etc. 98% of discharge came from large scale factories. 2. Dokai Bay at present: most industrial processes have been changed. 3. Heavy smoke in late 1960s: Seven colors of smoke, once considered as a symbol of economic growth. 4. Present sky situation. 12. Smog around industrial zone in 1953. 13. Keihin Industrial Zone in the late 1960s. 14. KeihinlIndustnial Zone in 1970: the sky and nver are darkened by pollution. YOKOHAMA .......... 15. Kawasaki in 1970: Black smoke which prompted widespread complaints from the local people. 16. Tsurumi in 1970: Black smoke. i~~~~~ , 17. Children playing under the black skies (1970). 19. Black smoke in 197 1. f 7 20. Explanatory meeting of new 18. Child suffering from asthma (1969). factory location with residents in 1972. 21. Local people covering mouth with handkerchief to prevent vehicular emission inhalation (1970) 22. Center of Yokohama (1 1:00 a.m., 1966) 23. Center of Yokohamna (1964) 24. Same site as 25. Power plant at present: no smoke. above (present) 26. Center of Yokohama at present. 28. Industrial zone at present: LNG power plant. 27. Bay Bridge at present. 29. and 30. Simplified air pollution monitoring in use at present. OSAKA 5. and 6. Osaka Castle surrounded by polluted smoke in the early 1960s. KIZUGAWA COASTAL INDUSTRIAL ZONE AROUND 1960 7. Modest pollution. 8. Factory smokestacks. 9. Smoke from factories. 10. Inversion. .~~~~~~~V 1 1. Smog in Mido-suji Street~~. .. . in February 1963 -I~~~~~~~~~~t1:0am Annex Directory: 1. Summary of Case Studies 2. Program of MEIP/Japan Seminar on Urban Environmental Management 3. Transportation Networks and Land Use in Japan 4. Anti-Pollution Activities by Citizens' Groups 1890-1975 5. Pollution Problems Discussed in the House of Representatives 1914-1939 6. Pollution Control Measures Taken by the Tokyo Municipal Govemrnment in the Post-War Years 7. Evolution of Urban Sanitation & Pollution Problems and Measures Prior to 1970 8. Case Studies in Govemrnment Decision Making- Evolution of the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control 1967, & Revision of NC2 Standards, 1978 9. Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control (Revised Version, 1970) 10. Details of Key Court Cases 11. Water Pollution: Responsibilities for Standards & Countermeasures 12. Technologies for Night Soil Treatment & Septic Tanks 13. Staffing of Local Government Environmental Activities 14. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning of Sewage Systems 15. Summary of Government's Environmental Management Instruments 16. Revision of Water Quality Standards in Japan 17. Noise Standards: Motor Vehicles, Aircraft and Shinkansen 18. Sample Pollution Control Agreement 19. Profitable Investment in New Production Technology & Pollution Control: An Edible Oil Manufacturer Annexes 131 132 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 1: Summary of Case Studies The MEIP (Metropolitan Environmental triple structure. Various powers, authorities and Inprovement Program) is intended to review licensing nghts are held by the central Govern- urban and industrial pollution prevention mea- ment, prefectures and municipalities, depending sures in Japan, drawing upon the experience on their characteristics. illustrated by thiree city case studies. The three illusrate by hreecitycasestudes. he ti~e~Unlike the general municipalities, large cities cities concerned are: Yokohama, Osaka and .itakyushu The foloinhave a special autonomous system. Such cities Kitakyushu. The following description focuses on each have a population of more than half a mil- the laws and regulations, measures to attract lion at byr the government ndustry, actions taken by idustry and roles ordinance under Local Governmnent Law. At pre played by local inhabitants in these cities, and sent 12 cities are entitled to this status. (They are city's example analyzes the factors leading to suc- actua2 treate as ha in aoation of one cessful pollution control measures in these cities. mill tree cs in t present ca e rnillon.) The three cites in the present case study, Yokohama, Osaka and Kitakyushu, are special _________________________________ cities designated by the government ordinance. This system was established in 1958. Unlike small Overview of Large Cities in Japan and medium cites, large cites have special prob- and Status of Three Subject Cities lems unique to the large cities; therefore, they should be administered under a spedial system. Government organization in Japan is composed Based on this concept, the administrative duties of a triple structure, with governments operating and responsibilities dosely related to daily lives at the national, prefectural and municipal levels. of the citzens have been transferred from the Measures determnined according to central Gov- Jurisdiction of the prefectural governments to that ernment policies are implemented through this of the designated cities. For example, welfare, [ Central Government Prefectures (47) Local public organization (local government) Cities (663) Cities designated by the Towns and villages (2574) goverment ordinance (12 Note: Numbers are shown in parentheses' Annex 1 1-1 sanitation and urban planning have been trans- environmental and pollution control measures in ferred to the jurisdiction of the special designated Japan. In the latter half of the 1950s and thereafter cities, and the administrative authority of the spe- when the problems of industrial pollution, main- cal designated cities has been expanded to cover ly those of air pollution, came to the surface, areas which used to require approval and autho- responsibility for controlling pollution belonged rization of the prefectural government. The same to the national government or prefectures accord- duties and responsibilities as those of the prefec- ing to the laws and prefectural ordinances. tural governments can be said to have been However, pollution preventive measures had lit- awarded to the special designated cities. tle actual effect, and effective measures were not The special designated cities can be classified taken. according to the characteristics as follows: In those days, municipalities had no power to control pollution. However, Japan was enter- a Central cities within a large city area (Osaka and Nagoya); ing a period of high economic growth, and, to . Cities withm a largecityarea(Yokohama, protect the health and living environment of Naga ities wioth and large)city area (Ykomthe citizens, voluntary measures were taken Nagasaki, Kyoto and Kobe); and against rapidly deterioration industrial pollu- * Local central cities (Sapporo, Sendai, tion problems. As a result, the local public Hiroshima, Fukuoka and Kitakyushu)tinpolm.A areu,thlclpbc organizations centering on the large cities, They are classified into three categories as based on a good understanding of actual con- given above. The cities selected for the case stud- ditions of the local areas, launched various ies correspond to these categories. voluntary measures such as establishment of the pollution prevention law, conclusion of pol- lution control agreements, administrative guidance based on scientific grounds, and Characteristics of The Three Cities review of policies to attract industrial enter- in Environmental and Pollution prises. These were supported by the consensus Control Measures of inhabitants and general anti-pollution senti- Local public organizations, especially the large ments. Pollution control efforts led by local cities, have played a major role in the field of public organizations were taken over by the Number of factories Population Shipment of By number of Cities Characteristics Population density industrial products Total empl oyees (head/kin2) (I billion yen) number 10 or 300 or less more Yokohama Cities within lairge 32317 7446146,242 3,480 76 Yokohama city area 3,233,127 7,434 6,314 (100%) (55.8%) (1.2%) Osaka Central cities within 2,506,368 11,370 7,910 (100%) (64.0%) 73 a large city area __ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ _(64___ __ _0___ __ _ __ 0_ 4___ itakyushu Local central cities 1,016,232 2,107 2,510 1,941 953 33 1-t2kyushu Metropolitan__ (100%) (49.1%) (1.7%m 1-2 Metropohitan Environmental Improvement Program establishment of the Basic Law in the latter half 1950s, the city's population, at more than a mil- of the 1960s, and gave a major impact to prepa- lion, exceeded the pre-war level. The downtown ration and systematization of related legislation. area developed in an unplanned manner, and reconstruction of the old coastal industrial area of At pesen, th preectual gvernent as, the pre-war period was the means of facilitating in principle, the authority to restrict the dis- thpr-apeidwshemnsofchaig in pincile, he athorty t resrictthe is industrial and economic revitalization. In the late charge of pollutants and to conduct the on-site 1950s, Japan embarked upon its period of rapid inspection of premises from which pollutants eooi rwh ocnrto fpplto are discharged under the Water Pollution Con- andmindsrokyo Converted okohamin trol Law, Air Pollution Control Law and Waste Disposal Law. Sa dormitory town for Tokyo. The population of Disposal Law. Special designated cities have ' . ' ~~~~~~~~~Yokohama increased by 100,000 per annum in the been vested with the same power since 1971. Ykhm cesdb 0,0 e nu h period after 1960. The rapid increase in popula- The following describes the overview of the tion and industrial activites caused an expansion environmental and pollution control measures of the urban district, and haphazard land use. It taken in the three subject cities of this case study. led to a "doughnut" phenomenon in the down- town area, and suburban sprawl. Results included industrial pollution, and shortages in ~~izrrxz public facilities, such as schools, hospitals, and Yokohama sewerage. Summary E A - In the mid-1960s, about 90 percent of SOx (a sures in Y3kchamaThe city of Yokohama had major element of air pollution) in the city was dis- been a center of trade in Japan from the opening charged from large factories in the existng coastal of the port in 1859 through World War II, and an industrial area. Furthennore, it was at that time essential part of the Keihin Indushial Area. Dur- predicted that large factories in the new coastal ing the post-war period, however, the city was industrial area would discharge the same volume taken over by U.S. occupation forces, and finan- of SOx as in the existing coastal industrial area. cial difficulties were severe. Since the city's However, not having authority to control pollu- reputation as a center of trade was ruined, major tion directly, the City of Yokohama only industries in commerce, trade, and finance had conducted SOx monitoring, and dealt with griev- left the city for other areas, primarily Tokyo. In ances on a case by case basis. 1951 the city introduced a new strategy which Under these circumstances, in 1963, the promoted industrial development through pro- Asukata municipal administration came into jects such as the industrial zones in reclaimed power, with campaign pledges to improve the coastal areas, investment in infrastructure, and quality of lfe of the citizenry, and to enlist citi- methods to attract new factories to -the area. zens' participation in city government. It largely The population of Yokohama was 620,000 modified the old policy of Yokohama, which had immediately after WWII. By the first half of the given major priority to creation of industrial Annex 1 1-3 infrastructure. With respect to pollution control and medium-sized factories. These measures measures, the city's own pollution control agree- were successful and largely improved conven- ments, which later came to be called the tional industrial pollution. "Yokohama style", prevented pollution in the new industrial area, and controlled pollution in Hwvr rmte18s h ou hfe from industrial pollution to the newer issues of the existing industrial area. Municipal govern- polution related to daily urban lving such as ments had no legal authority over pollution that caused by automobile traffic, domestic control at the time. Under the agreements, the w waste water, and neighborhood noise. Yoko- City of Yokohama obtained, based on mutual° hama recognized that it was time to shift its consultation, pledges from business enterprises to imnplement pollution control measures. Pollu- emhssfo xlsv cnenwt nuti al pollution, and that it was necessary to tion control agreements were also adopted in the establish the "Yokohama Environmental Basic existing industrial area. Since the latter half of exLsmg mushil aea. mce he atte hal of Charter" in order to protect and create a good 1970s, the guidelines were also used to generalize chtyenr"noerto pTect and cte a good city environment. The alty designed the envi- the environmental pollution control agreements. ronental management plan (Environmental Strict controls enforced for large-scale compa- Plan 21) in 1986 to realize the Basic Charter. It mes under the environmental pollution control was recognized that it was necessary not only to agreements were effective since these companies control industrial pollution as in the past, but possessed enough technological and economic also to implement a comprehensive and well- capacity to respond to the measures. On the other planned environmental administration for hand, measures applied to small- and medium- pollution prevention and protection. This plan sized factories, which were scattered throughout became the foundation of the new environmen- the city, were difficult to enforce, and their imple- tal administration. mentation lagged behind. Therefore, during the 1980s, Yokohama started to relocate these facto-Baeontenvrmnalaaget tplan, Yokohama has recently handled various envi- ries l:o the Kanazawa Industrial Complex. Taking ronmental problems such as environmental pol- advantage of factory relocation, the city was able lution by chemcal substances ecological degrada to control pollution; rehabilitated and modern- tion, lrge resource/energy consumption, waste ized the downtown area, and rationalized disposal, global warmng, and ozone destruction. management of the factories by promoting collec- tive and cooperative actions, and strengthening managerial capacity. _ ]n order to control industrial pollution during Evaluation of Environmental Protection the high economic growth period, the city took a Measures in Yokohama series of measures such as the environmental pol- Pollution Control Agreements lution control agreements, various guidelines, and relocation and cooperative actions with small Overall evaluation The first pollution control 1-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program agreements in Yokohama were conceived by an order to control increasing pollution originating autonomous effort of the city during the mid- from existing factories. In fact, since pollution 1960s when local governments did not have any originating from the new factories was much less legal authority over pollution control. Under the than that from the existing factories, the pollution agreements, the city obtained, based on mutual control agreements were very effective. consultation, pledges from business enterprises The agreements specified maximum pollu- to implement pollution control measures. The to impementpoUuton conrol masure. The tion control targets, based on scientific data, and city took the initiative in undertaking preventive tion on trget basdion sntifi data,eand pollution control measures with the support of in light of present conditions and future prospects of air pollution, and of the level of pollution con- citizens' movements, while allowing companes trol technology available at that time. Although to establish their factories on a selected basis. The Yokohma polutio contol ageemen wasthe agreements were much stricter than laws and Yokohama polluhon control agreement was dif- ferent from the following two types of pollution prefectural ordinances established later, the com- control measures, one taken in Yokkaichi and the paies recognized that scentificaly reasonable standards based on large scale monitoring or a other in Mishima-Numazu. In the case of wind-tunnel test, were being set. The agreements Yokkaichi, pollution control measures were pur- sued only after companies had established their played an effective role i introducing advanced factories and started causing pollution. In the case technology and developing new technologies of Mishima-Numazu, the residents rejected the such as the country's first power generation by siting oflanedlatsyoganzigastrLNG, and the improvement in ground concentra- siting of planned plants by organizing a strong tino luatsdeoclltvemksak. residents' movement. For this reason the Yoko- po hama Pollution Control Agreement was Early pollution control agreements, which frequently called "Yokohama style". The initia- first targeted new factories, were later adopted by tive taken by the Mayor of Yokohama was the existing factories. Even after certain legal regula- main reason for the inception and success of the tions were provided, the agreements were stil "Yokohama style" pollution control agreement, innovative. For example, the agreements which was necessary to protect citizens' health imposed stricter regulations than laws, or intro- and the living environment. This was a major duced total emission regulations while existing break with tradition, for according to convention- laws only regulated enission concentrations. al ideas, local municipalities were not allowed to establish their own regulating standards or meth- ods, which would be stricter than those required according to the structure of laws and regulations Residents' Movements at that time. From the early 1960s, air pollution had become Early pollution control agreements were con- a serious problem in the existing coastal indus- cluded with large companies in the new trial zone. Residents were anticipating with industrial area on the coastal reclaimed land in alarm the arrival of still more factories in the Annex 1 1-5 new coastal industrial zone. Residents around * Yokohama was blessed with a large con- the zones formed a residents' organization sumer market in the outskirts of the capital; called "Council for Conservation of Environ- * good economic conditions at that time mental Hygiene in Naka and Isogo Districts". eased negotiation of the agreements; and They appealed to the national, prefectural, U having abundant capital and manage- and city governments to implement pollution ment capacity, the large companies were able control measures. Anti-pollution campaigns to cope with the pollution control costs. by local residents in Yokkaichi and Mishima- As a result, the companies were able to Numazu affected this movement. Citizens' pay for the costs of pollution control invest- movements at that time not only promoted metan to aianiduralc- pollution control measures by Yokohama City, peti at th sametime. but also gave birth to the first pollution con- trol agreement. Later, the city signed other pollution control Thereafter, citizens' movements continued agreements with the existing factories. The fol- lowing factors attributed to the successful to support the city's pollution control mea- sures. This was because the city kept residents agreements: First, the companies understood the Yokohama style when they reached early pollu- well informed of the content and results of sci- .. . . c~~~~~~~~~ion control agreements with new factories. In entific experiments conducted by the city and factories, as well as the content and effective- addition, following increasing anti-pollution demands from the public, these companies that, ness Of the agreements. This openness re- in order to carry out their business in the future, mov,ed anxiety from residents, and the visual it would be vital for them to obtain a consensus evidence of improvement in environmental ftrom local governments and residents when quality enabled the city to win the residents' understanding and tmst. ~building or expanding factories. It turned out understanding and trust. that to take pollution control measures is not so costly in long term and is affordable though large investments are required in the initial Companies' Reaction stage. Furthermore, from the factories' point of view, the condusion of pollution control agree- Escalating anti-pollution demands from the ments meant a kind of authorization for public, and land sales contracts were the exter- pollution control measures from Yokohama City. nal factors that companies accepted in the As a result, the factories were able to build up early pollution control agreements. Since the good relationships with the residents. city's investigation and finding were scientifi- cally sound, the companies acknowledged the results and agreed to cooperate. On the other Administrative Reaction hand, internal factors that companies accepted such a strict agreement were as follows: The city's administrative structure and staff 1-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program attitudes and skills for pollution control were key factors. The pollution control agreements Requirements for Effective Pollution were successfully implemented through fre- Control Agreements quent monitoring, on-the-spot inspections, and guidance. Such local effort has been an The experience of Yokohama city indicates the important tool to induce effectiveness of the following requirements for effective pollution measures and this has been a distinctive char- control agreements. acteristic of the Yokohama administration. The city administration obtained residents' trust de The ontentofth a ntscholdgbe defined from a scientific and technological and cooperation, and maintained it by disclos- point of view, and not simply from an abstract ing pollution information as openly as and ethical point of view. possible. Since the city set standards based on Ui A strict and rigid agreement is not scientific data, the companies tended to accept always good. It needs to be adjusted according them. to the economic, technical and managerial The Bureau of Pollution Control was capacity of the firm local characteristics. established with its 10 staff members when the U In order to check whether the companies first pollution control agreement was conclud- carry out a comprehensive implementation of the ed. Yokohama was able to avoid a vertical agreements, it is necessary for the administration administration, though this is typical in the to be aware of best available protection technolo- Japanese administrative structure, and it has gy. Therefore, it is desirable for the administration maintained its flexibility to effectively handle to maintain a certain number of qualified staff and train them. Local staff must have enthusiasm, the problems at hand. Since then, the adminis- trative structure has basically stayed the same. as well as knowledge of advanced technology * It should be recognized that the pollu- Staff members were engineers who had received higher education, and were highly tion control agreements exist not only for the company and local government administra- concerned about pollution issues and approached their task with enthusiasm and tion, but primarily for the residents' well-being. dedication. Moreover, the city made great Kanazawa Reclamation Project and Industrial efforts to improve its staff's capability and Relocation The goal of the Kanazawa Reclama- accumulated technology in the Bureau. This tion Project was more than just creating land accumulation of technology, specifically for industry and port as in the past. The ulti- reflected in the making of the Yokohama pol- mate goal was to reclaim land as a site for lution control agreements that were based on redeveloping the downtown area and accom- scientific knowledge and technology, and modating small and medium-sized factories. helped the city win credibility and under- Small and medium-sized factories scattered standing from the enterprises which entered around the city were transferred into the pollution control agreements. Kanazawa Reclamation Land. This facilitated Annex 1 1-7 rationalization of factory management through a collective treatment facility is much more eco- cooperation and systemization. The industrial nomical than the case where each factory has its relocation was also effective as a measure for own industrial treatment facilities because the controlling pollution including noise, vibra- former requires less space for the treatment tion, and offensive odors. facility installation and less operation and maintenance costs. Costs of construction, operation and mainte- Successes of the Project nance of the collective facilities are borne by the Concern about living environment The recla- user companies. The facilities were constructed mation project was formnulated with careful by using a 30-years low interest loan provided by consideration of enviromnental aspects and the Japan Environment Corporation. Yokohama urban planning. The area was divided into the city subsidized a part of the interest. Annual oper- industrial and residential sites by a national ation and maintenance costs are settled by the road running North-South in the center of the user companies according to a certain formula reclaimed land. A 50 m wide green tract of land using contract and actual effluent volume, as well was also constructed as a buffer zone along the as effluent density. national road. The city secured about 10 per- Collective treatment proved more econom- cent of total reclaimed land for building a ical than individual treatment. It also made seaside park, a park on the old coastal line, and possible for Yokohama city to easily monitor green buffer zones. The construction of the the effluents of the user companies, and to give green buffer zones were funded by the Japan them appropriate guidance. Environment Corporation. Incentives to relocate (land price and finan.. Pollution control measures In order to pre- cial subsidy) The incentives included the vent pollution from occurring in their new availability of necessary infrastructure on the neighborhood, companies implemented the site, and low cost requirement of the relocation. following pollution control measures after relo- The initial sales price of industrial site was cation: arrangement of factory location within the ndusrialcompexes ~'etablshmet of 30,000 yen/in. However, it actually increased to the ndusrialcompexes 'esablihmen of 50,000 - 60,000 yen/m2 due to delays in granti- treatment facilities, as well as individual mea- 50,0 am60,on yen/in d toayin con- sueswihn hefctris hmslvs ng reclamation licenses and soaring con- struction costs. There was considerable doubt as Accordingly, the city decided to locate to whether the targeted small and medium- some small and medium-sized industry in spe- sized businesses could afford for relocation. The cial sections of the Kanazawa Industrial city therefore reduced taxes for the factories Complex and let them discharge effluent to the concerned over a limited period, exempting collective treatment system after each factory them from property tax, corporation tax, and removed some hazardous substances. To have the special land holding tax. 1-8 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Taking advantage of factory relocation, the relocated due to the lack of relocation funds. city tried to reform and rationalize manage- Moreover, about 40 percent of the factories relo- ment of small and medium-sized factories by cated were previously located in the promoting collective and cooperative actions, semi-industrial area, and not in the mixed resi- as well as improving organization in the facto- dential-industrial area. It may be said that more ries themselves. Organizational promotion factories could have been identified and relo- made it possible for small and medium- sized cated. if the city had identified candidate companies, which were financially weak, to factories from only residential areas or com- obtain public funds such as the promotion fund mercial areas and excluded semi-industrial for small and medium-sized companies and areas, and if more time had been spent for such loans from Japan Environment Corporation. identification. However, the city's financial Project execution organization The Kanaza- burden of interest payments prevented the city from spending more time for the identification. wa Reclamation Project in Yokohama was implemented by inter-departmental effort Utilization of vacated sites Yokohama either involving Planning and Co-ordination