Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA Urban Environmental Profile Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA Urban Environmental Profile COPYRIGHT © 2016 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. April 2016 RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Publishing and Knowledge Division, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.                                                  Page iv Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities, Urban Environmental Profile for Dar es Salaam, Tanzania was prepared by a core study team led by Roland White (Global Lead: City Management, Governance and Financing - Task Team Leader) and included Chyi-Yun Huang (Urban Specialist), Amy Faust (Consultant/Urban Environmental Management Specialist) and a consultant team from AECOM including John Bachmann, Diane Dale, Brian Goldberg, Maritza Pechin, and Dr. Jane Turpie (Anchor Environmental). Andre Bald (Program Leader), Dr. Jeffrey Wielgus Yanovich (Consultant/Environmental and Natural Resource Economist) and Dr. Timm Kroeger (Senior Environmental Economist, The Nature Conservancy) contributed critical review and guidance. Professor Alphonce Kyessi (Ardhi University) and Dr. Anesi Mahenge (Ardhi University) provided key insights and secondary data. Sonia Wheeler, Gloria Sindano and Leah Mukuta offered organizational and administrative support while Sarah Botta (AECOM) provided graphic design support. The document was prepared under the overall guidance of Francisco Ferreira (Chief Economist), Sameh Wahba (Practice Manager), Mukami Kariuki (Practice Manager) and Philippe Dongier (Country Director). This Urban Environmental Profile benefited immensely from close collaboration with representatives from the Government of Tanzania, including the Dar es Salaam City Council, Kinondoni Municipal Council, Ilala Municipal Council, Temeke Municipal Council, Prime Minister’s Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG), Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development, Ministry of Water, National Environment Management Council, Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) and Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO). The team is also grateful for the inputs provided by representatives from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Tanzania Cities Network (TACINE), World Wildlife Fund, Ardhi University, University of Dar es Salaam, Open University of Tanzania and NIPE FAGIO. The team would like to express its gratitude especially to the Honorable Mayor Didas Massaburi for his guidance and support. The study would not have been possible without the generous financial contribution of Korean Green Growth Partnership.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page v CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................... 5 A. Methodology....................................................................................................................................................................5 B. Summary of Report..........................................................................................................................................................6 II. DAR ES SALAAM CONTEXT............................................................................................................................................... 7 A. Urbanization ....................................................................................................................................................................8 B. Climate Change Impacts and Challenges........................................................................................................................10 III. QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS IN THE URBAN REGION ............................................................................... 13 A. Terrestrial Ecosystems ...................................................................................................................................................13 B. Aquatic Ecosystems........................................................................................................................................................18 C. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems.....................................................................................................................................21 D. Air Quality . ....................................................................................................................................................................23 IV. DRIVERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY AND DEGRADATION ............................................................................. 25 A. Informal Settlements......................................................................................................................................................25 B. Extraction of Natural Resources ....................................................................................................................................27 C. Solid Waste ....................................................................................................................................................................29 D. Effluent ..........................................................................................................................................................................32 E. Extraction of Water .......................................................................................................................................................36 F. Air Emissions ................................................................................................................................................................. 37 V. INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES......................................................................................................................................... 39 A. Overview........................................................................................................................................................................39 B. Prevailing Institutional Landscape..................................................................................................................................40 C. Institutional Key Findings ..............................................................................................................................................49 VII. KEY FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................................ 53 VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................................................... 55 IX. APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................................................................... 