，、鰍弋‘ 中 \/？一―調州Q …·一、凡么 , 嫵 d 『口 : 、 、：！二‘:!&& 州→ ff 卜： 六 二 令兀巴 ．必．必馬‘&，二＇；藝訕《： Japan's Experience in Urban Environmental Management Osaka A Case Study Metropolitan Environmental Improvement M E I P Program April 1996  Table of Contents Page Table of Contents iii Foreward v Executive Summary vii Chapter 1: Profile of the City of Osaka 1 The City of Osaka 1 History of the City 4 Chapter 2: Environmental Protection Measures in Osaka 9 Environmental Pollution in Osaka 9 Environmental Protection Measures in Osaka 15 The Relation Between the Environment and the Economy of Osaka 29 Organization and Education in Osaka City Environmental Protection 31 Chapter 3: Key Environmental Conservation Measures in Osaka 37 Promotion of the Air Pollution Control Plan Based on the Scientific Method 37 Urgent Measures for Controlling Air Pollution in NishiYodogawa Ward 43 Support System for Pollution Control Measures 51 Promotion of Automobile Pollution Control Measures 53 Land Subsidence Preventive Measures 55 Chapter 4: Environmental Protection Measures In the Private Sector 59 Private Corporation 59 Chapter 5: Conclusion 65 Reasons for the Success of Pollution Control Measures in the City of Osaka 65 Technology Transfer to Developing Countries 66 ANNEX 1: Osaka Industrial Association 69 ANNEX 2: Lead Peroxide Method (PbO2 Method) 71 ANNEX 3: Campaign for Idling Adjustment 73 ANNEX 4: Environmental Protection Measures in Industies 75 Bibliography 85 Table of Contents tu  Foreword nNEMO POOM(NGOs), research institutions, and communities. MEIP: the Context for the MEIP supports workshops, demonstration Studyprojects, and community environmental actions, Study and links these growing environmental network The UNDP-assisted, World Bank-executed Metro- efforts with government policy and investment politan Environmental Improvement Program initiatives. (MEIP) began work in 1990 in five Asian metropoli- tan areas-Beijing, Bombay, Colombo, Jakarta, and A further focus of MEIP is the exchange of ex- Metro Manila. In 1993, this intercountry program perience and sharing of information among MEIP began its second phase and Kathmandu joined as cities. This has been carried out through a series of the sixth MEIP city. By 1996, MEIP will enter its third intercountry workshops that review the city work phase - with multi-donor assistance - and launch programs, exchange useful experience, and develop new programs in additional Asian cities. intercountry projects. MEIP's mission is to assist Asian urban areas MEIP has established the city programs, set in tackle their rapidly growing environmental prob- motion a variety of city subprojects, and mobilized lems. The MEIP approach emphasizes the the intercountry exchange. MEIP publications are cross-sectoral nature of these problems and the fail- intended to share insights and experiences devel- ure of traditional, sectoral development strategies oped from the MEIP process and its projects. The to adequately address urban environmental dete- MEIP city programs work independently, with each rioration or the linkage between industrial and ur- other, and with international partners to reverse ban development, urban environmental degradation and provide use- ful and replicable lessons in urban environmental The work program in each city is therefore management. guided by Steering Committees and technical work- ing groups that reflect the cross-sectoral, interagency nature of urban environmental issues. The policy MEIP and Urban and technical committees develop Environmental Environmental Management Management Strategies (EMS) for their metropoli- E in J tan regions; incorporate environmental consider- ations into the work of economic and planning To assist developing countries strengthening insti- agencies; contribute to the strengthening of envi- tutional capacity to control pollution and manage ronmental protection institutions; and identify high environmental resources, learning from countries priority environmental investments. and cities that have experienced similar problems is a particularly effective tool. The MEIP city office serves as secretariat to the Steering Committee and is managed by a lo- Japan has had a large measure of success in cal environmental professional, the National Pro- dealing with environmental problems associated gram Coordinator (NPC). The NPC coordinates with rapid industrialization and urbanization. As a all MEIP activities and is responsible for devel- developed country in Asia, its urban environmental oping the environmental network of government, management history affords an excellent opportu- private sector, non-governmental organizations nity to derive lessons and case studies. Foreword V This city case study of Osaka is a companion On behalf of the MEIP team, I would like to piece and source document for the MEIP national express appreciation to Shunsuke Aoyama and his study on Japan. In addition to the city reports on colleagues at EX Corporation for their superb ef- Kitakyushu and Yokohama, MEIP has published a forts in conducting the study. We are especially national report entitled,"Japan's Experience in Ur- grateful to the report's principal authors: Shunsuke ban Environmental Management." Aoyoma, Jeremy J. Warford, Kiichiro Sakaguchi, Nahoko Nakazawa, and Hiroshi Naito for their ex- The studies undertake a detailed review of acting work and careful analysis. Profound thanks Japan's experience in urban environmental protec- are due to Professor Michio Hashimoto, Chairman, tion and clean-up. The focus was to elaborate expe- and to the other members of the Central Steering riences of particular relevance to MEIP cities, and Committee, and to Mr.Y Saito, Chairman, and other to other cities in Asia and elsewhere in the devel- members of the Osaka Committee. Finally, we are oping world. indebted to the Government of Japan for the sup- port that enabled us to undertake this project and Some useful conclusions concerning the appli- to the unflagging efforts of Kazuhiko Takemoto of cability of Japan's experience for developing coun- the Japan Environment Agency and of Katsunori tries can be drawn. The studies demonstrate that, Suzuki, our colleague at MEIP-World Bank. while much of the technology and present manage- ment practice may not be easily transferable, the way in which Japan tackled pressing environmental problems during the 1960s and 70s is directly rel- evant to the environmental management challenge David G. Williams facing MEIP cities. Program Manager Vi Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Executive Summary proving breakwater, increasing the heights of the Summary of Environmental bridges, regulating the pumping of ground water, Protection Measures in Osaka and constructing an industrial water supply system Protctio Meauresincluding extensions of cooling towers. In the pre-war period, the western coastal indus- trial area in Osaka City had been a heavy chemical Then, the City addressed measures for control- industrial area which supported national produc- ling air pollution, which had become much worse. tion. Once the area had been burned out due to the Luckily, with many technical staff in the public Second World War (WW II), it was revitalized again health division and a rich accumulation of moni- with the post-war economic revitalization and high taring and measurement data on air pollution in the economic growth. The area has a great number of Sanitation Research Institute, it did not take much small- and medium-sized companies. In the pre- time to develop the air pollution control system. war period, air pollution due to soot and smoke Especially, research to ascertain the conditions 01 became problems. The City of Osaka, with the co- air pollution had accumulated abundant know-how operation of the Osaka prefecture, took measures in both public and private sectors. The measures for soot and smoke control at the beginning of the taken included a broad monitoring network, the 1900s. These activities included an increase of pol- improvement of monitoring methods, research on lution awareness on the part of industries and citi- automatic monitoring equipment, and the detec- zens, guidance on improving the coal combustion tion of air pollution by visibility monitoring. method, monitoring of dust fall, and research on pollution's influence on economy. The activities pro- In the latter half of the 1950's, the city responded vided precious data on air pollution in the post-war to the complaints on pollution damage in advance period. It took time to identify the cause of land of the national legislation, established self-protec- subsidence which was found in 1934 (actually the tion-through-soot-and-smoke organizations by lo- cause was identified after WW II). The war inter- cal companies, and held a soot and smoke protec- rupted these measures, but subsidence monitoring tion month. These measures originated in the pre- was continued during the war. war history of soot and smoke control. Fortunately, the Osaka City Pollution Control Council (estab- Since urban infrastructure such as sewage treat- lished in 1962) included enough scientists who were ment plants with the activated sludge method and specialists in public health and labor sanitation as the incineration facilities were well advanced in the members. These scientists took leadership in sys- pre-war period, water pollution and waste problems tematizing an administrative strategy from the pub- were not as serious as air pollution and subsidence. lic health point of view. Soot, smoke and dust due to coal, and subsidence due to the excessive pumping of ground water be- Considering the special characteristics of Osaka, came manifest in the post-war economic revitaliza- the council designated the"western coastal indus- tion and growth. The "Jane Typhoon" (1950) and trial area of the city" as the "area for special mea- the"Second Muroto Typhoon" (1961) made the dis- sures", which is divided into the"area for large fac- advantage of subsidence clear, and the coastal area tories" and the "area for small- and medium-sized suffered significant damage because of flood. Mak- factories". The council advised the City to take dif- ing a priority of the subsidence measures, the City ferent measures at the same time. The action taken of Osaka ended subsidence in a short period by im- for the "area for large factories" called for a"special Executive Summary Vii measure in the Konohana ward.'This measure con- stringent enough.Therefore, it was necessary for the sisted of organizing the existing large factories in city to set its own targets. The above examples il- the area into groups based on technical similarities lustrate how the city involved business owners with and encouraging them to design a pollution con- the implementation of pollution control measures. trol plan by themselves. This way, the City did not With respect to automobile exhaust pollution, which have to use a large number of technical staff for this is impossible for any one municipality to regulate, area. The measure used for the area for small- and the City of Osaka implemented its own campaign, medium-sized factories was implemented by the and supported national regulatory measures with Pollution Special Task Force in NishiYodogawa ward. the related administrative agencies. This measure was aimed at improving many facto- ries in the area in a short period by using many tech- An anti-pollution campaign through the mass nical staff in the City, since these small industries media (newspaper and television) started in the did not have the capability to undertake their own 1960s. It raised public awareness on the merits of plan. pollution control by drawing attention to the actual, alarming levels of pollution, promoted new mayors Since large companies could use national finan- whose primary concern was pollution control in cial sources to control pollution, the city concen- large cities, and facilitated the provision of national trated on supporting small- and medium-sized pollution related laws. The City of Osaka could pro- companies. The city formed two supporting mea- mote its pollution countermeasures without hay- sures, namely the Osaka City Loan for the Installa- ing any legal authority over factories because the tion of Anti-Pollution Equipment and the Purchase city received a lot of support from public opinion, System for Sites of Relocated Pollution Source Fa- which the mass media had helped form. cilities, based on inquiries from small- and medium- sized companies. This latter measures resulted in a At first, industries opposed pollution control project which collectively transferred the factories measures, regarding them as an impediment to in- located in the residential area to an industrial site. dustrial development. However, as the conditions of pollution worsened each year, the corporations The city had accumulated abundant monitor- themselves suffered adverse effects due to pollu- ing data through the air pollution monitoring net- tion, and they belatedly recognized their social work and precise research data on causes of smoke responsibilities. Industrial groups, such as the In- from factories including facility size, fuel, materials, dustrial Pollution Prevention Research Association and the height of the smoke stacks based on the under the Osaka Industrial Association and the In- inspection of many factories. Furthermore, using the dustrial Pollution Consultation Center under the dispersion coefficient which was obtained by an air Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry became tracer experiment, the city calculated the degree of active. The Soot and Smoke Control Association was each factory's influence on the pollution by a simu- established in each administrative district, and was lation method, and calculated the reduction rate. very effective in controlling pollution.There was also Thus, the city could make a persuasive and scien- a lot of development in pollution control technol- tific argument to business owners and technical ogy and improvement of equipment by factories. staff. The influence rate of each factory was the most Factories made many proposals to technical staff in pervasive factor in solving the problem of industrial administration and provided a great amount of tech- air pollution in the city. In areas of high concentra- nical information. The good sense and good faith of tions of pollution, national standards would not be Osaka factories should be highly respected. Viii Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program As the "Quiet Town Campaign" indicates, pol- implement measures. Osaka used the approach lution was controlled not by ordinances but by the of public and private cooperation. citizen's self discipline. When pollution reached its worst, the administration designed measures based 2) In the pre-war period, there was a movement on scientific proof and obtained support from the to improve air quality on the part of the admin- mass media and the citizens. At the same time, the istration, researchers and business circles; and companies recognized their social responsibilities various data was accumulated. These prepara- and cooperated with the administration. This tions led to soot and smoke control in the 1950's. occurred primarily because Osaka has a 400-year tradition of self-governance by residents. 3) The Osaka mayor prioritized removal of indus- trial pollution as the most important policy in the city, and designed a strategy for pollution control based on available technology in coop- eration with scientists and researchers. Reasons for the Success of 4) To implement the strategy, the City of Osaka Pollution Control Measures in formed an administrative organization for pol- the Cit of Osaka th ity ofO aalution control whose members consisted mainly Japan's administrative structure consists of three of environmental sanitation monitoring staff levels: central, prefectures, and municipalities. Mea- (pharmacists and veterinarians) and technical sures determined by central policy-making are staff specializing in civil engineering architec- implemented through them. When industrial ture, machinery, and electricity, all selected from pollution became prominent, the center and the city agencies. Furthermore, the"Pollution Con- prefectures had regulatory authority for industrial trol Engineer Group" was quickly organized pollution through laws and prefectural ordinances. through preferential hiring of graduates who Unfortunately, the measures were neither effective majored in environment and sanitary engineer- nor concrete. Citizens who suffered pollution dam- ing in universities. Since they already had a age complained only to a local administrative branch technical background, special training was not under the city office which had no authority to act. necessary. The City of Osaka passed the citizens' complaints to the Osaka prefecture and asked for measures.The 5) The City of Osaka systematized financial sup- complaints sometimes bypassed the Osaka prefec- port measures, such as the "Osaka City Loan ture and were sent to a branch of the national for the Installation of Anti-Pollution Equip- agency. However, there was almost no response.The ment"and the"Purchase System of the Site of reasons for the success of pollution countermeasures Relocated Pollution Source Facilities"for small in the City of Osaka under these circumstances in- and medium-sized companies and gave them dlude the following points: priority when dispensing financial assistance. 1) Ground subsidence has been a critical problem 6) With respect to urban waste water, the city set in Osaka since the pre-war period. The public up guidelines for a basic policy and imple- and private sectors cooperatively implemented mented infrastructure beginning from the pre- subsidence prevention ordinances ahead of war period. national measures and established a system to Executive Summary ix 7) The following two factors were most important: growth. Thereafter, the gain from energy sav- i) the city's proper recognition on the impor- ing balanced the cost of pollution control mea- tance of scientific and technological support sures through process change. in the solution of industrial pollution, that was based on a tradition of cooperation with industry; ii) firm decisions from the top and the creation Develon Tranfe of a technical group were key to the success of the measures to control industrial pollution. Technology transfer in terms of environmental pro- tection includes both administrative measures, and 8) The reasons for the success of measures to con- hard technology, such as pollution control equip- trol soot and dust, and SOx in the city were: a) ment. Politics, the administrative system, and eco- a national fuel policy which demanded conver- nomic conditions are diverse in developing coun- sion from the use of coal to the use of oil, and tries. Therefore, the pollution countermeasures in b) an energy policy which favorably allocated developing countries should be selected according lower sulfur heavy oil to areas with serious lev- to its local applicability. els of air pollution, like Osaka. The following elements in the experience of 9) Since gas was already in use city-wide, it was Osaka are important for developing countries: easy for factories to convert to gaseous fuel. 1) Use scientific methods. In order to design and 10) The cooperative attitude of local corporations execute the measures based on science or tech- to pollution control, based on their sense of re- nology, staff with a high level of technological sponsibility towards their local society. expertise should be hired and educated. 11) The groups of private companies such as the Osaka 2) Establish a cooperative system between public Industrial Association tied to implement pollution and private sectors. This is one of the major control measures jointly by all of the industry cirse characteristics of the experience of Osaka. The members through meetings and discussions, and by technical staff at the city and district adminis- providing training and education, etc. tration levels and the engineers in factories co- operated and enhanced technical standards. 12) The support from mass media that appealed to This experience indicates the importance of co- residents was a very important factor. operation between public and private sectors. Atound 1970 in Japan, the problem of pollu- 3) Encourage industry associations to establish tion worsened due to rapid industrial expan- waste minimization and pollution control com- siLon. Since pollution had an adverse effect upon mittees and advice functions to provide out- all parts of society, including residents, corpo- reach and training to their members. rations, and administrations, solving the prob- lem of pollution became an important national 4) Focus on hot-spot areas in the city for inten- issue. At that time, a large sum of money was sive pollution control measures to achieve de- invested into controlling pollution and the in- sirable results. vestment was part of the basis for economic X Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 5) Establish a financial system that supports corpo- 4) Economic strength of industries: Substantial rations which introduce pollution control technol- funds may be needed to maintain the pollution ogy. The City of Osaka created a system which control and the monitoring equipment. Con- helped small- and medium-sized companies that sidering the cost, pollution control equipment were short on financial resources. Under that sys- whose capital and maintenance cost is on par tem, a loan was released after technical screening with the economic strength of the firm should of treatment equipment was conducted. be introduced. With respect to pollution control equipment, the 5) Educational standards: Due to the difficulty of applicability of hard-ware technology to develop- training engineers up to the necessary educa- ing countries depends on the certain conditions. tional standards, pollution control equipment Without considering these following conditions, should be introduced with consideration given technology transfer will fail: to the difficulty of operation and maintenance. 1) Energy supply: The appropriate control equip- A prerequisite for effective pollution control ment depends upon the available energy measures is to ascertain current conditions. In or- sources and their reliability. For example, if mu- der to comprehend the characteristics of air pollu- nicipal gas is provided in the cities, its use can tion, for example, it is necessary to know how it greatly improve air quality, changes in time and space. It is sufficient to have a monitoring system that combines minimum auto- 2) Technical Standards: Since equipment needs matic monitoring stations with maximum simple maintenance, it is necessary to consider the monitoring points selected on a case-by-case basis. parts production capability and the repair ca- Having a monitoring system which needs expen- pability of small enterprises. Pollution control sive maintenance costs should be avoided, although equipment which cannot be handled by the some Japanese municipalities use it. Each individual technical capability of users should be phased treatment equipment cannot be discussed here. out. However, many factories in the City of Osaka are using different pollution control facilities, varying 3) Legal system, location conditions, and degree in treatment method, treatment efficiency, and fa- of environmental pollution: These three factors cility size.This equipment should be good examples should be considered when determining the to review when introducing pollution control equip- most efficient method of removing pollution. ment to developing countries. It is also necessary to take the local environ- mental conditions into account. Executive Summary ce Chapter One: Profile of the City of Osaka Figure 1-1: The City of Osaka Osaka Introduction Kyoto Sendai Hi*rshima1 i1ob e -P aDVPacific Ocean The city of Osaka is the third largest city in Japan. Ritakyushu The city is located at the center of the second big- Kawasaui gest economic region (Kinki region) which also in- Sala Nagoya Yokohama cludes Kobe and Kyoto. Osaka city originated as a hub of land and water transportation and prospered Kyobo Shiga Aichi as a commercial center in Japan's medieval period. Iyo9o The city has recently carried out extensive modern- OkayaaM ization of its infrastructure with the intention of Set Inland becoming an international city in the 21st Century. Ragawa Location, Natural Environment, and Topography _ _ City__of__Osaka _PaciOsak Osaka is situated at 34'N latitude and 135'E longi- tude, almost in the center of Honshu. The city is about 500 km from Tokyo Metropolitan Region and River-the longest river in Osaka-is full of water. within three hours of Tokyo by the Tokaido bullet Historically, soil and sand sediment from the Yodo train. The city extends into the Osaka Plain, and its River formed the Osaka Plain, which was once a west side faces Osaka Bay. Its land area is about 220 bay, then a beach, and finally a low marshy district. km2. To the east of the city, mountains loom over Since most parts of the city lie on the land of allu- the other cities in the Osaka prefecture. The city it- vial soft soil, ground subsidence easily occurs due self however is almost flat except the Uemachi hill to over-pumping of ground water (See Figure 1-2). (9 kmn in length and 2 km in width) which runs through the city and is in general about 3 m above Climate sea level. The city of Osaka is in the mild Setouchi climatic The city has always been characterized by the zone. In 1991, for example, average temperature was presence of large and small rivers, most of which about 17.1'C (the highest temperature was 37.3*C are artificial ones created by the cut-and-cover and the lowest was -2.5C). More than 1.0 mm method. These rivers and canals facilitated water precipitation occurred in 108 days. Annual precipi- transportation and contributed to the development tation was 1,433 mm. The area is affected by winds of Osaka; indeed, Osaka's nickname is "the city of from both land and sea, and natural ventilation in water."In recent years, however, many of the rivers the summer is strong. But a migratory high (anti- and canals have been eliminated. The reclaimed cyclone) in winter creates inversion layer which lands are now used for roads and parks. Today the tends to keep pollutants in the air. In recent years, city has 23 rivers (canals are excluded). Starting from because of the"heat island"phenomenon, the city has Biwa Lake (the biggest lake in Japan), the Yodo shown an increase in annual average temperature Chapter I N drastic decline in the city's population as people N Figure 1-2: moved to the suburbs created a so-called sprawl Map of Osaka YqdoRiver phenomenon.The population of the city decreased X~n~i ~.to 2.65 million in 1980. Thereafter, the population \Kanzaki River Shirokit Ia ve * I 'I .