Divi- purchased the vacated sites from the relocating sion, Pollution Control Bureau, and 10 other factories and constructed public facilities such as bureaus of Yokohama city. Officials of those park, or attempted to conclude agreements with organization formed both the steering and the companies regarding the utilization of the technical committees for the project. vacated sites. In the latter case, companies were required to have prior consultation regarding their disposition, thereby limiting the future uses of the sites. However, both parties sometimes Unsuccessful Aspects could not reach an agreement on sales prices. The Process of factory relocation The city intro- city could not control the use of vacated land duced criteria to prioritize the districts from effectively which relocated factories should be drawn. Cri- teria included the presence of residents and industries located in close proximity to each Conclusion on Environmental Protection other, existing environmental conditions, and Measures in Yokohama managerial capability. Based on the results of this investigation, the city selected factories The national environmental standard is a mini- which would require relocation, and then mum standard to be complied with. National encouraged the process. Although the city ini- standard are not necessarily adequate for some tially wanted to relocate 2,000 out of 6,000 small cities where pollution problems are serious. For and medium-sized factories, only about 400 this reason, in order to protect local residents' factories were actually relocated. Many facto- health and living environment, Yokohama City ries which caused pollution could not be found it necessary to implement its own mea- Annex 1 1-9 sures through pollution control agreements or guidelines/guidance. Osaka The experience of Yokohama presents an Summary of Environmental Protection Mea.. example of a local government which has suc- sures in Osaka In the pre-war period, the cessfully implemented its own environmental wester coastal industrial area in Osaka City protection measures. To this end, it requires a had been a heavy chemical industrial area comprehensive plan of actions including not which supported national production. Once only envirorrnmental protection but also local the area had been burned out due to WWII, it economic policy and local living environmental was revitalized again with the post-war eco- policy. nomic revitalization and high economic growth. The area has a great number of small The Ykohaa exeriece aso dmon- and medium-sized companies. In the pre-war strated the importance of gaining the trust pediutionpdue to soo and -mok from local residents and companies. To obtain became polems. The ty of aka wihte this, the city: ~~~~became problems. The City of Osaka, with the this, the city: cooperation of the Osaka prefecture, took mea- * aimed at rational, objective and effec- sures for soot and smoke control at the tive city management beginning of the 1900s. These activities includ- * trained special staff in environmental ed an increase of the awareness on pollution to administration industries and citizens, guidance on improving * established cooperative relationships the coal combustion method, monitoring of with external specialists and research institu- dust fall, and research on pollution's influence tions on economy. The activities provided precious M encouraged residents' participation data on air pollution in the post-war period. It and established a system to listen to residents' took time to identify the cause of land subsi- opinion in the city management dence which was found in 1934 (Actually the * disclosed environmental and other cause was identified after WWII). WWII inter- information including environmental issues as rupted these measures, but subsidence much as possible. monitoring was continued during the war. The City of Yokohama has obtained trust Since urban infrastructure such as sewage from the residents for its individual measures treatment plants with the activated sludge such as municipal reform and residents' par- method and the incineration facilities were well ticipation. These efforts made it possible for advanced in the pre-war period, water pollution the city to successfully negotiate with compa- and waste problems were not as serious as air nies about the pollution control agreements pollution and subsidence. In the post-war eco- and to maintain effective relationships with nomic revitalization and growth, "soot, smoke the central and dust" due to coal, and "subsidence" due to 1-10 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program the excessive pumping of ground water became cialists in public health and labor sanitation as manifest. The 'Jane Typhoon" (1950) and the members. These scientists took leadership in "Second Muroto Typhoon" (1961) made the dis- systematizing an administrative strategy from advantage of subsidence clear, and the coastal the public health point of view. area suffered significant damage because of flood. Considering the special characteristics of Making a priority of the "subsidence measures", the City of Osaka ended subsidence in a short Osaka, the council designated the "wester coastal industrial area of the city" as the "area period by improving breakwater, increasing the for special measures", which is divided into the heights of the bridges, regulating the pumping of "area for large factories" and the "area for small ground water, and constructing an industrial and medium-sized factories". The council water supply system including extensions of advised the City to take different measures at cooling tower's. the same time. The action taken for the "area Then, the City addressed measures for con- for large factories" called for a "special measure trolling air pollution, which had become much in the Konohana ward". This measure consist- worse. Luckily, with many technical staff in the ed of organizing the existing large factories in public health division and a rich accumulation the area into groups based on technical similar- of monitoring and measurement data on air pol- ities and encouraging them to design a lution in the Sanitation Research Institute, it did pollution control plan by themselves. This way, not take much time to develop the air pollution the City did not have to use a large number of control system. Especially, research to ascertain technical staff for this area. The measure used the conditions of air pollution had accumulated for the "area for small and medium-sized facto- abundant know-how in both public and private ries" was implemented by the "Pollution sectors. The measures taken induded a broad Special Task Force in Nishi Yodogawa ward". monitoring network, the improvement of moni- This measure was aimed at improving many toring methods, research on automatic factories in the area in a short period by using monitoring equipment, and the detection of air many technical staff in the City, since these small pollution by visibility monitoring. industries did not have the capability to under- In the latter half of the 1950s, the city taketheirownplan. responded to the complaints on pollution dam- Since large companies could use national age in advance of the national legislation, financial sources to control pollution, the city con- established self-protection-through-soot-and- centrated on supporting small and medium-sized smoke organizations by local companies, and companies. The city formed two supporting mea- held a soot and smoke protection month. These sures, namely the "Osaka City Loan for the measures originated in the pre-war history of Installation of Anti-Pollution Equipment" and the soot and smoke control. Fortunately the Osaka 'Purchase System for Sites of Relocated Pollution City Pollution Control Council (established in Source Facilities", based on inquiries from small 1962) included enough scientists who are spe- and medium-sized companies. This latter mea- Annex 1 1-11 sures resulted in a project which collectively City of Osaka could promote its pollution coun- transferred the factories located in the residential termeasures without having any legal authority area to an industrial site. over factories because the city received a lot of 'The city had accumulated abundant monitor- suport fiom publc opinion, whch the mass ing data through the air pollution monitoring media had helped form. network, and precise research data on causes of At first, industries opposed pollution con- smoke from factories inmuding facility size, fuel, trol measures, regarding them as an materials, and the height of the smoke stacks, impediment to industrial development. How- based on the inspection of many factories. Further- ever, as the conditions of pollution worsened more, using the dispersion coefficient which was each year, the corporations themselves suffered obtained by an air tracer experiment, the city cal- adverse effects due to pollution, and they belat- culated the degree of each factory's influence on edly recognized their social responsibilities. the pollution by a simulation method, and calcu- Industrial groups such as the Industrial Pollu- lated the reduction rate. Thus, the city could make tion Prevention Research Association under the a persuasive and scientific argument to business Osaka Industrial Association and the Industrial owners and technical staff. The influence rate of Pollution Consultation Center under the Osaka each factory was the most pervasive factor in solv- Chamber of Commerce and Industry became ing the problem of industrial air pollution in the active. The Soot and Smoke Control Associa- city. In areas of high concentrations of pollution, tion was established in each administrative national standards would not be stringent enough. district, and was very effective in controlling Therefore, it was necessary for the city to set its pollution. There was also a lot of development own targets. The above examples illustrate how in pollution control technology and improve- the city involved business owners with the imple- ment of equipment by factories. Factories made mentation of pollution control measures. With many proposals to technical staff in adminis- respect to automobile exhaust pollution, which is tration and provided a great amount of impossible for any one municipality to regulate, technical information. The good sense and the City of Osaka implemented its own campaign, good faith of Osaka factories should be highly and supported national regulatory measures with respected. the related administrative agencies. As the "Quiet Town Campaign" indicates, An anti-pollution campaign through the pollution was controlled not by ordinances but mass media (newspaper and television) started in by the citizen's self discipline. When pollution the 1960s. It raised public awareness on the mer- reached its worst, the administration designed its of pollution control by drawing attention to the measures based on scientific proof and actual, alarming levels of pollution, promoted obtained support from the mass media and the new mayors whose primary concern was pollu- citizens. At the same time, the companies rec- tion control in large cities, and facilitated the ognized their social responsibilities, and provision of national pollution related laws. The cooperated with the administration. This 1-12 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program occurred primarily because Osaka has a 400- circles, and various data was accumulated. year tradition of self-governance by residents. These preparations led to soot and smoke con- trol in the 1950's. * The Osaka mayor prioritized removal of industrial pollution as the most important pol- Reasons for the Success of Pollution Con- icy in the city, and designed a strategy for trol Measures in the City of Osaka pollution control based on available technology in cooperation with scientists and researchers. Japan's administrative structure consists of three i To implementtstregy,rtheCio levels: central, prefectures, and municpalities 0T mlmn h taey h iyo levels: cnrlprfcue,aOsaka formed an administrative organization and measures determined by central policy- for pollution control whose members consisted making are implemented through them. When mainly of environmental sanitation monitoring industrial pollution becamne prorninent, the cen- staff (pharmacists and veterinarians) and tech- ter and the prefectures had regulatory authority nical staff specializing in civil engineering, for industrial pollution through laws and pre- architecture, machinery, and electricity, all fectural ordinances. Unfortunately, the measures selected from city agencies. Furthermore, the were neither effective nor concrete. Citizens who "Pollution Control Engineer Group" was suffered pollution damage complained only to a local administrative branch under the city office qc organed through eferentiang of graduates who majored in environment and which had no authority to act. The City of Osaka sanitary engineering in universities. Since they passed the citizens' complaints to the Osaka pre- already had a technical background, special train- fecture, and asked for measures. The complaints mg was not necessary sometimes bypassed the Osaka prefecture and v The City of Osaka systematized financal were sent to a branch of the national agency. support measures, such as the "Osaka City Loan However, there was almost no response. The for the histallation of Anti-Polution Eqipment" reasons for the success of pollution countermea- and the "Purchase System of the Site of Relocated sures in the City of Osaka under these Pollution Source Facilites" for small and medi- circumstances were as follows: um-sized companies and gave them priority * Ground subsidence has been a critical when dispensing financial assistance. problem in Osaka since the pre-war period. The * With respect to urban waste water, the city public and private sectors cooperatively imple- set up guidelines for a basic policy and imple- mented subsidence prevention ordinances mented infrastructure beginning from the ahead of national measures, and established a pre-war period. system to implement measures. Osaka used the * The following two factors were most approach of public and private cooperation. irnportant: * In the pre-war period, there was a i) The city's proper recognition on the impor- movement to improve air quality on the part of tance of scientific and technological support in the administration, researchers and business the solution of industrial pollution, that was Annex 1 1-13 based on a tradition of cooperation with industry tion control measures through process change. ii) Firm decisions from the top and the cre- atiori of a technical group were key to the success of the measures to control industrial polluition. Technology Transfer to U The reasons for the success of measures Developing Countries to control soot and dust, and SOx in the city Tedhnology transfer in terms of environmental were: a national fuel policy which demanded conversion from the use of coal to the use of prection inld thn administrat mea- sures, and hard technology, such as pollutionL oil, and an energy policy which favorably allo- control equipment. Politics, the administrative cated lower sulfur heavy oil to areas with serious levels of air pollution, like Osaka. syselm a counomi con re, dve p in developing countries. Therefore, the pollution v Since gas was already in use city-wide, countermeasures in developing countries should it was easy for factories to convert to gaseous be selected according to its local applicability. fuel. * The cooperative attitude of local corpo- The following elements in the experience of rations to pollution control, based on their sense Osaka are important for developing countries: of responsibility towards their local society. * The groups of private companies such E Use scientific methods. In order to as the Osaka Industrial Association tried to design and execute the measures based on sci- implement pollution control measures jointly ence or technology, staff with a high level of by a[l of the industry circle members through technological expertise should be hired and meetings and discussions, and by providing educated. training and education, etc. U Establish a cooperative system between * The support from mass media that public and private sectors. This is one of the appealed to residents was a very important factor. major characteristics of the experience of Osaka. The technical staff in the city adminis- Around 1970 in Japan, the problem of pol- tration at the city and district levels and the lution worsened due to rapid industrial engineers in factories cooperated, and expansion. Since pollution had an adverse enhanced technical standards. This experience effect upon all parts of society, including resi- indicates that it is important to have coopera- dents, corporations, and administrations, tion between public and private sectors. solving the problem of pollution became an U Encourage industry associations to important national issue. At that time, a large establish waste minimization and pollution sum of money was invested into controlling control committees and advice functions to pollution, and the investment was part of the provide outreach and training to their mem- basis for economic growth. Thereafter, the gain bers. from energy saving balanced the cost of pollu- * Focus on hot-spot areas in the city for 1-14 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program intensive pollution control measures to achieve equipment whose capital and maintenance cost desirable results. is on par with the economic strength of the firm Z Establish a financial system that sup- should be introduced. ports corporations which introduce pollution MI Educational standards: Due to the dif- control technology. The City of Osaka created a ficulty of training engineers up to the necessary system which helped small and medium-sized educational standards, pollution control equip- companies that were short on financial ment should be introduced with consideration resources. Under that system, a loan was given to the difficulty of operation and mainte- released after technical screening of treatment nance. equipment was conducted. A prerequisite for effective pollution con- With respect to pollution control equip- trol measures is to ascertain current conditions. ment, the applicability of hardware tech- In order to comprehend the characteristics of nology to developing countries depends on the air pollution, for example, it is necessary to certain conditions. Without considering these know how it changes in time and space. It is following conditions, technology transfer will sufficient to have a monitoring system that fail: combines minimum automatic monitoring sta- tions with maximum simple monitoring points LE Energy supply: The appropriate control selected on a case by case basis. Having a mon- equipment depends upon the available energy sources and their reliability. For example, if ioigsse hc ed xesv sources and their rehabi ty. For..examplei. maintenance costs should be avoided, although municipal gas is provided in the cities, its use - ~~~~~~~~~~some Japanese municipalities use it. Each indi- can greatly improve air quality. vidual treatment equipment cannot be ] Technical Standards: Since equipment discussed here. However, many factories in the needs maintenance, it is necessary to consider the ' ~~~~~City of Osaka are using different pollution con- parts production capability and the repair capa- trol facilities, varying in treatment method, bility of small enterprises. Pollution control treatment efficiency, and facility size. These equipment which cannot be handled by the tech- nical capability of users should be phased out. equintsould bood em sto eview when introducing pollution control equipment X The legal system, location conditions, to developing countries. and degree of environmental pollution: These three factors should be considered when deter- mining the most efficient method of removing pollution. It is also necessary to take the local Kitakyushu environmental conditions into account. 9 Economic strength of industries: Sub- Summary of the Kitakyushu Report Kitakyushu stantial funds may be needed to maintain the was born from the union on equal terms of 5 pollution control and the monitoring equip- neighboring cities in 1963, and is a city which has ment. Considering the cost, pollution control developed as one of Japan's prominent heavy Annex 1 1-15 chemnical industrial areas. The smoke which was pollution administration organization and formerly the symbol of prosperity and called "the establishing a Pollution Control Council. In seven-colored smoke" was rich in dust and sulfur 1967, the first pollution control agreement of dioxide. The Kitakyushu area is home to many this city was concluded between the city and a large iron and steel, chemical, ceramics, and elec- corporation. After the enactment of pollution- tnc power corporations, and it was already a related laws by the "Pollution Diet" at the end major source of air pollution and water pollution of 1970, the pollution countermeasures of the before the Second World War. Particularly after city were markedly reinforced, and were imple- passage through the post-war reconstruction mented in a comprehensive, systematic and period and upon entry into the so-called high- steady manner. level economic growth period of 1955-1965, air . . . ~~As a result, the air and water quality of and water pollution markedly intensified. In dis- tricts surrounded by large factories involved in Kitakyushu bcm markdlcean s much ceramics, chemicals, iron and steel, etc., there that Kita was int rodu en a 1 OECD's White Paper on the Environment as a were many residents who suffered from the large quanitis ofdus fal an frm te smke nd ity which had undergone transformation from quantities of dust fall and fi-om the smoke and a "city of gray" to a "city of green." In 1987, offensive odors. On the basis of fact-finding sur- Kity was to a a of ght In" Kitakyushu was selected as a "star light town" veys of the damage, the residents repeatedly by the Environent Agency in view of its submitted demands for Improvement to the cor- excellent air environment. Furthermore, the porations, and petitions to the administration. Moreover, in Dokai Bay, which is located in the ate ity ofiDokai B gatly sproved, and it was confirmed that 115 species of fish north-central part of the city and where the fish inhabited its waters. harvest had showed signs of recovery during one period after the war, fish catches dwindled to When the history of pollution countermea- nothing from 1950 onward. This was caused by sures in Kitakyushu is reviewed, there are the large quantities of industrial waste water from certain characteristic points which may be neighboring corporations and sewage which cited. First, there is the transfer to this city of the flowed into the bay, and pollution in Dokai Bay authority of the prefectural governor for pur- greatly worsened. poses of issuing "smog alarms." In all Japan, this transfer of authority was made to In response to this situation, prior to the Kitakyushu alone, and was permitted in view comrmencement of serious countermeasures by of the problems of distance from the city of the national government, various policies were Fukuoka which is the seat of prefectural gov- devised in Kitakyushu. For example, the mea- ernment. This transfer of authority to a surement of dust fall began in 1953 as a means self-governing community which was the site of monitoring air pollution. Upon the birth of of pollution exerted major effects on pollution the city of Kitakyushu in 1963, the creation of a countermeasures- for example, it became an mature system was sought by developing a important factor in the development of the 1-16 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program "Special Weather Information System" as a pol- where it was difficult to scientifically estimate lution prevention measure. the degree of future organic mercury contamni- In order to understand the pollution coun- nation and the degree of danger if the matter were neglected, the Dokai Bay dredging project termeasures in the Kitakyushu area, one must consider the cooperative system of industry and commenced. This was not a polcy measure based on a strict cost-benefit analysis, but government, and the existence of strong leader- rather a project executed from a risk-manage- ship in the business community which supported it. On the local level, the obligation of ment perspective. the local self-governing body was to seek indus- On the other hand, the corporations, who trial development while simultaneously were the object of strict regulations by the admin- protecting the health of the residents, and a com- istration and from whom the observance of the prehensive administrative management was agreements was requested, devised various mea- required which did not lean toward selection of sures of their own. As one of the characteristics of either "industrial development" or "environ- Kitakyushu, one may cite the sulfur oxide coun- mental protection" as one of two alternatives. termeasures based on the independent wind For this reason, it was indispensable to establish tunnel tests of the corporations. In this process, consultative organs for purposes of building the maximum ground level concentrations to be cooperative relations between the administra- observed by the corporations were presented by tion and the corporations. In these councils, the the administration, and each corporation for- administration and the corporations would con- mulated a reduction plan in its own preferred duct a full exchange of views and discussion, manner to develop the countermeasures. By this and this process guaranteed implementation of means, fairness among the various corporations the concluded pollution control agreements was maintained, there was a large range of which were not based on laws or ordinances options in each corporation, and the persuasive- accompanied by strict regulations. ness vis-a-vis the central corporate managers was As the pollution countermeasures began to large - all of which contributed to the promotion of the pollution countermeasures. show their effectiveness, the fish returned to Dokai Bay. The problem which then arose was Next, it should be mentioned that the pol- the need to dredge the sludge containing inor- lution prevention technologies introduced by ganic mercury which had accumulated on the the corporations centered on cleaner produc- seabed of Dokai Bay. If neglected, the inorganic tion (CP) technology, with pollutant removal mercury in the sludge would become organic equipment playing a supplementary role. For and be released into the seawater, whence bio- example, in the iron and steel industry, such logical accumulation in the fish would occur, cases included the development and introduc- and it was feared that the health of the citizen- tion of the pre-combustion desulfurization ry might be impaired by the catching and system for coke oven gas, and of the so-called eating of such fish. Thus, amid circumstances OG system which conducted dust removal by a Annex 1 1-17 non-combustion system for converter gas. The lution monitoring personnel who conducted conversion from a fuel oil single combustion visual pollution inspections, and the develop- system to natural gas which had no sulfur con- ment of a system capable of rapidly responding tent whatsoever is another example of such to pollutant reduction requests from the city technology. Thus, many of the pollution pre- which could come at any time. Thus, the effects vention technologies adopted by the of the transfer of authority to the local self-gov- corporations were low-pollution production erning body responsible for the pollution sites technologies. may be said to have been large. The next point relates to the existence of a -u1 cooperative system of government and indus- Evaluation of the Antipollution Policies of try, and its effective operation. Viewed from the Kitakyushu standpoint of foreign countries, this type of consultative system might appear to constitute collusion between the government and the cor- Next, an evaluation is attempted of the antipol- g lution polcies of Kitakyushu. First, with regard porations, but it was an extremely effective to the transfer of authority to a local self-govern- system with regard to industrial poution pre- ing body, one can point out the effects on the vention. Once an agreement was reached in city's own polies due