61 FIGURES Figure 1 City of Dar es Salaam Location ................................................................................................................................7 Figure 2 Growth Rate of Dar es Salaam Wards......................................................................................................................8 Figure 3 .........................................................................................................................................9 Pattern of Urban Growth. Figure 4 Growth in the Number of Informal Settlement........................................................................................................9 Figure 5 .................................................................................................10 Mean Annual Rainfall in Dar es Salaam 1961-2009. Figure 6 Precipitation Intensity..............................................................................................................................................10 Figure 7 Projected Intensity, Duration and Frequency of Rainfall Curves in Dar es Salaam...................................................10 Figure 8 Trend for Mean Temperature over 5 Decades..........................................................................................................10 Figure 9 Exposed Population to 100 Year Storm with Mid-Range Sea Level Rise and No Adaptation...................................11 Figure 10 Geomorphological Zones of Dar es Salaam..............................................................................................................13 Figure 11 Dar es Salaam Topography.......................................................................................................................................13 Figure 12 Dar es Salaam...........................................................................................................................................................14 Figure 13 ..........................................................................................................................................15 Pugu Forest Cover Maps. Figure 14 Dar es Salaam Rivers and Streams...........................................................................................................................18 Figure 15 Dar es Salaam River Catchments..............................................................................................................................18 Figure 16 Locations of Reported Beach Erosion.......................................................................................................................21 Figure 17 Areas of Dynamite Fishing........................................................................................................................................22 Figure 18 Roadside Ambient Air Pollution Levels.....................................................................................................................23 Figure 19 .........................................................................................................................................26 Development 1982-2002. Figure 20 Planned and Informal Residential 2012-2022..........................................................................................................26 Figure 21 Cholera-prone Areas in Dar es Salaam.....................................................................................................................27 Figure 22 Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates by Municipality................................................................................ 29 Figure 23 Trends in Population with Volumes of Waste Generated and Collected 1994-2012................................................30 Figure 24 Location of Pugu Dump Site ....................................................................................................................................30 Figure 25 Distribution of Sewerage Facilities in Dar es Salaam City.........................................................................................32 Figure 26 Msimbazi River and Tributaries................................................................................................................................35 Figure 27 Untreated Effluent from Development....................................................................................................................35 Figure 28 Untreated Effluent from Industries..........................................................................................................................35 Figure 29 Development Encroachment....................................................................................................................................35 Figure 30 Waste from Development........................................................................................................................................35 Figure 31 Combined Impacts on the Msimbazi River after river enters city............................................................................35 Figure 32 Projection of Vehicles in Dar es Salaam, TZ..............................................................................................................37 Figure 33 Rapid Institutional Mapping.....................................................................................................................................39 Figure 34 Key Actors Involved..................................................................................................................................................40 Figure 35 Institutional Framework for Water Resources Management...................................................................................42 Figure 36 Institutional Framework for Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation......................................................................43 Figure 37 ...........................................................................................47 Relationship of Water Policy and Strategy with Others. Figure 38 Water Stakeholder Map...........................................................................................................................................49 TABLES Table 1 Population of Dar es Salaam by Municipality...........................................................................................................7 Table 2 Population and Growth Trends in Dar es Salaam.....................................................................................................8 Table 3 Significant Floods in Dar es Salaam, 1983 - 2006.....................................................................................................11 Table 4 Projected Extent of Flooding Impacts throughout Municipality from 2011 Base Year............................................12 Table 5 Dar es Salaam Local Topographical Conditions........................................................................................................14 Table 6 Dar es Salaam Rivers and General Character of Pollution........................................................................................19 Table 7 Mangrove Forests within Temeke............................................................................................................................21 Table 8 Air Pollutant Levels in Dar es Salaam as Reported in Literature...............................................................................24 Table 9 Fish Catch in Dar es Salaam......................................................................................................................................27 Table 10 ....................................................................................................................................28 Household Fuel Preferences. Table 11 Disposal of Municipal Solid Wastes by Municipality................................................................................................29 Table 12 Estimation of Pollution Loads to Groundwater at Dumpsites in Dar es Salaam.......................................................31 Table 13 ..................................................................................................................31 Composition of Waste in Dar es Salaam. Table 14 Waste Stabilization Ponds........................................................................................................................................32 Table 15 Existing Surface Water Drainage System..................................................................................................................33 Table 16 Current Water Source and Production Per Day........................................................................................................36 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Impacts of Urbanization on Environmental Assets The city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania has undergone The pattern of urbanization has included intensive a period of unprecedented urbanization that has densification of existing settlement areas as well as contributed to the degradation of the city’s natural development radiating outward along major arterial environment. With a growth rate above or near 5% for roads to the periphery. The fastest