- has continued to decline due to the impact of soar- Ohkwa River ing land prices, though the decline was weaker than Doji before, as more housing and urban infrastructure Tobori were supplied (Figure 1-3). Aji River Dohtonbori River In 1991, the population of the city is 2.64 mil- lion; its density was about 12,000 per k2 which is the second highest after Tokyo. Because the city at- tracts many workers, the daytime population has steadily increased The daytime population, includ- ______ing 1.48 million from outside the city, reaches 3.8 million-the ratio of daytime to nighttime popula- tion is 1.45. and so-called tropical nights with the lowest tern- Economy peratwere above 25eC. After the oil crisis in 1973, the Japanese economy Population entered into a low growth period. Economic growth rate in the Osaka was in fact below the national With the expansion of the city area and economic average during 1975-85.Thereafter, it improved and growt:h, the population of Osaka reached 3.25 mil- remained slightly higher than the national average. lion in 1940, which was the largest in its history. At the same time, however, employment opportu- After VWW IL it decreased to 1.1 million. In the post- nities decreased, and the unemployment rate in war revitalization, it exceeded 3 million in 1960 and 1990 was 5.5% which was 1.8 times the national reached a peak of 3.16 million in 1965. However, a average. The gross regional product (GRP) in the Figure 1-3: (5C) Population -- Growth in -n a 3.2 m -00 1936-90 lio i14 wi was the l i s t 36 40 45 i s 55 6mlin 70 o5 It 85 (Yr) 2 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program city was about 19.3 trillion yen in 1989 (5.1% of the The city of Osaka is active in trade. Freight national total). shipped from Osaka port in 1990 totaled 9.7 mil- lion tons of which 76% is for domestic trade. With Osaka's industrial structure consists mainly of respect to international trade, the exports in 1991 small- and medium-sized companies. In 1985, were 2,030 billion yen (4.9% of the national total) small- and medium-sized companies accounted for and imports were 1,660 billion yen (5.2% of the 99.1% of business establishments and had 76.5% national total). Export items are machinery, textiles, of employees (Table 1-1). textile products, and chemical products. Import items are textiles and metals, food products, Tertiary industries account for 68% of the city's machinery, chemicals, etc. daytime working population. Secondary industries account for 31.5%, and primary industries only 0.1% Energy, Water Supply, Sewerage, Wastes of the daytime working population. Tertiary indus- tries continue to expand and secondary industries The total energy demand in the city of Osaka has are decreasing (Figure 1-4). been increasingyearbyyear, and approximately half of this demand is covered by electricity and piped Commerce (wholesale and retail) is the core of city gas supply. Industry sector is the largest energy the tertiary industries. Commodity sales in Osaka consumer, which is followed by transport, com- city in 1991 were 80,167.7 billion yen in total, of merce, and household. Energy use in offices has also which 92.3% derived from the wholesale. Whole- shown a remarkable growth in recent years. Almost sale commodities sales in 1991 accounted for 13% all households and business establishments in the of the national total. The commodities concerned city have water. The water supply efficiency ratio, are textiles, chemical products, clothes, daily goods, which represents actual amount of water use to the minerals, metals, and machinery. The manufactur- amount of supplied water, has already reached ing industry is the core of the secondary industries. 92.7% in 1990. The diffusion rate of sewerage was Production output in 1991 was 7,917.9 billion yen, 98.8% on drainage catchment area basis or 99.9% mainly in steel, other metals, machinery, chemicals, on the basis of population provided with waste- petroleum, and coal product, and publishing and water treatment services. With the expansion of printing materialsT economic activities, waste disposal in the city grew Number of Establishments Number of Employees Table 1-1: Small and Small and Sma of- at o To taln (a) Medium (b) b)(a) Total (a) Medium (b) (b)/(a) Emxpo- inl Total 274,098 271,533 99.1 2,364,344 1,809,640 76.5 sized Manufacturing 44,476 44,358 99.7 482,945 401,925 83.2 Companies Wholesale 38,189 37,616 98.5 494,665 353,472 71.5 Retail, Restaurant 99,924 99,387 99.5 461,027 390,475 84.7 Financier, Insurance 4,128 4,080 98.8 116,658 86,932 74.5 Services 52,818 51,635 97.8 427,110 259,749 60.8 Others 34,563 34,457 99.7 381,940 317,087 83.0 Chapter 1 3 Figure 1-4: () Industrial 100 Employment so in Osaka, of 1950-90 TO 40 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 B5 90 (Yr) N Primary Industry O Secondary Industry Tertiary Industry almost five-fold over the 30 years from 1960 to 1991. found along Midousuji Street. There is also an area Eighty-two percent of collected wastes were incin- devoted exclusively to housing outside of this mixed erated in 1991 and the remaining 18% was used for area. Large heavy chemical industry factories are sanitary landfill. concentrated in the eastern coastal area. Newly created areas (Techno-port Osaka), including in- Traffic ternational trade and commercial functions, are underway in the reclaimed land at the south and The City of Osaka has a well-coordinated transport north offshore ports. Small- and medium-sized network. Main forms of transport in the city and factories coexist with residences in the eastern and suburban areas, and outlying cities are train and bus the northwest areas. The southern part of the city is (42%), walking, bicycles, etc. (40%), and car (18%). mainly residential. Sixty- five percent of commuters use the train or bus, and 37% of workers travel by car. The city is served by JR (Japan Railways), private trains, and subway. The City of Osaka runs the subway, the total length History of the City of operating lines exceeding 100 km. Due to a con- tinual increase in traffic volume, the city is proceed- ing rapidly with additional road construction. By the Up to the Pre-War Period end of 1991, the city had 11,485 roads (national, prefectural, and municipal roads) totaling 3,803 km Old period (6-8th Century) Asmall bay of Osaka in length and 36.88 km2 area, 96.6% of pavement was close toYamato Imperial Govemment, and was ratio', and 16.7% of road ratio2, an important hub of domestic traffic and Chinese trade. In the 7th century, the government moved to Land Use Osaka and the Naniwa Palace was built. Until the government moved again to Kyoto at the end of the The center of the city is predominantly an office and 8th century, Osaka was the center of Japanese poli- commercial area, in which residences are also to be tics and economy. 4 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Medieval period (6-19th Century) The founda- Osaka city became one of the major commercial and tion of the present Osaka was laid in the 16th cen- industrial cities in the East by drastically expanding tury. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who brought about na- its metal and chemical industries and increasing tional unification in the Civil War period, favored exports. Its rivers supplied both abundant sources the location of Osaka and built the Osaka castle. of water for industrial use, as well as transporta- Hideyoshi also promoted internal commerce and tion. Air pollution caused by industrial development foreign trade. At that time, many canals were cut became severe. At that time, however, smoke and for transportation purposes, and the soil was used soot were regarded as a symbol of prosperity rather to reclaim swamps. The downtown area was estab- than as pollution. Nevertheless, in the 1920s, soot lished on the sedimentary land as the population and smoke countermeasures began to take place. increased. Waste and rain water from the downtown Dust fall measurement started in 1922, and the area was discharged into the rivers through an open Osaka mayor founded the"Osaka Smoke and Soot drain. Control Investigation Committee" in 1927. In 1928, the first symptom of land subsidence was observed In the peaceful Edo period, Japan's economy in the western part of the city. Damage caused by flourished and merchants began to become more high tides in 1934 was followed by the construction powerful. Their storage facilities were displayed of breakwaters, with more comprehensive actions along canals in Osaka, and Osaka prospered as a for subsidence prevention taken after WW II. center of Japan's commerce, becoming known as "Japan's Kitchen". As industrial development proceeded and the city expanded, Osaka embarked upon a major pro- From the Meiji Era to the pre-war period Osaka gram to improve its infrastructure. In the 1920s, the opened its port at the time of the Meiji Restoration city constructed and expanded streets, sewerage, of 1868 and along with the ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, canals, parks, and cemeteries. In the 1930s, it built and Yokohama increasingly participated in foreign the Midousuji Street and Subway Line, along which trade. In 1889, Osaka was reorganized as a city, and the city's business area became established. The modernized its water supply and sewerage systems. Midousuji Line remains to this day a major artery The city's population was then about 470,000. The of city traffic and has contributed greatly to eco- capital then moved to Tokyo, which also became the nomic development in Osaka. In 1940, two sewage center of Japan's economy. The subsequent decline treatment plants using the activated sludge process in financial and distribution activities shook Osaka, were built. A quarter of the costs for sewerage con- but it reconstructed itself with industrial develop- struction was collected from users. At the same time, ment. In fact, the textile industry in Osaka accounted the biggest central wholesale market in the East was for 90% of national production by the end of the opened and the distribution system was reorganized 19th century; Osaka became a major export center and modernized. Population in Osaka rapidly in- and known as"The Manchester of the East". creased, from 1.25 million in 1920 to 3.25 million in 1940. The amount of solid waste disposal in Osaka was 300-400 ton/day around the beginning of the Post-War Reconstruction (1945 to 1955) 20th Century, and became an increasingly serious problem. The city built its first incinerator in 1903, During W.W.11, 27% of the city had been burned followed by several more. During the Sino-Japanese out and 1.13 million people suffered from 28 air and Russo-Japanese Wars and the First World War, raids. The city was destroyed and its population Chaptero 5 dropped to one third of that existing before the war. Urbanized earlier, Osaka had relatively small Immediately after the war, work began to improve green area. In order to improve its environment, the urban infrastructure such as roads, parks, transpor- city promoted a tree planting campaign in 1964. In tation systems, and port facilities. With the return that period, traffic congestion became increasingly of evacuees and repatriates, and resumption of serious. In order to counter the situation, the city factory operations, Osaka city rapidly regained its extended subway lines and constructed freeways. population. The "Municipality Law," the basis of In 1970, the international exhibition was held in local government, was enacted in 1947 under the Osaka; this encouraged the construction of road, Japanese Constitution.The authority of the local par- railway, airport, and port facilities, all of which have liament became much stronger than in the pre-war contributed to Osaka's subsequent progress. The period and, for the first time, the mayor was directly international exhibition attended by 64 million elected. Nine years later, Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe, people was memorable to Osaka, and cost 52.4 bil- Nagoya, andYokohama became designated cities by lion yen. The site of the exhibition subsequently cabinet order. became a cultural park. From the High Economic Growth Period to the From The First Oil Shock to the Present Time First Oil Shock (0955-.1973) Quality of life The high growth period ended Osaka's economy kept pace with the generally high with the first oil crisis. Economic development pri- economic growth of Japan and the living standards orities shifted, with growing concern for the quality of its citizens continually improved. However, cen- of the living environment. The Osaka City Compre - tralization of population and industry in the urban hensive Plan, which was released in 1978, declared area created air and water pollution, noise, and land three slogans of the city development, namely"The subsidence. In 1960, the National Income Doubling City of providing a comfortable living environment Plan' was proclaimed. Around that time, smog oc- to the residents,""The City of supporting various curring in winter was thick enough for car drivers activities at broader scale extending beyond the mu- to keep their headlights on during the day. The in- nicipal boundaries," and"The City of creating the crease in car ownership created a significant noise new culture."Pedestrian paths and roads tracing the problem (In 1957, car horn frequency at the inter- city's historical sites were built. The city built bridges, section of the Umeda Shin-michi was 68 incidents! designed not only for traffic but also to provide views ml. In response to citizens' request, the city of the city and improve the environment. Social government took actions against pollution by welfare and sports facilities were provided. In par- administrative guidance and monitoring before the allel with these actions, the city also established the establishment of pollution -related laws. With Consumer Protection Ordinance, which required respect to land subsidence, the tidal damage in 1950 producers to provide information on unit prices and 1961 facilitated protection measures. Investi- and quality of goods. Price monitoring was also gation showed that the high tide was caused by introduced. excessive pumping of ground water. Therefore, the City of Osaka constructed an industrial water sup- Development of small- and medium-sized ply system which was substituted for industrial companies Following the oil crisis, small- and me- ground water, and regulated the pumping of ground dium-sized companies-the majority of the city in- water by municipal ordinance. Land subsidence dustries-were hit by recession, the rapid growth then slowed down and rarely occurs now. of competition from newly industrialized countries, 6 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program setoIfteUeaSi-ih a 8icdns and appreciation of the yen. Osaka city provided century) and includes various elements. Under the various forms of assistance to companies by increas- "100 year (1989) Osaka Municipality Memorial ing loans to avoid bankruptcy, to modernize, en- Project", the city is also establishing facilities in five courage use of advanced technology and to support categories (health, beauty, technology, cultural ex- new business. Most of the small- and medium-sized change, and others) appropriate for an international companies in the city were located in the residen- city of the 21st century. tial-factory areas which implied problems involv- ing such things as housing environments, disaster The objective of the "Osaka City Comprehen- protection, and the size of factory sites. The city sive Plan for the 21st Century"is to promote inter- invited and provided loans to small- and medium- national exchange and cooperation, attract interna- sized factories to relocate to more suitable places, tional visitors, and provide better information on where industrial housings and apartments were functions. Osaka also hosted the "International built. The city also opened a guidance center for Garden and Greenery Exposition" in 1990. One of small- and medium-sized companies to support the slogans in the exhibition was the "coexistence their research departments for technological devel- of nature and humanity."The city invited and offi- opment and managerial improvement. cially established the UNEP International Environ- mental Technology Center in October 1992, which Osaka, an international city The Osaka city was was expected to adopt the above slogan and con- first exposed to internationalization by the exhibi- tribute to global environment issues. Finally, the city tion of 1970.The"Osaka 21st Century Plan,"which will be further internationalized by completion of started in 1983, aimed at further internationaliza- the Kansai international airport (1994) which will tion. The plan is a long-term project (until the 21st have the first 24-hour operation in Japan. Endnotes 1. Pavement ratio: ratio of paved roads to total roads area 2. Road ratio: ratio of road area to total city area 3. "National Income Doubling Plan": plan aimed at doubling the national income from 1960 to 1970 but was achieved by 1967 Chaptern 7  Chapter Two: Environmental Protection Measures in Osaka SO2, NO, suspended particulate matter (SPM) in Environmental Pollution in ambient air, SOx (by PbO, method), and the num- Osaka ber of misty or foggy days. This section summarizes the state of environmen- The concentration of dust fall has steadily de- tal pollution in Osaka: air pollution, water pollu- creased since observations began in 1954. It has re- tion, noise, vibration., and night soil. mained almost unchanged since 1981. Also, con- centration of insoluble dust fall decreased from the Air Pollution start of 1928 observation to WW II, but increased from then until 1963. However, it decreased during Ambient air pollution Figures 2-1 through 2-3 the decade from 1963, and has remained unchanged indicate changes in the concentrations of dust fall, since the mid-1970s (Figure 2-13). SO, (ppm) N02 (ppm) Dust Fall "C Figure 2-1: SPM (Mg/m3) (t/km/month) (Ppm) Ambient Air 0. 25 General 0. 20 a20 0. 8 (ppmnvirAmbenta Monitoring 15 0. 6 Stations, 1954-90 0.1 10 0.4 0. 0 1% .. l _ ..... ........ 5 0. 2 0 -- 0 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (City Measures) (National Measures) Soot and Smoke Regulation Law Air Pollution SO, Areawide NO, Areawide Control Law Total Pollutant Total Pollutant Load Control Load Control (a) "Soot and Smoke Control Month" is established. (b) The Soot and Smoke Control Association is established in ligashi Ward. (c) Regular Smog Monitoring starts. (d) City of Osaka establishes its Original Air Pollution Control Standard. (e) Air Pollution Control Measures are executed in the Coastal area of the Western Osaka. (f) City of Osaka establishes a Financial Assistance System for Pollution Abatement Equipment Purchase. (g) Nishi-Yodogawa Ward implements the Emergency Air Pollution Measures. (h) "Clean Air Plan '71" is formulated. (i) Air Pollutant Emission Reduction Plan is settled based on "Clean Air Plan '73". (j) "New Clean Air Plan" is formulated. (k) Osaka City Automobile Pollution Prevention Program is formulated. Chapter 2 9 Concentration in Ambient Air Figure 2-2: (mg-SO3/100cm2/d) SOx 2.2 Environmental Concentration, 2. 0 --- - - - 1955-90 (by PbO2 1.8 Method) 1.6 ~1- 1.4 1.2 0. 4 D.02 0 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Figure2-3: The Number of Smoggy Days (day/yr) Insoluble Dust Fall (t/kd/month) The Number 500 2.5 - 12.5 of Smoggy lit a Days andMitDa Concentration sox P'Ioggy Day of Insoluble 400 2.0 10.0 Dust Fall and A Sox, 1940-75 300 -InsoliblPe.- 7 Dust Fall 200 1.0 5.0 100 0 0 0 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 10 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Monitoring of SPM concentration started in Monitoring of CO concentration started in 1971. 1967; it decreased until 1977, and then remained It decreased from its peak of 1972 and has remained unchanged. The concentration of SO2 by the PbO2 unchanged with a slight decrease since 1983. Moni- monitoring method, started in 1958, decreased since toring of NO2 concentration also started in 1971. 1969 and remained unchanged in the 1980s. Moni- NO2 remained almost unchanged with a slight in- toring by conductometric analysis also started in crease over several years, but since 1987, it has de- 1966. SO2 concentration by this analysis decreased creased slightly. until 1980 and then remained unchanged. Moni- toring of NO2 concentration started in 1972; it in- Water Pollution creased in 1973, returned to the level of 1972 in 1974, and has remained almost unchanged since the lat- Rivers Figure 2-5 indicates trends in water qual- ter half of the 1970s. ity of rivers in Osaka. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) monitoring of rivers in Osaka started in 1936, The number of smoggy days decreased by the was interrupted by the war, and resumed in 1950. end of the 1950s, but greatly increased in the 1960s, BOD remained almost unchanged in the pre-war by which time it exceeded the pre-war level. How- period, and was below the pre-war level at the time ever, misty days decreased from their peak in 1955, of resumption. In the post-war period BOD rapidly and foggy days from 1960, and mist and fog were increased, returned to the pre-war level for several rarely observed by the mid-1970s. years, and then increased. However, BOD greatly decreased in the 1970s and remained unchanged in Road traffic pollution Contained in automobile the 1980s. exhaust, NO2 and CO are major elements of air pol- lution. Figure 2-4 shows changes in the concentra- Twenty-four-hour water pollution monitoring tions of these substances as measured by automo- was established and Chemical Oxygen Demand bile exhaust gas monitoring stations. (COD) monitoring started in 1971. Figure 2-6 shows 0It decre Car Ownership CO(pp ) (Thousand)sFremaine unchanged wta s 1. 200M i Ambient Air 0c 105 o 1 it haslde- 0.c090 6 900 Recordedat Automobile 0. 0755 75Exas 0. 060 . 4 600 Monitoring Stations, 0.(045 mCafOwnershi. r s in4Os 1955-90 0. 0302 0 0.w015 interr e b 0 0 0_____ .55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (Yr) Automobile Exhaust Regulation (National Measures) Chapter 2eri Water Quality (mg/1) Percentage of Sewered Area M Figure 2-5: 40 100 Water Quality 4 e in Public Waters and /* Percentage of Percentage of s0 -aewr-AA(% Sewered Area by Residences, 1935-90 20 --50 River BOD 1 A1 P--* 25 Coastal Water-CD ' 0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (Yr) COD monitored at Imazubashi (the point where the the river shows an improvement of water quality Neya River flows into Osaka City) and Kyobashi (the and COD at the upper point remained almost un- lowest point on the Neya River). The lower point of changed. This is because the access ratio to sewer- Figure 2-6: COD (r9/i Water Quality 30 in River Waters, 1960-90 25 Imazubashi / 1 11 20i x 1/ Kyobashi 10 0 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (Yr) 12 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program age in the Osaka city (on the lower part of the river) major sources of noise. Noise is also generated from changed from 68% to almost 100%, while that on construction sites, traffic and daily life. In recent the upper part of the river remained about 50%. In years, complaints about noise emanating from recent years, domestic waste water has become a Karaoke bars, which operate late at night, have in- major source of water pollution. creased.Vibration has much in common with noise in terms of basic characteristics and impact. In many Coastal waters Figure 2-5 shows coastal water cases, noise and vibration originated from the same quality in terms of COD (measured by the alkali source. The number of complaints about vibration method) in Osaka Bay. COD has tended to decrease is less than that about noise. However, both trends over time, remaining unchanged since 1985. Because are alike; both complaints reached their peaks in it is a semi-closed area of water, red tide caused by 1971, and then decreased. eutrophication often occurs in the Osaka Bay area. Offensive odors Complaints about offensive Noise, Vibration, and Offensive Odors odors decreased or remained unchanged after they reached their peak around 1971. Service industries Figure 2-7 shows the number of complaints about and others related to living environment are the noise, vibration, and offensive odors. source of most recent complaints. Noise and vibration Complaints about noise in- Land Subsidence creased until 1971, and then slightly decreased or remained on the same level. Recent complaints Lower ground water levels due to over pumping of about noise account for more than half of the total ground water has caused subsidence in the city. Fig- complaints. Factories or business establishments are ure 2-8 shows changes in the level of ground water Number of Complaints suc.Tenmefcmlit u Figure 2-7: 5, 000 Number of a Other PollutionbComplde es Vibrtionfor 191 an the decreased. "ad000 . oter related... to lvnevr n Environmental Pollution, N Noise Poliution a9inn9c Nb Water Plilution 1. 