to the smog alarm such a consultative forum, the administration issuance authority which was given to and the corporations who were its members issuance authority which was given to Kitakyushu in February 1970. Thids type of trans- felt bound by these decisions despite the lack of fer of authority to the locality not only raised the any legal measures, which was an attitude consciousns of te ll arooted in the particularities of Japanese society. consciousness of the local administrative offi- cials, but also of a wide range of the local Moreover, in Kitakyushu, since there existed a citizenry ncludig the corporations, and this strong leadership in the business community resulted in the stepped-up promotion of local which served to bring together the corpora- pollution prevention intiatives. For example, tions, this type of government-industry one may cte the establshment of the "specal cooperative system was built up relatively weather mformation system" and the requests smoothiy compared to other localities. to corporations for pollutant reduction based The basic countermeasures adopted by the the:reon, which effectively shifted the emphasis pollutant emitting corporations were character- from after-the-fact countermeasures to preven- ized by the improvement of the manufacturing tive measures. With the introduction of this equipment and the manufacturing process, as system, it became possible to execute substan- well as the raising of productivity while striv- tive pollution countermeasures without ing for thorough-going resource conservation issuiance of a smog alarm. On the corporate side, and energy conservation - it was from these efforts toward in-house pollution prevention efforts that the pollution countermeasures advanced, as evidenced by the provision of pol- developed. This led to the introduction of so- 1-18 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program called cleaner production technology (CP tech- rations and 29% by the administration. Amid nology). This concept did not involve the circumstances where it was difficult to scientif- addition of equipment for waste water treat- ically estimate the degree of future organic ment and waste gas treatment (end of pipe or mercury contamination and the degree of dan- EOP technology), but sought pollution preven- ger if matters were left unchanged, the tion by replacing the existing production sedimentary sludge dredging project of Dokai technology itself with low-pollution produc- Bay was conducted. Thus, this project was not tion technology, and signified the reduced executed based on economic principles which consumption of raw materials and fuels which gave priority to profit considerations after a constituted sources of pollution, as well as the comparison of the costs of dredging and the reduced generation of by-products which con- profits to be derived therefrom, but rather, it stituted sources of pollution. Here, it is was a crisis-(risk-)management policy de- necessary to give special mention to manage- signed to cope with future risks and to control ment policy which, even in the chilly economic the actual sense of crisis among the local citi- climate occasioned by the oil crisis, held to a zenry which was not necessarily based on a long-term view of corporate development by scientific underpinning. In this context, it is daring to strive for the introduction of CP tech- highly significant that, as a result of these pol- nology. In the Kitakyushu area, representative lution countermeasures, the fish taken in the examples of this are the joint introduction of cleaned up waters of Dokai Bay can now be natural gas by electric power and iron and steel eaten with peace of mind. corporations, and the introduction of the OG system in the iron and steel industry. Furthermore, as one example of the "non- The Applicability of the Experiences of economic approach" which is cited as a Kitakyushu to the Developing Countries characteristic of Japanese antipollution policy, there is the sedimentary sludge dredging pro- When applying the pollution prevention expe- ject of Dokai Bay, which was once called the riences of Kitakyushu to the developing "Sea of Death" and which is located in the cen- countries, it is necessary to pay attention to the tral part of Kitakyushu. The sludge which special social conditions in which Kitakyushu accumulated in Dokai Bay from the opening of developed. On the other hand, for the cities of Dokai Harbor in July 1898 until March 1972 the developing world which have traveled a was estimated at approximately 4.8 million m3. historical course similar to Kitakyushu, these Of this amount, the project dredged 350,000 m3 experiences may prove very useful. The indus- of sludge containing more than 30ppm of mer- try of Kitakyushu did not undergo the ordinary cury, and buried it in a special-use disposal area process of industrial development by passing established in the bay. Of the total project costs from light industry to heavy industry, but of 1.8 billion yen, 71% was borne by the corpo- began from the establishment of the Yawata Arnex 1 1-19 Steel Works by state funding in circumstances whelningly larger role. For example, consider- where no industry existed at all. In the devel- ing the proportional amounts of the COD oping countries, as well, there are cases where discharged into Dokai Bay, at the time more than gigantic corporations are established in areas 97% was of industrial origin. On the other hand, without any industry in the form of state-run in the major cities of the developing countries, it enterprises or multinational corporations. In is reported that industry is responsible for 20- this case, as with the former city of Yahata, a 30%, while the major part of the pollution is "Castle town" is formed around this one gigan- derived from daily living. With regard to air pol- tic corporation. lution, the role of automobile exhaust gas is Yahata was succeeded by Kitakyushu, large, while with regard to water pollution, the which developed as a government ordinance sewage and refuse deriving from ordinary households and particularly from slums andl designated city and which came to possess the squatter districts are the major factors. Concern- issuance authority for smog alarmns. There may ing pollution countermeasures in such cities, be problems concerning limitations on local even if it is an area where a gigantic corporation s elf- go vermnin bo dies in the developing coun- ~~~~~~~~~~is located as in Kitakyushu, the experiences of tries, and if the transfer of authority to localites specializing in pollution countermeasures Kitakyushu might not prove very useful. This is becomes possible hereafter, they might be able because, even if industrial polution is over- come, there still remains the problem of the to execute the types of policies adopted by polui dherivn rom ubnlhg.m Kitakyushu. In particular, even if there exists no authority for direct regulation of corpora- Next, we consider the introduction of low- tions by a local self-governing body which has pollution industrial technology. The intro- jurisdiction over the area in which the corpo- duction of terminal treatment devices for polu- rate giant is located, it can arouse the concern of tants (EOP technology) is expensive, but there the local citizenry and the mass media by issu- are developing countries which are planning ing something similar to smog alarms, which the development and introduction of low- might create good prospects for subsequent priced and simplified devices which somewhat pollution countermeasures. For this purpose, it sacrifice treatment efficiency. As pollution is indispensable to build up a scientific moni- countermeasures for existing facilities, the toring system, conduct data collection and introduction of such EOP devices may be analysis, and train capable people to handle unavoidable, but if there are factories where these matters.* *- poor production efficiency due to deteriorated With regard to the apportioning of respon- production equipment is to be improved and sibility for the pollution in Kitakyushu, if where the renovation of the production facili- considered in terms of the comparison of ties themselves is being considered for this industry and domestic sources of pollution, it purpose, it may well be worthwhile to study must be noted that industry played an over- the introduction of CP technology. The high 1-20 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program costs of EOP technology probably indicate the structure which is shared by three subject cities: importance of planning and preventive mea- suporesnby developning cuntpriesbefoe thea Chapter 1: Description of natural and socioeco- sures by developing countries before the problems are too costly for them to rectify. In .omic conditions and history of the subject the case where it is planned to introduce CP ctes. Chapter 2: Actual level, causes and extent of technology to improve production facilities minaeo niorena olto nec developing countries, if an organization is eas icotODA main historic period. Chronological description established incorporating environmental ODof special measures and strategies adopted by (Official Development Assistance) from the the subject city. developed countries, a further impetus will Chapter 3: Particularly important or effective surely be given to the introduction of CP tech- polution control and environental conserva- nology in developing countries. For Japan tion measures adopted by each city, and those which is a major CP technology country, and for Kitakyushu, there are not only the profits which are specific to each city. The factors behind the adopted measures. accompanying these technology exports, but alsomxpecangtinse fortbusinessolg u rtais, oft Chapter 4: Measures adopted by private com- great advantagetionsf bothusides. undertakingso panies in each city, their contents, background, and underlying factors which contributed to the relevant decision-making by each company. Effects and problems associated with the vari- Case Study Report Structure ous measures. Chapter 5: Summary and conclusions The following describes the case study report Annex 1 1-21 1-22 Metropolitan Environental Improvement Program Annex 2: Program of MEIP/ apan Seminar on Urban Environmental Management 9/28 (Tues.) Date of Arrival MEIP/JAPAN STUDY TOUR 9/29 (Wed) Yokohama Meeting (at Yokohama Symposia) 10:00 Opening M.C.: Mr. Suzuki (World Bank) 10:00-10:15 Welcome speech: Director of the Yokohama Enviromnental Protection Bureau 10:15-10:30 World Bank speech: Mr. David Williams 10:30-10:40 Explanation of entire Japan Seminar Program: Mr. Suzuki (World Bank) 10:40-11:00 Introduction by each participant 11:00-11:20 Coffee Break 11:20-11:35 An Introduction to Yokohama City (video tape) 11:35-12:20 Presentation: Yokohama City's Experience of Environmental Management, Mr. Katsumi Saruta (Chairperson of Yokohama Committee) 12:20-13:30 Lunch Afternoon Session Chairperson: to be identified 13:30-14:40 Supplementary Presentation: Messrs. Kawasaki and Mutoh, (Members of Yokohama Committee) 14:40-15:00 Coffee Break 15:00-16:30 Discussion 16:30 Closing 18:00-20:00 Reception (sponsored by Yokohama City and the World Bank) - Opening - Mayor's greeting - Toast - Information by Secretariat 9/30 (Thurs) Yokohama Field Trip 8:40 Departure from hotel (charter bus) 9:20-10:20 Isogo Coal Fired Power Plant: Electric Resource Development, Inc. 10:20-11:00 Bus 11:00-12:00 Kanazawa Cooperative Waste Water Treatment Facilities: Japan Environmental Corporation 12:00-13:00 Lunch (scheduled location at MITI Training Center) Annex 2 2-1 13:00-14:00 Wrap-up session (including Presentation by representative of Mm About 19:30 Check into hotel 10/1 (Fri) Osaka Meeting (at Intemational House, Osaka) 9:00 Opening M.C.: Mr. Suzuki (World Bank) 9:00- 9:15 Welcoming speech: Osaka City Enviromnental Health Bureau or GEC 9:15- 9:35 World Bank speech: Mr. David Williams Introduction of participants (GEC will introduce participants from Osaka City) 9:35- 9:50 An Introduction to Osaka City (video tape) 9:50-10:00 Coffee Break 10:00-10:45 Chairperson: to be identified Presentation: Osaka City's Experience of Environmental Management, Mr. Yukimasa Saito (Chairperson of Osaka Committee) 10:45-11:25 Supplementary Presentation: Messrs. Matsumiya and Nakano (Members of Osaka Committee) 11:25-12:30 Discussion 12:30-13:30 Lunch 13:30 Departure (bus) 14:00-15:00 Osaka City Environmental Pollution Monitoring Center 15:00-15:30 Bus 15:30-16:30 Morinomiya Incineration Plant About 17:00 Return to hotel 17:00-18:00 Wrap-up Session 18:30-20:00 Reception (sponsored by the City of Osaka) 10/2 (Sat) Field Trip to Kyoto 9:00 Departure from hotel (all day bus ride) 18:00 Arrival at hotel 10/3 (Sun) Travel Morning Freetime 13:28 Bullet Train (Nozomi train number 11) 15:42 Arrival at Kokura 2-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program MEIP/JAPAN SEMINAR ON URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 10/4 (Mon) (at Kitakyushu International Conference Center) 9:00 Opening M.C.: World Bank 9:00- 9:15 Welcoming speech: Director of the Kitakyushu City Environmental Protection Bureau (interpretation provided) 9:15- 9:30 World Bank speech: Chairperson: Mr. Michio Hashimoto 9:30- 9:50 Outline of Study on Japanese Experience on Environmental Management: Mr. Aoyama/Ms.Nakazawa (EX Corporation) 9:50-10:10 Coffee Break 10:10-11:00 Presentation (1) Summary of Main Report from Institutional Aspect :Mr. Kazuhiko Takemoto 11:00-11:30 Presentation (2) Summary of Main Report from Economic Aspect: Mr. Jerry Warford 11:30-12:00 Discussion on Main Report (1)- Relevance of Japanese Experience and Strategy to Transfer Japanese Experience to Developing Countries: Mr. Tom Walton 12:00-13:30 Lunch 13:30-14:00 Discussion on Main Report (1)- Continuation of the Presentation by Messrs. Nakamura and Sakurai (Members of Central Steering Committee) 14:00-15:00 Question & Answer 15:00-15:15 Coffee Break 15:15-16:45 Discussion on Main Report (2)-Comments/presentation by MEIP Delegates on Transfer of Japanese Experience to MEIP Cities 16:45 Closing 10/5 (Tues.) Chairperson: World Bank 9:00-12:00 Wrap-up Session: Action for the Future 12:00 Closing International Symposium on Asian Environment by Kitakyushu City/UNCRD; Creating Environmentally Friendly Urban Environment (Open to the public) 14:00-14:10 Opening Address: Mayor of the City of Kitakyushu Congratulatory Address: Environment Agency Annex 2 2-3 14:10-15:55 Panel Discussion "Creating Environmentally Friendly Urban Environment" Moderator: Mr. Hiroyuki Ishi, Executive Editor of the Asahi-Shinbun Panelists: Dr. Jerry Warford; Guest Professor of London University Dr. Surin Setamanit; Professor of Chulalongkorn University, and Former Minister, Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy, Thailand Dr. Michio Hashimoto; President of OECC Mr. Koichi Sueyoshi; Mayor of the City of Kitakyushu 15:55-16:10 Coffee Break 16:10-17:00 Key-note Speech "Urban Environment After Rio Summit": Sir Shridath Ramphal; Member of WCED, and Former Secretary-General of the British Commonwealth 17:00 Closing 19:00-21:00 Reception WB/UNCRD/Kitakyushu Seminar on Urban Environmental Management in Asia 10/6 (Wed) 9:00- 9:30 Opening Address: Director-General, Environment Bureau, City of Kitakyushu Director of UNCRD Representative of the World Bank Session (1): Urban Environmental Management in Japan: A Case Study of Kitakyushu City 9:30-10:15 Presentation: Kitakyushu's Experience in Environmental Improvement, Mr. Yukio Shiraishi (Chairperson of Kitakyushu Committee) 10:15-10:30 Coffee Break 10:30-11:00 Comments: Messrs. Nakazono and Hegi (Members of Kitakyushu Committee) 11:00-12:00 Discussion 12:00-14:00 Lunch Session (2): Urban Environmental Management in Japan: A Case Study of Kitakyushu City 14:00-17:00 Field Visit: Nippon Steel Corporation (a case study on "Cleaner Production") 17:30-18:30 Wrap-up Session on Kitakyushu Study 10/71Thurs) Session (3): Urban Environmental Management Strategies in Asian Cities 9:00- 9:45 Presentation: MEIP Japanese Experience and Suggestion to Asian Cities, Mr. Jerry Warford 9:45- 10:35 Presentation by MEIP Cities 2-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Report (a) Beijing Report (b) Bombay 10:35-10:50 Coffee Break 10:50-12:30 Report (c) Colombo Report (d) Jakarta Report (e) Manila Report (f) Kathmandu 12:30-13:45 Lunch Session (4): A Comparative Analysis of the Japanese and Other Asian Experiences in Urban Environmental Improvement 13:45-15:45 Panel Discussion Moderator: Mr. Kunitoshi Sakurai Presentation(a) Relevance of the Japanese Experience in Urban Environmental Management to Asian Cities from a Thai Viewpoint, Mr. Surin Setamanit Presentation(b) Relevance and Transferability of the Japanese Experience to Other Asian Cities, Mr. Masahisa Nakamura Discussion Discussants: Messrs. Surin Setamanit, Masahisa Nakamura, Representa tives of MEIP Cities(Messrs. Mukhopadhyay and Ramanujam) and the World Bank (Mr. David Williams) 15:45-16:00 Coffee Break 16:00-17:00 General Discussion Annex 2 2-5 2-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 3: Transportation Networks & Land Use in Japan Figure A-3-1: Shinkansen Railway Network in operation (1,836 km) under construction (437 km) … - - - - - -planned construction (1,020 km) possible planning (3,510 km) Hokkaido Shinkansen Aoma tsu Shinkansen i N ii; 0 . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oetsu Shinkansen Hokuriku Shinkansen 7 Kyushu Fukuo _~~~~~~~~~Toaido Shinkansen Kyushu Fukuok Shinkansen Nagasaki Kagoshima Source: Note: MITI Note: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(as of October Both railroads and trunk rods had already been constructed along the subsequent Shinkansen and highway routes prior to the 1991) high growth period. Annex 3 3-1 ,,, r _ z S $§ W D Trunk Line Motor way for National Development Existing Roads Road under the decision of development plan Existing road ------------Road under the decision of basic plan (master plan) . ..................... Proposed road under examination 0J 0 , I-t< s 0 \ l ~_ _ _ _ _ X_ _ _ _ _ _ _ k_ _ _ _ _ _ Annex 4: Anti-Pollution Activities b Citizens' Groups 1890-1975 Year Events 1890 1 Residents of Agatsuma-mura, Tochigi prefecture, petition the governor to ban opera- tion of the Ashio copper Mine. 1893 U Residents of Niihama-mura, Ehime prefecture, complain of damage to farm products form sulfur dioxide from the copper refinery of Besshi Copper Mine; they ask its Niihama office to suspend refining operations. 1896 U Farmers in the Ashio mine pollution area present a leaflet to the Agriculture and Commerce Minister calling for the suspension of the mining. 1897 U A federation of antipollution groups, formed by affected farmers of four prefectures along Watarase river, petition the Finance Minister to reduce taxes on contaminated land for an indefinite period. 1908 * Some 130 fishermen of Hiranuma-cho, Kanagawa prefecture, request an oil company to take measures to preclude crude oil leakages. * More than 5,000 farmers of Ochi-gun, Ehime prefecture, hold a meeting to form a fed- eration for eradicating toxic gases from the district. U Fishery operations in Zushi, Kanagawa prefecture, lodge, protest with Suzuki I Seiyakusho against the discharge of waste water containing starch into a neighboring river. 1911 U Having become aware of a land reclamation project of the Asano Cement Company to prepare a new cement plant site off a neighboring shore, all the residents of Tajima-mura, Kanagawa prefecture, petition the prefectural government to reject it. 1913 U Residents of Nakatsu-machi, Gifu prefecture, start a protest movement against Chuo Paper. They complain about the harmful effects of paper production, including the conta- mination and reduced flow of water as well as indiscriminate deforestation. * Residents and Municipal Assembly members of Yokohama unite against the construc- tion of a hydroelectric power plant. 1914 U Local Osaka representatives complain to the police about stack gas from Sumitomo Rolled Copper Mill and Shimofukushima's Nippon Spinning. They state that the toxic emissions have harmful effects on their health and are soiling appliances and commodi- ties. * Farmers of Osaka institute a lawsuit against Osaka Alkali to recover damages for crop damage caused by sulfuric acid fumes and sulfur dioxide emitted by its plaint. 1919 i U Residents of Osaka petition the police to suspend construction of the expansion of the Osaka Electric Light Power Plant. 1920 U Rice production decreases due to mine pollution from Mitsui's mine in Gifu prefec- Annex 4 4-1 ture. Agricultural associations in neighboring villages request the mining company to install pollution control equipment. 1937 * Residents of Kawasaki, disturbed by intensifying air pollution, file a petition bearing some 10,000 signatures with the city office, the Kanagawa prefectural government, and the Interior Ministry. They call for steps against the steadily increasing volume of smoke and soot from a cluster of coastal factories. 1938 U Farmers of Annaka-machi lodge a complaint with Gunma prefecture saying that they have sustained damage to mulberry fields due to emissions of sulfuric acid fumes and nitrous acid gas from Nippon Zinc, and call for steps to protect the fields. 1941 U Representatives of towns and villages in Gifu prefecture demand that the Kamioka mining station take steps against mine pollution. 1948 * In the Jintsu river area of Toyama prefectures, a council is formed to deal with mine pollution damage to agricultural products. 1950 i A women's group in Tobata city, Fukuoka prefecture, campaign for the improvement of air quality which had become serious due to soot and smoke from the Nippon power plant. 1951 * A total of 45,000 fishermen living along Saeki Bay, Oita prefecture, launch a vigorous protest campaign against a Saeki plant proposed by Kokusaku Rayon and Pulp. 1958 * Representatives of the fishing net industry along the Edo river, Tokyo, present to the Edogawa plant of Honshu Paper a demand for the purification of plant effluent. 1963 * Residents of the Yawata area of Kitakyushu band together against cement dust release by the Yawata plant of Onoda Cement, and open negotiations for damages. 1964 * In Shizuoka prefecture, a joint council against the construction of a petrochemical complex is established by residents of Numazu, Mishima and Shimizu-cho. 1967 * In the opening move of the Niigata area Minamata disease triaL victims of mercury poisoning file a damage suit with the Niigata District Court against the Kanose plant. * Nine certified victims of Yokkaichi pollen file a damage suit against six companies in the petrochemical industry. 1968 * The itai-itai case officially starts when 28 patients and surviving family members liv- ing along the Jintsu river file a damage suit against the Kamioka mining office of Mitsui Mining and Smelting. 1969 * In Kumamoto prefecture, Minamata disease patients initiate a suit for damages against Chisso Corporation. * Twenty-eight residents around Osaka International Airport, affected by aircraft noise, bring suit against the government for a ban on aircraft take-offs and landings at night as well as for indemnification for excessive noise. 1970 * A citizens' rally is held at Tagonoura Port in Shizuoka prefecture with the participa- tion of 4,200 residents from the seaside area, calling for the eradication of sludge from 4-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Suruga Bay. 1972 * More than 100 farmer victims of cadmium contamination in Annaka city, Gunma pre- fecture, file a suit for damage against Toho Zinc. * Residents opposing Hokkaido Electric Power's thermoelectric power project institute a lawsuit seeking a ban on the project. this is the first suit based on the concept of the right to a healthy environment as a fundamental human right. 1974 * A group of 575 residents living along the Shinkansen line in Nagoya brings suit against the JNR demanding indemnity for damages. * An all-Japan meeting of residents' movements against thermoelectric power genera- tion is held to oppose the construction of plants being planned by the nine electric power companies of Japan. 1975 * A group of 11 certified patients of chronic arsenic poisoning in the Toroku district, Miyazaki prefecture, file suit against Sumitomo Metal Mining, the holder of mining rights for Toroku Mine, seeking indemnification. Anti-pollution movements until 1950 were suppressed by compensation for the damaged citizens and small-scale improvement measures taken by individual factories. Industries had a strong power with a national policy of industrial promotion and most of the citizens were reconciled to the considerable small compensation. However, these citizens' activities were bases of the anti-pollution movements since 1960s. The case of Ashio Copper Mine including results are described as follows. 1879: Thousands of fish died of discharge from Ashio Copper Mine in Watarase River. 1885: Emission from Ashio Copper Mine damaged the crops in neighboring villages. 1890: Residents of Agatsuma village petition the governor to ban the operation of the mine. 1892: The mine agreed to pay some amount of settlement. 1895: Victims of Ashio Mine pollution signed an agreement with the operators of the mine to settle their dispute for an indemnity less than half the amount of earlier settlements. The agreement included the provisions that "no claims of any sort will be made henceforth." The dire cir- cumstances of the victims compelled them to accept the unfavorable terms. 1897: Some 2,000 victims of mine pollution along the Watrase started on a protest march to Tokyo. The Cabinet decided to set up a committee under the Cabinet to study the pollution.In line with the findings of the Cabinet's mine pollution committee, Tokyo Mining Inspection Office served the mine operators with an order detailing improvements required to treat copper- contaminated effluent and otherwise eliminate pollution at Ashio Copper Mine. 1900: As several thousand victims of Ashio mine pollution made a protest march to Tokyo, they were intercepted by military and police and many leaders of the movement were arrested. 1902: Heavy rain in the Ashio area caused extensive damage. The disaster was due to denuded mountains around the mine. Annex 4 4-3 1904: Some residents of Yanaka village moved to a new settlement accepting Tochigi Prefecture's proposal to take over their land for the damage compensation. 1906: The head of Yanaka village decided arbitrarily to abandon the village. 1907: Yanaka village was taken over by the prefecture, paying the remaining residents only a small sum for the land. The first anti-pollution movement that made the national government to take measures is the fishermen's intrusion in Honshu Paper Mill in 1958. Thereafter, the residents' movements against the construction of a petrochemical complex in Mishima-Numazu, and patients' movements (Itai-itai disease, Minamata disease), etc., increased the public awareness of pollution and promoted Japanese pollution control measures. 