000 .. .Ofsv Oo - Environmental M~~~~I NosFRlto 3.~~~~~.. .o..... i ..P.lt on . 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (Yr) Chapter 2 13 and subsidence. Ground water reached its lowest Sewerage and Night Soil Treatment levels in 1961. Then, the level of ground water was quickly recovered by the effective laws such as"In- Figures 2-9 presents the areas with access to sewer dustrial Water Law (in 1956)", "Law concerning and the volume of night soil treatment. The area Regulation of Pumping-up of Ground Water for Use with access to sewer was 15-20% of total city area in Building (in 1962)," etc. As a result, subsidence until 1960, greatly increased in the 1960s and 1970s, stopped and the problem was largely overcome. and became 96% in 1980. Thereafter, it continued Lower Ground Water Level Figure 2-8: Land (m) (cm) Land Subsidence Subsidence and Ground Water Level in Osaka, 1940-90 5 -.-. : : :. - -..--.. Miat ar KHahi Ydawa War Obsevatin Wel .(Land Subsidence) Tsurumni Ward: (Land Subsidence)' Nishi Ward Observation Well (Ground Water Level) !Nishi Ward (Land Subsidence) Ground Water Level a TT 15 ------- ----- ------ ------ --f -----J r -- 7,r r r~ i---- ---i-( r Minat WardKonohana Ward Observation Well (Land Suibsidence) (Ground Water Lzvel) Nishi Yodogawa Ward (Land Subsidence) 40 45 .5 55 83 6 0 15 8) 5 so 14 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Treated Night Soil Figure 2-9: Volume (thousand kl/year) Percentage of Sewered Area (%) Night Soil 1. 200 - and Percentage of Sewered Area Percentage .000 ..of Sewered ~Oths 80: Area,1950-90 ..... .....Dumping into Ocean 600 ----------- Discharge-into-Sewerage- so 200 4____ 0 0 0' 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90(Yr) to increase slightly with current access at almost the interval figures are estimated. Industrial 100%. With the expansion of the sewered area, the wastes for final disposal are construction wastes, volume of night soil treatment has greatly decreased, slag, sludge, etc. Slag, metal chips, and wood so that today it is almost zero. The amount of waste chips are recycled. water discharged into sewerage increased until 1962 and then decreased rapidly. Solid Waste Environmental Protection Figure 2-10 shows trends in the amount of do- Easr en Osaka mestic solid waste disposal. The amount has in- creased over time, and was about 2.2 million tons This section presents a summary of the environmen- in 1990. Detailed research of the amount of in- tal protection measures instituted in Osaka during dustrial waste was conducted every five years, and different time periods. Collected Amount (thousand t) 2, 50 Figure 2-10: N on Incinerated Amount Soil Waste Disposal, 2.0 00 IncineratedAmdunt M 1950-90 1. 500 1, 000 500 0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (Yr) Chapter 2 15 Prior to the World War II Osaka was originally dicate that air pollution developed from a mere local a hub of land and sea transportation and an eco- problem to a critical social problem in Osaka during nomic center during the Edo Period (1603-1869) this period.As a result, active efforts for soot and smoke when it served as an exchange market for goods and control were made to cope with air pollution. materials from all over Japan. However, the trans- fer of the capital to Tokyo and certain economic poli- Prominent figures and engineers in politics, cies of the Meiji government were viewed as hav- business, and bureaucrats of Osaka organized the ing an adverse effect on the economic activity in Society for the Study of Soot and Smoke Control in Osaka. Therefore, an industrial policy was imple- 1911. The City of Osaka budgeted for soot and mented in Osaka to boost its economy. As a part of smoke control measures in city electric power plants this policy, the Osaka arsenal (1870) and the Osaka in 1912. However, the outbreak of WW I in 1914 mint (1871) were built. Thereafter, Osaka Spinning placed the national priority on economic develop- (1882) which was the first corporation in Japan, was ment. built, and followed by the establishment of a num- ber of other large spinning factories. Osaka Steel, Until the Showa Period began in 1925, only re- large factories for activities such as sulfuric acid searchers on sanitation and fuels had addressed the manufacturing (later renamed as Osaka Alkali), and soot and smoke problem and published the pollu- marry small- and medium-sized factories were also tion conditions or solutions to alleviate the pollu- built. By 1888, Osaka became a modern industrial tion. For instance, the Osaka Municipal Hygienic city concentrating on the spinning industry. Laboratory (currently, Osaka City Institute of Pub- lic Health and Environmental Science) started moni- Air pollution Accompanied with the industrial toring dust fall from 1922. According to records, development, air pollution and its damages on resi- average amount of dust per day was 5 ton/ km2. dences also increased. In order to control air pollu- tion, the Osaka prefectural ordinance banning fac- During the Showa period, air pollution caused tory construction with smoke stacks in the city (cur- by soot and smoke accelerated. The City of Osaka rent center of the city), was issued in 1889. Further- established the"Osaka Investigating Committee for more, in 1896 the ordinance was abolished and re- Soot and Smoke Control" in 1927, and conducted placed by a comprehensive "Regulatory Rules for research on smoke damage and the regulation on Osaka Manufacturing". Because there was only a soot and smoke control. In 1928, the committee or- small number of factories, air pollution was not ganized the first Air Cleaning Campaign Week and widespread at that time-it was only considered publicized the necessity for air pollution control and locally and not regarded as a social problem. the available technologies for soot and smoke con- trol (an improvement of combustion method) to citi- Thereafter, air pollution increased dramatically zens and business owners. This campaign was very due to the increase in coal consumption in facto- effective in reducing soot and smoke. The commit- ries. The Osaka Prefectural Assembly presented an tee then submitted a proposal in 1931 to the central opinion on soot and smoke control to the governor govemment and the Osaka Prefecture to establish in 1902.The litigation on rice damage caused by soot the Soot and Smoke Control Regulations as law. and smoke was filed against Osaka Alkali in 1907 and the ensuing widespread public attention in- In June of 1932, the"Soot and Smoke Control creased the awareness of air pollution. These facts in- Regulations" (prefectural ordinance), which in- 16 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program cludes emission standards by Ringelmann smoke and the system reduced the ratio of infectious gas- chart and the limit or ban of use of polluting equip- trointestinal disease cases to one tenth in the early ment, was first issued in the nation. This regulation 1900s. With respect to sewerage, the city had used accelerated the soot and smoke control campaign the so-called "Taiko" sewer (the drainage system and organized the related research being conducted with open channels, which was created as a part of by various institutions. However, the emphasis on town development at the end of the 16th century). the heavy chemical industry increased, largely in Osaka started improving the system in 1894 and response to the Manchurian Incident (1931) and the commenced on the first full-scale sewer construc- ensuing military needs, leading to greater fuel con- tion in Japan The sewerage system at that time could sumption and resulting in worsening soot and only discharge collected waste water into the rv- smoke problems. In order to promote the soot and ers. Since an English thesis on the activated sludge smoke control campaign further, the Soot and process was published in 1913, the city started in Smoke Control Association was established in 1936 1924 to experiment with the first activated sludge by business establishments discharging soot and treatment in Japan at the lchioka water plant. The smoke and the sanitation union in each police dis- activated sludge treatment plant was completed in trict. Each association was chaired by the chief of a 1940 to treat sewage from the center of the city. town marshal. However, the association did not solve the problem thoroughly. The city also adopted the"beneficiary-pays prin- ciple" for its sewerage construction in the pre-war Land Subsidence Osaka, as a matter of procedure, period and collected one fourth of the construction has monitored water levels in the Osaka area every costs (although the central goverment set the prim- several years since 1885.The monitoring in 1927 and ciple by responding to the request from Osaka city, 1928 identified the water levels as increasing and the principle does not exist any more). Furthermore, land subsidence became a problem.The severe dam- the city asked for national authorization to initiate ages caused by the Muroto Typhoon in 1934 drew a user charge system for sewerage, and introduced citizens' attention to subsidence. In order to grasp it in 1940. The system still exists. the conditions and causes of subsidence, the City of Osaka created a network of water benchmark sta- Waste disposal Osaka first contracted out its tions (about 170) in the city from 1934, and started waste disposal works to the fire fighters'organiza- monitoring the changes more thoroughly. The city tion from the early Meiji period to keep the city also started monitoring the level of ground water in clean, and then started its own bidding system op- wells from 1938 (9 wells). The results of the moni- eration in 1889. This is because waste was treated toring stations in the post-war period showed that as a valuable commodity for its agricultural use.The subsidence had a close connection with the large treatment methods of the early 19th century were use of ground water. agricultural use, coastal reclamation and ocean dumping. However, problems such as an epidemic Sewage treatment Epidemics of cholera or plague of contagious diseases, a shortage of appropriate at the end of the 19th Century promoted the con- land for reclamation, and waste suspended in the struction of water supply and sewerage systems, and sea, became more evident and incineration became the waste disposal measures as public health mea- an attractive alternative. In 1903, the city directly sures. The modem water supply system with sedi- operated the waste disposal works and constructed mentation and filter tanks was completed in 1895 a full-scale incineration plant. Thereafter, new in- Chapter 2skd cineration plants were constructed and expanded to cope with the increased pollution problems. The resulting in a total incineration capacity of 750 ton/ revised ordinance first adopted the pre-notification day in 1929. (A large amount of night soil was used system to new construction, extension, or structural in agriculture, however, many problems regarding modification of a special facility. However, the emis- night soil treatment arose after World War II.) sion standards in the revised ordinance was only used at the governor's designation and the ordi- The Period of Pollution Caused by a Rapid nance did not impose an observance obligation Economic Growth and the Years of Groping upon entrepreneurs. Pollution Countermeasures (195os to mid- 196os) The further revision of the ordinance in 1965, which clearly stipulates an observance obligation of Social, economic, and pollution conditions in the the regulatory standards, strengthened pre-regula- post-war period The economic growth during the tory measures and rationalized the regulatory stan- post-war reconstruction period and the rapid indus- dards. Also, the revision included the regulatory trial development around 1950 continued with the standards for not only soot and smoke, waste wa- development of factories in the western coastal area, ter, and noise but also hazardous gas and vibration. centering on the Nishi Yodogawa Ward where the Particularly, since Osaka Prefectural Government war damage was relatively small.Accompanying this transferred the regulatory authority for business process, subsidence in the pre-war period or indus- establishments and hazardous gas to the City of trial pollution such as soot and smoke from facto- Osaka, the implementation of factory guidance be- ries again became problems. In 1954, there were came smoother. only 500 pollution control activities (which exclude wastes, sewage, and water supply) among the 200 Pollution countermeasures at the national thousand activities monitored by the environmen- level Since around 1950, air pollution and water tal sanitation staff at the health centers in Osaka. pollution became social problems as industrial ac- However, the city had already started responding tivities activated. Pollution countermeasures mainly to the many complaints. depended upon the municipal ordinances.The Min- istry of Health and Welfare in November of 1955 Osaka prefectural government ordinance The prepared the"Living Environmental Pollution Con- second ordinance following the Tokyo Metropoli- trol Standards Bill", but the MITI, which promotes tan Government Ordinance, the"Osaka Prefectural industry, and the economic circles (Federation of Ordinance for Workplace Pollution Control," was Economic Organizations- Keidanren) opposed it. established in August of 1950, and regulated the soot In February of 1956, the Kansai Economic Federa- and smoke discharged from the workplace which tion officially announced"The Opinion against the damages humans, animals, or properties. The ordi- Living Environmental Pollution Control Standards nance precisely stipulated the targeted workplaces Bill", which asserted that the bill would adversely and the pollution criteria. However, the ordinance affect the industrial activities by imposing an ex- focused on the actions taken when the governor rec- cessive compensation or contribution for pollution ognized the necessity of action after the pollution control upon companies. happened. Therefore, the ordinance was not enough to counter general air pollution. As a result the or- Frequent pollution incidents demanded that dinance was totally revised in April of 1954 in order active actions be taken at the national level. The 18 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program national government enacted three laws for pollu- ban air pollution problems needed cooperation from tion control, namely, the "Factory Effluents Control many fields, the"Kinki Area Air Pollution Research Law", the"Water Quality Conservation Law"(1958), Committee" which consists of prefectures, univer- and the"Soot and Smoke Regulation Law" (1962). sities, research institutes, meteorological stations, However, since enactment of these laws aimed at related companies, etc. in the Kinki area was estab- not only protecting national health and the living lished in July of 1956. Eventually, the research re- environment but also strengthening industry, they sults obtained by the committee were very useful in were not sufficient at controlling pollution which setting the environmental management standards got worse. and introducing scientific air pollution measures. Pollution counterCeasures at the city level This Soot and smoke (smog) countermeasures Most section presents pollution countermeasures at the soot and smoke (smog) in this period mainly origi- city level. The city of Osaka started handling pollu- nated from coal combustion. The conditions from tion complaints, researched air pollution (smog) smog, which was caused primarily by heaters in which was the major pollution problem at that time, buildings, were so serious that cars had to keep the and promoted the citizen's anti-pollution campaign headlights on in winter. Industrialists recognized the based on the pre -war experience and voluntary anti- condition as a major urban health problem. In or- pollution actions by polluting industries. They also der to counter the situation, the city passed a guid- addressed subsidence, noise control by citizens' ance, developed the management method for participation, the provision of sewerage construc- proper coal combustion, and requested self control tion and waste disposal. of industrialists. Concretely, the city helped to cre- ate the soot and smoke control board in each dis- From public health to pollution countermeasures trict (the first board was formed in 1958), and dif- Since 1955, technological innovation and a structural fused a guidance, technique, and knowledge of change in industry were developed with economic combustion through the boards. The "Osaka City policy; the pollution problems became diverse and Soot and Smoke Control Union" was established worse. As an example of air pollution in this period, a in 1960 as a union of the boards, and the members meteorological station observed the increase of smoggy of the union actively exchanged information. days (less than 2 km visibility range) up to more than 50 (see Figure 2-3). This was during the period before From 1958, the City of Osaka started the soot the laws were implemented to counter pollution. The and smoke control month in wintertime when City of Osaka dealt with the citizens' complaints or building heating was most common. In coopera- petitions by researching the actual condition of the tion with the soot and smoke control board, the City problems from the environmental sanitation stand- of Osaka conducted lecture courses, free diagnostic point, and requested the sources to take necessary anti- checks of factories' heat management, soot and pollution actions by themselves. smoke monitoring, and various campaign programmes of soot and smoke pollution preven- According to the survey of public opinion on tion aiming to increase public awareness and knowl- soot and smoke by Osaka city in 1956, 43% of citi- edge of air pollution issues. zens suffered to varying degrees as a result of soot and smoke, and 73% of citizens wanted a soot and These campaigns, which were conducted by the smoke control ordinance. Further research on ur- local government as well as by the voluntary orga- Chapter 2 19 nizations of industrialists, were basically not differ- tion was released based on the high probability of ent from those conducted in the pre-war period.The smog with consideration of the concentration of main purpose of the guidance was to develop com- sulfur dioxide and climate conditions Broadcasting plete combustion management through the control around 7 am, radios and televisions (NHK and three of soot and smoke produced from coal, but also to commercial broadcasting stations) called for re- rationalize the use of energy by improving heat ef- straint in unnecessary and non-urgent combustion ficiency. Since the combustion management had and an improvement of the combustion method. merits for corporations, they actively cooperated though the city did not have any legal basis to give As the smog information was released, the guidance. Since the national energy policy at the health center requested the facilities to limit the time began shifting from coal to heavy oil compa- emissions. This became a model of full scale imple- nies faced a renewal of facility and readily accepted mentation of urgent measures under the Smoke and shifting to liquid fuel. The city gave guidance on fuel Soot Regulation Law and was very successful in conversion from coal to liquid fuels such as heavy educating citizens.The reasons for the success were oil, facilitating control of soot and smoke. However, because: 1) Osaka accumulated data in research in- the conversion brought an increase in such new air stitutions since the pre-war period, 2) had enough pollution problems such as sulfur dioxide pollution. campaign experience for soot and smoke control with the cooperation of companies and citizens, and The "Soot and Smoke Regulation Law" estab- 3) had enough expertise with the issues in the front- lished in June of 1962 was fully enacted in Septem- line administrative officers, researchers, and corpo- ber of 1963 and Osaka Prefectural Government had rate members who had been coping with the soot the authority to take measures against factory pol- and smoke pollution. lution based on the law. At the same time, the regu- latory authority for boilers in business establish- Table 2-1 shows the frequency of smog infor- ments was transferred to the city from Osaka Pre- mation in the winter of 1962 (anuary, 21 to March, fectural Government. The administrative guidance 31). to the factories got smoother with a legal backup. Clause 22 in the Smoke and Soot Regulation Law Research on air pollution To obtain the actual referred to the"emergency measures", but the law conditions of environmental pollution and its im- did not set concrete standards for implementation. pacts is an extremely important basis for environ- Thus, the"Guidelines for Emergency Measures on mental protection measures.The dust fall monitor- Air Pollution Control" were set based on the dis- ing system, begun in 1922 (15 monitoring stations cussion among Osaka Prefectural Government, the in 1960), had to be modified since the later fuel con- City of Osaka, the City of Sakai and meteorological version changed air pollutants from soot and smoke stations. to sulfur dioxide. Advance smog information was issued prior to tn 1958, 11 monitoring stations (33 stations in the law's enforcement with the cooperation of the 1959 and later 100 stations) in the city monitored related press organizations and with an initiative in sulfur dioxide with the Pbl2 method (See ANNEX full scale implementation of emergency measures 1). Although this method could not measure the based on the Soot and Smoke Regulation Law, smog volume of sulfur dioxide in the air, or pollution con- reduction was a great success. The smog informa- ditions for short periods such as day or hour, it was 20 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Conditions of smog appearance after the release of smog information Type of alert Smoggy days Clear days Total Table 2-1 Number of smog warning release 15days 10days 25days Number Number of no smog \warning issuance 6days 39days 45days of Smog Total 21days 49days 70days Information Release in S02 concentration at the S02 concentration (max.) 0.27ppm 1962 datum point (at 9:00 am) Days of more than 0.20ppm of S02 concentration 2days Days of 0.10-0.19ppm of S02 concentration 17days Average S02 concentration 0.16ppm very simple. Therefore, it played an important role citizens understand and recognize the seriousness in creating a map of sulfur dioxide concentration of air pollution and recognize the need of counter- and the changes in concentration. Thereafter, the measures. In the city of Osaka, the citizens were researchers at the Osaka Municipal Hygiene Labo- informed widely on air pollution monitoring includ- ratory utilized a method which measures the vol- ing scientific and advanced measurement methods. ume of sulfur dioxide because a change of concen- Public opinion on pollution control measures was tration and an absolute volume of pollutants are regarded by the city of Osaka as a prime reason to indispensable to promote air pollution countermea- clean the air before the development of laws. sures. Moreover, the researchers and the engineers in Osaka developed automatic continuous moni- Due to local characteristics and geographical toring equipment to measure the changeable con- conditions, the NishiYodogawa ward in the coastal ditions of pollution. The equipment was on the region of the city experienced serious air pollution market by 1962.This equipment was introduced into and many chronic bronchitis cases were reported. the area with serious pollution such as Osaka city, Osaka prefecture, Osaka city health institute, hos- and shaped the current monitoring system. pitals and universities had conducted a large-scale cooperative research for five years from 1964 and Because air pollution caused smog and poor detected a cause-effect relationship between air visibility, the city started observing visibility at 27 pollution and the number of bronchitis patients. fire stations in 1963. It could roughly obtain the con- Based on the research, the city of Osaka established ditions and changes in air pollution by conducting a special task force against pollution and promoted surveys at fixed times. Because it was a relatively important policies. Other research such as "Eco- easy method, it was able to clearly show citizens nomic damages caused by pollution (Economic im- and industrialists current pollution conditions. It pacts of air pollution on household, business/com- effectively led to a self-reduction of fuel consump- mercial, and governmental/public sectors),""Con- tion by companies. ditions and impacts of air pollution indicated by metal corrosion,"surveys on automobile exhaust gas It takes more than administrative control and pollution, and so forth were conducted. The scien- laws to promote air pollution countermeasures by tific detection of such air pollution was useful to companies. Also, control only by laws (emission promote the later planned measures. standards) cannot catch up with worsening pollu- tion conditions in the serious polluted areas such Land subsidence countermeasures Since more as Osaka. In order to develop the effective counter- than 120 cm of subsidence occurred in the indus- measures, it is indispensable that companies and trial district of the western coastal area during the Chapter 2 21 period between 1934 and 1945, a breakwater was was ended by police guidance. Thereafter, an in- built in the coastal area in order to protect Osaka crease in automobiles boosted complaints about city from high tide. However, the maintenance of traffic noise. The public opinion poll at that time breakwater during WWII proved insufficient. The showed that the citizens were in favor of establish- Jane Typhoon in 1950 caused huge water damage ment of ordinances to control noise (77.4% in the with almost 21% of the city area being submerged. 1954 poll). In October of 1953, the research on the Thereafter, Osaka City administration placed a high average level of noise at 68 points (at street level) in priority on projects for high tide control. Under the the city found that busy streets or traffic centers are cooperation of the national and Osaka Prefectural the noisiest. The neighborhoods of schools or hos- governments, the city built breakwaters, piled up pitals showed 68 dB(A) during the day, when it soil in some parts, fully provided the water gate for should be quiet. tide protection or the effluent pump, and raised the height of bridges. At that time, the noise control ordinances in some municipal areas were not so effective. Thus, In order to regulate the consumption of ground the Osaka city conducted research into noise dam- water, which is a cause of subsidence, the city asked ages, road conditions, traffic volume, the use of the national government to control the use of horns, etc. in order to control noise by citizens' ground water by law. The "Industrial Water Law" movement rather than ordinance. The city devel- was established in 1956, and the city in 1959 banned oped the"Quiet Town Campaign Promotion Head any new construction of wells which did not meet Office"as a center of citizens'movement at the end the authorized standards in the designated area. of February of 1958 and started a full scale cam- Before the application of the regulations on pump- paign in March. Radio and television were used to ing industrial water, the city began constructing the promote this campaign in addition to other adver- industrial water system in 1951 in order to secure tisement tools such as standing signboards, post- substitute water and started supplying it from 1954. ers, leaflets, and so forth. With the strong backup of The"Osaka City Subsidence Control Ordinance of the press, results were more successful than ex- 1959" was established in order to prevent subsid- pected (the average frequency of horn honking in ence in urban areas. Based upon the Industrial Wa- the city changed from average 27/mm. to 1/mm.). ter Law, the ordinance regulates the pumping of According to the public opinion poll taken one water for air conditioning systems in buildings. month after the campaign, more than 90% of the However, the conditions of subsidence could not citizens who responded to the poll favored the con- get better until the establishment of the"Law con- tinuation of the"Quite Town Campaign."As a sec- cerning Regulation of Pumping-up of Ground Wa- ond step, other measures were promoted to counter ter for Use in Building" due to the second Muroto noise.Vehicles were required to have fully function- Typhoon damages in 1961, or the actual ban of the ing mufflers and drivers were requested to exhibit use of ground water through the amended Indus- better driving manners. Anyone wishing to use the trial Water Law. speaker horn on the street had to acquire condi- tional permission from the police. Quiet town campaign As the City of Osaka revi- talized, noise developed into a problem. Although The success of the campaign caught the atten- the loud street advertising announcements, which tion of every city, and the campaign spread nation- started in 1950 spread noise all over the town, it ally.The campaign also obtained overseas attention, 22 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program and the Mayor of Osaka was presented with an bling of incinerators began and incinerators from award from the National Noise Abatement Council the pre-war period that were recovered by 1957 in the US. The reasons for this success are assumed could burn a part of the waste. However, due to as follows: the increase of the amount of wastes every year, it became more and more difficult to obtain the 1) Since the noise damage in the city was mani- land suitable for landfill. Also, as the citizens' fest, its reduction became a base for citizens' complaints about waste pollution increased, movement; greater incineration capacity became an urgent necessity. In June 1958, two existent incinerators 2) Citizens who took actions. The campaign was began to operate twice a day (morning and not forced or enforced, but appealed to drivers evening) to cope with this problem. However, this through voluntarily guidance in the use of horns did not change the situation drastically because and mufflers; of the aging and low efficiency of the incinera- tion facilities. Finally in 1959, the city built an in- 3) Ownership by the peoples living in Osaka; and cinerator whose capability was four times greater than that of the older ones. This was the only in- 4) Cooperation of all the parties concerned in pro- cinerator with a batch furnace in the entire city. motion of the campaign. At that time, soot and smoke were critical prob- Development of sewer system The construction lems in the City of Osaka. The constructionof an works of sewage treatment were resumed in 1957, incinerator that did not produce much pollution was after the national government decided to subsidize needed. Thus, in 1956, the city started considering the construction of sewage treatment in order to ban the introduction of the Swedish "De Roll" furnace, the dumping of night soil into Osaka Bay.Two new which was new in Europe. However, the city bud- plants were constructed, and two old plants were get in 1956 for the Public Cleansing Bureau was augmented. Although all of these plants were sup- about 1.6 billion yen (the cost of construction for posed to adopt the activated sludge method, one of the incinerator in 1959 was 0.2 billion), which was them was later switched to the sedimentation nearly the same as the estimated construction cost method so that it could add a septic tank for the of a De Roll furnace. Moreover, because the gov- treatment of night soil. The 10-year Program for emient subsidy was not provided for the construc- Public Sewerage Construction of 1960 proposed the tion of incineration plants at that time, the City of construction of twelve new plants and eight of them Osaka would have to take all responsibilities for any were designed to employ the sedimentation failure.Infact,manypeoplewereworriedaboutthe method. Later on, facilities with activated sludge introduction of the De Roll furnace because of the method were added. This is the current sewage difference in waste types between Switzerland and system. Osaka city. The Osaka Municipal Hygiene Labora- tory analyzed wastes and determined whether Development of waste management system The wastes in Osaka city could be adequately burned incinerators in the city of Osaka underwent great by the De Roll furnace. The introduction of De Roll damage during the WWII. The city resumed waste furnace did not progress despite the favourable de- collection in 1946 and used it to fill bomb craters cision by the Osaka City Assembly in March 1959. remaining from the war. In 1948, the reassem- In addition to opposition to the choice of site (no, Chapter 2 23 one wanted an incinerator built in his/her own The Period of Seriousness of Industrial neighborhood) and technical concerns over insuf- Pollution, and Stricter Planned and Scientific ficient heat value of waste, the main difficulties to Administrative Guidancefor Pollution Sources overcome were concerns over the legal problems (i96os to i97os) (patent rights, trademark rights, etc.) in introduc- ing new technology and technical knowledge from Socio-economic conditions In the high economic foreign companies and the price of royalties. Since gowth period, the total output of products in the City the estimate of the construction cost increased to a of Osaka was 1,277.7 billion yen in 1960,1,864.4 bil- total of 2.2 billion yen, which was far beyond the lion in 1965, and 3,369.4 billion in 1970. This period city's general budget, the city issued the special bond emphasized quantity rather than quality of produc- to help finance the project. It took seven years for tion. Japan's World Exposition 1970 in Osaka symbol- the city to start construction after the introduction ized the period's peak. Projects related to the Exposi- was planned and construction was finally completed tion lavishly provided urban infrastructure such as in 1965. The completion of the furnace implanted roads, railways, etc. At the same time, the pollution the idea that machine furnaces should be used for problems became serious. As for air pollution, prob- waste incineration in all of the major cities in the lems of SOx replaced those of soot and smoke. The nation. Afterwards, that same type of incinerator be- mass media vigorously reported the continued pollu- came popular throughout the nation. tion damage, such as the frequent occurrence of the Yokkaichi- asthma in 1960 and the Agano River mer- Immediately after the war, the demand for night curypoisoningin 1964.The reality of pollution boosted soil in farming regions was strong due to a lack of the public concern for reducing pollution. chemical fertilizers. However, after the development of a chemical fertilizers, night soil became obsolete. Pollution countermeasures at the national level All cities had a slight excess of night soil during The increase in pollution proved that legal measures 1948-49 and an excess of more than 20% around such as the two water-related laws and the Soot and 1950. The excess amounts increased yearly and a Smoke Regulation Law were not sufficient. Strong night soil problem rapidly unfolded. A part of public concern over pollution removal prompted the collected night soil was dumped illegally into the establishment of the"Basic Law for Environmental rivers and waterways. To counter that problem, the Pollution Control"in 1967 that defined the range of city set a night soil influent facility in the middle of pollution and gave direction for environmental stan- trunk sewers, and began the operation late in 1949. dards. In 1968, the"Air Pollution Control Law"and However, this method also ceased to work due to the "Noise Regulation Law" were established. In an increase in surplus night soil. The need for the addition, eight similar laws were partially amended installation of flush toilets and an increase in the and established in the so-called "Pollution Diet"of number of sewage treatment plants were urgent. In 1970. The start of the Environment Agency in 1971 the meantime, from 1952 to 1960, sewage was strengthened anti-pollution measures at the na- dumped into the ocean. Since 1960, an increase in tional level. The environmental standard of sulfur the sewage treatment area and the construction of dioxide was first set in 1969 the others were fol- septic tanks in the sewage treatment plants has lowed to be set successively. decreased the volume of night soil collected and the collected night soil was mostly treated by the sewer Revision of Osaka prefectural ordinance The system. categories of the pollution regulated by laws had 24 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program rapidly expanded since the national government es- set at that time became the fundamental strategy tablished pollution-related laws such as the"Basic for air pollution control in the City of Osaka. Law for Environmental Pollution Control". A large part of the ordinances came to be regulated by laws. Urgent measures to control air pollution in the With the development of industrialization and ur- NishiYodogawa ward started in June 1970. They in- banization, pollution that the old ordinances did not troduced the first air diffusion simulation technique cover emerged, promoting stricter regulations. In to the Japanese administration and gave scientifi- April 1969, the Osaka Prefectural Government cally-backed guidance for pollution sources. They asked the "Osaka Prefectural Pollution Control later developed into the regulations controlling the Council" to discuss a revision of the ordinances. total SOx emission and became a starting point for According to its result, the Osaka Prefectural Gov- the current air pollution control plan. ernment issued the revised ordinances and enforced them along with new environmental standards and 24-hour monitoring system of environmental regulations in April 1970. pollution The responses of the Osaka City Pollu- tion Control Council to the management standards Pollution Countermeasures at the City Level Air for air pollution in 1965 emphasized the need for regu- pollution due to dust fall and SOx and water pollu- lar monitoring of air pollution. The Council recoi- tion due to factory effluent were serious in this pe- mended that the City provide monitoring stations.The riod. In particular, severe air pollution in the west- City of Osaka immediately started providing a regular ern coastal region developed into a significant so- monitoring network for air pollution, and built the cial problem receiving top priority from the city. The most basic monitoring system in three years (consist- Chuma administration, which pledged to adminis- ing of a central station, ten monitoring stations, one ter pollution countermeasures, took office and rap- meteorological station, and a telemeter system for the idly developed pollution countermeasures. This sec- central station). The construction cost of the system tion describes the measures for reducing sulfur di- was about 77 million yen which accounted for 0.022% oxide by the scientific method, installing a moni- of the three year total of the city's general budget (356.6 toring system, creating of a corporate support sys- billion yen). The distributed income per person in the tem, and effecting the measures for controlling sew- city was 471 thousand yen in 1967 (4,390 thousand age and industrial wastes. yen in 1989). The planned pollution countermeasures InfApril Thereafter, the monitoring network was 1962, the City of Osaka set up the"Osaka City Pol- strengthened by increasing the number of moni- lution Control Council" as an advisory committee toring stations along the road. In order to strengthen for the mayor; it discussed basic policies for pollu- regulations on the sources of pollution such as fac- tion control administration and provided the scien- tories, a 24-hour measurement of fuel consumption tific backbone. For example, the city's administra- and sulfur dioxide emissions from large factories was tion asked the council to set a target for air pollu- initiated in 1974. Furthermore, the 24-hour water tion countermeasures. In December 1965 the council quality monitoring system to regulate total efflu- recommended, and set the environmental manage- ents started operating from 1979 ment standards on air pollution, as the first case and the foremost administrative goals in Japan. The ba- Support systeo The installation of pollution con- sic direction of the air pollution countermeasures trol facilities was very costly in the short term, and Chapter 2 25 required swift implementation to minimize these ever, the system reverted back to the"polluter-pays costs. Therefore, a loan system for companies in- principle" in 1972. The water quality charge was stalling pollution control facilities was started in newly established and meter-rate system changed March of 1967 to aid in providing the necessary fi- to giadual increase system. nancing with lower interest rate. Since 1970, the Japan Environment Corporation has facilitated This collection system based on not only quan- transfer or grouping of polluting factories. tity but also quality aimed at inducing a corporate effort towards improving water quality relating to The development of sewerage This section pre- BOD (or COD) and SS (Suspended Solids) roads. sents an introduction to the water quality charge Water quality charges are included into water con- system and river cleaning as water pollution coun- sumption charges. Since this system is a great fi- termeasures. nancial burden on factories, the factories improved water quality by installing a treatment facility, and An introduction to the water quality charge reduced effluent volume or pollutant load by say- system Under the reorganization of the post-war ing water and recycling the waste water (Figure 2- administrative system, the "beneficiary-pays prin- 11). ciple"for sewerage construction disappeared. With regards to the charge for using sewers, collection of River cleaning by development of sewerage - user charges for flush toilets started in 1951, and Shirokita Canal (currently Shirokita River) The adopted the meter-rate system to replace the dimin- Shirokita Canal is a typical example of a measure ishing charges system to a large user in 1965. How- for cleaning the city rivers. Under the industrial re-- iThe Number of Charges Water Conswation (thousand rew igeCollected Collected Amount (Billion yen) The Number and Amount 250 Bn100.000 of Water The Number of ChargesaCollected Consumption Charges qIe dA u aiyyisliatr m fclt0a Collectede20o amd Water Consumption, 1973-90 IS0 60. 000 100 40. 000 26 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program gions development plan in the northeastern part of b) The environment in the reclaimed land was the city, the Shirokita Canal was excavated during improved by building a river park. 1935-40, with a total length of 5,615 m and a width of 40 m. In the post-war period, due to rapid eco- c) In order to improve water quality, clean water nomic development in this canal area, the volume in the river was drawn by operating the water of waste water discharged annually from households gate of the canal at high tide. and factories into the canal increased, and water pol- lution annually became worse. Around 1955, the de- Figure 2-12 shows the result of the clean-up gree of contamination in the canal was the worst plan implementation. BOD load decreased drasti- and constituted a severe health threat in the city. cally since 1968 and remained at low level from 1972 Therefore, the city of Osaka designed and provided onward. the following clean-up plan in 1965. Implementa- tion was made during 1966-1970. Countermeasures for industrial waste As the pollution regulations accompanying industrial de- a) Trunk sewers were installed at both sides of the velopment got stricter, waste originating from waste river banks in order to draw waste water into water/exhaust gas treatment processes also in- the sewage treatment plant. For the installation, creased. The"Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing both sides of the river banks were reclaimed. Law," a revision of the "Public Cleansing Law,"first BOD'Year Average (mg~/1) Fgr -2 Figure ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ igr 222sow h-rsl1o2h:cenu ____ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ___Effect of __ _ _ _Sewerage plan impemetaton BOioddceaenrsi Shirokita calysice198ind remindotjowleelfrmi97 .tev onard. Observation r o o md Shirokita River 60 40 EConstructionf o .Sewer System 0 60 65 70 75 Chapter 2 27 distinguished industrial wastes from general wastes. lution became a serious problems and full-scale re- However, the City of Osaka recognized the impor- search on air pollution started around 1962. In 1967, tance of industrial waste treatment and conducted the idling adjustment was implemented to control joint research on the volume of wastes with the CO. The Osaka prefecture and the city with the co- Osaka prefecture in 1968 to collect data for promot- operation of the automobile-related groups, estab- ing area-wide waste treatment works. According to lished the "Osaka Conference for Automobile Ex- the city's research on verifying the companies'de- haust Gas Control"in 1968 and promoted the cam- sires for public sector involvement with industrial paign to control automobile exhaust gas by an idling waste treatment in the Nishi Yodobashi ward, two- adjustment. In 1972, the Environment Agency an- thirds of the companies favored a lump-sum treatment nounced the implementation of the"Guidelines for by the city of Osaka. The Waste Disposal and Public Permissible Level of Automobile Exhaust,"the Japa- Cleansing Law provided that the industrial waste dis- nese counterpart to the US Clean Air Act's amend- chargers should be responsible for their waste disposal. ments of 1970. In 1974, seven large cities including However, because of a lack of waste treatment facili- Osaka, formed the"Research Association on Auto- ties and the existence of many small and medium- mobile Exhaust Gas for Seven Large Cities,"which sized industries without enough capabilities, the city contributed to promoting exhaust gas regulation. concluded that the industrial wastes should be treated by the public sector in cooperation with companies, Integrated measures against automobile pollution and further examined the forms of public involvement (mainly nitrogen dioxide) since the t98os CO con- with industrial waste treatment works. centration in the city of Osaka decreased yearly. It has met the environmental standard since 1980 in Also, Osaka city did not have sites for the new both long-term and short-term assessments. Air treatment facilities and consulted with Osaka pre- pollution caused by nitrogen dioxide emerged and fecture about the effective measures. As a result of various measures were taken. However, nitrogen this effort, the city, along with the Osaka prefecture dioxide pollution in the urban area did not show a established the"Osaka Industrial Waste Treatment significant improvement. This fact required inte- Corporation."The purpose of this corporation was grated measures to control automobile traffic and to provide industrial waste treatment service by improve roadside environment in the medium- and public sector involvement while charging an appro- long-term point of view. In 1980, the City of Osaka priate treatment fee from companies. focused on mobile source of pollution and con- ducted studies on quantitative assessment method From the Period of Industrial Pollution to the of environmental improvement impacts of emission Period of Urban Pollution (1980s) reduction or traffic control. The"Osaka Automobile Pollution Prevention Program" was formulated in This section presents countermeasures for air pol- 1989, setting a reduction target of nitrogen oxide lution by automobiles (typical urban and life-ori- emission from automobiles in order to protect the ented pollution) since the 1960s. environment along the main trunk roads in the city. The purpose of the plan is to meet the environmen- Automobile pollution control (since the 1960's) tal standards by the year 2000. The four items to implement this measures are: 1) to regulate emission Under the municipal leadership With a signifi- sources, 2) to control traffic volume, 3) to improve road- cant increase in the number of automobiles, CO pol- side environment, and 4) to raise public awareness. 