4-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 5: Pollution Problems Discussed in the House of Representaives 1914-1939 Year Events 1914 * An inquiry regarding the Ajinomoto production facility at the lower reaches of the Tama river approved by the Kanagawa Prefecture 1915 | A petition regarding Kosaka Kozan copper poisoning * A petition against the second construction of the Uji river hydroelectric power plant 1916 Wi A petition regarding Kosaka Kozan copper poisoning 1917 E An inquiry concerning the depletion of a water supply source (an hydroelectric power project, which uses water from Lake Kasai in the Yamanashi Prefecture, by Katsuragawa Electric Power, Co.) * A petition regarding Kosaka Kozan copper poisoning 1918 | An inquiry regarding reclamation (a reclamation plan of about 0.325 million m2), rang- ing from Takanawaminamimachi, Shiba-ku, Tokyo to Omori-machi, Ehara-gun 1919 !i1 An inquiry regarding damage caused by coal mining 1920 An inquiry regarding damage due to mining, reiterating the inquiry of 1919 1921 U A recommendation regarding remedies for farmland affected by mining operations 1923 * An inquiry regarding smoke protection and enrichment of water supply sources (reduc- tion in poisonous smoke emission at the Ashio Dozan and devastation of water supply source in the Watarase-river) 1 A recommendation for establishing the law which enhances marine product and pro- duction facilities 1927 1 5 An inquiry regarding enrichment of a water supply source (protection forest) * A recommendation regarding smoke poisoning protection and enrichment of water supply source (the Ashio Dozan smoke poisoning problem) *1 An inquiry regarding an execution of high barrage construction at the Sho river in Toyama Prefecture 1928 * An inquiry regarding the Ashio Dozan copper poisoning 1929 U An inquiry regarding the Ashio Dozan copper poisoning (three times) * An inquiry regarding the lake Inawashiro whose water level decreased (an hydroelec- tric power plant of Tokyo Dento Co.) * A recommendation regarding smoke poisoning protection and enrichment of water supply source (the Ashio Dozan smoke poisoning problem) 1930 U An inquiry regarding establishment of a research committee on Ashio Kozan smoke control * An inquiry regarding permission for the hydroelectric power plant at the Sho river 1931 1 An inquiry regarding Ashio Dozan copper smoke poisoning (twice) Annex 4 5-1 1932 * An inquiry regarding Ashio Dozan copper poisoning and smoke poisoning 1933 * An inquiry regarding Ashio Dozan copper poisoning problem (twice) * A recommendation for subsidizing the restoration of depressed land due to mining (in Fukuoka Prefecture, damage due to coal mining) * A recommendation for remodeling a fish ladder in the Shinano river * A recommendation regarding a subsidy for protecting an extension of fisheries in the Kido river (decline of fishery due to hydroelectric power, Nikko mine, and a barrage for irrigation) * A recommendation for establishing the Water Pollution Control Law * A recommendation regarding preventive monitoring for Ashio Dozan copper smoke poi- soning * A recommendation regarding an amendment of the Mining Law 1934 * An inquiry regarding the Ashio Dozan copper poisoning * A recommendation for establishing a restoration committee on damage due to coal min- ing * A recommendation for remodeling a fish ladder in the Shinano river (damage caused by a diversion of the Shinano river and the construction of a fixed barrage at the estuary) * A recommendation regarding a subsidy for protecting an extension of fisheries in the Kido river (same as 1933) 1935 * An inquiry regarding the Ashio Dozan copper poisoning 1936 * A recommendation for facilitating a restoration committee on damage due to coal min- ing 1937 * A recommendation for establishing the Water Pollution Control Law * An inquiry regarding the removal of environmental problems associated with factory in a village 1938 * An amendment of the Mining Law * A petition regarding removal of poisoned waste water discharged from a factory 1939 * A petition regarding water pollution control * A petition regarding a subsidy for restoring farmland damaged by mining 5-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 6: Pollution Control Measures Taken by the Tokyo Municipal Government in the Post-War Years (1) The Tokyo government introduced the improve a combustion facility or to ban its use Tokyo Municipal Factory Pollution Prevention temporarily. Ordinance in 1949. This was the first pollution regulation at the local level. Subsequently, Osaka ()the Smoke an Soot Relope in- in 1950, Kanagawa in 1951, Fukuoka in 1955, mittee Ordinance of 1955 developed into the and Niigata in 1960 established similar ordi- TkoMncplCuclOdnneo ra Pollution Measures of 1960. This was the first nances. council to discuss pollution measures in Japan, (2) This ordinance targeted such things as and consisted of scholars, administrators, repre- noise, vibration, particulates, offensive and toxic sentatives from industry and the public. The gases, and waste water. It required that a license council which examined current and alternative should be granted by the governor before build- countermeasures became a basic tool for creating ing a new factory or extending one, and ordered a policy consensus in Japan, and has continued to owners to improve facilities before obtaining a play an important role in pollution control. license in case there was a risk of pollution. (5) The area system also started to play an (3) The Smoke and Soot Regulatory Ordi- important role in pollution control at its time. nance of 1955 was established to prevent soot This system was based on the City Planning Law and smoke due to heating in the buildings and the Building Standard Law. Although the (mainly at the center of Tokyo). This ordinance Tokyo government had not yet designated a spe- targeted not sulfurous acid gas but visible black cial area for industry, it designated seven kinds of smoke. The ordinance the objective of which area such as those for industry; sub-industry; sec- was to prevent smoke and soot pollution, pre- ond special area for industry, commercial; serve public health, and cleanup urban residential; first and second school area; and spe- environrment, stipulated the following: cial area for residence. It prevented the mixing of factories into residential or commercial areas. * A notification system when building a boiler, fire grate or combustion chamber whose However, this system could not enforce the transfer of the existing factories. This had to wait aReaewaorethan 0.25 squtare smoketer;snb for the construction of collective facilities and the relocation of factories by the Environmental Pol- RingehmanYs smoke chart; lution Control Service Corporation. * A ban on igniting materials such as rub- ber, sulphur, pitch leather, waste, etc.; (6) Prefectural and city governments began m Observation by managers and operators to conduct a research on the impact of environ- at a combustion facility; mental pollution on public health. Research on m The authority to inspect and warn offend- the quantity of soot started around 1930. They ers with regard to the soot and smoke standards; also have conducted a research on air quality and and air pollution control technology. The adap- * An administrative order to repair and tion of Ringelman's smoke chart was based on Annex 6 6-1 the E]uropean and American researches. The of the sanitation bureau was in charge of noise, result of research on the actual pollution condi- soot and smoke (except soot and smoke from tion helped the administrations to make a factories), and the agriculture and forestry divi- decision. sion of the economic bureau (in order to protect (7) Most of large cities strengthened the fishery) had authority with regard to water pol- lution. These responsibilities were merged into administrative structure for pollution control tenwyetbihdubnpluindvso before the Basic Law for Environmental Pollu- ' n of the capital improvement bureau in 1960. The tion Control was enacted. Until 1960, in the Tokyo govermnment, the building equipment administrative structure including the health research function was more adequate at the city division of the building guidance bureau was than at the national level at this time. responsible for the Municipal Factory Pollution Control Ordinance, the public health division 6-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 7: Evolution of Urban Sanitation & Pollution Problems and Measures Prior to 1970____________ s~ ~~~oifo of2f&<¢i0@;0z8 theS6 poo ind881topXigs urban>e< areas wasu deloped 3 ;S e 0 8 g U>< <5 s U st 20 02< i 8 or2x < t 8 t utto (s h>>Establishment of hygienic labor atories in0 56 380S ajSj}jj(4 Frsequ tyo20inds<>0 ej gttr}}ia pluiot 8ni ;j unde th ieg b }8;M0Z{ > s <8$}ig ciie ti8~ ~~~olc for ielt and 8iitr strengt -S Soni ant-plluio moemnt wer Deeomn of wate supply system 8~~~~o h onr elce n poluio prblm di =euainfrtecnrlo atre <<>~~~ ,tBSevere dama,gebylan susdec in not b}ecoe ocalpblm wa issue in Osak us 186 gnin >3<$ zmj ind8iirii; areaj ofjeg f restricte areasj>wUtnD8 an pe<,WguWn-N r0missio,jn fo ~~~Feuecair - Pollti'}n wajeojie onl by fgacne in loca poic * 1;stat;ion to ;on5trol8 00< <<.k.w~~~~~~~~~~rsiets.gO, aroun thefaiorie pollution bfut ac'tsg8iaSili to" giv fcoies',,5,Jj, j 58 W . . .............................................slig.t gui dan e i 8 * isj tS 28 a,fi8in; +CtaK K 2Hqiit0seglXiiui s 'Reglan fo Knutra Poilutio 90~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cnrl'0 waseac7tedsTKvoi 1K949S K y~~ eeirto niometo tznsmvmn gis Regulation' ' orolto oto K9 wat Wisposa sites and expaso f cOsrcion wat dispsa fB.s ssEtbihes"nOaka 8g .< 8g S 0, ;e z ^gl;ite&/incignerators wogas enacted t in 19|| ,0-g50; 0 g - o ; ; 0 t. Annex ~ eiosns ofidsra.7lto nraeo iznscmlit euain o olto oto'wr caused.y ust andehaust ga againarp.liudon o governents enaced in Kaagawa(in1951)7an 7-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 8: Case Studies in Government Decision Making: Evolution of The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control 1967, and Revision of N02 Standards, 1978 lution Council in order to deliberate basic mea- The Basic Law for Environmental sures concerning pollution. The Ministry took a Pollution Control. leadership role in examining these basic mea- I n the 1960s, serious pollution-related health sures from the standpoint of public citizens' damage due to Minamata Disease, Itai Itai Dis- health and welfare, but other authorities blamed ease and Yokkaichi asthma became a social issue the Ministry by saying that it had exceeded its and the protest movement against the construc- authority. However, agreement was reached tion of new industrial complex started to among them by confirming that the adjustment become widespread. It was from 1967 to 1969 and opinion on the part of authorities can be that the four major pollution lawsuits were filed, reflected even after the Council submits a report. and which contributed to the establishment of the Environment Agency in 1971. In 1963, the In 1966, the Pollution Council, comprised of distinguished people from various fields Mmsent. unhe Industrial Struc Collutoncl (he such as law, economics, medicine, public health mentreThe IndustrialenStructureadCouncilo(th and sociology, submitted a report on basic mea- supreme council agency which advises govern- sures to the Minister of Health and Welfare ment on the nation's industrial policies) set up after one yea r of di atio and What the ndusrialpolltionsecton ad strted after one year of deliberation and hearing what the industrial pollution section and started examining how to deal with the pollution from people from the business world and other areas examining how o deal with th phaduttonsay. the viewpoint of industrial measures. In the fol- had to say. lowing year, the Ministry of Health and Welfare Generally, the authorities concerned (in this set up the pollution department and started case, the Ministry of Health and Welfare) pre- examining the system to intensify industrial pol- sent the matters required to be deliberated to lution measures from the viewpoint of public this kind of Council. Its aim is to avoid getting health.The Kurokawa Investigation Group, in a report difficult to handle with on the part of cooperation with the MITT and the Ministry of administration and to obtain the report based Health and Welfare, proposed general measures on the proposals conceived by the authorities. including low-sulfurization, the spread of The system is such that the administrations high-rise chimneys, the improvement of facili- draw up and prepare the original plan mainly ties for pollution control, and the establishment to be deliberated. of industrial estates, which had a major impact on subsequent measures to address industrial Some of the matters deliberated in this case pollution. Upon receiving this report, the Minis- were as follows: ter of Health and Welfare agreed that anti- * Concept of Pollution pollution measures must be developed by set- * What are Basic Measures? ting up the Basic Law for Environmental * Responsibility and Role of the National Pollution Control. The Ministry of Health and Government, Local Public Organizations, Welfare revised the law in 1965 to set up a Pol- Enter-prises and Residents Annex 8 8-1 * Environmental Standards were presented by the press, the business * Dispute Disposal and Relief world and other organizations. * Principle of Bearing of the Cost Con- ePrincipleofBearing PollutiontPreenion CIndustrial and commercial interests sug- cReminag Plantfor Polluntion Control gested that the competent Ministry be the Economic Planning Agency instead of the Min- * Harmony with the Economy istry of Health and Welfare. So it was agreed i Administrative System upon that although the competent Minister is After obtaining a report covering these mat- the Minister of Health and Welfare, other Min- ters flom the Council, the Ministry of Health and isters should also serve. The Anti-pollution Welfare decided on the framework of contents to Measure Meeting and the Anti-Pollution Mea- be incorporated in the Basic Law for Pollution. sure Council and the like were set up in the Prime Minister's Office instead of the Ministry The Ministry of Health and Welfare then of Health and Welfare, but general affairs were drew up a summary of the experimental plan handled in that Ministry. concerning the Basic Law on Pollution. At first, the authorities concerned did not deal with it actively, but as a result of the forcible instruc- govenment and the LDP, the rulng party n- tion of the then Prime Minister, backed by ly in the Anti-Pollution Measure Sectional strong publc opinion, it was addressed in the Meeting. In this process, the following changes Anti-Pollution Measure Promotion Meeting were made from the orinal experimental plan of composed of the Prime Minister's Office and the Ministry of Health and Welfare, as follows: Vice-Minister of 14 authorities concerned and * The statement that the maintenance of was then decided in the Cabinet Council. the people's health and welfare takes priority Negotiations were made from a narrow view- over the pursuit of profit in projects or other point of the authorities concerned but at the economic activities was deleted as the purpose same time, the experimental plan was adjusted of the law. In its place was substituted the state- to reflect a wider viewpoint to institute the ment that the people's health should be basic measures against pollution. protected from pollution and the living envi- ronment and public welfare should be Agreed upon in the Cabinet Meeting, this mantand wit the sound de sununry pan ws anouncd oficiay in maintained in harmony with the sound devel- summary plan was announced officially in 1967. Those in charge of the law in each author- opment of economy. (It was confirmed that human health should be considered separately ity dlealt with its enactment. Legislative frmtehmoywhecny. examination by the Cabinet Legislation Bureau from the harmony with economy.) was carried forward in the presence of all the X Referring to environmental or ambient authorities concerned though promoted main- standards, the wording was changed from ly by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. In the "standards must be maintained" to "it is desir- meantime, the opinions and the statements able that standards should be maintained". 8-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program * The statement "The environmental The general responsibilities that were primar- standard must be decided based upon the best ily allocated to the Ministry of Health and Welfare scientific viewpoint at the time even without have now been taken over by the Environment complete scientific proof and must be revised Agency since its establishment in 1971, and these by exercising appropriate scientific judgment." have been carried out in a similar way according was deleted. to the provisions of the Basic Law In this way the Basic Law for Environmen- tal Pollution Control was presented to the Diet Revision of NO2 Standards, 1978 as the government's bill in 1967. In the follow- ing deliberation the opposition parties Negotiations between the government and requested that the environmental standard industry in setting up the environmental stan- should be a tolerable one and also asked for the dard for NO2 is a good example of industrial institution of no-fault liability, the unification of participation in the decision making process. pollution-related administrations, and the dele- tion of the "harmony with economy" clause. The Basic Law was designed after going established in 1973 as "Daily average of below through this deieai0.02 ppm". In the process of its establishment, it through this dellberation and the joint modifi- cation of the following items were made by was opposed strongly by industry in terms of both parties in July: its scope and technical feasibility. Although the required experiments on ani- * The stipulation of the item that "the har- mals and immunological survey in the mony with economy" clause does not apply to contaminated areas were insufficient to set the the protection of the people's health. environmental standards in 1973, establishment of standards was critical to prevent serious dam- * The restoration of the clause to review the environmental standard (the part deleted in age-causing pollution such as at expenenced in Yokkaichi City. Therefore, the above standard, submitted to the Specialized Committee of Pol- * The stricter requirement that the gov- lution Control Council, based on immunological ernment must take action to establish the data in Yokkaichi and the result of the test on system for disputes and relief. animals, was accepted in its entirety. i An additional dause that enables local The standard was ranked the most strict in governments to setup Pollution Control Coundils. the world, and the scientific grounds for its establishment were frequently called into ques- im The obligation for the government to sub- tion in Japan and overseas. mit to the Diet an annual report concerning Japanese industry led by the steel, chemical, pollution control. electric power, and automobile manufactures Annex 8 8-3 who bore the huge cost of pollution control, ence of NO2 on human health and the judging reviewed the scientific grounds for the standard, standard to the Central Pollution Control the improvement program by the stricter effluent Council in 1977. The Specialized Committee control, the amount of funds required to control recommended as a guideline an annual aver- effluent, and the prospect for technical develop- age of 0.03-0.02 ppm in 1978. Industry criticized ment. This review was based upon international this proposal severely, and insisted the annual comparison of standards and technologies, and average of 0.05 ppm as in the U.S. monitoring techniques. They finally urged the This revision was severely censured by the establishment of an environmental standard in residents for ignoring the impact on human accordance with their views, via the Environ- ment Aency ad theMlTI ~1978.health, and was picked up in the Diet as a major topic. The Industrial Structure Council of The case for revision was led by the steel MITI insisted on the daily average of 0.05 ppm industry who considered the scientific ground (equivalent to the yearly average of 0.025 ppm) in relation with health damage as irrational. as the industrial world did and on 0.04 ppm as Their up-to-date steel factory, which was still an absolute maximum. facing law suits, incurred pollution control facing law suits, incurred ponution control The revision resulted in the conclusion that costs of nearly 5% of the production cost: "a daily average of hourly figures must be below adhering to the standard would increase these or between 0.04 ppm-0.06 ppm". This revision costs by a further 4% of production cost. was made based on a various epidemiological Industrialists expressed this concern at the researches and overseas investigation results for International Symposium focusing on the effect five years since 1973. Also MlTM and Environ- of NO2 on human health in 1975. Following pres- ment Agency implemented the revision, sure from industry, the MITI referred the measure supported by continuous investments in pollu- to control NOx to the Industrial Pollution Section tion control by the industrial world, as of Industrial Structure Council in 1976, with a administrative judgement within reasonable request that the standard be reviewed. interpretation of available scientific data. During the long debates, the industrial world accumu- theduringthis strytionevidenceon pareusetedh t lated knowledge actively and prepared the basic the administration evidence on various tech- data for relaxation of the existing standards. The niques, the costs involved and the impact on .. ...... . business world's particpation in this revision hurnan health. illustrated here is a typical example of how they The Environmental Agency refereed affairs become involved in the government's pollution- concerning the scientific judgment for the influ- related policies. 84 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 9: Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control _________________________________I | bodies of water. The same shall apply here- The Basic Law for Environmental inafter, except in the case of Paragraph 1, Article Pollution Control. 9), soil pollution, noise, vibration,ground subsi- Law No. 132, 1967 dence (except for subsidence caused by drilling Amended by law No. 132,1970 activities for mining.This exception shall apply No. 88,1971 hereinafter), and offensive odors, which arise No. 111,1973 over a considerable area as a result of industrial No. 84,1974 or other human activities. No. 78,1983 2.E The term "living environment," as used in this Law, shall include property closely related O ap ter a. GenelraR Provsions to human life, and animals and plants closely related to human life and the environment in (Purpose) which such animals and plants live. Article 1 (Responsibility of the enterprise) In view of the vital importance of environmen- Article 3 tal pollution control for the preservation of a healthy and civilized life for the nation, this i.E The enterpriseshallberesponsiblefor tak- Law is enacted for the purpose of identifying ing the measures necessary for the prevention the responsibilities of the enterprise, the State of environmental pollution, such as the treat- and the local government bodies with regard to ment or disposal of smoke and soot polluted environmental pollution control and of deter- water, wastes, etc. resulting from its industrial mining the fundamental requirements for activities, and for cooperation with the State control measures, in order to promote compre- and local governent bodies in their efforts to hensive policies to combat environmental prevent environmental pollution. pollution thereby ensuring the protection of the 2.E The enterprise, in manufacturing and pro- people's health and the conservation of their cessing activities, shall endeavor to take living environment. precautionary measures to prevent environ- mental pollution which might otherwise by (Definition) caused by the use of the products which it man- Article 2 ufactures or processes. 1. D The term "environmental pollution," as (Responsibility of the State) used in this Law, shall mean any situation in Article 4 which human health and the living environ- ment are damaged by air pollution, water The State has the responsibility to establish fun- pollution(including the deterioration of the damental and comprehensive policies for quality and other conditions of water as well as environmental pollution control and to imple- of the beds of rivers, lakes, the sea and other ment them, in view of the fact that it has the Annex 9 9-1 duty to protect the people's health and con- Article 8 serve the living environment. With regard to measures for the control of the (Responsibility of local government bodies) pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive Article 5 substances, the Atomic Energy Fundamental Law (Law No. 186,1955) and other related laws In order to protect the health of the local popu- shall apply. lation and to conserve the living environment, local government bodies shall take measures in line with the policy of the State and shall also Chapter 2. Fundamental policies for Environ- work out and implement appropriate measures mental pollution Control for environmental pollution control which take *(1) Environmental quality standards into account the specific natural and social con- Article 9 dition of the area concerned. 1. * With regard to environmental conditions (Responsibility of citizens) relating to air, water and soil pollution and Article 6 noise, the Government shall establish environ- Citizens shall endeavor to contribute to the pre- mental quality standards, the maintenance of vention of environmental pollution in all which is desirable for the protection of human appropriate ways such as cooperating with the health and the conservation of the living envi- State and with local government bodies in the ronment. implementation of control measures. 2. * In the event that one of the standards (Annual report, etc.) referred to in the preceding paragraph estab- Article 7 lishes more than one category and stipulates that land areas or areas of water to which those 1. * The Government shall present to the Diet categories are to be applied should be desig- an annual report on the situation with regard to nated, the Government may delegate to the environmental pollution and on those mea- prefectural governors concerned the authority sures taken by the Government in order to to designate those land areas or areas of water. control it. 3. G With regard to the standards provided for 2. * The Government shall present to the Diet in Paragraph 1, due scientific consideration annually a document, outlining the measures shall always be given and such standards shall which the Government is going to take to deal be revised whenever necessary. with the environmental pollution situation described in the report referred to in the pre- 4. U The Government shall make efforts to ceding paragraph. ensure the maintenance of the above-mentioned standards, by implementing environmental pol- (Control of air pollution, etc. caused by radioac- lution control measures in a comprehensive, tive substances) effective and appropriate manner. 9-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program U (2) Measures to be taken by the State (Establishment of surveillance and monitoring (Emission control, etc.) systems) Article 10 Article 13 The Government shall endeavor to establish 1. U In order to control environmental pollu- tion, the Government shall take measures for the systems for surveillance, monitoring, measure- ment, examination and inspection in order to control of the emission of pollutants responsible aertainat the situ tion it rer to for air, water and soil pollution, establishing ertal polution ia to regade- standards to be observed by the enterprise. uen enoreen ntl of asr to combat quate enforcement of measures to combat 2. E In order to control environmental pollu- environmental pollution. tion, the Government shall endeavor to take (Carrying out of surveys and investigations) measures to deal with noise, vibration, ground Article 14 subsidence and offensive odors, in a manner similar to that referred to in the preceding para- The Government shall carry out surveys and graph. investigations necessary for the planning of measures for environmental pollution control, (Control of land use and installation of facilities) such as those for predicting environmental pol- A^rticle 11 lution trends. In order to control environmental pollution, the (Promotion of science and technology) Government shall take necessary measures Article 15 with regard to land use and shall, in areas where environmental pollution is serious or In order to promote the development of science likely to become serious, also take measures to and technology which will contribute to the control the installation of facilities which cause prevention of environmental pollution, the environmental pollution. Government shall take the necessary measures such as the consolidation of survey and (Promotion of establishment of facilities for the research systems, the promotion of research prevention of enviromnmental pollution)reerhstm,tepooinofeeac preventione of environmental pollution)and development, the dissemination of the Article 12 results of such research and development work, and the education and training of The Government shall take measures to pro- research experts. mote necessary projects for the prevention of environmental pollution, such as the establish- (Dissemination of knowledge and information) ment of buffer zones, etc., as well as those Article 16 projects to establish public facilities which will contribute to the prevention of environmental The Government shall endeavor to disseminate pollution, such as sewerage and public waste knowledge and information concerning envi- disposal plants. ronmental pollution and also to make the nation Annex 9 9-3 more conscious of the need to prevent environ- (Formulation of environmental pollution control mental pollution. programs) (Consideration of environimental pollution control Article 19 in the planning of regional development policies, etc) 1. I The Prime Minister shal instruct the pre- Arti,cle 17-1 1 h rm iitrsalisrc h r fectural governors concerned to formulate The Government shall take into consideration programs relating to the environmental pollution the need to control environmental pollution in control measures (hereinafter called "Environ- the planning and implementation of regional mental Pollution Control Programs") to be development measures such as those for urban implemented in specific areas which fall into any development and the construction of factories. one of the following categories, by showing to those governors fundamental policies for such (Protection of the natural environment) programs: Article 17-2 .(1) areas in which environmental pollution In o:rder to contribute to the prevention of envi- is serious and in which it is recognized that it will ronrnental pollution, the Government shall, in be extremely difficult to achieve effective envi- conjunction with other measures prescribed in ronental pollution control unless compre- this Section, endeavor to protect the natural envi- hensive control measures are taken; ronrnent as well as to conserve green areas. 1 (2) areas in which environmnental pollution (3) Measures to be taken by local government is lkely to become serious on bodies account of rapidly increasing concentrations of Artide 18 population, industry, etc., and in which it is rec- The local govermment bodies shall, provided that ognized that it will be extremely difficult to the measures do not infringe laws and regula- achieve effective enviromnental pollution control tions, take measures in line with the policy of the unless comprehensive control measures are State provided for in the preceding Section and taken. shall also implement measures for environmen- 2. - When the prefectural governor concerned tal pollution control which take into account the has received the instruction referred to in the pre- specific natural and social conditions of the area ceding paragraph, he shall draw up an Environ- concerned. In this case, the prefectural govern- mental Pollution Control Program in accordance ments shall be responsible mainly for the with the fundamental policies referred to in the implementation of measures covering wide preceding paragraph and shall submit it to the areas and also for the coordination of measures Prime Minister for his approval. to be taken by the municipal governments. 3. 1' Prior to issuing an instruction under Para- E (4) Environmental pollution control in speci- graph 1 or giving the approval required under fied areas the preceding paragraph, the Prime Minister 94 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program shall consult with the Conference on Environ- activities of such enterprise. mental Pollution Control. 2. U The nature and amount of the costs which 4. U Prior to issuing an instruction under Para- the enterprise shall bear under preceding para- graph 1, the Prime Minister shall seek the graph, the enterprises which shall bear such opinion of the prefectural governor concerned. costs, the method of calculation of the amount (Implementation of environmental pollution to be borne by such enterprises, and other nec- control programs) essary matters r-elating to the bearing of costs Article 20 shall be laid down in other laws. The State and local governmaent bodies shall (Financial measures for local government bodies) endeavor to take measures necessary for the full Article 23 impleentaton ofEnvirnmentl PoUtion The State shall endeavor to take necessary finan- Control Programs. ~~~~~cial and other measures relating to the necessary * (5) Settlement of disputes relating to envi- cost of envirornmental pollution control mea- ronmental pollution and relief for damage sures imnplemented by local government bodies. caused thereby. (Assistance to the enterprise) Article 21 Article 24 1.EN The Government shall take the measures i.EN The State and local goverrnment bodies necessary to establish a system for the settle- shall endeavor to take the necessary measures, ment, by such means as mediation and such as monetary and taxation measures, to arbitration, of disputes which arise in connec- encourage the installation and improvement, tion with environmental pollution. by the enterprise, of facilities for the prevention 2.E0 The Governmaent shall take the measures of environmental pollution. necessary to establish a system which will make 2.E0 In taking the measures referred to in the possible the efficient imnplementation of relief preceding paragraph, special consideration shall measures for damage caused by envirorunmental be given to the small and medium enterpnise. pollution. Chapter 3. Bearing of Costs and Chapter 4. The Conference on Envirorumental Financial Measures Pollution Control and the Councils on Article 22 ~~~~~~~Environmental Pollution Control i.EM The enterprise shall bear all or part of the (1Thcofrnenevionntlplu necessary cost of the works carried out by the to oto State or local govermnment bodies to control envi- (Establishment and functions) ronmental pollution arising from the industrial Article 25 Annex 9 9-5 1. W There is hereby established a Conference on 6. U The Secretaries shall assist the Chairman and Environmental Pollution Control(hereinafter Members in dealing with the matters which come called "the Conference") as a specific organiza- within the jurisdiction of the Conference. tion attached to the Prime Minister's Office. 7. E The secretarial affairs of the Conference shall 2. U The Conference shall perform the following be handled by the Environment Agency. functions.It shall; 8. E Matters necessary for the organization and * (1) deal with matters provided for in Para- operation of the Conference, other than those pro- vided for in the preceding paragraphs, shall be graph 3, Article 19, with respect to theror Environmental Pollution Control Programs; provided by Cabinet Orders. * (2) in addition to performing the function U (2) Councils on environmental pollution control referred to in the preceding sub-paragraph, delib- erate on basic and comprehensive measures for (Organzation and functions of the central council environmental pollution control, and promote on environmental Polution control) the implementation of such measures; Artide 27 1(3) in addition to performing the functions 1. E There is hereby established a Central Coun- referred to in the preceding two subparagraphs, dl on Environmental Polution control (herein- deal with matters which come within the urs- after called "the Central Council") diction of the Conference under laws and regulations. 2. 1 The Central Council shall performn the fol- lowing functions. It shall; (Organization, etc.) U (1) Study and deliberate on basic matters Artide 26 related to environmental pollution control, 1. * The Conference shall be composed of a when requested to do so by the Prime Minister; Chairrnan and Members. E (2) in addition to performing the function 2. U The Prime Minister shall hold the office of referred to in the preceding sub-paragraph, Chairrnan. deal with matters which come within the juris- diction of the Central Council under 1 laws and 3. * Members shall be appointed by the Prime regulations. Minister from among the heads of related Min- istries and Agencies. 3. E The Central Council may express its opinion to the Prime Minister with regard to matters pro- 4. X There shall be Secretaries of the Conference. viethorPnite preceding raraph. vided for In the preceding paragraph. 5. E The Secretaries shall be appointed by the Article 28 Prime Minister from among the officials of relat- 1. E The Central Council shall be composed of ed Ministries and Agencies not more than 90 members. 9-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 2. E The members shall be appointed by the relating to control measures for environmental Prime Minister from among those experts who pollution within the prefectures concerned. have both knowledge and experience in envi- 2. E Matters necessary for the organization and ronmental; pollution control. operation of the Prefectural Councils on Envi- 3. B The members shall serve on a part-time ronmental Pollution Control shall be provided basis. for by prefectural ordinances. 4. 1 Matters necessary for the organization and (Municipal Councils on Environmental Pollu- operation of the Central Council, other than tion Control) those provided for in the preceding paragraphs, Article 30 shall be provided for by Cabinet Orders. Municipal governments may, under the provi- (Prefectural councils on environmental pollution sions of relevant municipal ordinances, establish control) Municipal Councils on Envirorunental Pollution Article 29 Control which shall perform such functions as the study of and deliberation on basic matters 1.1E The prefectural governments shall establishy Prefectural Councils on Environmental Pollu- relating to control measures for environental tion Control which shall perform such functions pollution within the municipalties concemed. as the study of and deliberation on basic matters Annex 9 9-7 9-8 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 9A: Amended Articles in The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control The basic Law for Environmental Pollution cerning countermeasures for environmental Control was enacted in 1967 and has been pollution was added as the function of the Cen- amended several times. Following are the delet- tral Council on Environmental Pollution Con- ed, amended or subsequently inserted articles trol, as follows; in the original law. Article 27-2.2 * (The Council) shall be in Deleted articles charge of investigating important matters con- The following articles refer to the balance with cerning countermeasures to environmental sound economic development were deleted. pollution, in compliance with inquiries or other Minister of the Environmental Agency of the This deletion means that environmental con- Ministers concerned. servation and pollution control are given priority over economic development. Amended articles Article 29-2 originally stated that "the local Artile 12 USoun ecnomi deelopent government may establish the Local Council should be kept in balance with the conserva- tion of the living environment under the on Environmental Pollution Control according to the prescription of ordinance, in order to have the council investigate and deliberate Article 8-2 * Upon prescribing environmental basic matters concerning the pollution control quality standards, the balance with sound eco- countermeasures in the local area". This article nomic development should be taken into is divided into articles 29-1, 29-2 and 30, which account. prescribe in more detail the establishment of Inserted articles the Prefectural Council. Article 9-2 E In case the standards under the Article 29 l Prefectural governments shal preceding paragraph are prescribed in estab- establish Prefectural Councils on Environmen- . . . ~~~~~~~~~tal Pollution Control, in order to have the lishing two or more categories, and the land area or water area applicable to applied those council to investigate and delberate the basic categories are designated, the Central Govern- matters concerning pollution control counter- ment may entrust the designation of the land measures in those prefectures. area or water area to the Prefectural Governor. Article 29-2 * Matters necessary for organiza- tion and management of the Council shall be Article 17-2 * The Government must endeav- g or to protect the natural environment such as prescribed by the prefectural ordinances. the conservation of green areas so as to con- Article 30 v Municipal governments may estab- tribute to pollution control, in conjunction with lish Municipal Councils on Environmental Pol- other policies and the measures as prescribed lution Control, in order to have the council inves- in this Section. tigate and deliberate basic matters concerning Investigation and deliberation of matters con- pollution control countermeasures in those cities. Annex 9A 9A-1 Other minor amendments smoke and soot, polluted water and solid waste was attached prior to the word "pollution". Other than the amended articles described above, some minor amendments were made as In Article 12: Concerning public facilities con- follows; tributing to pollution control, the example of public treatment facilities for solid waste was In Article 2: Concerning water pollution inserted. mentioned in this article, a note was attached that the water quality pollution includes the In Article 26 or other concerned articles: deterioration of water conditions other than the The Environmental Health Bureau of the Min- water quality and the the soil quality of the istry of Health and Welfare was revised as the water bottom Environmental Agency because the Environ- mental Agency was not yet established when In Article 3: Concerning pollution men- the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution tioned in this article, illustrative description of Control was originally enacted in 1967. 9A-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 10: Details of Kev Court Cases and a special research team in the MHW scien- Minamata Disease Litigation tifically proved that this was indeed the pol- lution source and cause of Niigata Minamata The suit was filed in 1967. The lowest court disease. ruled for the plaintiff in 1971. The "Minamata Disease Countermeasures Background Council of Niigata Prefecture Democratic Fed- eration" was formed in 1965. Through The Showa synthetic chemical factory (later negotiation, the council required the Niigata Showa Denko) started producing acetaldehyde prefecture to recognize the municipal responsi- and synthetic acetate in 1936. Carbide residue bility to provide medical treatment expenses or from waste was discharged into the Agano river money for medical care, providing milk for in 1959, turned the river white, and killed many mothers and children at risk from the disease, fish. Showa Denko then paid the Agano river funeral money for the dead, and living expens- fishery union association an indemnity. Around es for patients. Moreover, the "Meeting of 1963 cats owned by fishermen became disorient- Victims of Niigata Minamata Disease" was ed and died. In 1964, the first victim of acute and organized by the patients and their families. violent type of mercury poisoning died only two The families filed a compensatory claim with months after the outbreak of illness. After this the Niigata District Court in 1967. incident, deaths and complaints about pain con- tinued and the illness was diagnosed as organic Content mercury poisoning. In 1965, Niigata Minamata Plaintiff: 13 members of 3 families in the disease was officially recognized. first suit, 77 members of the After an official announcement, the Min- patients and their families by istry of Health and Wealth sent its staff to the 8th suit Niigata to investigate. A liaison council consist- Defendant: Showa Denko Corp. ing of five related ministries and agencies Claim: The defendant should admit started to investigate the cause of the poison- that its factory waste water ing. Niigata prefecture also investigated the caused organic mercury poison- cause of organic mercury poisoning, and offi- ing in the Agano river and com- cially announced that the cause was fish in the pensate for damages of the Agano river. In 1965, as the results of the patients and their families. MHW's research increasingly indicated that the Main Issues Kanose factory of Showa Denko was the pollu- tion source, Showa Denko stopped producing Since the plaintiff claimed the defendant's acetaldehyde. Additional research on mercury liability for illegal actions based on section 709 compounds remaining in water moss conduct- of the civil law, the plaintiff had to prove the ed by the medical department of a university defendant's intention and negligence as well as Annex 10 10-1 a cause-effect relationship. The main points into the river without treatment, thereby caus- were: whether 1) a source of the contaminated ing mercury poisoning. This was the defen- river fish was the factory waste water or agri- dant's negligence. The judgement commented cultural chemicals; 2) the factory was liable for on a basic corporate attitude toward pollution its negligence in preventing the outbreak of control, that, as a general principle, there is no Minamata disease; and 3) the plaintiff could justification for sacrificing the citizen's most uniformly claim all damages. fundamental rights such as life and health in judgement order to protect corporate profit. The result was that the "economic harmony provision" in the The court determined, by epidemiological Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control analysis, that Minamata disease was caused by (before the amendment in 1970) was no longer consumption of the river fish which were cont- applicable. aminated by effluent from the Showa Denko Note Kanose factory, and ordered the defendant to pay a total amount of 270 million and 249.8 Minamata disease first appeared in cats thousand yen. Although the compensatory around Minamata city in Kumamoto Prefecture. amount was less than expected, this judgement Eating contaminated fish, the cat weakened, was a civil law landmark by recognizing the became disoriented, and eventually died. Mina- compensatory liability of the pollution-causing mata disease numbed hands and feet, and caused corporations. dizziness in humans. Victims became unable to Impact walk: there behavior became characterized by violence and insanity, and many of them died. Despite being aware of a precedent for Since it followed the Kumamoto Minamata dis- Kumamoto Minamata, the defendant did not ease, Niigata Minamata is called the second analyze the factory effluent, and discharged it Minamata disease. 10-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Main Issues Yokkaichi Asthma Litigation The main issues were to prove a causal rela- The suit was filed in 1967. The court ruled for the tionship between air pollution and asthma, and plaintiff in 1972. the six companies' liability for pollution as their joint illegal action. The defendants rebuttal was Background that they did not have any joint action. They also Based on the new ndustral city polcy dur- argued that an independent illegal action of ing high economic growth period after the war, each company had not been established, the construction of the first industrial complex in cause-effect relationship between asthma and Yokkaic*i was completed in 1959 and started ,l sulfur dioxide was not proven, and that pollu- scale operation. By the completion of the thixd tion control measures had been taken. complex in 1972. Its refinery capacity was 0.5 mil- An assistant professor of Osaka City Uni- lion barrels of oil and 0.7 million tons of ethylene. versity, as a witness on the plaintiff's side, From the beginning of its operation, citizens com- testified that Yokkaichi pollution was caused by plained about asthma. Air pollution peaked .a false plan of regional development and that around 1962-64 (SO2 concentration in the Isotsu the companies were liable for the pollution district was the worst and sometimes exceeded 1 because they did not take sufficent action to PPM per hour). Although the municpal admin- control air pollution. In addition, a professor of istration provided health checks and subsidies the medical department at Mie University for medical expenses to the patients who were demonstrated the epidemiological causal-effect assumed to suffer pollution-related illness, sui- relationship between sulfur dioxide concentra- cides and deaths of young patients continued. In tion and the disease rate. 1967, the residents in the Isotsu district filed a suit against 6 companies (which constituted one com- Judgement plex) claiming compensation for damages. It was proved that the six defendants' fac- Conlent tories caused air pollution in Yokkaichi. It was also epiderniologically proved that SO2 air pol- Plaintiff: 9 residents of the Isotsu district lution rapidly increased occlusive lung disease. in Yokkaichi-city The court determined that the defendants had Defendant: 6 companies which constituted a joint relationship, and were thus, liable for onaim: The cplexntiff msistedthat6com the joint illegal action. The court ordered the Claim: The plaintiff insisted that 6 corn' defendants to jointly pay the total amount panies, which, as constituents 8,2023yn of one complex, jointly dis- 88,210,823 yen. charged SOx which induced air Since neither the defendants or the plain pollution and asthma among tiffs appealed, the judgement was officially residents in the Isotsu district. concluded. Thereafter, approximately 140 vic- Annex 10 10-3 tims started individual negotiations with the 6 Agency declared a strong willingness to companies. The compensatory amounts were strengthen pollution control and environmen- set as follows: 10 million yen per death, 6.5 mil- tal protection measures. At the national level, lion yen per adult in-patient, 5.5 million yen the "Pollution Health Damage Compensation per adult out-patient, and 3 million yen per a Law" was established in 1973. The environ- child (the total amount was 569 million yen). mental effluent standards for sulfur dioxide Furthermore, the six companies accepted on- became four times as strict as in 1973. Environ- site inspections by the residents. mental assessment legislation started in 1976. a At the local level, Mie prefecture requested 29 large factories in Yokkaichi to reduce the vol- The judgement determined that epidemio- ume of SOx emission by 10-20% from the logical evidence may be sufficient to prove the current base in 1972. Yokkaichi city also decid- cause-effect relationship between disease and ed to expand the area in which victims of air pollution, and that corporations are jointly pollution related disease could claim compen- liable for large scale combined air pollution. sation. Aiming at relieving the victims, the judgement enhanced an anti-pollution concept among res- NT Ies idents and had a great impact on not only Chronic bronchitis, asthma, vesicular corporations but also on national and munici- emphysema, etc. are some of health problems pal administrations, that arise from air pollution. "Yokkaichi asth- Reflecting the judgement of the Yokkaichi ma" causes a person to have sudden asthma litgation, the Minister of the Environment attacks and respiratory difficulties. 10-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program _ compensation for damages against Mitsui Min- Itai-itai Disease Litigafion ing and Smelting based on section 109 of the Mining Law (established in 1939), which deter- The suit was filed in 1968. The lower court ruled mines that a corporation is liable for com- for the plaintiff in 1971. The plaintiff won in the pensation with or without its negligence when appeal court and the decision was finalized. the mining operation damages someone. Background Content Around the 1910s, soil acidification, with- Plaintiff: 31 members in the first court (8 ering of trees, and reduced agricultural were patients) 489 members by productivity due to sulfur dioxide discharged the 7th suit (164 were patients) from the Kamioka mining operation of the Mit- Defendant: Mitsui Metal and Smelting sui Mining and Smelting Corporation had Corporation already become manifest. In 1920, farmers Claim The defendant should admit requested protection from damage because rice that cadmium contained in crops decreased due to mine pollution. Around effluent from the mine caused this time, it is said that a strange disease at the Itai-itai disease and compen- jintsu river basin, Toyama prefecture, occurred. sate the plaintiffs for damage. This disease caused harsh pain and fractures in bones and joints, and eventually caused death. Main Issues In 1938, mayors of towns and villages, and In the provision of the Mining Law, the agricultural and fishery associations at the plaintiffs did not have to prove the defendant's Jintsu river basin continued to negotiate with intention or negligence, if they could prove a the mine. Although Toyama prefecture and the cause-effect relationship. Therefore, the main mine provided a sedimentation basin at one issue was proof of the cause-effect relationship, time, the war interrupted such actions. In 1950, and, if it could be proved, the amount of com- the "Jintsu river mine pollution countermea- pensation. After the suit was filed, the Ministry sures council" was formed to protect of Health and Welfare announced its view in agricultural products from the contamination. 1968 that the cause of Itai-itai disease was cad- Since 1952, the Kamioka mining operation has mium discharged from the mine. The com- paid about 3 million yen for damages to seven plaint was based on this view. The defendant towns and villages in the river basin. In 1957, a argued that there was no evidence of the cause- local doctor reported that the cause of this dis- effect relationship, and requested the plaintiff ease was heavy metal contained in effluent to prove the medical causality of the Itai-itai from the mine and the disposed sedimentation. disease. Research conducted by this doctor and by a local university identified cadmium as the Judgement cause. The patients and their families claimed Both the first and the second courts sup- Annex 10 10-5 ported the plaintiff's claim that the main cause Impact of Itai-itai disease was cadmium discharged Since the Mining Law only required the plaintiff from the mine, and accepted most of the plain- to prove a cause-effect relationship in litigation, tiff's compensatory claims: 12 million yen for the court could make an early decision. This deci- each death, 9.6 million yen per patient, and sion was a precedent for subsequent pollution 20% of the legal costs. Since the mine did not litigation. Also, the court's decision adapted a appeal, the decision was finalized. The defen- "probability theory" that a corporation should be dant paid about 2.3 billion yen in com- liable without a 100% proof or a scientifically rig- pensation for 489 plaintiffs, including the orous examination in cases where a cause-effect plaintiffs at the second litigation. Furthermore, relationship between the conduct and the dam- the court ordered the corporation to enter into age is apparent, and where there is no rebuttal to an environmental pollution control agreement, disprove this presumption. This decision greatly which accepted on-site investigations by resi- influenced later pollution litigation. dents, and to submit a written oath that Note: promised compensation for victims who suc- cessfully participated in lawsuits, and The main symptom of Itai-itai disease is corporate responsibility for agricultural dam- increasingly severe pain in all parts of body, ini- ages or soil contamination. The corporation tially affecting bones and joints, and eventually also agreed to finance treatment for patients causing death. The term Itai-itai in fact refers to a suffering from Itai-itai disease. cry of pain. 10-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program entered into the "solarium agreement" in 1959 Kumamoto Minamata Disease Litigation which established amounts of compensation: 300 thousand yen per death and 100 thousand The suit was filed in 1969. The plaintiff won the yen for survivor's pension. However, corporate first suit in 1973. responsibility was not established; the cause of Background the disease was unknown at this time, and therefore the amount of compensation was low. Completing a new factory in 1918, Nihon However, mercury contamination expand- Chisso Hiryo Corporation (now Chisso Corpo- ed when Chisso selected other rivers in which ration) started producing lime nitrogen. and it discharged its waste water. Damage to fish- discharged its untreated waste water into the e eries occurred one after another, and the Minamata Bay As the waste water contaminat- number of human victims increased. Demon- ed the sea and damaged fishery products, the strations by fishermen and attacks on factories Minamata fishery union claimed compensation took place. In 1968, the governent announced for damages against the factory. The factory its view that Chisso had been the source of pol- paid the union money in exchange for a lution causing the damage. 