28 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program The relationship of economic indicators and The Relation of the environmental indicators Environment and the Economy The relationship of shipment values of manufac- in Osaka tured goods and insoluble dustfall Figure2-13 With regard to the relation between the economic shows a change in shipment values of manufactured situation and environmental pollution and its coun- goods and dust fall. It also shows air pollution coun- termeasures in Osaka, we have analyzed the data termeasures in the same period. As the nickname of air pollution and land subsidence which have "Smoke City" indicates, the City of Osaka in the been accumulated since the pre-war period. pre-war period had a serious air pollution problem, but occasionally made efforts to control soot and Economic indicators The "Shipment Values of smoke.The anti-soot and smoke campaign in 1928, Manufactured Goods" were used as economic in- as well as recession, successfully reduced dust fall. dicators and were converted to the 1985 value by However, as the economy was restored, dust fall using a pre-war standard wholesale price index to remained unchanged. Accompanied with the eco- account for deflation. nomic revitalization in the post-war period, dust fall quickly reached the pre-war level. Around 1955, the Environmental indicators For the environmen- shipment values of manufactured goods surpassed tal indicators, we used volume of the insoluble dust that in the pre-war period, and thereafter, had al- fall which has been monitored since 1928 and the most increased in a straight line until 1973. Dust land subsidence distance since 1934. Measurement fall had remained unchanged until 1963. The na- values of dust fall at the Sanitary Institution were tional fuel conversion policy from coal to oil begin- adopted. With respect to land subsidence, the moni- ning in 1955, and the citv's soot and smoke control toring point with the largest distance among many measures since the latter half of 1950 greatly con- monitoring points was adopted. tributed to the control of dust fall. The Soot and Insoluble Dust Fall (t/e/month) Shipment Values (Billion yen) Figure 2-13: 20 reatonhi000 Sales of Novtu and gooe Fuel Conversionn Industrial shows_a_change_in shipmentJ. values ofProducts and 15 Inolf 6.000 Insoluble god a fDust Fall, termeasures in_th s p d t c 10 - ____ ____ -"' ~1928-78 e-- - Law f pr Control of Air PolluI rol Law S.t and Smoke [da rmn30 35 40 45 50 55 u g 65 70 75 Deflator 1985 =1 Chapter 2 29 Smoke Control Regulation Law in 1964 was very shows the costs of the industrial water supply from effective in reducing dust fall. 1950. The land subsidence identified in the pre-war period increased in accordance with the increase in The reasons why the degree of air pollution in shipment values of manufactured goods. During the City of Osaka in the post-war period did not WWII and the following five years, land subsidence exceed serious levels of the pre-war period were fuel almost did not occur. With an increase in shipment conversion and soot and smoke control measures. quantities since 1949, subsidence resumed. Al- Also, the economic fluctuations affected the emis- though the subsidence velocity is relatively slower sion of soot and smoke. The emission tends to in- than that in the pre-war period, subsidence in- crease when the economy is prosperous. creased regardless of any economic fluctuations.Two reasons explain the slow subsidence velocity. One The relation of shipment values of manufactured reason is the construction of the industrial water goods to land subsidence Figure 2-14 shows a supply. Another reason is the recovery of the level change in shipment values of manufactured goods of ground water due to the intermission of the and accumulated distance of land subsidence. It also pumping up of ground water. Figure 2-14: Accumulated Cost of Works for Industrial Accumulated Industrial Water (Billion yen) Products and Land Subsidence (a) Industrial Products (Billion yen) Accumulated 0 o.0 good 40 andwIndustrial i54 f59 '61 y64'65 1928-1978 1* ------- almost-2 ddno-thoccur. With aniceaei 0simn Subsidence, atencWo1k4, susiene_esme._l tthesubienlatey v land Subsidence Costof Works ri suc industrial4water 4.000 20 supl.znohe, Results of CD Simnulation of Air Pollution t~ in Nishi Yodogawa uý Ward Chate ...47. Based on the above figure, the rate of SOx ef- treatment equipment and by measuring the state fected from various sources in NishiYodogawa ward of local pollution. was estimated. With respect to the areas with high concentrations of pollution, the results were: 14% The simulation method not only estimates the due to large pollution sources, 26% due to medium concentration in limited observation points, but also pollution sources, 28% due to small pollution approximate the overall pollution concentration sources, and 32% due to the impacts from neigh- map, as well as gives guidelines for the precise re- boring cities. The City of Osaka calculated the "re- duction in the pollution contribution rate of each duction rate for each corporation"based on the es- pollution source. Consequently, it is currently used timated results about the effecting rate from each in designing air pollution control measures. It was factory/business establishment in Nishi Yodogawa an epoch-making event that the city could intro- ward. Furthermore, in October 1971, the city pro- duce the method at that time. vided each corporation with the reduction rate as a target in the"Pollution Control Plan"and requested Measures for SOx reduction Measures for SOx individual corporations to draft a"Pollution Control reduction are summarized as follows. The city: Plan."Then, the city judged the submitted "Pollu- tion Control Plans"from a technological standpoint 1) requested a conversion from the original fuel (Table 3-5). to heavy oil with a lower sulfur content or to kerosene and, if it was possible, to LPG or city After November of 1971, the Task Force re- gas (measures for fuel); quested each corporation to carry out the"Pollution Control Plan" and examined the effectiveness of 2) requested changing importers in order to pur- newly-installed pollution control equipment and chase iron ore with a lower sulfur content (mea- measures taken by checking the effectiveness of sures for raw materials); Scale of No. of Date Of Table 3-5: Location industry factory Objectives of programmes implementation Annual SOx Nishi Large industry 4 a Reducing the emission by 47.3% on average, The programme Emission Yodogawa compared with the 1970's emission. came into effect Reduction ward d Promoting the use of low-sulfur (less than 1.0% in Nov. 1, 1971. Program of sulfur content) fuels and materials. (1971) * Installation of stack gas desulfurization equipment in sintering furnace Small/medium 151 d Reducing the emission by 51% on average, sized industry compared with the 1970's emission. t Promoting the use of low-sulfur less than 1.0 % of sulfur content) fuels Total 155 o Reducing the emission by 49.7% on average, compared with the 1970's emission. Amagasaki All factories c Reducing the ground concentration by 60% city of the value of September 1970. Rate of reduction of the Total amount of SOx emission (Nm10hour) 1970 emission level 1967 1970 Target of SOx emission after Nov 1971. (191)* Istllaio961.1 712.6 358.3 49.7% 48 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 3) gave directions for installing treatment facili- serious air pollution such as Tokyo and Osaka. How- ties such as desulfurization equipment and ever, as already described, City of Osaka made an dust-collecting equipment and for improving ambitious plan to meet the standard in two years.The the process to reduce pollutant emission, and measure was designed in 1969 when the environmen- for using high smoke stacks to replace old tal concentration was 0.083 ppm. It was then imple- smoke stacks. mented in 1970 and 1971.The result was that in 1972 the environmental concentration dropped to 0.042 On the other hand, the factories made efforts ppm. Figure 3-4 indicates the change in SOx concen- to respond to the City's request by introducing new tration. The Special Task Force achieved its purpose in treatment technologies which had never been ap- 1973 andwas disbanded.The cityreorganized the"Pol- plied before in Japan. These were dust-collecting lution Regulatory Force"which supervises threelocal equipment for electric furnaces in steel factories, the sections: the "eastem,"central," and "western" parts. equipment which desulfurizes the emissions from the boiler using alkaline liquids while neutralizing TotalEvaluation The major factors which led the effluents in leather factories, and a fusion furnace "Urgent Measures for Air Pollution Control in Nishi for metal with city gas. Yodogawa ward"to success in two years are as fol- lows: When the city first introduced this pollution pre- vention equipment, the"Osaka City Loans for the In- 1) much of the data on the pollution emission stallation of Anti-Pollution Equipment," which sup- sources was accumulated through detailed fac- ports small- and medium-sized companies for con- tory inspections for several years before the plan trolling pollution, was actively used. This factory-by- was designed. factory guidance was introduced by the engineers of the "Special Task Force."The Task Force monitored 2) there was precise and detailed monitoring data pollution and examined and studied various plans with due to a monitoring network that was parti- engineers at the factories.With the cooperation of both tioned into several monitoring points for greater parties, individual plans for pollution control were accuracy; designed. Cooperation was attained because the fac- tory managers or engineers understood the impor- 3) as the result of an air tracer experiment, which tance of using pollution control measures to respond was undertaken with the cooperation of the to the mass media's campaign against pollution. Also, Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Osaka active support came from the"NishiYodogawa Indus- Prefectural Government, the simulation trial Association," which consists of factory owners. method of atmospheric diffusion for the con- Efforts were made to change its members' attitudes tribution of respective from pollution sources towards using pollution control measures. Conse- was established; quently, only a few cases had trouble with the Task Force and its factory inspection. 4) this method became a tool for obtaining scien- tific proof of SOx reduction by factories; Results The major target of the "Urgent Measures for Air Pollution in NishiYodogawa Ward"was to meet 5) the "Anti-Pollution Campaign" through mass the environmental standards of SO2 (0.05 ppm) in two media changed the attitude of apprehensive years.When the standard was established, it was con- residents and companies and became a soci- sidered to be achieved in ten years in the cities with etal demand; Chapter 3 49 Figure 3-4: SOx Concentration (PPM) sox 0.24 SOx : Concentrarion 0.22- ------------- ----------------- in Nishi a - - - 0.-------- -------- --------.I5----- Yodogawa Ward, 0.16 - - - - a - - - -- 1964-75- a I Ia 16-501'---- -.t- --- ---- ------ -------- Monthly Average Value-of SO. Concentration 0.06 - --- ---- ---------------------- ------- ---------------- ------ 0.12---- J --- --L ---------- L --A---------J-- 0.08-------------------- - --- --------------- - 0.06------------. 0.04 ------ ------ --- a- ---- ----- 64/4 65/4 66/4 67/4 68/4 69/4 70/4 71/4 72/4 73/4 74/4 Special Measure Implementation Period 6) corporations were very cooperative with the allocation to the factories that had no choice "Special Task Force for Pollution Control."Al- but to relocate; though the city did not have enough regulatory authority over factories at the time, it could 10) the city exempted soot-and-smoke-treatment implement administrative guidance through facilities from the property tax; case studies or comprehensive dialogues about technolog with factory engineers, without any 11) pollution control technology was underdevel- trouble; oped at this stage.Thus, many factories in Nishi Yocdogawa ward were used as testing grounds. 7) at this stage, the city residents'sentiments were Engineers from the City of Osaka, factories and clearly in favor of pollution control, fostered by equipment manufacturers through cooperation the residents'anti-pollution campaign using lo- continued to develop new technologies through cal self-governed organizations; trial and error. Many of these new technologies were widely introduced throughout the coun- 8) the "Osaka City Loans for the Installation of try; Anti-Pollution Equipment" secured 30 million yen per year as a special loan limit for Nishi 12) focusing on the advancement of pollution con- Yodogawa ward only; trol measures, the City of Osaka prioritized the implementation of anti-pollution measures in 9) the "Purchase System of the Sites of the Relo- its budget allocation as well as in manpower cated Pollution Factories" prioritized the fund development; and 50 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 13) the regulatory standards were strengthened part of the City of Osaka, especially in Joto ward where with the cooperation of the prefectural and the residences and factories mingled, received more cor- central governments. In addition, successful plaints about pollution than they could handle. The implementation of the MITI's anti-pollution complaints were about air pollution, water pollution, measures of decreasing sulfur content of fuels noise, vibrations, and offensive odors. Since the pol- also helped the achievement of city level stan- luting factories in the area were small- and medium- dards. sized and had very limited capacity in pollution con- trol technologies, unsolved pollution problems were increasing one after another. In order to overcome this situation, public and private sectors jointly conducted a series of surveys on pollution-related complaints, the Support System for Pollution factory managers' attitude toward pollution control, ntoconditions of pollution control technology develop- Contrl Meauresment, and people's expectations to the administrative body regarding anti-pollution measures. Based on the results of these surveys, the City of Osaka created a Osaka City Loansfor the Installation of Anti- plan to establish the following support systems: Pollution Equipment 1) establishment of the"Osaka City Loans for the The loan system for ground subsidence Installation of Anti-Pollution Equipment" for prevention The loans for ground subsidence pre- small- and medium-sized companies; vention were one of the first pollution control mea- sures taken in the City of Osaka. In order to avoid 2) establishment of the "Purchase System of the pumping an enormous amount of ground water, Sites of the Relocated Polluting Factories"; which was the main reason of ground subsidence, the City of Osaka provided an industrial water sup- 3) an exemption of the city property tax for pollu- ply system and regulated the pumping of ground tion control facilities; water. However, in regards to pumping ground water for air conditioned buildings in the city since 4) influence on the central government to set the use of an alternative water source was not economi- shorter period of durability of pollution control cal, it was necessary to install a cooling tower to facilities. recycle water. Because it required additional invest- ment to the building owners, the City of Osaka cre- Osaka City Loans for the Installation of Anti- ated a system that mediated loans between the own- Pollution Equipment Based on the results of the ers and banks, and subsidized a half of its interest, above-mentioned surveys and the plan of establish- Subsidy applications were accepted from 1961 to 1964. ing support systems, the city of Osaka first enforced This system dispensed 2.5 billion yen total for the loans the "Osaka City Ordinance concerning the estab- with 300 million yen spent in subsidizing interest and lishment of the anti-pollution equipment fund" in contributed to stopping ground subsidence. 1967. In principle, the companies that caused pol- lution bore the costs of pollution control. Installa- Research on the needs for pollution control support tion of pollution control facilities is a burden on cor- system In 1965, local health centers in the eastern panies in the short term. In this regard, this ordi- Chapter 3 51 nance supported the small- and medium-sized Exemption from the property tax and shortening companies of low financial capacity in installing the of the facilities' durable period Asthecompa- pollution control equipment and taking measures nies increased their investment in pollution control by mediating the loans from banks. facilities, the companies' demand for the exemp- tion from the property tax and shortening of the At the same time, the City of Osaka subsidized facilities'depreciation (durable) period was increas- loan recipients a certain proportion of the loans'in- ingly expressed to the Osaka City Government. The terest in order to give small- and medium-sized City of Osaka instituted the property tax exemption companies easy access to loans.The number of com- in order to facilitate the companies' installation of panies that used the loan greatly increased. Twenty- pollution control equipment. In 1966, the city de- four loans (worth 87 million yen) were given in 1967 cided that soot and smoke treatment facilities should and 88 loans (worth 270.67 million yen) were given be exempted from paying property tax4. Then, the in 1968. This loan subsidy system has continued to city increased the types of facilities that qualified work advantageously up to the present (1993), with for exemption as pollution-related laws and ordi- an improvement made to the content. By the end nances were established. Furthermore, since many of 1991, 2,351 loans (worth about 19.1 billion yen) companies required to depreciate the pollution con- were granted. trol equipment in shorter term, the City of Osaka repeatedly asked the central govemnment to shorten Upon financing, the City of Osaka, the Credit the durable period of pollution control facilities.This Security Association and the bank conclude the fol- request was finally accepted. lowing contract: Purchase System of the Site of Relocated * the total amount of loan consists of one part the Pollution Source Facilities City of Osaka to more than two parts the bank. Background In 1966, the City of Osaka started the * with regard to the loan based on the contract, purchase system for the old factory sites utilizing the credit security of the Association is attached. an urban development fund in order to implement a total redevelopment plan that would improve * as the subrogation of the Association's credit se- downtown Osaka. In 1967, the City of Osaka de- curity, the City of Osaka provides subsidy to the signed the "Osaka City Comprehensive Plan," in Association, etc. which the City aimed at separating housing from factories, and used the above-mentioned 'urban The purposes and the contents of the pollution development fund" in order to relocate factories control measures are examined by the city, security which caused pollution. However, the purchase sys- and surety are examined by the Association. The fi- tem was limited to large sites extending more than nal decision of loan is done by the loan examina- 10,000 in. One of its disadvantages was that it could tion committee consisting of the city of Osaka, the not be applied to small- and medium-sized com- Association and the banks.The repayment rate from panies which were often the troublemakers. Some 1967 to 1993 is 95.9%. factories that had serious disputes with residents over the pollution surrounding the housing pos- Large corporations could apply for loans from sessed small sites and no space for installing pollu- the Japan Environmental Corporation and the Ja- tion control facilities. Before the establishment of pan Development Bank. the Air Pollution Control Law, laws and ordinances 52 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program gave neither the nation, prefectures nor the cities any authority to stop operations of the polluting Promotion of Automobile companies. Taking advantage of that lack, some companies continued to operate, asserting that they had a right to run their business. This created an impassioned dispute over pollution. In order to re- solve that dispute, the administration requested fac- Carbon Monoxide Control Measures tories to relocate and purchased their old sites for establishing a relocation fund. This solution was also Due to increased vehicular traffic, carbon monox- effective in terminating the business owners' inten- ide (CO) emission from automobiles became one tion of building factories at small sites in residential of the most serious air pollution problems. The city areas. started a full-scale investigation of pollution in 1962. It concluded that air pollution caused by exhaust Purchase System of the Site of Relocated Pol- gas in Osaka was concentrated in fixed points (ie, lution Source Facilities In 1968, the city in- traffic congestion alongtrunk roads andmajorcross- spected and identified city-wide the factories that ings). Between 1966 and 1968 the research on CO should be relocated in order to solve pollution explored indicated that the average concentration problems and established the purchase system in per hour (over an 8 hour period) at major crossings 1969. Seventy-two factories, covering 192,780 M2, was 2-29 ppm. This indicated extremely serious were relocated under this system by the end of pollution conditions. Cognizant of the importance 1991.The" Sales System for the Old Contaminated of air pollution caused by exhaust gas, the central Sites of Factories,"designed by the City of Osaka, goverment started to regulate new cars'CO emis- became a model for the "Industrial Relocation sion in September1966. In December1967, the cen- Promotion Law" designed by MITI in 1972. The tral government instructed the automobile indus- results of the city's identification of the factories try circle to inspect the exhaust gas of the cars in led to the installation of the Osaka branch of the use. In order to effectively regulate exhaust gas Industrial Relocation and Coal Mining Area De- emission of automobiles, and especially to carry out velopment Corporation, which was formed based proper guidance of exhaust gas inspection, the City on the"Industrial Relocation Promotion Law."Af- of Osaka contracted a study on the exhaust gas con- ter the Osaka branch was established under the trol by adjusting the engine's idling.The study was guidance of the Corporation, large factories that conducted in Paris with the cooperation of univer- were located in the relocation promotion area des- sities and automobile makers. Based on the results ignated by the Law were able to smoothly relo- of this study, the Osaka City Pollution Control cate to the designated industrial park. Therefore, Council recommended in 1967 that the City autho- the disputes over pollution decreased yearly and rize requirements for the adjustment of the engine's the difficult situation was settled. Land purchased idling for CO emission control. The City first imple- in this way is sometimes converted into parks or mented this measure in official business cars to study other open public space, thus improving the ur- its implementation and the possibility of develop- ban environment. The major items of the purchase ing a campaign. Since the city obtained favorable system addressed by the law were: 1) the loan for results, this measure was expanded to private cars. the purchase of old sites of factories; 2) the loan for the relocation fund; and 3) the subsidy for pro- The Osaka Prefectural Govemment and the City moting factory relocation, of Osaka established the "Osaka Automobile Ex- Chapter 3 53 haust Control Measures Promotion Committee" in resulted in the "Announcement of Promoting Au- coolperation with the relevant automobile industry tomobile Exhaust Control"and the formation of the circles in 1968, and started a campaign to control "Investigating Commission for the Regulation of automobile exhaust through the adjustment of the Automobile Exhaust in Seven Large Cities."The engine's idling. Furthermore, to institute this regu- commission performed various activities, including lation, street guidance of controlling automobile ex- researching the automobile makers' reactions to haust were simultaneously implemented with the regulations and the state of and prospects for tech- cooperation of the Osaka Prefectural Police Head- nological development in the auto industry. It also quarters. In 1966, the City of Osaka conducted the arranged for a televised public hearing on prospec- first questionnaire survey on the actual state of pol- tive exhaust treatment technology in the auto in- lution with the residents who lived around the ma- dustry. Due to the cooperation of the mass media, jor crossings. In 1967 the city conducted a study on this hearing initiated great national concern. Bol- driving patterns in the city in order to obtain basic stered by this national concern, in 1978 automobile data necessary for controlling automobile exhaust. exhaust regulations were completely executed ac- cording to the original guidelines. Beginning with the campaign of adjusting the idling of automobile engine (See ANNEX 3), steady The group of seven cities then proceeded to efforts of the Osaka Automobile Exhaust Measures form the "Automobile Technology Evaluation Promotion Committee finally strengthened the le- Committee" in 1975, which researched the cor- gal implementation of regulations to control exhaust position of the exhaust produced by domestic au- gas and helped reduce the concentration of CO year tomobiles and conducted an evaluation of the tech- after year. After 1980, the concentration of CO in nology involved in introducing a low-pollution car. Osaka met environmental standards in both long- Moreover, the "Study Group on the Regulation of term and short-term assessments. Since the 1970's, Area-wide Total Emission" was established and it the focus of exhaust-related problems has shifted scientifically researched the emission volume of to NO2. pollutants such as nitrogen oxides in order to ascer- tain the required amount of reduction in traffic vol- Regulation of automobile exhaust by municipal ume. These activities, from the point of view of the leadership municipalities facilitated the implementation of measures directed at countering automobile pollu- In 1972, regulations based on the "Guidelines for tion in Japan. the Permissible Level of Automobile Exhaust" (the Japanese counterpart of the 1970 Amendments in Comprehensive measures against automobile the US Clean Air Act) and aimed at regulating CO, pollution hydrocarbon, and NO by 1976 were announced by the Environment Agency. However, in 1974, regu- Environmental standards on sulfur dioxide and car- lation of NO became difficult because of techno- bon monoxide were met. However, with respect to logical difficulties. Recognizing that the automobile nitrogen dioxide, the countermeasures for station- pollution control was the most important issue con- ary sources of pollution progressed but the pollu- cerning urban pollution, a meeting took place with tion of nitrogen dioxide in the urban area did not the mayors of seven large cities, including Tokyo, improve. It was necessary to take comprehensive Yokohama, Kawasaki, Nagoya, Kyoto, and Kobe. It measures, including taking control of the demands 54 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program of traffic, and making a provision to improve the a large part of the city has a soft alluvial soil layer road conditions as a medium- and long-term pros- that has been accumulating for around 1Othousand pect. In 1979, the Promotion Committee declared years. Since the alluvial soil layer is 35m thick and that the nitrogen oxides countermeasures were im- is not enough solidified in coastal areas, land sub- portant, and put forth four items: 1) self-control in sidence occurs easily. Thus, subsidence in the city driving automobiles; 2) formulation of a safe and caused problems in the former half of the 1900s. In orderly flow of traffic that practiced moving at the the post-war period, the City of Osaka became a proper speed; 3) enforcing regular check of cars and model of full-scale pollution prevention activity raising people's awareness of black diesel smoke manifesting in acts such as the implementation of control; and 4) popularization of electric automo- regulations by ordinance and public and private re- biles. quests for legislation to prevent subsidence. Also, the City of Osaka formed the "Roadside Pre-war Period Environment Research Committee" to conduct the research on emission reduction measures, traffic The first leveling of the city was conducted in 1885. control methods, and the methodology of a quanti- Since then, evey two or ten years, national surveys tative analysis on the environmental effects of these have been conducted. It was the 1928 survey that response measures for their promotion. Moreover, first discovered that the northwestern coastal indus- the"cOsaka City Automobile Pollution Control Plan" trial area in the city had subsidence. The City of was formulated in 1990. The plan set a reduction Osaka officially recognized it in 1933, and began target of nitrogen oxides emitted from automobiles leveling in the entire city. This survey has continued in order to meet environmental standard of N02 at up to the present without interruption, even during the surroundings of major trunk roads in the city in the war. There are two methods of ground subsid- the year 2000. Four major components of the plan ence observation; one is the standard survey to ob- were: 1) response measures concerning the sources serve the change of surface level, and the other is of pollution, 2) traffic volume reduction measures, monitoring of wells of different depths to check the 3) roadside anti-pollution measures, and 4)anti- ground water level and to measure the difference pollution campaigns. In addition, the City of Osaka between the top point of the well and the ground set up a loan/subsidy system for purchasing low- due to land contraction. The worst period of sub- pollution cars, such as electric and gasoline cars, sidence occurred during 1935-40. Subsidence al- which discharge less nitrogen oxides than diesel most stopped in 1943 and 1944. However, within a ones. decade, some areas sank 100 cm. The chief actions taken during the pre-war period were continuous monitoring, research on the possible cause, and Land Subsidence Preventive construction of a breakwater. Measures In the Post-war Period Although land subsidence can be halted, the sub- sided land cannot be recovered, and a huge amount After the war, subsidence ceased, and the ground of costs is required to stop subsidence. Therefore, water level increased because industrial activities preventive measures are of the most importance stopped. As soon as those activities resumed, so did against land subsidence. As chapter one indicated, subsidence. Thus, the correlation between subsid- Chapter 3 55 ence and the pumping of ground water (strictly ditional burdens for 1). Therefore, the measures speaking, between subsidence and the ground wa- taken in 3) were very important. ter level) became clear (Figure 2-9 in Chapter 2) and as a result, measures for subsidence prevention fully After the "Jane Typhoon" in 1950 caused mas- started. This demonstrates the importance of ob- sive damage, the City of Osaka and the Osaka Pre- taining environmental information when designing fectural Goverment spent a large sum of money pollution control measures. effecting strong measures for controlling floods caused by high tide in order to protect Osaka from The measures taken to counter subsidence are water damage. The measures taken encompassed as follows: 1) protection for areas where high tide the construction of a breakwater (124 ki), the de- due to subsidence causes damage including the con- velopment of tidal sluice, raising of bridges, and the struction of a breakwater, the provision of a drain- embankment of coastal port area. In order to grasp age facility, and raising of bridges; 2) the monitor- the mechanism of subsidence, geographical research ing of subsidence; and 3) preventive measures (Fig- using deep boring, as well as the standard survey, ure 3-5). The measures in 1) were urgently needed was conducted. In 1951, the City also started con- to protect the citizens' lives and properties. How- structing an industrial water supply system, an al- ever, insufficient action taken in 3) would create ad- tenative to pumping ground water. The first offl- Figure 3-5: Structure of the Cyfsa dh akP ResponseI III I Actions Urban Function Recovery Projcts Clarifying the present conditions Against Land measures for controlling floods Subsidence- nstrction of ide embankment Research & Analysis Monitoring of groundwa ka level thesrcto cosruto ofda aat E boreawte 14 m,th e voeprovement of drainage facilities r o s Embankment of subside area onfdtifying the cause of land subsidenceo thesin mehais ofgh susiene georapica reeac Rssinghieepboas the excessive use of groundwater Industrial water sater for buildings Installation of industrial eve oping ternatve romoting te pmprovement water supply system water resources of water use sy stemn -Escablishing the financial assistance system Sueducion of afixed propeS tax Regulation on the controo of Industrial Water Law groundwater pumping___ City Ordinance AcLaw concerning Regulation of Groundwater Pumping for Use in Building 56 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program cial regulation for subsidence prevention was the Osaka Prefectural Government, the City of Osaka, "Osaka Prefectural Ordinance for Civil Engineer- and the Osaka business circles.The Council actively ing Regulation." However, this regulation was not developed activities for national legislation that applied because it did not have a provision regard- banned the pumping of ground water. The City of ing an alternative water supply. Osaka prepared for the ban by setting up a new subsidence prevention division under the Planning Subsidence due to the over-pumping of ground Bureau and an Industrial Water Division under the water and the deteriorating quality of the ground Waterworks Bureau. water (saltwater intrusion) became a serious prob- At first, the national government was reluctant lem in industrial areas in Tokyo. MITT started a na- tional subsidy for industrial water supply works in todptte strit at the pu of June of 1956, and it established the "Industrial Wa- gron wat c ight t wr aer re - ter Law" to promote rational use of ground water trici o nional rsbielae reonied in industrial areas. Based on that law, the City of th necessity of nentsusienesmeasures. Osaka restricted construction of new wells from 1959 onwards. ter Law" and the "Law concerning Regulation of Pumping up of Ground Water for Use in Building" Around this time, subsidence existed not only were instituted. As a result of applying very strict in industrial areas but also in the city center. This technical standards to the pumping of ground wa- was caused by the large amount of water pumped ter (the vent of a water-pump machine for a well for air conditioners in buildings during the sum- was less than 21 cm2; the strainer was installed more mer. The installation of a cooling tower was chosen than 600 m deep in the western area and 500 m as an appropriate measure. Since the cooling tower deep in the eastern area), use of ground water was could replace the use of ground water, in 1959 the in fact nearly impossible. Since these laws covered City of Osaka established the"Osaka City Ordinance both new and old wells, the regulations on the for Ground Subsidence Prevention," the first of its pumping of water progressed a lot. By the Decem- kind in the nation, and regulated the pumping of berof1968, ground water was no longer used with water for building use.The loan and the subsidy for this facility conversion project was allocated in De- by enactment of the"Law concerning Regulation of cember 1961. Pumping up of Ground Water for Use in Building". aDurn hes businessth ciles.Theoncil active Since the ordinance only regulated new wells, d tis o tilet a the pumping of ground water by old wells still con- complete leveling survey for ground subsidence tinued, and the volume of the water pumped did monitoring and created a monitoring network with not decrease. High tide caused by the second the cooperation of the national government and Muroto Typhoon in September of 1961 flooded municipalities in its neighborhood. In 1963, the city about one-third of the city. In October 1961, the researched the strata of 1,000m depth by boring Osaka City Council made a request to draft the city machine and increased the number of wells to moni- thernecessitenfenewndouterouubsidecermeasures ordinance concerning the total ban on the pump-el ing of ground water. In November, the "Osakain u Council for the Comprehensive Countermeasures La the snk oa water-pe facrines surgell Against Ground Subsidence"was established by thet e ne e oe Chapter 3 57 shock generated by this incident, an incentive was form a strong pressure group and introduced finan- created for promoting subsidence countermeasures cial support measures for corporations.These mea- with the firm cooperation of the public and private sures became the foundation for the supporting sectors. Despite the restriction of private rights the measures for corporations and for more stringent city ordinance aimed to regulate the rights to ground regulations when full-scale counter-pollution mea- water pumping in order to protect the welfare of sures were implemented. A pattern of pollution con- the public by preventing subsidence. Further, to re- trol measures undertaken by the cooperation be- quest stricter regulatory measures by the national tween private and public sectors was formed. government, private and public sectors joined to 58 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Chapter Four: Environmental Protection Measures in the Private Sector This chapter focuses on the environmental protec- corporations but also jointly by all of the industry tion measures carried out by the private sector in circle members. The committee gave speeches and Osaka. Four examples are presented: private cor- held meetings discussing problems and possible porations; measures for the environment and for control measures for industrial pollution, and con- energy and resource conservation in medium-sized ducted a corporate management symposium on in- steel maker; sand blast dust treatment measures in dustrial pollution based on administrative data and small factories; and joint treatment facilities for in cooperation with academia. Also, by sending waste water of steel acid washing. missions to the US and Europe, the committee thor- oughly researched the current countermeasures for industrial pollution with the cooperation of the other business groups in Kansai region. Private Corporations In 1969, at the"Corporate Management Sympo- sium on Industrial Pollution," in which the major cor- porate managers in the Kansai region participated, The Osaka Industrial Association participants affirmed their aoitude towards industrial pollution raising the following major: The Osaka Industrial Association, which consists of corporate manufacturing managers, was established 1) It is natural that corporations should avoid caus- in 1914 at a time when Japan underwent rapid in- ing pollution since the overall purpose of eco- dustrial conversion from light industry to heavy and nomic activities is to improve the life of the chemical industries. Its purposes were to advance people. Therefore, pollution control should not the common interests of the manufacturers, such be considered an external pressure, but a man- as technological innovation through the members' agement requirement. activities; to promote the local economy; and to encourage progress in industry. (In the entire na- 2) Pollution control is a corporate responsibility to tion, there are only five industrial groups which have the local society. same objectives and activities as this. All of the groups are located in the Kinki Region.) Since then, 3) The regulations in pollution-related laws are using various committees and study groups, the basic rules, and corporations are obligated to Osaka Industrial Association has developed a range follow them. Although pollution control re- of serviceable activities such as mutual education, quires a large sum of money, the costs of pollu- provision of information, and occasional policy sug- tion control should be considered an important gestions stemming from research and discussions. element in management, just like the costs for labor, finance, materials, and technology. Fur- In 1965, industrial and urban pollution became ther, not only local factories but also manage- a major social problem, and local residents stridently ment itself has to take responsibility for pollu- demanded that the corporations should take proper tion control. Pollution problems should be ac- pollution control measures. The Osaka Industrial tively discussed by national goverment, mu- Association established the "Pollution Prevention nicipalities, corporations, and residents at the Committee" believing that pollution countermea- same table. The corporations have to recognze sures should be implemented not only by individual that they, too, are part of society. Chapter 4 59 Such attitudes by the management caused great taken by the Japan Environmental Corporation, and response from every field and generated a large the utilization of computers in pollution control. movement to solve pollution problems in the City of Osaka. Considering the importance of an active Furthermore, acknowledging that pollution re- exchange of information among corporations in moval is one of the requirements of corporate man- promoting an effective pollution control program, agement and that the development of human re- the Pollution Control Committee conducted a study sources is very important in promoting the mea- to ascertain what pollution countermeasures were sures systematically in the long run, the Osaka Bu- taking place in factories in 1971. The following are reau of International Trade and Tndustiy the Osaka the points of the result of the research: prefecture, and the City of Osaka supported estab- lishing the"Kansai Pollution Prevention Study Cen- 1) the actual conditions of complaints about fac- ter"in 1971. They also started an educational train- tories and their responses; ing program for the entire corporate staff from the management down to the local workers. This cen- 2) the current and foreseeable future problems in ter offered five courses whose contents are given in pollution management: a lack of active tech- Table 4-1. The lecturers were drawn from related nological guidance and support for funding, the government agencies, research institutes, academia, need for administrative unification, a demand experts in various industries, labor leaders, and edi- for regulatory guidance from a long-term stand- tonal writers for newspapers. The lectures were point, and the need for favorable measures in given for four years, between 1971 and 1974, and a finance and taxes; total of 1300 people participated; the lectures were quite successful. Thereafter, the "Law for the Estab- 3) the influence of expenditures for pollution con- lishment of Organization for Pollution Control in trol (although corporations increased their pro- Specified Factories" was established in 1972. This duction sales, and cut their expenditure as a law required certain special factories to employ a countermeasure, 34% of them reported a de- specialist for pollution control beginning in 1972. crease in profit); Also, the center modified its curriculum and started providing a course for pollution control managers 4) the factors which make it difficult to solve pol- who have national licenses; since the provision of lution problems (lack of fund, undeveloped pol- the laws in the early 1970's, pollution control regu- lution control technology, lack of sites for pol- lations has been gradually strengthened. At the lution control facilities, inadequate city plan- same time, there existed a trend among industries ning, etc.). that they should put forth opinions to the adminis- tration, and do what was necessary to improve the In order to learn and carry out effective and environment. The Osaka Industrial Association held suitable pollution control technology promoting an administrative meeting with the Osaka prefec- pollution control measures, corporate staff in the ture. Then, a similar meeting was held with the City pollution control division established a study group of Osaka and the central government. The meet- in 1 968. The study group focused on the current and ings are still being conducted to the present day. the anticipated future problems in pollution-related Such meetings made for better understanding be- laws, litigation cases dealing with pollution, pollu- tween the industries and the administration and tion economics, the pollution control works under- created a firm relationship between them. This 60 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program played a very important role in promoting the im- regardless of the size and type of the business. The provement of the local environment. original purpose of the association was to promote the development of the local economy and society. The Osaka Industrial Association actively made In 1970, as social awareness of pollution gradually an effort to control pollution earlier than other eco- spread, pollution control measures became an ur- nomic groups. It launched beneficial activities such gent issue for all companies. The Osaka Chamber as research on pollution control technology, educa- of Commerce and Industry had a contract with MITI, tion about pollution countermeasures, and the cre- and set up an "Industrial Pollution Consultation ation of basic dialogue between and cooperation Office."The goals of this consultation works were among government, academia, and industries, in to give guidance regarding pollution control tech- conjunction with the economic groups in Osaka. The nology, funding and relevant laws to companies that Osaka Industrial Association continues to do such were interested in preventing industrial pollution; activities even now. The companies have consis- to prevent member companies from causing pollu- tently tried to solve pollution problems by focusing tion; and to increase the recognition of pollution on the local area. This background became the foun- control in order to protect the environment. In or- dation for improving the environment in Osaka. der to achieve these goals, the office provided a win- dow consultation, a local technological consultation, The Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry classes and consultation meetings on pollution-re- lated laws, and other works in public relations. Table The Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 4-2 shows the content of the works (The Consulta- established in 1878, consists of all commercial and tion Office was closed in March of 1990 after it industrial workers, which covers everything from achieved its goals). individual retailers to large corporations in the city, Management Executive Course (entrepreneur, company manager) IAcquiring overall knowledge on pollution issues. Table 4-1: *Cultivating the basic philosophy of management executives to deal with pollution issues. Training rTraining pollution control supervisors. Courses in (gl tal training hours: 30 hours) Labor Union Executive Course aIdustial Ad overall knowledge on pollution issues. Pollution SCultivating the basic philosophy of labor unions to deal with pollution issues. Control *Studies on pollution abatement measures. (oa riighus:3 or) Cne Pollution Control Manager Course g the knowledge of pollution abatement technologies and measures. wrTraining the pollution control chief managers. (Total training hours: 92 hours) Pollution Control Technology Expert Course tAcquiring the knowledge of pollution abatement technologies. dTraining the promoters of pollution abatement technology. docoutto R&D staff on pollution abatement technology. (Total training hours: 180 hours) judicial Affairs Course csAcquiring knowledge of pollution legislation. ltResearch on laws and judicial precedents. (Total training hours : 45 hours) Chapter 4 61 1. Regular guidance Table 4-2: The 4 expert counselors were appointed to provide the consulting services concerning pollution prevention Outline of the technologies, pollution laws and regulations, financial assistance and tax incentive systems, and so forth. Office of Industrial Number of counseling cases by type (July 197-March 1971) Pollution Air Water Offensive Consultation Pollution Pollution Noise Vibration Odor Wastes Others Total in Osaka Tech. 30 72 35 16 - 5 4 162 Chamber of Law 11 12 9 7 - 2 18 59 Commerce Financial 7 13 13 10 - - 11 54 Tax 6 1 1 1 - - 2 11 Relocation 2 3 10 6 - - 3 24 Others 9 20 7 9 1 5 41 92 Total 65 121 75 49 1 12 79 402 2. Expert counselors The expert counselors have enough knowledge and experience of pollution control measures. The counselors were appointed from the institutes which were fully independent from the government or any other administrative body. The counseling services were carried with full attention to the specific conditions of those who asked for the counseling on pollution control measures. 3. On-site technical consultation For the enterprises which need technical consultation of pollution control measures on site, pollution research and analysis services were provided by the counselors. 4. Training course In order to deepen the understanding of pollution issues, as well as to propagate the counseling system to the private companies, various training courses were held for manufacturing and other potential polluting industries by inviting pollution experts from governmental or administrative bodies. As pollution control management standards ogy were needed. After the Osaka Chamber of Cor- became stricter with each stipulation of new pollu- merce ard Industry repeatedly talked with economic tion-related laws, it was necessary for companies groups such as the Osaka Interational Trade and to implement pollution control measures, such as Industry Bureau, the Osaka Prefectural Govern- monitoring of corporations. Although it was easy ment, the City of Osaka, and the Osaka Industrial for large companies to implement those measures Association, the "Kansai Industrial Pollution Pre- with their own funding and technological capabil- vention Center" was established in 1972. Start- ity, it was not as easy for small- and medium-sized ing in October of 1972 with the monitoring and companies to provide the necessary materials for analysis of water and air, the monitoring and analy- monitoring and hiring highly skilled engineers. It is sis of different items increased yearly. The number still difficult in terms of human resources, finances, of items was 160,138 in 1977. This was 24 times the and technology for small and medium-sized com- number (6,673) in 1972, and 8.2 times the number panies to improve their facilities and streamline the (19,035) in 1973. Such activities, fostered by the processes. In order to overcome these difficulties, Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry, helped the establishment of neutral, official institutions, small and medium-sized companies that lacked whose major works were the monitoring and analy- sources of funding and technology and greatly con- sis of pollution in contract with small and medium- tributed to the advancement of pollution counter- sized companies; technological consultation and measures on the part of small- and medium-sized guidance; and R & D of pollution control technol- companies. 