12 years had passed promise that the union would no longer com- ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~since the first person had been victimized. plain against the factory. Chisso extended its facilities in 1932 and Content discharged waste water with mercury into the Plaintiff: 112 members of 28 families Shiranui bay, and the fishery problem was then (victims and their families) in revived. Chisso paid the union about 150 thou- the first suit, 141 members of 31 sand yen as compensation for damages in 1943. families including additional However, the polluted area expanded greatly suits around 1955. An enormous increase in the Defendant: Chisso Corporation death of fish, animals and birds was observed. Claim: Chisso Minamata factory The living environment of the sea and the should be liable for its negli- coastal residents was severely damaged. gence and compensate the Human health was also adversely affected. patients and their families for Since the Minamata disease was officially rec- damage. ognized in 1956, Minamata city, Kumamoto prefecture, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Main issues and a number of universities began to analyze Since the governent had ascertained the the cause of the disease as well as the appropri- cause-effect relationship of the Minamata dis- ate treatment measures: both areas were extremely complex. ease, the issues were whether: 1) Chisso was liable for its negligence; 2) the solarium agree- Chisso, the victims, and their families ment of 1958 was valid; and 3) a damage theory Annex 10 10-7 was applicable. Testimony from various wit- indemnity without a suit for Minamata disease. nesses, including a confined patient who died 3 Expanding the application of symptoms of months after the testimony, and by the former Minamata disease, the second court ordered factory manager of Chisso Minamata, provided that the disease should be designated when it is evidence that the cause of Minamata disease impossible to deny an influence of organic mer- was waste water from the Chisso factory. cury. Since the plaintiff won the 1976 case against the governor of Kumamoto prefecture, which determined his forbearance regarding The court determined that Minamata dis- the designation of Minamata disease, the num- ease was caused by organic mercury com- ber of applicants for designation increased. In pound in waste water discharged from the fac- 1980, the law suit claiming compensation for tory, and that the factory was liable for its damages against nation, prefecture, and Chisso negligence by providing inadequate safety was filed and the court ruled that nation and supervision of the waste water discharged. Fur- Kumamoto prefecture were fully liable for the thermore, the court commented that the claim. solarium agreement violated public order and good custom in the Japanese Constitution and Note: was invalid. It calculated a compensatory Minamata disease destroys nerves and amount: 18 million yen per death and 16-18 causes a dysfunction of the senses and actions. million yen per survivor. The total amount of In the early period, there were many cases of compensation including lawyers fees was patients who had convulsions and died. Also, about 930 million yen. Chisso did not appeal. Minamata babies who had an innate mental or a physical disorder were born. Such damages Impact continued. In addition to the designated TIhe victims' association and Chisso direct- patients, there are currently about 2,000 people ly negotiated and entered into a compensatory who claim to be Minamata victims and who agreeiment. In the same year, the "Pollution have filed a suit claiming compensation for Health Damage Compensation Law" was damages. The indemnity problem has not yet passed in the Diet and opened the door to been fully resolved. 10-8 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program _______________________________________ Plaintiff: 28 citizens of Kawanishi-city in Osaka International Airport Noise the first suit, 126 citizens of Nuisance Litigation that city in the second suit, 122 citizens of Toyonaka-city in the The suit was filed in 1969. The plaintiff lost the third suit. suit at the lower court in 1971, won at the second Defendant: The State (Ministry of Trans- in 1975, and lost at the Supreme Court in 1981. port) Claim: The plaintiff claimed the sus- pension of the airport opera- Osaka international airport was construct- tion and the compensation for ed initially in 1938 as a small-scale airport for damages due to the noise, propeller planes. The airport was assigned to fumes and vibration stemming be an international airport after its return from from taking off and landing of the U.S. Army. The aircraft were introduced in jet planes. June 1964, and in August of that year. Main Issues Citizens of Kawanishi-city who lived in the flight path of jet aircraft formed the Southern In this suit the plaintiff took "personal Kawanishi Conference on Countermeasures to rights" and "environmental right" as a basis for the Noise. Then in October, The Conference on the claim. The plaintiff insisted on the following the Countermeasures to the Noise of Osaka points; 1) environmental rights as an extension Airport was organized: this consisted of the of personal right, 2) an idea of "general personal mayors and the members of the city councils of right" in the personal right, 3) provision 13 and the eight cities (later expanded to the eleven 25 in the constitution of Japan as the basis of per- cities) around the airport. The members of the sonal right and environmental right, and 4) conference petitioned the Ministry of Transport personal right and environmental right as an to take countermeasures, but the Ministry did "absolute right". The State argued that the plain- not do so. The noise nuisance became extreme- tiff was complaining about the implementation ly severe due to the increasing number of flight of governmental authority: if the court decided year by year and the adoption of larger aircraft. to suspend the airport operation, it would invade the primary authority of an administra- In 1969, twenty-eight persons, representing tive agency, which meant the violation of the the citizens of Kawanishi-city filed a first suit princple of separation of the three branches of requesting prohibition of flights from 9 PM to 7 government. AM, and compensation for their mental agony. 126 citizens in Kawanishi-city filed a second suit, Judgement and 122 citizens a third suit in Toyonaka-city. Though the court agreed to prohibit night flights, 400 plaintffs appealed to the higher court Content since it was not from 9 PM but 10 PM to 7 AM. Annex 10 10-9 Osaka higher court then decided to prohibit namely the right of the courts to exercise flights from 9 PM, and complete compensation authority with respect to the operation of an both for the past and future along with the plain- administrative agency, such as a public airport tiff's claim. The State appealed to the Supreme operates. Court, which, in 1981, supported compensation for the past, but dismissed the prohibition of Note: flights and compensation for damages. The residents under the flight path near Impaict the airport are exposed to noise, vibration and fumes. Noise caused by jet flights is the main An important principle was established, source of complaint, and of damages. 10-10 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program compensation for past dam- Shinkansen Super-express Train Noise ages. Nuisance Litigation in Nagoya Main Issues The suit was filed in 1974. The plaintiff won the The issue of this litigation was whether the suit in part in 1980. intolerable level could be set within the concept of personal right. Although the court recognized the Background insistence of the plaintiffs that the suspension was Shinkansen (meaning new main line) super- claimed based upon the comprehensive personal express train has played a role as a speedy mass right, the court took the publicity of the transit system since the high economic growth Shinkansen operation into account. period in Japan. The number of trains at the beginning was not much more than for conven- Judgement tional trains, but in 1970 when the Osaka The Nagoya local court ruled as the first International Exposition was held, the number of judgement that the nuisance did not exceed a tol- trains increased as well as the number of cars per erance level, but ordered the defendant to pay train. Since then adverse effects on residents due compensation. The court recognized that the legal to the noisy operation of Shinkansen has become basis of the suspension should be the personal a matter of public concern. right, not the environmental right. The railway near Nagoya-city is elevated and The court allowed compensation money for is 6 to 15 meters from the ground. Apart from the past damage along with the daim of the plaintiff, vicinity of Nagoya station, the Shinkansen runs but dismissed both the demand for suspension of along an elevated train at 100 to 200 km/hour as the nuisance and compensation for future damage. in rural areas. Residents along the railway suffer a variety of nuisances such as loud noise, vibra- Impact tion due to the elevated structure, interference The court recognized the legality of the plain- with TV reception, falling objects, disturbance of tiff's claim for abstract suspension of the nuisance sleep, study and family conversation. Interfer- cause which means the claim, not for the specific ence with TV affected houses 150 meters away causal activities, but for the general suspension of from the railway The elevated railway also the cause of noise and vibration exceeding a tol- obscured sunlight and interfered with plant erance level. Although an abstract suspension has growth. been recognized in some judgements in the past, such recognition was minor in general because Content the actual countermeasures could not be sped- Plaintiff: 575 persons fied. This judgement can be seen as an advanced Claim: The plaintiff claimed for the step from the criteria in those days. suspension of the nuisance and Annex 10 10-11 ___________________________________ KEP Co. submitted a revised plan to the Osaka Tanagawa Thermal Power Plant Litigation prefectural government. The Osaka prefectural government stated that the plan would be con- Background sistent with the Environmental Management In 1956, the Kansai Electric Power Co. Ltd. Plan of Osaka prefecture, if the generating constructed the Tanagawa thermal power plant capacity of the second plant was reduced to 120 at Tanagawa district in Misaki-cho, the south- kw. The residents immediately formed a plain- ern most town of Osaka prefecture. The tiff group and in December they filed the first amount of SOx from the plant during its first suit claiming compensation for the health dam- several years was larger than that recorded in age of four chronic bronchitis patients, and the Yokkaichi-Asthma Litigation. A health sur- requesting suspension of the second power vey conducted by the Hygiene Bureau of the plant construction. Osaka local government in 1972 indicated that the ratio of the patients above 40 years old Content around the power plant who showed chronic Plaintiff: 377 residents in Misaki-cho bronchitis syndrome was more than twice than town including 12 patients. that of unpolluted districts. Defendant: Kansai Electric Power Co. Ltd. Claim: The plaintiff requested the sus- In 1970 the residents strongly opposed the pension of the construction and proposed construction of a second thermal operation of the second ther- power plant of 240 kw next to the original mal power plant, and compen plant. The KEP Co. asked the Osaka prefectur- sation for the health damages. al governor to approve the construction plan. The governor referred the pollution control Main Issues measures to the Pollution Control Council. The Three points need to be established to sup- residents appealed on the basis of the damage port the plaintiffs' claim, namely, 1) the fact of done by the first thermal power plant, and air pollution, 2) evidence of the causal relation- opposed construction of the second thermal ship between air pollution and the first thermal power plant power plant, 3) evidence that the air pollution In July 1973 the Council determined that carries disease. Definition of the nature of the pollution control measures to be taken in rights such as the environmental right or the the second power plant were insufficient, and personal right was necessary in the claim for the Governor stated that he did not agree with suspension of operation. the construction. In August of that year the 10-12 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Then the meeting expanded to one aimed at Chiba Kawatetsu Pollution Litigation "Elimination of Pollution from Chiba-city" based on the integration of some citizens The suit was filed in 1975. The plaintiff won the groups. The citizens movement then tried to lower court in part in 1988. establish a "Basic Ordinance for Pollution Con- trol" including a pre-approval system for Background factory construction and the regulation of the Kawatetsu (Kawasaki Steel Corporation), a total emissions. The aim of the Ordinance was large steel manufacturer in Japan, established to place the first priority to the resident's life. its factory in Keihin Coastal Industrial Zone in However the City Council rejected the propos- 1950. Factory operation started in 1953, and al of the Ordinance. was expanded during the second period of In 1975, the Plaintiff Party of the Chiba streamlining after 1955. Residents around the . . factory subsequently suffered the "Red Smoke" KwaesPoltnLigtonasofcly fandory sootequentte sufrom edthefacoR Smomets organized and it filed suit in the Chiba local court. In 1978 the second suit was filed by 231 wells around the factory dried up. The resi- - ~~~~~~persons including 37 patients, because the State dents complained to Kawatetsu or to the city pesnmcuig3paet,bcuethSae doventsmcomplained toKaaetuort teciy indicated its intention of relaxing the ambient government, standard of the NOx concentration. Since 1960 Kawatetsu undertook a third period of streamlining, and expanded its facili- Content ties more still. Annual production capacity Plaintiff: 200 residents in the district in became 6500 thousand tons in 1969, being the the first suit. 231 residents in largest in Japan. In 1968, a person suffering the second suit. from bronchial asthma committed suicide. In Defendant: Kawasaki Steel Corporation 1970 Kawatetsu released a plan to construct a (Chiba) new steelworks including the 6th steel furnace Claim: The plaintiff claimed compen- on reclaimed land. This further stimulated res- sation for damages, achieve- idents' opposition to the Kawatetsu. ment of the environmental In 1972 the resident's movement in the quality standards and suspen- Chiba-city Surveillance Committee on the Soot sion of construction of the 6th Effect, released a health survey of the residents steel furnace. around the Katetsu, and this made a great Main Issues impact on both the residents and the city gov- ernment. In April of that year a Meeting on The plaintiffs intended to establish the cri- Pollution in Chiba-city was formed and as a teria for the suspension according to the result the city-mayor established a Relief sys- environmental quality standards, by insisting tem for patients of pollution-related diseases. upon the immediate achievement of environ- Annex 10 10-13 mental quality standards, based on the princi- concentration sometimes occurred since the ple that the standards should be more stringent hourly-average values and daily-average val- for residential areas. In court, the significance ues were rather higher than those in other cities of the environmental quality standards were and the environmental quality standards, examined, and the reasonableness of the stan- whereas the annual-average values were not dards was argued. Another argument focused significant from those of other cities. The court on identification of the causal relationship judged the reasonable to conclude that these between the emission of sulfur dioxide, nitro- three substances were emitted from the steel- gen dioxide and suspended particulate matter works. The court adopted the judgement of the from the steelworks, and the health damages Supreme Court that the principle concerning which the plaintiffs suffered. the proof of causal relationship could not be Judgement modified even though the disease argued may be non-specific disease, and judged the causal The court dismissed the plaintiff's claim for relationship of diseases for 60 patients among the suspension of emission and that for the 61 patient plaintiffs according to the compre- suspension of factory operation. The court rec- hensive examination with a multiple view ogrdzed that the local air pollution with high point. 10-14 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 11: Water Pollution Responsibilities for Standards & Countermeasures national research institutions, and research Establishment of Environmental support. Standards MGuidance and support for technology devel- M Living enviromnental items (the environ- opment to industry through the Ministry of mental standards responding to the type of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and other water body including major rivers lakes and agencies. ponds, and coastal water bodies). M11 Health items (the environnental standards mPlanning of new water quality improvement arHealthnitems (ppointhe eronhenole s ataard policies (negotiations with relevant ministries, are uniformly appointed to the whole water agencies and industry). system) MApplication of the reserve system and pollu- tion health damage compensation system based on the Mining Industry Law. Establishment of Effluent Standards M Introduction and application of areawide Air/Water Pollutant Emission Regulation Sys- MThe government establishes the general stan- tem in the specified areas. dards applicable to the whole water system. * Support to effluent-treatment-related indus- U Local government establishes higher effluent try (manufacturers, analyzing companies, standards where national norms may be inade- design companies, and so on) in 1960s-1970s. quate for the achievement of environmental standards in the locality concerned. Local Government Preliminary Arrangements by National M Establishment of environmental standards Government and effluent standards in the water system of their jurisdiction. * Low interest finance by agencies such as the Japan Environment Corporation, promotion of M Notification of the establishment and alter- cooperative work, and favorable treatments in ation of the specified facility, orders for the the tax system. alterations of plans, improvement orders, and * Assistance to local authorities from national penal regulations for violations. funds for the equipment of sewerage and efflu- *Supervision and guidance such as monitor- ent treatment facilities. ing and on-the-spot inspection. * Favorable treatment for the promotion of * Control of individual factories and offices by equipment, based on the pollution prevention the pollution prevention agreement and so on plan, in preferred areas. (including areawide total pollutant load con- * Establishment of water quality environmen- trol). tal standards in major rivers of the country, mEquipment of public effluent treatment sys- guidance to the local governments, related tems including sewerage and household research and technology development at effluent treatment facilities. Annex 11 11-1 * Participation in the promotion of cooperative ent treatment works. work of medium and small-sized factories, and * Participation in the promotion of the cooper- in erncouraging the implementation of common ative work of medium and small-sized treatment facilities. factories, and investment in common treatment * Factory location and regulation and from the facilities. viewpoint of water system control (including underground water). Private Sector *Intemal Measures * Rationalization of water use and improve- Implementation of Direct Effluent ment in effluent countermeasures associated Countermeasures with the production process. Public Sedtor * Establishment of effluent treatment facilities. * National Government * Equipment of pre-treatment facilities before discharge into public sewers. * Water quality undertakings of rivers, lakes and ponds, and dams, under its direct control. * External Measures * Improvement of countermeasures, such as * Connection to public sewerage. those against mercury. * Cost sharing for investment in sewerage and - Local govemnments payment of other fees. * Equipment of sewerage and household efflu- 11 -2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 12: Technologes for Night Soil Treatment and Septic Tanks A s noted in the main text of this report, in 1990,36.4% of households were connected to a sewerage system; 7.1% had combined septic tanks wastewater plus night soil); 20.3% had single septic tanks (wastewater only); and 36.2% relied upon collection of night soil. Night soil is normally collected by vacuum trucks. Pictures of a typical septic tank ("joukasou") and vacuum truck are in Figures A-12- 1 and A-12-2. Figure A-12-1: A "Joukasou" or Septic Tank Figure A-12-2: A Vacuum Truck Technologies for night soil treatment and septic tanks are as follows: Storage Collection Treatment Night soil treatment Night soil Tank trunk Treatment tank facility Single-function septic tank * night soil Single-function - Single-function septic tank septic tank • sludge Tank trunk Treatment plant Combined septic tank * night soil/household Combined - Combined wastewater septic tank septic tank * sludge Tank trunk Treatment plant Annex 12 12 -1 Average design capacity per unit construction cost of facilities are as follows: liter(l)/personlday 10 night soil 1.3- 1.5 II sludge from single-function septic tank 0.7 - 0.8 in sludge from combined septic tank 1.0 - 1.2 Collection of night soil is once a month and reservoirs with 300-400 1 capacity are used for a fam- ily of 4-5 members. The structure of single function and combined septic tanks is regulated by law. There are several treatment methods and capacities. The following capacities are the most popular: BOD BOD removal rate concentration Single septic tank more than 65% below 90 ppm Combined septic tank more than 90% below 20 ppm These septic tanks should be laid underground; construction can be completed within 5 days.. Construction cost is 400,000 yen for a single septic tank for a standard family and 600,000 yen for a combined one. Maintenance costs for combined septic tanks are 30,000-40,000 yen/year for a family of 5 persons. The comparison of costs of nigh soil collection, joukasou (combined septic tank) and sewerage system is difficult. The outline of the cost structure is as follows. Figure A-12-3: Typical Water Level Water Level Inlet Pipe Outlet Pipe Structu Of Inlet Pipe Fan Wastewater Septic Tanks --- Outlet Pipe Dsneto Diffu Disinfection Chamber Sinigle-Function Sedimentation Chambern Septic Tanks /.)Backwash Sedimentation Separate Pipe Diffuse Tube Chamber Combined Contact Aeration Septic Tanks (contact aeration method) 12-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program a. The annual costs charged to a household (5 family members) are; Night Soil Collection 32,000 yen Combined Joukasou 92,000 yen Sewerage 100,000 - 130,000 yen b. Construction costs per household are; Household Joint Facility (pipes / treatment plant) Night Soil Collection 50,000 yen 100,000 yen Combined Joukasou 600,000 yen 100,000 yen Sewerage 200,000 yen 150,000 - 200,000 yen c. Running costs (including tank trucks for collection) are; Night Soil Collection 20,000 yen (16,000 yen is labor cost) Combined Joukasou 53,000 yen (34,000 yen is labor cost) Sewerage 30,000 - 40,000 yen (10,000 yen is labor cost) | Cost Structure Night Soil Collection Construction cost is 50,000 yen/household including installation cost (The price of 400 liter tank is 30,000yen), 2,500 yen/household/year for 20-year depreciation. The cost related to tank truck for collecting night soil including truck depreciation and fuel is 1,500 yen/household/year. Labor costs for 2-3 staff/ truck (drivers and workers) are 15,000 yen/house- hold/year. Construction cost of treatment plant is 10 million yen/kl/day and facility depreciation for 20 years is 1,500 yen/kH. Running cost is 2,000 yen/kl. Cost of night soil treatment is 4,500 yen/kl including labor cost of staff in treatment plant (treatment cost per household is 13,000 yen/year). Total cost is 32,000 yen/household/year, of which 16,000 yen is labor cost. Annex 12 12 -3 Joukasou (Combined System) Construction cost of tank for 5 persons is 400,000 yen (including 200,000 yen of installation cost) and 30,000 yen/household/year for 20-year depreciation. Total annual construction cost per household is 65,000 yen including electricity of 15,000 yen/year and costs of facility inspection and water quality monitoring and cleaning of 20,000 yen/year. Collection cost of sludge from joukasou is 15,000 yen/household/year. Treatment cost in treatment plant is 12,500 yen/household/year. Total cost is 93,000 yen/household/year. Sewerage Construction cost (mainly piping on the premises) is 200,000 yen/household and 10,000 yen/household/year for 20-year depreciation. Construction cost per person including conduit and treatment plants is 300,000 - 400,000 yen for medium sized town, and 1.5 - 2.0 million yen/ household of 5 families. Annual cost per household is 60,000 - 80,000 yen Maintenance cost is 30,00040,000 yen/household. Total cost is 100,000-130,000 yen/household/year. The rate of fee collection is 60 - 80% of |__ _ __ maintenance cost. Note: The costs for labor and engineering works in developing countries would be considerably lower than the Japanese ones. If the interest for facility construction cost is included, the cost for sewerage (since the share of construction cost is large) will be much larger. Sludge from septic tanks is collected along with night soil by tank truck and carried to treatment plant. There are about 18,000 trucks which collect 96,000 kl/day of night soil and sludge in 1990, namely, one truck collects 5.3 kl/day. 12-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program The capacities of tank trucks are 1.8 kl, 2.7 kl and 3.1 kl. Trucks are filled 2-3 times a day and 5.3 kl/day in all. In terms of population served, collection amounts per truck are as follows: Night soil 4,000 persons Single septic tank 6,000 persons Combined septic tank 5,000 persons The price of a tank truck in Japan shown below can be reduced if the vacuum facility is equipped with a chassis produced in developing countries: kl truck million yen 1.8 1.83 2.7 2.12 3.1 3.37 There are 2-3 persons per truck for collecting night soil. About 90% of the collection is carried out by private collecting companies, and a total of 43,000 persons are employed in this work. Most of the night soil and sludge is transported to and disposed of at night soil treatment facilities. About 8% is dumped into the ocean and some is still utilized as fertilizer in farm villages. Annex 12 12 -5 12 -6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 13: Staffing of Local Government Activities Full-time Concurrent T of ficials staff ^ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Table A-13-l1: officials staff Staffin ______ _________ ______ ~~~officials TOtal Clerical Technical Total Clerical Technical Total Prefectures and Agency's 1,140 1,686 2,826 62.1 48.7 110.8 2,936.8 l rdnance head office __ Designated Cities Outposts 613 3,036 3,649 139.1 709.7 848.8 14,497.8 in Charge of Total 1,753 4,722 6,475 201.2 758.41 959.6 7,434. Enviromental Pollution Remarks: 1. Surveyed by the Environment Agency. 2. The figures for concurrent staff officials are those for which the number of staff officials who are also in charge of another line of administrative work is proportionally distributed, depending on the volume of their work. 3. The number of staff officials who deal with wastes and sewer systems are excluded. Full-time Concurrent T A - of ficials staff ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Table A-13 -2: officials staff ______ _______ ______ _______ officials Total i Staffin Clerical Technical Total Clerical Technical Total Prefectures and Agency's 449 387 836 43.0 34.8 77.8 913.8 Ordinance- head office Designated Cities 126 227 353 122.3 314.9 437 790.2 inChargeof Total 575 614 1,189 165.3 349.7 ---- __ Nature _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5 1 5 . 0 1 , 7 0 4 . 0 Protection Remarks: 1. Surveyed by the Environment Agency. 2. The figures for concurrent staff officials are those for which the number of staff officials who are in charge of another line of administrative work is proportionally distributed,depending on the volume of their work. Type of staff officials TableA-13-3 Organizational Clerical Technical Total Staffbin Charge of Classification S _________ Enviromnmental Municipalities which have bureaus, PollEuion in departments and divisions(offices) 1,284 1,140 2,424 M specialized in pollution Agency's head Municipalities which have only (Full-time) office subdivisions specialized in 1,048 350 1,398 poliutionI Municipalities which have only staff officials specialized in 331 39 370 i municipalities _Subtotal 2,663 1,529 4,192 Municipalities which have outposts 60 282 342 Total 2,723 1,811 4,534 Annex 13 13 -1 Remarks: 1. Surveyed by the Environment Agency. 2. The number of staff officials in charge of wastes and sewer systems is excluded. 13 -2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 14: Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning of Sewage Systems ________________________________________ tain areas water pollution is largely caused by Basic Survey livestock excreta. Present water intake rates, water use rights, water intake points and future The purpose of the basic survey is to understand prospects of water demands and planning for the present situation and assay the prospects of required target years are studied. If fishing the planning area. To understand the natural rights are reserved for the rivers, lakes or coastal areas in the planning area, present catch condition, topographic features of the basin such rates are studied. as ground slopes, existing rivers, and drainage are noted. Current flow rates and water levels, existing water channels, drainage and existing basin development plans are surveyed. Meteo- rological data such as precipitation and wind Pollution Loads and Pollution Analysis direction and velocity in lakes and coastal areas In CBPSS, pollution loads are calculated for are surveyed. Current and chronological water domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, quality data are collected at various points of the stock farming, other man-made pollution river. sources as well as natural pollutants. Pollution Surveys are carried out on existing sewage loads from domestic wastewater are estimated systems to find out information such as service based on per capita pollutant discharge and area, population served, locations of main business activities in the area. Pollution loads pipes, treatment plants, treatment methods and from tourists are calculated separately. For capacity, quantity and quality of treated waste- industrial wastewater from large factories, sur- water, extension plans, improvement plans and veys are carried out individually to determnine useful life of facilities. In addition, night soil pollutant generation rates and discharge rates. treatment plants and joukasous (septic tanks) For smaller factories, rates are calculated on the are surveyed. Pollutant discharge standards for basis of average wastewater discharge rate per the area are also reviewed. unit production and the industrial production rates. Pollution loads from stock farming are To determine the land use for the present rae.Pluinodsfmstcfrigae To dterinethelan useforthepreent calculated using per head pen washing water and the target year, urbanization promotion andlped erea aont. areas, land use plans (zoning, agricultural land and per head excreta amount. use plans), major development plans and major Man-made pollutants such as loads dis- public facilities are surveyed. Present and fore- charged from night soil treatment plant and casted population for the target years are joukasous decrease every year since sewage surveyed. Surveys are also carried out for pre- systems are replacing them. However, per capi- sent industrial production from each industry ta discharge rates from these facilities are and its future prospects. Present status and assumed to remain the same as present ones. future prospects for agriculture, especially Natural pollution loads from forests and paddy stock farming, are also surveyed because in cer- fields etc. are also taken into account for the cal- Annex 14 14-1 culation of total pollution loads in the planning ple, in closed water areas), reduction measures area. are considered. Following the calculation of pollution Load reduction from domestic wastewater loads, water quality simulation tests are carried is achieved by the construction of a sewer sys- out in the planning area to calculate water qual- tem. Loads from industrial wastewater are ity at each monitoring point. The planning area reduced by discharge regulation. Loads from is divided into blocks considering sub basin, stock farming are reduced by discharge regula- water quality monitoring points, etc. Pollution tion or change of agricultural practices. loads are calculated for each block. Tolerable Sewerage system construction areas are recom- limits for pollution loads to satisfy water quali- mended so that pollution reduction from ty standards at monitoring points are thus domestic wastewater can be satisfied at every calculated. Pollutants generated at various monitoring point most effectively. Pollution sources are reduced by sedimentation or load reduction measures other than sewer con- decomposition in small channels and by purifi- struction must be taken by the polluters. Such cation effects in the main stream before they measures are recommended to them in the reach the water quality monitoring points. CBPSS. Such pollutant reduction is taken into account. Pollution simulation in non-tidal rivers is _ carried out considering such purification Sewage System Planning effects. For pollution simulation in tidal rivers, appropriate methods are selected among vari- In CBPSS, sewage system construction plans ous simulation methods. As for lakes, are worked out for priority areas where sewage appropriate methods such as the complete mix- systems are required to achieve environmental ing model, plug flow model, diffusion equation standards. Additional areas can be added if etc. are selected. Pollution in coastal areas is improvement of the living environment is nec- simulated using diffusion equations. essary. In sewage system planning, things such as topography, siting of wastewater treatment A4 pollutant reduction plan is discussed after calculating tolerable pollution loads. Basi- plants in the area, existing sewage systems and authorized construction plans, effects of cally, tolerable pollution loads are allocated pro rata with the present pollutant discharge ratio. sewage systems on bodies of water, available For instance, loads from domestic wastewater, technology, effective use of treated wastewater, cost and benefit, relevant laws and regulations, industrial wsewuceatther sand satiockIn farming opinions of relevant municipalities, etc. are all should be reduced at the same ratio. In general, taeinocsdrto. taken into consideration. no reduction is set for pollutants from agricul- tural fields and natural sources. However, if If advanced wastewater treatment is neces- effects of such loads are significant (for exam- sary to satisfy environmental quality standards, 14-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program appropriate facilities can be incorporated in the intermediate target years should also be taken planning. In closed water areas (lakes or bay into account. areas) where removal of nitrogen and phospho- Several alteratives should be considered rus is necessary, removal facilities are considered. for all municipalities in the planning area in To calculate the capacities of wastewater order to select an optimum master plan to sat- treatment plants wastewater quantity is calcu- isfy environmental quality standards in the lated by summing up domestic wastewater, basin. Based on the optimum master plans, ground water, industrial wastewater and individual construction projects are prioritized wastewater from travellers. Domestic waste- considering the effectiveness of each project in water is calculated as the sum of wastewater terms of the amelioration of water quality at the from households and business activities. monitoring points. Ground water use is estimated as 10 - 20% of Total construction costs are then estimated the daily maximum domestic wastewater for the optimum plan. The required costs are amount. In the areas where travellers count for zcalculated for each year. Consideration is also more than 30% of inhabitants, the number ofy given to the cost effectiveness for individual travellers is predicted. Industrial wastewater swg lnigaeso uiiaiis h sewage planning areas or municipalities. The and stock farming wastewater in the planning main benefit from the construction of sewage area are looked at and a decision is made for each facility whether their wastewater should systems is the increase in the value of water resources created by the attainment of environ- be treated by a sewage system.Wastewater mental quality standards. For instance, benefit which should be treated on site or does not is evaluated from various aspects such as sight- require treatment (such as cooling water from factories) is excluded from the calculation. seeing, recreation and aesthetics as well as direct water use such as drinking water supply, Construction costs and operation/mainte- industrial water supply and agricultural and nance costs of various alternative treatment fishery use. Benefits are evaluated using two systems are calculated and compared. Con- scenarios. One is an estimation using current struction costs are estimated after schematic population, industry, land use and water design. However, cost curves may be used resource use whereas population forecasts are when they fit the features of the planning area. used in the other estimation. In the cost comparison, cost effectiveness in Annex 14 14-3 14-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 15: Summary of Govemment's Environmental Management Instruments Policy Instruments Features 1. Environmental Standards 1) Consideration of the capacities of the three parties: citizens, government Standards and enterprises. 2) Ambient air quality standards. * Common standards are applied in Japan. 3) Water quality standards: a. Standards regarding health items are com- monly applied in Japan, while standards regarding life environrnent items are decided according to types of water bodies, which are determined mainly by pur- poses of water usage, i.e., drinking, agricultural and industrial uses. b. The central govermnent decides types of major water bodies while local governments decide types of all other water bodies. c. Both central and local governments have suffi- cient discussions with major water users and other concerned parties prior to the determination of types (water standards) of each water body so that the stan- dards to be achieved should be realistic. 2. Emission standards 1) The central government issued common emission standards to be applied in Japan. 2) Local governments have authority 1) to enforce stricter standards than the national ones and 2) to apply the national emission standards to wider sources of pollution if they consider that those are nec- essary in order to achieve the national environmental standards. 3) As a result, most local governments enforce stricter standards or applied the standards to wider sources of pollution. 4) Total effluent emission control is enforced in Seton- aikai Inland Sea and some other water bodies. Target maximum emission amounts are decided by areas. 5) Gas Emission Control: Annex 4 15-1 a. Emission control of SOx: K value control by areas is introduced. Types of fuel used are also con- trolled. b. Emission control by types of vehicles are intro- duced. c. Total emission control for gases are applied to designated areas respectively. 6) Toxic Substance Emission Control: a. Only eight (8) gases and ten (10) chemical sub- stances are subject to emission control. The designat- ed items though much less in number than U.S. are subject to very strict control. b. Control aspects include manufacturing, usage, emission, disposal facilities (structure, operation and maintenance standards), monitoring, guidance and law enforcement. c. Adequately strict control and monitoring are applied to facilities that may possibly emit toxic sub- stances, while control of toxic substances contained in solid waste is yet to be improved. d. The government plans to revise toxic sub- stance emission control regulations based upon Basel Convention and International Treaty on Prevention of Ocean Pollution. 7) Noise and Vibration Control: a. Environmental standards regarding noise and vibration are set by region in the same manner as water quality standards. b. Particular emphasis is placed on the noise and vibration problems arising from airports and Shinkansen high speed railway. 8) Control of Ground Settlement: a. Control on utilization of groundwater and development of water resources for industrial use. 3. Designation of priority areas 1) The central government designated EPC priority for environmental pollution areas. Major urban and industrial regions were desig- 15-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program control (EPC)& Basin-wide nated as EPC priority areas. 2) Local governments prepared EPC plans for the desig- nated areas. An EPC plan includes plan for reduction of emission and development of sewage systems. 3) A system for co-ordinating anti-pollution measures I and sewage planning throughout a river basin system. 4. Institution building and staff 1) Establishment and execution of training program for training EPC staff of local governments. 2) Establishment and strengthening of monitoring and research sections at both national and local govern- ment levels. 3) Strengthening of local health centers' capacity in deal- ing with EPC. 5. Management of relation- 1) Obligatory Designation of Company's EPC Manager: ships between local govern- A law requires polluting companies to designate a ments and companies company staff as a company's EPC manager who have the responsibility to decide on EPC measures to be taken by the company. 2) Obligatory Reporting of Effluent Quality Data: Com- panies are required to submit effluent quality data as monitored by the company. 3) Obligatory Reporting of Specified Facilities (Effluent control facilities). Installation, Renewal and Remodel- ing through which local governments obtain informa- tion on company's EPC measures. 4) Factory Inspection: Local governments inspected fac- tory effluent. 5) Establishment of EPC Association at Prefectural gov- ernment level through which cooperation with private firms are strengthened. 6) System of certified pollution control engineers. 6. Technical Assistance 1) Establishment of Japan Environmental Corporation (JEC) responsible for providing both technical and financial assistance. Annex 4 15-3 12) JEC prepares plans for development of industrial parks to which small and medium sized manufactur- ers move in order to share common facilities for efflu- ent treatment among moved factories, and to lessen pollution impacts on surrounding residential areas. 13) Preparation of technical guidelines regarding industri- al effluent treatment by types of industries. 1 4) Research and development through cooperation with private sector. 5) Fostering of EPC equipment manufacturers and water and air quality monitoring companies. 16) Standardization and certification of EPC equipment. 7) Recognition of equipment that is appropriate. 7. Financial assistance 11) Establishment of JEC to provide low interest loans (about 2% lower rates than commercial rates) for pri- vate companies and local governments to construct EPC facilities, and relocation of factories to industrial parks planned and constructed by JEC. 2) Low interest loans are provided also by other public finance corporation such as Japan Development Bank, Small & Medium Enterprise Finance Corporation, and National Finance Corporation. 3) Total loan amounts ranges 30%-40% of the total pri- vate investments in EPC. 8. Direct government activities 1) Local governments are responsible for i) night soil in environmental protection management, ii) municipal solid waste management, and iii) sewage piping and treatment including recy- cling of treated water, iv) water conveying for cleaning of polluted lake and river water, and v) removal of sea bottoms and polluted with toxic substances and dredging of accumulated sands of rivers and seas. (Pri- vate sector is responsible for management of designat ed solid industrial water which is categorized into 17 types.) 2) The government issued guidelines regarding solid L_ _ _______________ _ 15-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program waste disposal facilities and their operation and maintenance. 3) JEC plans and constructs industrial parks, com- mon EPC facilities, and green zones (to separate industrial zones from residential zones), national parks; and hand over them to private firms or local governments. (They purchase those facilities from JEC with low interest loans provided by JEC). 4) Environmental impact assessment procedures. 9. Industrial Location 1) Local governments control polluting factories' site locations by controlling construction permits guid- ance and designation of land usage, and promo- tion of industrial relocation. 10. Environmental Education 1) Environmental education is included in most school curriculum. 2) Both central and local government environmental campaign for strengthening people's awareness for environmental values. 11. Environmental cleaning 1) An environmental law requires that polluting firms are responsible for bearing costs of the envi- ronmental cleaning activities such as removal of sludge contaminated with heavy metals. 12. Compensation of victims of 1) An environmental law requires that polluting pollution firms should pay compensation to victims of pol- lution. The law also requires that even if cause and effect relationships are not proved, suspicious pol- luting firms in pollution areas should pay com- pensation to victims according to emission amounts, areas and other criteria. 2) The Environmental Pollution Coordination Com- mittees at the central government level is responsi- ble for arbitration of conflicts arising in connection with pollution problems. Annex 4 15-5 15-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 16: Revision of Water Quality Standards in Japan Drinking water quality standards, environ- In addition, the number of people suffering mental water quality standards and industrial from bad-tasting drinking water caused by effluent quality standards are now experienc- eutrophication of water sources has been ing drastic revisions in Japan. First of all, new increasing. Safety- and taste-conscious con- national drinking water quality standards were sumers are exhibiting a rapid behavioral established on 21 December 1992 by a Ministe- change, consuming more bottled mineral water rial Order of the Ministry of Health and and using more home water purifiers. This Welfare, and they will be put into effect on 1 behavioral change by Japanese consumers, December 1993. Subsequently, new environ- who used to depend almost entirely on tap mental water quality standards were water for their drinking water supply, shows established on 8 March 1993 by a Directive of deep societal concerns about drinking water Environment Agency aimed mainly at the quality deterioration. achievement of acceptable water quality at Thus, total revision of drinking water qual- sources. Attainment of newly established envi- ronmental water quality standards requires the standards has bn urently needed. New standards based on the Water Works law were setting of corresponding industrial effluent established in December 1992 and they consist quality standards. Therefore the work required of 46 indices (29 indices relating to human to establish new industrial effluent quality health and 17 indices relating to the acceptabil- standards is now being carried out intensively ity to consumers). by the Environment Agency. The standards are expected to be ready by the end of fiscal 1993 (March 1994). Revision of Environmental Water Quality Standards Revision of Drinking Water Quality Environmental water quality standards were Standards first established in 1971 based on the Basic Law for Pollution Control with the objective of pro- The first national standards for drinking water tecting human health and conserving the living quality in Japan were established in 1958 based environment. They are serving as policy targets on the Water Works Law. They contained main- for measures to be taken for the control of ly microbiological indices, inorganic substances water pollution in rivers, lakes, seas and and aesthetic indices. After several minor revi- ground water. sions, the last standards, consisting of 26 indices, were established in 1978. They consist of indices relating to the pro- tection of human health and indices relating to Recently, water sources nationwide have the conservation of living environment. The been polluted by chemical substances such as former are uniformly applied in all water bod- halogenated organic substances and pesticides. ies while the latter differ from water body to Annex 16 16-1 water body depending on the purpose of their ing water and through fish and shellfish. use. Indices and levels are almost the same as newly T.here were originally eigh in s restablished drinking water quality standards. Ther wee oigiall eiht ndies elaing Exceptions are chlorination by-products and to the protection of human health (CN, Alkyl- substancs tat causeibadtat They arn Hg, Tota-Hg,Orgaic-P Cd,Pb, r(VI and substances that cause bad tastes. They are not Hg, Total-Hg, Organic-P, Cd, Pb, Cr(VI) and .. .' included in environmental water quality stan- As) when the standards were established in dards. Standards for Pb and As are now more 1971. The standards were revised in 1975 stringent than before. adding PCB as an additional index. 18 years have passed since the last revision. As far as the One important difference between the old nine indices relating to human health are con- and new standards is that environmental water cerned, environmental water quality all over quality is now evaluated based on the annual Japan has been satisfactory in almost all cases mean values while before it was evaluated by thanlks to the concerted efforts of related par- maximum values. This is because the standards ties. However, the strong necessity to revise have been established taking into account them has become evident in recent years mainly the long term health effects of toxic sub- because of water pollution caused by the wide- stance intake. The only exception is the spread use of halogenated carbons in advanced standard for Total-Cyanide. Considering its industries and pesticides on golf courses acute toxicity, it is still evaluated based on the among others. maximum level. The recent upgrading of drinking water Guideline values have been developed for quality standards has given the final and deci- indices relating to human health for substances sive momentum towards the revision of whole present levels are not yet likely to cause environmental water quality standards. immediate health effects. These total 25 indices Revised environmental water quality stan- are called monitoring indices. The Central Gov- dards were established by a Directive of the ernment as well as local governments are Environment Agency on 8 March 1993. Revi- expected to monitor these indices continuously. sion was made only for indices relating to These indices will be converted into environ- human health leaving indices relating to the mental water quality standards when it living environment such as BOD and COD as becomes necessary. they are. The indices for new environmental water quality standards have been decided taking Future Tasks into account the last scientific findings and related legislation both in Japan and overseas. Newly established drinking water quality stan- Their levels have been established considering dards will require a series of measures such as the health effects of intakes both through drink- strengthening of monitoring systems, protec- 16-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program tion of water sources, development and use of quality standards and monitoring indices. in advanced water purification technologies. addition, a comprehensive toxic substance Attainment of newly established environmental management system has to be developed cov- water quality standards will require measures ering media other than water such as air, soil such as setting of corresponding industrial efflu- and food; 2) newly established environmental ent quality standards, revision of standards for water quality standards do not include precur- the final disposal of solid wastes, strengthening sors of chlorination by-products. They should of water quality monitoring systems, etc. New be taken into account in order to make drinking industrial effluent quality standards are expect- water safer; 3) newly established environmen- ed to be ready within fiscal 1993. tal water quality standards pay attention to As for long term tasks, the following three human health effects caused by chemical sub- stances. They will also be required to take into can be pointed out especially as regards envi- ronmental water quality standards: 1) account the effect on aquatic organisms and continuous revision of environmental water eco-systems. Annex 16 16-3 16 4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 17: Noise Standards: Motor Vehicles, Aircraft & Shinkansen (Super Express Train) Table A-17-1: Category of area Standard value (in WECPNL) Aircraft Noise I 70 or less Standards II 70 or less L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Note: Category I area stands for the area for exdusively residential use and category II area for the other area where normal living condi- tions should be preserved. Airport category I Target date3 Improvement goals 1 Airport to be build in Immediately future Existing Airports Third class and Immediately equivalent airports Second class airport 2 A Within five years except Fukuoka Airport B Within ten years Within five years to attain less than 85 New Tokyo WECPNL (or 65 WECPNL or less indoors International Airport in areas exceeding 85 WECPNL) First class airports As soon as possible 1. Within five years to attain less than 85 (except for New Tokyo within ten years or WECPNL (or 65 WECPNL or less International Airport) more indoors in areas exceeding 85 WECPNL) and Fukuoka Airport 2.Within ten years to attain less than 75 WECPNL (or 60 WECPNL or less . _______________________ ____________________ indoors in areas exceeding 75 WECPNL) Notes: 1. Airports were categorized as of effective date (December 27,1973) of these standards 2. Airports of category B of second dass are those where there are regular commercial landings and take-offs of aircraft equipped with turbo-jet engines, and category A means the others. 