62 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program The Pollution Control Association monitoring of air pollution, analysis of the effects of pollution upon the human body from the public As Chapter Two indicated, due to the intensifica- health standpoint, economic research on fuel con- tion of soot and smoke problems caused by coal sumption, and implementation of combustion man- combustion, the City of Osaka suggested to orga- agement and soot and smoke control measures. nize the "Soot and Smoke Control Association" at ward level, which would consist of factories and Thereafter, each district continued to have a building-related groups, when it consulted with "Soot and Smoke Control Association."In 1960, the business people in each district health center dur- "Federation for the City of Osaka's Soot and Smoke ing the "Soot and Smoke Control Month" of No- Control Association"was established with all dis- vember 1958. This proposal was based on the prin- trict associations and pollution control spread ciple that fuel users' self-awareness and enthusi- throughout the city. The number of members be- asm are indispensable to clean the air. The "Soot gan with only 27 companies in 1958, but it increased and Smoke Control Association" was first estab- to 1,733 in 1966 and to 2,726 in 1982. The major lished in December of 1958 in the Higashi ward, activities of the "Pollution Control Association"in- where the pollution by soot and smoke emission cluded pollution monitoring by its members or by from heating boilers in buildings was very serious engineers belonging to the Osaka Prefectural In- due to the concentration of office buildings. The dustrial Promotion Group in close cooperation with prospectus of the establishment stated as follows: local health center; consultation for projects or cruise guidance on soot and smoke control; combustion 1) With rapid commercial and industrial de- management; lectures/field trips/meetings on pol- velopment and an increase in population, smog lution control; publication of the association news- coated the city sky, and air pollution and its impacts paper"Kemuri"(" Smoke"); and the giving of awards on buildings became very serious. to facilities and staff that distinctly contributed to controlling pollution. The"Kemuri"reports not only 2) This phenomenon not only damaged the administrative information such as laws, ordinances, scenery in the city, but also caused critical problems regulations, or administrative measures, but also for the citizens' health. presents articles on combustion management tech- nology, pollution control technology, pollution con- 3) Air pollution control in the city was an is- trol measures in each facility, the latest equipment sue which should be solved by cooperation between for pollution control, and an analysis of the status the employers and employees of combustion facili- of the business establishment on pollution control. ties and the citizens. It has contributed greatly to the improvement of the technology in its members, and to an overall in- 4) The purposes of the Association were to crease in awareness of pollution control. contribute to the public welfare through proper Chapter 4 63  Chapter Five: Conclusion 4) To implement the strategy, the City of Osaka Reasons for the Success of formed an administrative organization for pol- Pollution Control Measures in lution control whose members consisted mainly Poluio Cnto l Measure of environmental sanitation monitoring staff the City of Osaka(pharmacists and veterinarians) and technical Japan's administrative structure consists of three lev- staff specializing in civil engineering, architec- els: central, prefectures, and municipalities and mea- ture, machinery and electricity all selected from sures determined by central policy-making are imple- city agencies. Furthermore, the"Pollution Con- mented through them. When industrial pollution be- trol Engineer Group" was quickly organized came prominent, the center and the prefectures had through preferential hiring of university gradu- regulatory authority for industrial pollution through ates with environment and sanitary engineer- laws and prefectural ordinances. Unfortunately, the ing majors. Since they already had a technical measures were neither effective nor concrete. Citizens background, special training was not necessary. who suffered pollution damage complained only to a local administrative branch under the city office which 5) The City of Osaka systematized financial sup- had no authority to act.The City of Osaka passed the port measures, such as the "Osaka City Loan citizens'complaints to the Osaka prefecture, and asked for the Installation of Anti-Pollution Equip- for measures.The complaints sometimes bypassed the ment"and the"Purchase System of the Site of Osaka prefecture and were sent to a branch of the Relocated Pollution Source Facilities"for small- national agency. However, there was almost no re- and medium-sized companies and gave them sponse. There are several reasons for the success priority when dispensing financial assistance. of pollution countermeasures in the City of Osaka under these circumstances: 6) With respect to urban waste water, the city set up guidelines for a basic policy and imple- 1) Ground subsidence has been a critical problem mented infrastructure beginning from the pre- in Osaka since the pre-war period. The public war period. and private sectors cooperatively implemented subsidence prevention ordinances ahead of 7) Thefollowingtwofactorsweremostimportant: national measures, and established a system to i) the city's proper recognition on the impor- implement measures. Osaka used the approach tance of scientific and technological support of public and private cooperation. in the solution of industrial pollution; ii) firm commitment of the top management 2) In the pre-war period, there was a movement and the creation of a reliable technical group to improve air quality on the part of the admin- were key to the success of the measures to istration, researchers and business circles, and control industrial pollution. various data was accumulated. These prepara- tions led to soot and smoke control in the 1950s. 8) The reasons for the success of measures to control soot and dust and SOx in the city were a 3) The Osaka mayor prioritized removal of indus- national fuel policy which demanded conversion trial pollution as the most important policy in from the use of coal to the use of oil, and an energy the city and designed a strategy for pollution policy which favorably allocated lower sulfur heavy control based on available technology in coop- oil to areas with serious levels of air pollution, like eration with scientists and researchers. Osaka. Chapter 5 65 9) Since gas was already in use city-wide, it was The following elements in the experience of easy for factories to convert to gaseous fuel. Osaka are important for developing countries: 10) The cooperative attitude of local corporations 1) Use scientific methods. In order to design and to pollution control, based on their sense of re- execute the measures based on science and sponsibility towards their local society. technology, staff with a high level of techno- logical expertise should be educated and hired. 11) The groups of private companies such as the Osaka Industrial Association tried to implement 2) Establish a cooperative system between public pollution control measures jointly by all of the and private sectors. This is one of the major industry circle members through meetings and characteristics of the experience of Osaka. The discussions, and by providing training and edu- technical staff in the city administration at the cation, etc. city and district levels and the engineers in fac- tories cooperated, and enhanced technical stan- 12) The support from mass media that appealed to dards. residents was a very important factor. 3) Encourage industry associations to establish Around 1970 in Japan, the problem of pollu- waste minimization and pollution control com- tion worsened due to rapid industrial expansion. mittees and advice functions to provide out- Since pollution had an adverse effect upon all parts reach and training to their members. of society, including residents, corporations, and administrations, solving the problem of pollution 4) Focus on hot-spot areas in the city for inten- became an important national issue. At that time, a sive pollution control measures to achieve de- large sum of money was invested into controlling sirable results. pollution, and the investment was part of the basis for economic growth. Thereafter, the gain from en- 5) Establish a financial system that supports cor- ergy saving balanced the cost of pollution control porations which introduce pollution control measures through process change. technology. The City of Osaka created a system which helped small- and medium-sized com- panies that were short on financial resources. Under that system, a loan was released after technical screening of treatment equipment was Technology Transfer to onducted. Developing Countries With respect to pollution control equipment, Technology transfer in terms of environmental pro- the applicability of hard-ware technology to de- tection includes both administrative measures, and veloping countries depends on the certain con- hard technology, such as pollution control equip- ditions. Without considering these following con- ment. Politics, the administrative system, and eco- ditions, technology transfer will fail: nomic conditions are diverse in developing coun- tries. Therefore, the pollution countermeasures in 1) Energy supply The appropriate control equip- developing countries should be selected according ment depends upon the available energy to its local applicability, sources and their reliability. For example, if mu- 66 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program nicipal gas is provided in the cities, its use can 5) Educational standards: Training requirements greatly improve air quality. for engineers differ significantly, depending on their educational level. Pollution control equip - 2) Technical Capability: Since equipment needs ment which needs high technical expertise for maintenance, it is necessary to consider the maintenance should not be selected unless parts production capability and the repair ca- highly educated engineers can be hired. pability of small enterprises. Pollution control equipment which cannot be handled by the A prerequisite for effective pollution control technical capability of users should be phased measures is to ascertain current conditions. In or- out. der to comprehend the characteristics of air pollu- tion, for example, it is necessary to know how it di- 3) The legal system, location conditions, and lutes in time and space. It is sufficient to have a degree of environmental pollution: These monitoring system that combines minimum auto- three factors should be considered when deter- matic monitoring stations with maximum simple mining the most efficient method of removing monitoring points selected on a case-by-case basis. pollution. It is also necessary to take the local Having a monitoring system which needs expen- environmental conditions into account. sive maintenance costs should be avoided, although some Japanese municipalities use it. Each individual 4) Economic strength of industries: Substantial treatment equipment cannot be discussed here. funds are needed to maintain the pollution con- However, many factories in the City of Osaka are trol and the monitoring equipment. Adequate using different pollution control facilities, varying pollution control equipment should be selected, in treatment method, treatment efficiency, and fa- taking into account the capital, operational and cility size. This equipment should be good reference maintenance costs, and financial capability of when introducing pollution control equipment to the firm to pay for them. developing countries. Chapter 5 67  ANNEX 1: Osaka Industrial Association The Osaka Industrial Association was founded in Several study meetings are held for the mutual 1914. The Association started with a foundation enlightenment of members and management im- mainly consisting of the industrial executives but, provement of member companies. University re- in the course of time, it has become necessary for searchers and persons of academic experience are the industrial and economic growth in the Kansai invited to lecture and discuss points focused on the Region to strengthen extensive tie-up and coopera- theme together with members. tion with various sorts of industries, not merely lim- ited to the manufacturing division. As a conse- As described above, the Osaka Industrial As- quence, all the divisions of industries and economy sociation has a long history of activities, among them such as construction, finance, insurance, services are monthly Regular Luncheon Meetings, Monthly have come to join the Association. The total num- Breakfast Meetings and Incentive Tours to Indus- ber of member companies in 1992 was around 1200, trial Areas held once or twice a year. The Monthly consisting of 670 steel, metal machinery, electric, Breakfast Meeting is a social gathering between chemical companies; 190 for construction; 170 for Osaka-based governmental organizations, local commercial; 140 for finance, insurance, services, and governmental heads and officers of the Association. 30 for public utilities and other organizations. The Regular Luncheon Meeting includes visits to well-managed plants and public facilities. Incentive The characteristics of activities of the Associa- Tours to Industrial Areas survey the industrial and tion are that it performs the practical actions, based economic conditions in areas other than Osaka and on the spirit of its foundation, for the mutual en- intercourse with governmental and business people lightenment and interest among members and for in these areas. the industrial and economic development in the Region. The Association has been putting much empha- sis on the cultivation of technical human resources. In addition to these activities, it has increasingly The Association established the Advanced Techni- been called upon to strengthen the international cal Training Institute of Osaka in 1959 with support relationship and contribution for instance, inter- from Osaka Prefectural Government to cultivate course with overseas industrial and economic mis- technical human resources of corporations. Train- sions and Osaka Consulate General. The core of ing and education of technical trainee are conducted such activities as above is the standing committee. at this Institute cooperated by Osaka University, At present, the Association has eight standing and Osaka Prefectural University and others. Yearly, two acting committees.The standing committees are about 500 trainees receive training and so far some on Industrial Policy, Management Development, 20,000 have graduated in total who are now active Judicial Affairs, Financial Affairs, Industrial Technol- at many corporations. ogy, Environmental Problem, Social and Cultural, and International Community Relations. The act- The Association took up the issue of pollution ing committees exclusively deal with the study of in 1967, taking the initiative over other various eco- problems common to the above eight committees nomic organizations. In the same year, the Indus- and their solution, and, at present it has two acting trial Policy Committee invited some lecturers from committees, namely, Global Environmental Prob- Osaka Prefectural Government and universities to lems and Industrial Design Committees. hold lecture meetings, through which the Commit- Annex 1 69 tee was active in enlightening membership compa- The fundamental concept of the Association on nies about the pollution problem. Subsequently, in the pollution prevention is, "To do what must be 1968, the Committee for the Industrial Pollution Pre- done,""To say what must be said." In 1969, the in- ventive Measures Study was founded and govern- dustrial and economic bodies of Kansai dispatched mental specialists in pollution, researchers at uni- to Europe and America"Kansai Mission of Indus- versities and research laboratories were invited to trial Pollution Issues" composed of the top-man- exchange discussions on the environmental coun- agement class of the Kansai business world. Those termeasures. participating in this tour learned through the Euro- pean-American tour that, the social climate highly In 1970, the Pollution Prevention Committee respecting human life and health is deeply rooted separated from the Industrial Policy Committee and region to region and corporations execute feasible is exclusively engaged with the issue of pollution. anti-pollution measures while evaluating its eco- The Pollution Prevention Committee is active in nomic effect. propelling the prevention of industrial pollution and henceforth contributing to industrial development Both authorities and industry understood the compatible with the society. need to frankly discuss concrete countermeasures together, thus,"TheTalkfest for Administrative Poli- In order to carry out these specific goals, the cies"was set up together by Osaka Prefectural Gov- Association established Kansai Pollution Prevention ement and Osaka Industrial Association. The Study Center in 1971, under the joint work with Talkfest was scheduled to be held every year; sub- Kansai Productivity Headquarters and Osaka Train- sequently, emphasis has been placed on driving the ing Center of High Technology, with cooperation regional pollution prevention forward under the by such governmental organizations as Osaka Bu- government-industry cooperation. Such Talkfest is reau of International Trade and Industry, Osaka Pre- held also between the Association and Osaka City fectural Government, Osaka Municipal Govern- Government. This Talkfest stabilized in Osaka not ment, together with Osaka Chamber of Commerce apparent in other regions. It is highly rated as a and Industry, Kansai Economic Federation, Kansai model to advance the regional environmental pro- Committee for Economic Development and Kansai tection measures through dialogues and coordina- Employer's Association. tion between concerned authorities and industries. It is fundamentally necessary to cultivate corpo- In order to expand its range of activities regard- rate personnel to carry on the pollution prevention. ing environmental issues, the Environment Devel- Based on such recognition, the Study Center set up opment Committee in 1977 set up the Special Con- the training course targeted for employees ranging mittee for Environmental Development composed from executive management to manager, plant engi- of clerical managers under the Pollution Prevention neer, foreman at work site. The training for these per- Committee. A proactive approach to global envi- sonnel was conducted over four years, during which ronmental problems has been taken up as a central period about 1300 personnel from Kansai's corpora- task for the committee, and has continued to col- tions received the training. During the period of the lect related information and research. (The Acting trainingp not only specialists from governmental of- Committee for Global Environmental Problems- fices, researchers from universities and laboratories, a direct spin-off of these efforts- first met in 1991.) but also, corporate executives, labor union staff and press editorial writers served as lecturers. 70 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program ANNEX 2: Lead Peroxide Method (PbO2 Method) The lead peroxide method is developed in Britain An increase in the wind velocity increases the as a simple measuring method using the reaction amount of contact with lead dioxide, and as the of SO2 and SO, with lead peroxide PbO2 to form humidity becomes higher, the rate of sampling is lead sulfate, PbSO4. Although this method cannot said to increase by 0.4%. Therefore, if the numeric measure the absolute concentration of SO2 and is values obtained from this method are thought to be also low accuracy, it is a simplified manual analyti- the absolute indication of air pollution, there Will cal method to be convenient in use. It has a wide be a significant risk of misunderstanding the real scope of applications, for example, such as to in- state. In fact, the result obtained from this method vestigate the state of SO2 dispersion around a ther- shows that in summer when the temperature and mal power plant. the humidity are high, the values of the measure- ment are higher than in winter, and that the results The paste of PbO, is applied to cotton cloth, are often quite opposite to the seasonal changes of which is then wound around a porous porcelain the concentration of sulfuric acids in the air mea- cylinder. Provided with a proper shelter from rain, sured with pararosaniline method. This method was the cylinder is left outdoors for a period of time, eg, originally devised in order to obtain a coefficient one month. S02 reacts with PbO2 which obtained showing the activation of sulfur dioxide which will when a sulfuric acid ion is determined by gravimet- injure buildings in the atmosphere, and it may be ric method using barium ion. proper to think that this is an experimental method of getting the coefficient obtained from the combi- SO2 + PbO2 -> PbSO4 nation between the activation of the atmosphere S03 mg/day/100 cm2PbO2 polluted with sulfur oxides under the overall condi- (wl w2)80.100.1 = 4.3wl -w2)tions of sulfur oxides, the velocity of wind, humid- = (w - w2) 80 . 100. 1 = 34.3(wl - ity, and temperature and the activation of lead di- 233 a n a. n oxide itself under those conditions. These things are wherein, what should be especially kept in mind in the case W1: Quantity (mg) of BaSO4 obtained form of a comparison among the numeric values obtained PbO2 cylinder being left in the air. from this method. W2: Quantity (mg) of BaSO4 obtained by blank test. a: Area (cm2) applied with PbO2 great deal of effect on the values of measurement, it n: Number of days for which PbO2 is necessary to use lead dioxide of a certain level of cylinder was left outdoors. quality. What must be taken into consideration when The total cost of the equipment and analysis using this method is that it is conspicuously influ- was about 10 thousand yen in 1990. enced by wind velocity, humidity and temperature. Annex 2 71  ANNEX 3: Campaign for Idling Adjustment Background 0 December1967 through March 1968: Implemen- tation of idling adjustment to 2,000 official cars Around 1967, air pollution caused by automobile belong to Osaka city and prefecture. exhaust gas, especially CO, became a serious prob- lem with the rapid increase in the number of cars. 0 March 1968: Establishment of"OsakaAutomo- The City of Osaka considered the importance of CO bile Exhaust Gas Control Promotion Commit- control measures as it conducted environmental tee" as a nucleus of the campaign promotion measurement at major intersections, surveys of the as citizen's movement. (The members of the impacts on human body and public opinions since committee are 20 groups such as Osaka pre- 1962. fecture, city, Osaka Prefectural Public Head- quarters, Osaka Transportation Bureau, Osaka National government started guidance of CO Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Osaka control to new-model cars in September 1966 and Prefectural Trucking Association, Osaka Auto- new cars made after September 1967. However, to mobile Dealers Federation, etc.) the existing cars in use, there was no applicable measures to be taken. May 1968-: Development of the campaign - Committee members took the lead in adjust- In April 1967, Osaka City Pollution Adminis- ing the idling of their cars. tration Liaison Council proposed the idling adjust- - Public relations (IV, radio, newspaper, post- ment campaign as a tentative plan for automobile ers, etc.) to the citizens. exhaust gas control measures. - Appeal to repair shops and gas stations for adjustment at the time of regular check-up Process of implementation and repair, and put "idling adjusted" stickers on the cars. * April, 1967: Proposal of the campaign came - Appeal car dealers to do adjustment at the from the idling adjustment already imple- sale of new cars and put stickers on the cars. mented successfully in Paris to reduce CO emis- sion in idling. Organizations implemented adjustment Repair shops 45,000 The aduse- * Various surveys conducted by the City of Osaka Car delars 136,000 before the implementation Prefecture, city and other cities 2,420 idle cars (up - establishing patterns of cars in Osaka Gas stati 1,260 1969) - research on idling adjustment methods with Total 185,210 universities - feasibility study on development of the cam- paign (questionnaires sent to car repair shops) 0 August 1970: As a result of this campaign, the control for cars in use by law was started. (CO * Establishment of"Osaka Style"idling adjustment concentration 5.5%) after remodeling Paris Style. By adjusting effec- tively screws of idling adjustment and throttle 0 Thoroughgoing campaign through street inves- adjustment in carburetor and decreasing the fuel tigation of cars in use the car with high CO con- flux without damage to the running capacity, CO centration over CO standards were advised and concentration can be reduced to less than 3%. noticed to do adjustment and improvement. Annex 3 73 CO concentraion The result of Total number the street Year of cars less than 5.5% 5.6-8.9%. more than 9% investigation 1970 5,974 49% 37% 14% 1971 4,452 66% 27% 7% Effects of the campaign * Following this campaign, the other cities de- veloped the similar campaigns, which led to * More than half of adjustment, CO concentra- the enactment of a law for regulation of cars tion reduced to less than 5%. in use. 74 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program ANNEX 4: Environmental Protection Measures in Industries a large amount of exhaust gas, waste water and other Environmental and Energy wastes are discharged. Thus, to solve this pollution Saving Measures in Medium- problem, pollution control equipment is installed, the production process is improved to reduce pol- Sized Steel Industries lution, and clean energy is introduced in accordance This example presents environmental and energy- with the process. Exhaust gas and wastes, which still saving measures in a medium-sized integrated steel contain usable resources, are recycled. Recycling factory. This integrated steel factory, established in waste water reduces the amount of waste water and 1919, has blast and converter furnaces, a non-stop greatly reduces the load of pollutants. Furthermore, steel casting machine, and a rolling mill, and it is each process introduces completely new equipment located in the southern part of the western coastal to protect the environment, and cleans both the in- industrial area of the city. Currently, the capital it tenor and the exterior of the factory. generates is 12.9 billion yen. Its employees number 2,000 and the area taken by the factory site is 0.74 Investment in environmental measures Figure4-1 million m. It produces 2.2 million tons of crude steel shows the investment in environmental measures and with an annual sales profit of 150 billion yen. This SOx and NOx emission. The sum of the money in- factory is one of bigger factories in the city. vested in environmental measures such as air pollu- tion control, waste water treatment, and facilities for Basic Policies of Environmental Protection the enironment approaches approximately 20 billion Measures yen in the past 20 years. Under Figure 4-1, investments as air pollution countermeasures, such as installation The basic policies of environmental protection mea- of major gas treatment equipment and process ur- sures in the factory are: to meet the regulatory stan- provement, are described. Although there is no de- dards of laws and ordinances; to take responsibil- scription given for some years, investment mainlywent ity, as a steel manufacturer located in a large city, to waste water treatment equipment or tree planting. through active cooperation with environmental The figure indicates measures such as fuel conversion measures in Osaka Prefecture and the City of Osaka; and adoption of NOx decreasing burners, which re- and to contribute to the improvement of the envi- duces SOx and NOx emission. This figure displays the ronment in the local society. The result of these en- ratio of investment in environmental measures to that vironmental protection measures from productive in total facilities. This investment in environmental standpoint is, generally, an increase in cost. How- protection, which accounts for more than 25% of total ever, the measures for reducing pollutants by facility investments between 1975 and 1976, led to the strengthening management in areas like energy say- installation of desulfurization equipment. The result ing, resource saving, and facility protection decrease was that SOx emission reduced considerably. The op- the costs. Therefore, the basic idea behind imple- eration cost of environmental protection facilities was menting environmental protection measures is 3,360 million yen per year (actual base in 1991), of weighing the balance of the costs. which 50% is spent on electricity. Environmental Protection Measures Air pollution control SOxmeasurestare: Steel production uses a large amount of materials i) a large reduction of C-heavy oil accompanied and a variety of processes. In each process, a large by the conversion from open-hearth furnaces amount of fuel and water is used, and consequently, to converters; Annex 4 75 Figure A-4-1: Investment in M Ratio of Enviromental Investmnt to Total Eipmt Investment Environmen- 40 tal Counter- -o N measures of SOx and NOx 20 10 * - --* - - .