3. The target dates are to be counted from the date of establishment of the enviromnental quality standards. Category of area Standard value (in dB (A)) TShinkansen I _ 70 or less _ T Noise Standards II 70 or less Note: Category I area stands for the area for mainly residential use and category II area for other purposes, including commercial and industrial areas, where normal living conditions should be preserved. Annex 17 17-1 Classification of zones along Target date the Shinkansen Superexpress railway ________________________ Existing lines Lines under construction New lines a. Zones 80 or more Within 3 years Immediately on start of service b. Zones more than 75 A Within 7 years Within 3 years of start of Immediately on and less than 80 service start of service B Within 10 years c. Zones more than 70 and Within 10 years Within 5 years of start of less than or equal to 75 service _ Notes: 1. The subdivision "A" under the "b" classification stands for zones within the region in which there is a succession of category I area and subdivision "B" stands for zones except subdivision "A" 2. The existing lines, lines under construction, and new lines in the table refer to the following. (1) Existing lines: The Tokyo - Hakata section. (2) Lines Under Construction: The Tokyo - Morioka, Omiya - Niigata. and Tokyo - Narita sections. (3) New lines: New lines being those other than the lines of (1) and (2) above 3. With respect to existing lines, the target dates for achievement are calculated from the date when the environmental quality stan- dards are established. Noise during Accelemation Noise i Noise Table A-17-3: Category of Cas Noma_Rn___t Vehicles Noise 1971 1976C77 1979 Second Goal 91 Rw CoExhaus Standards regulato regulatlo (First Total weight exceeds Lare bus _ 1984 -_ Large-sized 3.5 ton niax. e truck 92 89 86 83 1 80 107 horsewer below 200 Tractor, Crane truck, etc. 1 Mediun-sized otal weight exceeds ton max. horsepower 89 87 86 3 18F 78 10 below 200 - --T--T1 -T I - -T- T- Srnall-sized otal weight Small truck and bus 8 3 1 103 below 3.5 ton All whee drive t198 85 Passenger Car Capacity of 10 passenRers 84 -T2 T 78 1982 70 103 Small vehicle with two Small Small 1987 Two-wheeled wheels(below 250cc 86 83 78 75 74 99 displacement volume) or light Light Light 1 985 vehicle with two wheels 84 75 -- l 11 -T 1986 Motorized Category l(below 50cc) or 84 79 75 75 70 95 Two-wheeled Category 11(50,125cc) I 184 _________ __________________________________________________ 80 72 17-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 18: Sample Pollution Control Agreement Pollution Control Agreement (Between Yokohama City and Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station of Electric Power Development Co. Ltd.) President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. FY 39 Bi, 1070 December 1, 1964 Dear Mr. Re: Pollution Control of Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station I am writing in regard to the pending request made by Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. (TODEN) to allow Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. (EPDC) to use part of TODEN's Negishi coastal reclaimed site. Given the fact that the project concerned constitutes part of the national coal policy of the central government, the Yokohama Municipal Authority is willing to cooperate as much as possible. We have carefully assessed the likely environmental impacts of the said project as the planned project site is located near to residential areas. We have requested the central government's clarification of certain points relating to the project which we believe necessary. We are now in receipt of a reply and are in a position to request the observance of the attached recommendations by your company as a condition for our consent for the project. We will notify TODEN of our consent upon receipt of your agreement to these recommendations. We would also like to remind you that the proposed power station shall be required to strive for the mutual prosperity of the citizens of Yokohama as long as it is situated within our municipal boundaries and, therefore, expect your company's public announcement of its intention to actively cooperate with the pollution control measures adopted by the Yokohama Municipal Authority. Yours faithfully, Mayor Yokohama City Annex 18 18-1 sulphur contents. The EPDC is required to con- Recommendations for Pollution Control tinuously use high quality coal, i.e. coal with of Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station of low ash and sulphur contents. The heavy oil Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. which will be used as auxiliary fuel shall also have a low sulphur content. 1. Id As the meteorological observation data obtained by the Yokohama Municipal Authori- 6. * The YMA understands that that the dust ty (YMA) and the wind tunnel test results density at the Isogo Coal-Fired Power Station established by your company are extremely using the above fuel will be 0.6 g/Nm3. This important, the design of the new power station density shall be continuously maintained. Sim- shall fully incorporate all implications of such ilarly, the emission concentration of sulphur data and results. dioxide is estimated to be 500 ppm which shall not be exceeded at any time. 2. 11 As the meteorological conditions are in- fluential factors of air pollution, the EPDC shall 7. MARl units and equipment shall be installed install our own anemoscope and anemometer, indoors to minimize noise pollution in the etc. to obtain meteorological data with a view neighboring area. Should the outdoor installa- to its use to control air pollution. The EPDC tion of some equipment be found to be shall fully cooperate with air pollution surveys necessary, a silencer shall be provided for each conducted by the YMA. piece of equipment to minimize noise. The nec- essary measures aiming at maintaining the 3. II The YMA understands that the EPDC noise level of the Isogo Coal-Fired Power Sta- plans to achieve a total dust collection efficien- tion level at the current 40 decibel or under cy of not less than 98% with the combined use shall be introduced vis-a-vis neighboring resi- of a multi-cyclone dust collector and Cottrell dential areas. precipitator. This level of efficiency shall be observed and all necessary arrangements shall 8. * Proper waste water treatment systems be made to effectively deal with accidents. shall be introduced to treat the waste water from the steam condenser, cooling water, blow 4. U The YMA understands that the planned water from the boilers and miscellaneous waste chirrmney height is 120m with a discharge veloc- water discharged from the premises. An oil ity of 30 m/sec at the rated load and a flue gas separator shall be introduced to remove the oil temperature of 130°C. These conditions shall and grease used for machinery and equipment be strictly observed and proper arrangements to prevent the contamination of sea water. All shall be made to prevent down draft or any necessary precautions shall be taken to prevent other undesirable flue gas phenomenon. sea pollution by coal transport vessels. 5. U The YMA understands that the fuel coal 9. * Scattering of the ash collected by the dust for the planned new power station will be pul- collectors and hopper, etc. shall not be allowed verized Hokkaido coal with low ash and and proper care shall be paid to its trans- 18-2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program portation for disposal. the Isogo Coal-Fired Power Station be predict- 1O.E0 All necessary arrangements shall be ed, the EPDC shall swiftly take the necessary measures under instruction by the YMC made and care taken to prevent spontaneous throg utual cnsultion be the ignition or dust dispersion at the coal yard. trC and ualDco YMC and EPDC. Prior meetings with the Yokohama Fire Service to introduce all necessary measures to prevent 13.E Should any of the above conditions not fires and other disasters and all subsequent be observed by the EPDC or should actual instructions by the Yokohama Fire Service shall damage occur due to the operation of the Isogo be strictly observed. Coal-Fired Power Station, the YMA may apply 11.E Regular measurements and analysis of the necessary pollution control measures the fuel constituents, soot and dust concentra- through consultations with the EPDC. All tions, soot and dust collection efficiency, noise expenses incurred in applying such measures level and waste water shall be conducted. The shall be borne by the EPDC. measurement and analysis records shall be 14. Should the EPDC wish to contest any of submitted to the YMA whenever such data is the pollution control measures applied by the requested by the YMA. The EPDC shall permit YMA pursuant to Clause 13 above, a third municipal officers responsible for pollution control entry to the Isogo Coal-Fired Power patl omte hl erqetdt ueo the issue. The title, composition, operation and Station to conduct any necessary inspections or survey whendeemedapproriate y the scope of activities of this committee shall be separately determined through consultations YMA as long as such inspections and surveys between the YMA and EPDC. Should the com- do not disrupt the normal operation of the mittee find the measures applied by the YMA power station. to be inappropriate, all expenses relating to the 12. E Should any occurrence of pollution by said measures shall be borne by the YMA. Annex 18 18 -3 Mayor Yokohama City Thermoelectric No. 317 December 1, 1964 Dear Mr. Mayor, Re: Pollution Control Measures for EPDCs Isogo Coal-Fired Power Station We are in receipt of your letter (FY 39 No. 1070) dated December 1, 1964 regarding pollution control at the power station in question and we would like to express our utmost gratitude for your kind understanding of our project to construct the Isogo Coal-Fired Power Station. We are pleased to announce our readiness to introduce pollution control measures in line with the recommendations given by the Yokohama Municipal Authority. We are fully aware of the special aspect of the site in that it is adjacent to residential areas. We are fully prepared to make every effort to establish positive understanding and trust between ourselves and the local residents in the construction, as well as operation, of this power station and we would like to humbly request the full cooperation of the YMA. We hope to commence preparatory work, including the construction of temporary structures, as soon as possible to complete the construction of the new power station on schedule. Please allow me to thank you in advance for your kind consideration of and assistance for the mat- ter concerned. Yours faithfully, President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. 18-4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. FY 42 No. 683 July 21, 1967 Dear Mr. Re: Recommendations for Pollution Control Measures Relating to Installation of No. 2 Power Generation Unit at Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station We are in receipt of your request to authorize the new No. 2 Power Generation Unit at the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station. Having examined your request from the viewpoint of preserving a healthy environment for our citizens, we would like to make several recommendations as attached. Should the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. find these to be acceptable, please provide me with the necessary confirmation at your earliest convenience. Yours faithfully, Mayor Yokohama City Annex 18 18-5 2. * In view of the local topographical and Recommendations Relating to New meteorological conditions, emission from the Installation of No. 2 Power Generation No. 1 Unit and compounding with emission Unit at Isogo Power Station of EPDC from other local factories, new conditions shall apply to flue gas. These shall be a mninimum 1. Ui The Yokohama City Authority (YCA) ~~ would like the EPDC to note that the YCS shall height of 140m for the chimney, a minimum apply all the recommendations made for the discharge velocity of 30 in/sec at the rated load No. 1 Generation Unit at the Isogo Thermoelec- and a minimum flue gas temperature of 130'C. tric Power Station set forth in our letter FY 39 3. * With regard to the electric dust collector, No. 1070 dated December 1, 1964, except the even if it is the sole collector to be used, the dust following two issues, to the proposed No. 2 collection efficiency shall be not less than 98%. Generation Unit. 18-6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Mayor Yokohama City Thermoelectric No. 174 July 25, 1967 Dear Mr. Mayor, Re: Air Pollution Control Measures at Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station We are in receipt of your letter (FY 42 No. 683) dated July 21, 1967 regarding the above and would like to express our sincere gratitude for your kind assistance in regard to the construction of the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station. We are pleased to announce our readiness to introduce pollution control measures in line with your recommendations described in your above letter. Please allow me to thank you in advance for your further understanding of and assistance for any issue arising from the planned construction of the No. 2 Power Generation Unit. Yours faithfully, President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. Annex 18 18-7 President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. FY 46 No. 702 February 15, 1972 Dear Mr. Re: Pollution Control Measures for EPDCs Isogo No. 2 Thermoelectric Power Generation Unit The Yokohama Municipal Authority (YMA) highly appreciates the active cooperation of the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. in regard to the introduction of pollution control measures at the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station in response to our recommendations made in our official letter (FY 39 No. 1070) dated December 1, 1964. Having carefully examined the current situation from the viewpoint of preserving a healthy envi- ronment for our citizens, we now find it necessary to make the new recommendations as attached to enlist your further cooperation to promote air pollution control measures, etc. at the Isogo Thermo- electric Power Station. We would be grateful for your reply to our proposals in writing. Yours faithfully, Mayor Yokohama City 18-8 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 3. * Efforts shall be made to further improve Pollution Control Recommendations for the dust collection efficiency of the electric dust Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station of collector to improve the emission target level of EPDC not more than 0.4 g/Nm3 in order to reduce the 1. U The EPDC shall make strenuous efforts to quantities of smoke and soot from the power station. improve the quality of the coal used at the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station. Given the 4. * Efforts shall be made to reduce the NOx properties of the coal in use, the total SOx emis- emission volume by means of improving the sion volume shall be not more than 490 combustion system, etc. Nm3/hr at the normal rated load. The stack gas 5. U With regard to the chlorine used for the concentration of SOx shall be not more than 350 ppm fo both he No I andNo. 2 nits.cooling water, the use of liquefied chlorine shall be terminated as soon as possible for replace- 2. * The above thresholds shall be strictly ment by a safer method, such as the electrolytic adhered to even when heavy oil is used as aux- method. iliary fuel. Annex 18 18-9 Mayor Yokohama City Thermoelectric No. 330 February 18, 1972 Dear Mr. Mayor, Re: Reply to Air Control Measures Proposed for Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station We are in receipt of your letter (FY 46 No. 702) dated February 15, 1972 and would like to express our gratitude for your continued attention to and consideration of our business. We are pleased to inform you that the EPDC will adopt the air pollution control measures, etc. rec- ommended in the said letter. We are always pleased to consult with the Yokohama Municipal Authority on any issue arising from the operation of the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station and would be most grateful for your con- tinued guidance. Yours faithfully, President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. 18-10 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program President Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. FY 50 No. 1326 March 6, 1976 Dear Mr. / Re: Pollution Control Measures for Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station The Yokohama Municipal Authority (YMA) would like to express its gratitude for your support and cooperation in various fields of municipal administration. As you may be aware, the YMA has prepared the Yokohama General Development Plan 1985 with a target year of 1985. This Plan incorporates environmental targets to recover and maintain a healthy and culturally high quality living environment and the YMA is fully prepared to make the maximum efforts to achieve such targets. It is unnecessary to say that a healthy living environment for the citi- zens of Yokohama must be given the highest priority and that industrial activities will be allowed only as long as they do not invade or destroy the health of the environment. Based on this understanding, we now find it necessary to request your company's observance of the attached recommendations. We would also like to point out that all previous recommendations remain valid unless otherwise stated. We would be grateful for your reply to our new proposals in writing. Yours faithfully, Mayor Yokohama City Annex 18 18-11 The sulphur content of the fuel, be it coal or Attached Paper to Official Letter heavy oil, shall be not more than 0.3% while (FY 46 No. 702) Dated February 15, 1972 SOx emission volume of the said unit shall be from Mayor of Yokohama to President of not more than 75 Nm3/hr. Should there be a Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. possibility of the situation lasting more than 24 hours, the EPDC shall take all necessary mea- 1. Air Pollution Control Measures sures at the instruction of the YMA. (1) C The EPDC shall make every effort to 2. Water Contamination Control Measures improve the quality of the coal and heavy oil The EPDC shall conduct waste water treatment used to achieve an SOx emission concentration of the highest standard based on a comprehen- of not more than 60 ppm (converted value to sive understanding of the state of waste water heavy oil of 0.13%). This target shall be met by contamination and shall restore the water qual- or at the time of the commencement of the stack ity to the level of industrial water. The EPDC gas desulpherisation unit. shall also put the following measures into prac- (2) U Strict maintenance of the electric dust col- tice with the basic target of recycling the entire lector and stack gas desulpherisation unit shall waste water volume. be conducted while the dust concentration of (1) U The volume and quality of the waste the stack gas shall be 0.05 g/Nm3. The time water from the stack gas desulpherisation unit limit for such improvement shall be the same as shall not exceed the threshold values given in the time limit for (1) above. Attached Table 1. Within 6 months of the initial (3) Ml With regard to after-burning following commencement of operation, the EPDC shall the desulphurisation process of the stack gas, study the chemical constituents of the waste efforts shall be made to minimize the quality of water from the stack gas desulpherisation unit the fuel used. The operating conditions for before and after its treatment and the possible after-burning shall be decided at a special toxic nature of the drained treated water vis-a- meeting between the YMA and EPDC. vis fish. Should such drainage be found to be (4) * The EPDC shall conduct research to inappropriate by the study vis-a-vis the normal improve the burning method and/or to devel- life of fish, the quality of such drainage must be op a stack gas denitration unit to minimize the purified to the level of permitting normal fish NOx emission volume. The concrete target fig- life by the end of 1977 as the target date. ure shall be decided at a special meeting (2) U Replenishment water for the stack gas between the YMA and EPDC. desulpherisation unit shall use the recycled (5) 0 Should the stack gas desulphurisation waste water from other processes as much as U Shuldthe tac gasdeslphuisaion possible (at least 480 m3/day) by the end of unit break down or its operation be temporari- 1977. ly halted, the generation load of a 1977. corresponding generation unit shall be halved. (3) U Measures shall be adopted to indepen- 18 -12 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program dently treat and recycle the entire waste water 3. Disposal of Industrial Waste from the COD removal unit to prevent any (1) * The EPDC shall be responsible for the external drainage of this waste water. final treatment or disposal of industrial waste (4) * The discharge volume and quality of all even if it commissions specialized sub-contrac- other types of fresh water-based waste water tors to conduct the said disposal. shall not exceed the threshold values given in (2)E Further details of the industrial waste dis- Attached Table 2 and the quality of the drained posal procedure shall be specified in the Waste water after treatment shall be good enough by Disposal Agreement to be separately conclud- the end of 1977 to permit the culture of fish and ed between the YMA and EPDC. normal fish life. 4. Miscellaneous (5) * Based on special meetings with the YMA, (1) E Pollution Control Measures to be Adopt- the EPDC shall prepare the Drainage Volume ed by Related Companies Reduction Plan, designed to recycle the entire The EPDC shall provide all other companies waste water from the stack gas desulpherisa- working for the Isogo Thermoelectric Power tion unit and also from the power generation Station with appropriate guidance on pollution processes, and the High Level Treatment Plan control. Should any pollution occur which orig- incorporating denitration and other improve- inates from the work of such companies, the ments in the treatment of waste water by the EPDC shall make every effort to deal with the end of 1977. situation. (6) E Adequate measures shall be taken to pre- (2) * Greening vent temporary drainage at the time of regular The EPDC shall plant trees on the premises in repair from adversely affecting the environ- accordance with the guidance provided by the ment and to prevent any inclusion of raw YMA. materials, etc. in the drained storm water. (3) * Suspension of Operation (7) E A regime to allow only those chemicals of Should the Isogo Thermoelectric Power Station which the constituents and safety have been of the EPDC be found by the YMA to be in vio- established to be used on the premises shall be lation of any of the above recommendations or established by the end of 1977. should any measure specified in the said rec- ommendations fail or be found likely to fail to (8) * Fish cultured under the provision of (4) prevent environmental deterioration due to the above shall be thoroughly examined should operation of the said power station, the EPDC such examination be deemed necessary, togeth- shall introduce all necessary measures to rectify er with analysis of the drainage constituents, the situation in accordance with the instructions toxicity and impacts on the environment in of the YMA. In particular, should circumstances accordance with instructions given by the arise in which the health or living environment YMA. of the citizens is actually threatened or likely to Annex 18 18-13 be threatened, the operation of the Isogo Ther- record and store the measurement results and moelectric Power Station shall be partially or regularly report them to the YMA. The EPDC totally suspended upon the issue of instruction shall promptly submit all reports and informa- by the YMA to this effect. tion requested by the YMA for pollution control Should the YMA find it necessary to implement purposes. the necessary measures due to their urgent In principle, all records and information report- nature or because of failure on the part of the ed to the YMA shall be made open to the public EPDC to implement such measures, the EPDC by the YMA except in special circumstances. shall be held responsible for the payment of all expenses mcurred in the implementation of A meeting to review R ecommendat A meeting to review the above recommenda- such measures. tions shall be held as and when deemed (4)W Measurement and Reporting necessary between the YMA and EPDC to The EPDC shall measure the volume and qual- secure a better environment or to achieve envi- ity of drainage and air pollutants, etc. using romnental targets. methods instructed by the YMA and shall Attached Table A-1: ITot Volume i COD I BOD S S I Water Quality 700m3/day 10mg/l 10mg/l 10 mg I Standards for Waste Water from Stack Gas Notes: Desulphurisation 1) Figures indicate the maximum thresholds. Unit 2). These standards shall apply to the No. 2 Unit from 6 months after commencement of its operation. Total Volume from Total Volume of Sanitary COD and S s Oil Content Other Attached Table A-2: Generating Processes and Other Waste Water BOD Pollutants Water Quality 550 m3/day 120 m3/day 5 mgQ/ 5 mg I mg/l not exceeding Thresholds for industrial Fresh Water Based water Waste Water (Excluding that Dealt with by Notes: Above Table 1) 1) Figures indicate the maximum thresholds. 2) Thne limit to achieve targets: December 31, 1977. 18-14 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program m0 Table 18-1: Changes of Pollution Control Agreement between Yokohama City and H Isogo Thermal Electric Power Station, Electric Development Co. December 1964 July 1967 February 1972 March 1976 (New Construction) (Extension) _ Dust collector Removal rate shiould be Removal rate should be Removal rate should be Removal rate should be o more than 98% more than 98% by more than 98% by more than 98% by electric electric dust collection electric dust collection dust collection Smoke stack 120m in height More than 140m in height More than 140m in height More than 140m in height velocity of 30m/sec More than 30m/sec More than 30m/sec More than 30m/sec _ em ission __ _ . _g Emission Less than 49ONm3/h Less than 490Nm3/h (SOx) 3 amount __ (SOx) C Emission More than 130C More than 130C More than 130C More than 130C temperature ____________ Air Fuel Low sulfur and low ash Low sulfur and low ash Low sulfur and low ash Less than 0.13% (Sulfur 15 Pollution content of heavy oil _________________ __ .equivalent) Soot & Smoke Less than 0.6g/Nm3 Less than 0.6g/Nm3 Less than 0.4g/Nm3 Less than O.05g/Nm3 S02 Less than 500ppm Less than 500ppm Less than 350ppm Less than 60ppm - Installation of blue gas t l desulfurization facility _ - Reduction of fuel I-l' consumption of nl afterburner 8 ) - Measures to be taken in l case of desulfurization o facility failure _ NOx Reduction through - Improvement of improvement of combustion method (1 combustion method - NOx reduction through CD research on stack gas l ______ ____________ ___________________ _____________________ denitration facility l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .~ o @, 0 cn 0 ~~00 18 -16 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Annex 19: Profitable Investment in New Production Technology and Pollution Control: An Edible Oil Manufacturer The following table shows the case of a company which produces salad oil, other types of edible oil and margarine from rapeseed, sesame and soybeans. The company invested in new technology that contributed to a reduction of energy consumption and manpower requirements, and therefore reduced production costs. At the same time it reduced emission of pollutants such as NOx, phos- phorus, and dewatered sludge cake. This company made investments in new production technology after a thorough feasibility study on the investments. Equipment and Annual Benefits Annual Costs Arising Annual Net Benefits Systems Invested from Investments Table A-19-1: (Depreciation, Costs and Operation & Benefits of Maintenance and Environmental Interest Payment) Investment in (1) - (2) (1)-(2)=(3) Edible Oil 1. New boiler with a. NOx emission 70 million yen NOx emission Improved reduction by 25% reduction by 25% Manufacture combustion system, and computerization b. 100 million yen cost 30 rhillion yen net cost reduction through saving saving of fuel, electricity and labor costs 2. New materials a. Reduction of Reduction of processing systems phosphorus by 50% phosphorus by 50% b., 240 million yen cost 140 million yen 100 million yen net reduction through cost saving reduction in effluent treatment, chemicals, and labor costs 3. New dewatering a. Reduction of 5 million yen Reduction of dewatered machine, dewatered sludge sludge cake by 60% measurement, cake by 60% monitoring system b. Improvement in Improvement in work work environment environment and and operation operation c. 16 million yen cost 11 million net cost saving thorough saving reduction of sludge treatment and labor costs Source: Source: Case Studies Case Studies Annex 19 19-1 19 -2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Errata Table of Contents, Annexes begin on page 133. Page 45, Figure 4.4, top box should read "Complaint." Page 137, photo captions 3 and 4 should be interchanged. Captions on following three pages should be sequential. Annex pages 15-1 through 15-7, bottom footer should read "Annex 15."