----- . Investment in Ehvironmental Countermeasures SOx and N0x Eission (10yen) (tons /yr) 5. 000 5. 000 ,N0x Emission 4.500 -.... .E...hd..-dof Liquid-Fuels-Consuption- 4.500 C-heavy oil Reduction . 0Conversion of -Boiler-Fuels -- -- o 3, 500 (from. Oil_C_to_Kerosene) M1 ineral __Oil sConsumption- 3. 500 Reduction of C-heavy oil and 3. 0o0-0Itoucino n O.Bre .. 3. 000 SOx Emissi 2. 500 = -- ---------------- FelConversion-of-Cokes-Furnaces 2. 500 ; (1/2) (wOhole) 2. 000 - - - \ - -2 00 0 1. 000 - .-- ..-... . ..- ..-.-- - - -- - .- -..- 1. 000 .. . .... . 5 0 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 Process Change, f' ^ Introduction of Blast Furnace Dust Collecting Equipnent for Electric Furnace (Converting Furnace Dust Collecting Metal Plating Flue Gas Treatment Equipment Euipnent Dust Collecting Equipment Dust Collecting Remodeling of Sintering Furnace Flue Gas Desulfurizer for Blast and Equipnent for Gas Collectible-Rotary Furnace Precipitator Electric Furnace Coal Grinder Promting the Introduction of Simultaneous Flue Gas and Dust Collection Equipnent for Converting Furnace Sintering Furnace Flue Gas Desulfurizer C Gas Desulfuri2er Dust Collector for Converting Furnace Dust Collecting and Wasteiater Treatment Equipnent for Converting Furnaces ii) installations of stack gas desulfurization equip- Represented in i) is a modification of the pro- ment in a sintering furnace, and use of desulfu- cess with an increase in energy efficiency, and iii) is rization equipment in a coke oven; and an energy saving measure in factories. Such mea- sures resulted in a 98% reduction of SOx emission, iii) reduction of liquid fuel consumption by using from 2,571 ton/yr in 1972 to 51 ton/yr in 1991. The secondary gases efficiently (ie, blast gas, coke reasons for implementing the measures were as fol- oven gas, and converter gas). lows: 76 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program a) the necessity of emission reduction due to NOx measures are: stricter regulations in both laws and ordinances i) change of the process (stricter K-value in regulatory concentration, ii) conversion from heavy oil to good quality fuel and the introduction of total emission regula- iii) improvement of combustion methods tion); iv) adoption of lower NOx materials b) the necessity of SOx emission reduction to de- Measures i) and ii) were effective in reducing NOx, crease the levy of emission charge by the pol- just as the SOx measures were. Their outcome was luting corporations under the"Pollution-Related that 73% of NOx emission was reduced from 4,731 Health Damage Compensation Law"; ton/yr. in 1972 to 1,291 ton/yr in 1991.The company is currently considering further reduction in response to c) the design and implementation of the reduc- the city's request. Fuel conversion with the use of a tion plan as a response to the request of coop- by-product gas is an energy-saving device. eration in the execution of administrative guid- ance plan formulated by the City of Osaka and Figure 4-2 shows fuel consumption. Although Osaka Prefectural Goverment. the consumption of heavy oil and coal-tar accounted (1jxkcal/y) Figure A-4-2: 4t 000 Fuel F Coal-tar Consumption by Type of 3.500 .Heavy Oil Fuel Kerosene 3. 000 ---// -Coke Oven Gas Blast Gas 2, 500 Converter Gas O Urban Gas 1. 000 - 500 -- 0 1973 1980 1987 1990 Annex 4 77 for one-third of the total consumption in 1973, it and Energy Bureau. Based on the "Law for Estab- accounted for about only 15% in 1980, half the origi- lishment of Organization for Pollution Control Or- nal volume. Heavy oil was converted to kerosene in ganization in Specified Factories,"the company es- 1980, and by 1990, liquid fuel was hardly ever used. tablished a self-management system by appointing As measures for controlling particulate matter, ex- a managing director as the supervisor of pollution haust gas treatment facilities for production facili- control, main managers, and each factory manager ties such as blast furnaces, coke ovens, converters, as a pollution control manager. Furthermore, in or- and sintering furnaces, and dust-collecting equip- der to increase the employees'awareness of pollu- ment were installed in factories. Dust prevention tion control and to implement comprehensive pol- measures such as material yards or conveyors were lution control, the company regularly scheduled implemented. As for future measures, an improve- seminars or meetings to report the actual conditions ment in dust-collecting equipment, leakage protec- and problems of pollution control in each factory, tion, an amelioration of the sprinkler equipment, gave training in how to behave in case of accidents, and maintenance are scheduled. patrolled the factory, and utilized informative plac- ards/posters. Waste water The waste water generated through the process (except for the indirect cooling water) Saving Energy from blast furnaces, coke ovens, non-stop foundry facilities, plating facilities, and wet dust-collecting Since the latter half of the 1970s, the company has equipment is 125 thousand tons per day. All waste actively promoted the replacement from open- water is collected, and treated through processes hearth furnaces to converters for use in the process- such as coagulating sedimentation, the activated ing the recycling of gas from blast furnaces, con- sludge method, rapid filtration, cooling, and pH verters, and coke oven (currently 99% of the gas is neutralization. Ninety-seven percent of the waste being recycled); the recycling of waste heat; non- water is recycled, and the remaining three percent stop foundries; an increase in adiabatic strength; the is discharged into rivers. installation of combined electric facilities; de-petro- leum; and complete combustion management. Industrial wastes The volume of industrial These measures save energy as well as reduce air wastes in 1991 was about 270 thousand ton/yr., of pollution. As Figure 4-3 indicates, energy consump- which 90% was slag from the converter and electri- tion per ton of crude steel has declined by 33% since cal furnace. About 50% of the slag is disposed by 1973. landfill, and the rest is effectively used for construc- tion or cement materials. Dust ash and sludge are The reasons for actively promoting energy-say- used for steel and cement materials. Secondary ing measures were a need to reduce the production products from the desulfurization equipment are costs, the soaring price of crude oil and the diffi- effectively used for sulfuric acid materials or fertil- culty in obtaining oil due to two oil shocks, and the izer. The annual expenditure for industrial waste stricter SOx and NOx regulations. treatment is approximately 510 million yen (1991). Overall Evaluation The internal organization for pollution control As an internal organization for pollution control, the The factory greatly reduced pollutants through dras- Environmental Management Division was installed tic investment in new pollution control equipment as a supervisory section under the Environmental in the 197as. Thereafter, it continued to reduce pl- 78 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 1000 kcal/ton of Crude Steel Number in ( ), 1973=100 Figure A-4-3: 6. 0Trend of (100) Energy Consumption oo0-.-.- .-(-8.1.4).(-8.16) . ........ ..... ....... . .......... . ..... per unit Production of F ,I . (71.9)(70.0)(70.2) (68.7) (66.5)(66.2)(67.2)(67.0) CrudeOil, 4. OO - (67.3) (65.2) . 1973-91 73 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 lutants through a combination of the environmen- fvrbe h ncmn fteArPluinCn tal protection measures and the resource-and-en- trlLwsenhndteemsintaads(. ergy-saving measures. m/n)i 91 h opn i o eev n dirctdompainssfom helocltrsidntssburi thought thtdamrapid-ntroductiomofneffectverfacili tiesnwes necessary tocprepare forueven stricter regu temlations,luince thetCityfofiOsakashad implemented Sand Blmat Dto esdhre urenseaursfo arpoltinaotrllnNih Sall- admiedu-i companis mintoduedo cte for poluio contploye fiin90ties inpteratofi metalpleteacest-collectingchquipment forssand,blast blasting, metallicon, coating, and buffing. The sales TeSrcueo eiinMkn were about 220 million yen as of September 1972. Historical Backgroundnosufcetyipeetpltonotrlma Since 1960, the company has researched and imple- mented the introduction of a water washing method Hoer,tecmayfnlyocuddhtte foduttst cthrolh a b t n reol rte hnoten mfavorable. The enactment of the Air Pollution Con- a etrol La strengthened the emission standards (0.5 ergysavng masues.mg/ml) in 1971. The company did not receive any direct complaints from the local residents, but it thought that a rapid introduction of effective facili- ties was necessary to prepare for even stricter regu- lations, since the City of Osaka had implemented SandBlas Dus Meaureurgent measures for air pollution control in Nishi Yodogawa ward. coute-poluionfailiie byusng heloa ss- Summary of Measures Osaa. he ityopratd tat ystm lexblyin r- The company implemented comprehensive pollu- der o rspon tothe ompniesdilgentacton. tion control measures such as the installation of complete dust-collecting equipment for sand blast The ompny t bepresnte her isa smll- dust (bag filter: effective rate 99.95%), silencers for and edim-sied ompny wth 0 mllio ye of secondary pollution control, and dust mixer equip- capial nd 0 emloyes n 190. t'sopertio is ment (waste measure: adding water to dust ash). blatin, mtalicn, oatn& nd ufing Th saes The Structure of Decision-Making The company was profitable at that time, but it did Histrica Bacgroud not sufficiently implement pollution control mea- sures. Consideration was given to transferring the Sinc 190, he ompny as rseache an imle- factory in order to avoid disturbing its neighbors. mentd te itroucton f a ate wahin mehod However, the company finally concluded that the for dust control, but the removal rate has not been measures should be taken at the present location Annex 4 79 without any relocation of factories to minimize the trol for a company whose capital was 30 mu- new equipment investment, as well as to secure the lion yen was a gamble, and that it took a lot of present employees. One factor in realizing this con- courage to invest. clusion was the company's cooperation with treat- ment equipment makers in active technological Total Evaluation development. Another factor is that the companies were able to obtain financial support from the City During the high economic growth period, the com- of Osaka for installing pollution control facilities. pany could, using comprehensive dust-collecting equipment, develop without complaints from local Content of Financial Support residents. Furthermore, since pollution was a social problem, the company's active role in countering At first, companies could only use the loan system pollution was highly lauded, and the company re- in the City of Osaka one time. However, the City of ceived more jobs from major manufacturers. Osaka changed the system considering this company's enthusiastic actions to install pollution Sales 220 million yen (September 1972) control equipment, so that the company were able Up 30%: 270-280 million yen (March 1973) to use it in 1970 and 1971. At that time, loans from the City of Osaka were Interest rate: 8.4% /yr. The City of Osaka limited to 10 million yen per a company and were subsidized 5% of the interest given only once. This company became a good ex- payment. . ample for others to follow. Later, the limit of the Loan from the City: 30 million yen loan was modified to 20 million yen, and the loan Self Loan: 20 million yen system was strengthened. Moreover, as preferential tax treatment, 78% of the original loan, which consisted of 50% special repayment in the initial year, and 28% general re- payment (7-year loan period, and 28% in theinitial joint Treatment for Waste year), was accepted as repayment. Therefore, the Water Used for Washing off company could undertake heavy investment in pol- Steel Acid lution control facilities. This example shows that pollution-causing compa- Merits and Weaknesses nies contributed to pollution control by installing joint treatment facilities under administrative guid- 1) The company could push itself toward business ance. awithout worrying about pollution. Content 2) The installation of bag filters created a noise problem. Thus, the company needed to spend Twenty-one zinc plating companies in the Osaka extra installing new silencer equipment. prefecture established the Osaka Treatment Center for Waste Acid in March 1968. Shortly after, a joint 3) Later on, the owner of the company said that treatment facility for sulfuric acid was constructed the 50 million yen investment in pollution con- in September of 1969 with the participation of com- 80 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program panies connected to polished stick steel, steel pipes, sized companies which lacked treatment facilities and wire rods, which discharge waste acid. The cen- went out of business. ter treated collectively the sulfuric acid waste water discharged from its 99 members, and partially re- In 1963, the Osaka prefecture offered guidance cycled it. This way, the industry could drastically re- to these business establishments! stipulating that duce the costs of pollution control. factory waste water should be regulated by stricter ordinances, and introduced the final waste water Summary of Joint Treatment Center treatment facility. Recognizing that the treatment of acid water was urgent and instrumental in the Number of members: 99 companies and 5 future continuation of corporate activities, the in- cooperative unions dustries started researching a treatment method. In Area of site: 2,123 M2 1965, the Osaka prefecture gave the zinc plating Construction costs: 318.8 million yen industry (the Kansai branch of the Japan Melting Loan: 80% from the Osaka Zinc Association) guidelines on the joint treatment prefecture and Small and method of recycled waste acid. Examining the Medium-sized Compa- method and its economy of treatment, the industry nies Promotion Corpora- decided to carry it out with the support of the Osaka tion, 20% from the prefecture and Osaka city. In fall of 1965, the in- Environmental Pollution dustry asked the Osaka prefecture for support in es- Control Service Corpora- tablishing the joint treatment facility. In response, tion (currently known as the Osaka prefecture announced the construction the Japan Environment plan of a joint treatment plant. In March of 1968, Corporation) the "Cooperative Union, Osaka Waste Acid Treat- Treatment capacityof ment Center" started with its task of promoting the waste sulfuric acid: 7,000 ton/month construction of the treatment plant. Refined sulfuric acid (50% sulfuric acid): 1,750 ton/month The industry rented 2000 M2 of the site from Recovered ferrous the City of Osaka, obtained a loan of 318 million sulfate heptahydrate: 1,582 ton/month yen for construction costs from the Japan Environ- Number of employees: 15 ment Cooperation, and the Small and Medium- sized Company Promotion Fund, and conferred the Historical Background sum of 20 million yen, jointly contributed by the members, to the operational costs. Then, it con- It is imperative for steel processing makers to re- structed a waste acid renewable treatment plant move rust from steel. Around 1960, rust was usu- whose capacity is 7 thousand tons/month. The con- ally washed off by sulfuric acid. Since the waste struction of the plant was completed in September water is strongly acidic, without treatment its dis- 1969, and it began operation in October. charge will contaminate water and damage sewers and agricultural products. In this time period, waste Structure of Decision-Making acid around Osaka prefecture increased yearly, and amounted to more than 13 thousand ton/month. 0 The companies understood that they could not Also, complaints to the Osaka prefecture about discharge waste acid without treatment. Also, waste acid increased. Some small- and medium- they judged that the construction of a joint treat- Annex 4 81 ment plant forced them to borrow the money Content of Treatment Works and site from the public organizations, and to obtain support from the Osaka prefecture and 1) Waste sulfuric acid discharged from member city, and to have technical advantages. Further- factories was carried by truck tanks to the plant more, there was a strong leader to actualize the (waste sulfuric acid contains 5% sulfuric acid project in the business circle in this period. and 13% iron sulfate). * The treatment adopted the recycling method 2) Collected waste sulfuric acid was recycled as 50% rather than the neutralizing method. The neu- sulfuric acid, ferrous sulfate heptahydrate through tralizing method is inexpensive in terms of con- vacuum concentrator and vacuum crystallizer. struction costs, but it requires a large amount of sludge disposal. On the other hand, the re- 3) Recycled sulfuric acid (1/3 of the discharge) was cycling method is expensive. However, the ad- taken back to the companies that discharged it, ministration and the corporations decided to and iron sulfur was sold. adopt this method after considering recycling and reuse of resources, and the marketability 4) The treatment fee and repayment plan are as of the secondary products (i.e. iron sulfate) of follows (1969): recycling. - Treatment fee: 1,400 yen/ton (700 yen for the * Since the businesses were small- and medium- treatment works, and 700 yen for the facility sized, those companies could use loans from repayment of debt) the Small- and Medium-sized Company Pro- - Loan from the Japan Environment Corpora- motion Fund. Furthermore, they also had the tion: 4 years for redemption possibility of using the Environmental Pollution - Small- and Medium-sized Companies Pro- Control Service Corporation. motion Fund: 15 years for redemption * To reduce the costs, not only the melting zinc 5) To secure the quality of the secondary substance, plating industry participated, but also the es- the plant regulated the type of steel and the tablishments for polishing stick steel, steel method of washing by the Rules for Waste Acid pipes, and wire rods. Also, waste acid dis- Treatment, and prevented different substances charged from a large factory, which was located from being mixed into the waste acid. next to the prospective construction site, could be secured. Merits and Weaknesses t The Osaka Prefectural Government and the City Merits of Osaka supported the joint treatment plant because the plant effectively promoted the pol- 1) The joint treatment method was more advan- lution control measures of small- and medium- tageous than an individual treatment plant in sized companies. terms of site, funding, technology, and sludge treatment after the neutralizing treatment (99 The industry could secure the market for recov- companies greatly reduced their running costs ered iron sulfate under the guidance of the Osaka per company by recycling secondary substances Prefectural Government and the City of Osaka. in the larger facility). 82 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program 2) The costs of waste acid treatment is 1400 yen/ 2) When the plant was first constructed, there was ton for the treatment fee, and 1100 yen/ton for no other plant like it. However, treatment cor- the truck tank. The company, which generates panies and large factories introduced similar 100 tons of waste water per month, could con- treatment facilities, and the volume of waste trol pollution for the cost of 250 thousand yen. acid decreased. The company saved labor and electricity costs by having a joint treatment plant. 3) In the future, if the volume of domestic second- ary steel products decreases due to industrial- 3) Eighty percent of the construction costs came ization in developing countries, a decrease in from the Small- and Medium-Sized Promotion waste acid would be necessary. Therefore, re- Corporation, and 20% came from the Japan examination of merits of joint treatment is ex- Environment Corporation. The completed fa- pected. cility was received as a mortgage. 4) Since the waste acid recycling equipment op- 4) The recycled sulfuric acid was purchased, to erated under harsh conditions, there were some some extent, by sending-in companies. Ferrous cases where the companies could not meet the sulfate heptahydrate (recovered substances) legal repayment period. Thus, the costs of re- were sold as a coagulant for sewage treatment. payment will be increased. In this manner, the company could save in treat- ment costs (these substances were sold as ma- Total Evaluation terials for steel-oxidized paint, ferrous materi- als, magnetic materials, and printing ink). The establishment of the center helped solve most of the sulfuric acid pollution problem in the Osaka Weaknesses prefecture. Creating a treatment center in coopera- tion with industries at an early stage was very sig- 1) In 1972, the sulfuric acid market was stagnant due nificant. to over-investment in facilities by the chemical industry. The price of 98% sulfuric acid dropped from 12 thousand yen to 8 or 9 thousand yen. Annex 4 83  Bibliography Osaka City Government, The Present State and Mea- oxide and Smoke in Polluted Air, Hyfinenic Chem- sures for Pollution (Osaka-shi no Kogai no Genkyou istty, Vol. 8, pp.49-54, 1960 to Taisakau), 1969-1980 Osaka Industrial Dust Control Association, Kemuri, Osaka City Government, Annual Hygiene Statistic 1961-1967 Report (Eisei Toukei Nenpou), 1958-1975 Oska City"Tranquility in Osaka Campaign"Promo- Osaka City Government, The Path to 100 Years Osaka tion Department, The Year of Noise Reduction Municipality (Osakashisei Hyaku-nen no Ayumi) Movement: the Pride of Osaka (Osaka no Hokoril Osaka City Government (ed.), The History of Osaka Souon Boushi no 1-nen), 1959 City: Meiji and Taishou (Meiji Taishou Osakashi- The Council for Countermeasures to Osaka Ground shi), Abstract Version Vol.1, Nihon Hyouron Subsidence, Countermeasures to Osaka Ground Publication Company Subsidence Jouml (Osaka Jiban Chinka Taisaku- Osaka City Government (ed.), The History of Osaka shi) City: Shouwa (Shouwa-Hs), SocialVersion, 1953 Osaka City Government Press, The Report on Urgent Osaka City Government, Osaka City Statistic Report Measures for Controlling Air Pollution in Hishi (Osaka-shi Toukei Sho) Yodogawa ku (Nishi-Yodogawa-ku Taiki Osen Osaka City Environment and Public Health Bureau, Kinkyuu Taisaku Jisshi Houkoku), 1972 The Environmental Plan of Osaka City (Osaka-shi The Promotion Conference on Anti-Traffic Pollution, Kankyou Kanri Keikaku), 1991 The Path to Anti-AutomobileExhaustMeasures in Osaka City Environmental Project Bureau, Project Osaka (Osaka ni okeru fidousha-Haigasu Taisaku Description: The FiscalYear of 1990 (Jigyou Gaiyou: no Ayumi), 1969 Heisei 2 nendo), 1990 Koyama, Hitoshi, Environmental Pollution in Nishi Osaka City Public Health Bureau/Environmental Yodogawa-ku (Nishi-Yodogawa Kougai), Toho Health Section, Air Pollution in Osaka (Osaka- Publication Company, 1988 shi no Taiki Osen), 1960 The Osaka Industrial Association, The Twenty Years Koyama, Hitosbi (ed.), The Materials on Pollution Path: Activities of the Environmental Developmnt Problems in the Pre-war Osaka: Shouwa Reign Committee (Kankyou Kaihatsu linkai no Katsudou: (Senzen Shouwa-ki Osaka no Kougai Mondai 20-nen no Ayumi), 1990 Shiryou), Political Economy Institute Kansai The Union of Osaka Acid Waste Disposal Center, University Press, 1973 The Twenty Years Path (20-nen no Ayumi), 1988 Mizoiri, Shigeru, The Hundred Years History of Waste Kato, Hiroki, Acid Waste Disposal Project ofthe Union (Gomi no Hyakune-shi), Gakugei Shorin Publi- of Osaka Acid Waste Disposal Center (Kyoudou cation Company, 1988 Kumiai Osaka Haisan Shori Sentaa no Haisan Ymaguchi,Yuu (et. al), Self Recording Instrument for Shori Jigyou),"Monthly Waste", April 1983 Estimation ofdAir Pollution Recording of Sulfur Di- Bibliography 85 MEIP Asia Technical Department Environment & Natural Resources Division (ASTEN) The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA Telephone: 202-458-2726 Fax: 202-522-1664