growing areas are the past three decades, it is the fastest growing city in the informal settlements in the peripheral area. A key East Africa. The arrival of thousands of in-migrants year driver of the outward growth has been the availability after year has overwhelmed the city’s ability to deliver and affordability of land. This sprawling development adequate public services, housing and jobs. Unplanned, pattern requires expensive extension of infrastructure densely populated informal settlements that lack basic for providing basic services. The radial road pattern water, sewer, and waste services now cover much of the contributes to high levels of traffic congestion. city’s land area. With limited urban planning and development controls At the same time, climate change is placing further to guide the rapid growth, the city is now characterized strains on the city’s ability to manage the urban by large unplanned and informal settlements that environment. The projected rise in temperature, coupled occupy 70% to 80% of all residential land area. Urban with an increase in precipitation, could have wide- planning has been severely limited without an update ranging impacts. A projected increase in the intensity of the 1979 Master Plan. Between 1982 and 2002, more of rainfall will result in storm runoff that exceeds the than 15,500 ha of formerly vacant agricultural lands were capacity of the city’s infrastructure, causing flooding converted to urban development. The rapid growth is and the spread of pollution, of particular concern for driving sand and stone extraction to meet the demand low-lying informal settlements. Such conditions have for new buildings and infrastructure. Poorly managed degraded the quality of the city’s natural environment or regulated processes have resulted in large areas of and the vital ecosystem services that they provide. disturbed land, soil erosion, and sedimentation that have An overall objective of this undertaking is to link contributed to environmental degradation. the study of urban environmental issues with the The provision of the water, sanitation, and drainage advancement of more sustainable urban growth. The infrastructure capable of serving this rapidly urbanizing Urban Environmental Profile for Dar es Salaam has been city is severely under provided and of poor quality. The prepared as the first component of the assignment Dar es Salaam sewerage system provides services to only “Promoting Green Urban Development in Africa: 10% of the city’s population. Eight independent waste Enhancing the Relationship Between Urbanization, water stabilization ponds provide primary treatment Environmental Assets and Ecosystem Services,” a project through the settlement of the raw sewage solids and the being conducted under the leadership of the World remaining liquids are discharged into streams, rivers, Bank. The Profile summarizes the existing quality of the and the sea. The remaining approximately 90% of the wetlands and other aquatic and terrestrial environmental population use on-site sanitation, including 73% relying assets, and identifies the key drivers of their on pit latrines that result in direct and indirect discharge environmental vulnerability, and the main institutional to streams and rivers. challenges and constraints. The Msimbazi River, the most important water source This document is intended to be a resource for Dar es for residents for drinking, bathing, and agriculture, is Salaam’s municipal officials and stakeholders engaged in the most severely polluted and degraded of the four environmental resource management. Their informed primary rivers in the city. It receives discharges from: decision making can lead to better safeguards of the treated and untreated industrial waste, waste water environmental assets as the city continues to grow stabilization ponds, leachates from closed solid waste and develop as an important urban center of political, dumps, outfalls from storm water drainage systems, and social, and economic activity. By consolidating into one effluent directly and indirectly from onsite sanitation document Dar es Salaam’s drivers and challenges in systems. With the exception of the Mpiji, rivers have environmental management, this document can inform been degraded. and empower municipal officials, non-governmental entities, citizens, donors and other advocates to more effectively promote sustainable and inclusive development.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 1 There is very limited provision of formal storm water Upstream land degradation and the growing demand drainage systems and more than 50% of the existing for water is exceeding supply. The City relies on large- system is rated in poor condition. The system only covers scale water transfers from the Ruvu River and the Kzinga the central city, and the drains are insufficient to process River. Studies have shown an increase in sediment increased rates of runoff due to the increased level of loading and water quality degradation, and reduced urbanization. There is frequent clogging due to poor precipitation has heightened water scarcity concerns. maintenance, siltation, and disposal of solid waste. As a The growing amount of water extraction from limited result, much of the storm water is equivalent to waste groundwater sources threatens the sustainability of water effluent. However, the Community Infrastructure water assets. Exploitation of aquifers is accelerating Upgrading Programme and Dar Metro Development degradation of groundwater due to over consumption Project are upgrading services in unplanned areas. and saltwater intrusion. Forest reserves have declined more than 30% over More than 60% of solid waste generated in the city is 30 years due to urban and peri-urban expansion and not collected. The causes of low collection include lack encroachment from nearby communities as well as due of equipment, low prioritization, inadequate financial to the increasing use of charcoal for household fuel. The resources, inaccessibility to some areas, and lack of close proximity of the reserves to the city provides major waste transfer sites. Generation of waste is increasing markets for forest products, such as medicinal plants, and will continue to increase with population growth. fuel wood, building materials and food. The increase in use of charcoal reflects the lower cost option that it is The Pugu Dumpsite is the only functioning waste easily available in forest lands compared to alternative disposal site for the city as other sites have been fuels. There is little enforcement of forest law and limited closed. It is costly to transport waste from all three restriction on access to forest products. municipalities. The dump site is running out of area and it is not clear that a new site has been identified Degradation of land, soil, and forest lands contributed with feasibility studies conducted. Poor solid waste directly to the decreasing quality and quantity of the management has compounded problems of leachate city’s water assets. The loss of land, soil and vegetation discharge from Pugu dumpsite to watercourses. in the prime catchment areas reduces the water recharge and infiltration functions on the land. Destabilization There has been extensive beach erosion, and the and loss of soil causes erosion and sedimentation of the coastal and marine systems have suffered from the rivers downstream. The loss of vegetation also reduces degradation of land and aquatic systems that have vital habitat, diminution of biodiversity, and carbon caused sedimentation and high turbidity. Most of the sequestration capacity. mangroves were harvested intensely between 1990- 2000, resulting in severe fragmentation. However, a 2008 survey by NEMC revealed recovery of the density of coverage at Kinondoni due to conservation initiatives, and there is opportunity to take action to protect the remaining mangrove forests.                                                  Page 2 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Many air quality indicators exceed WHO-recommended There are broader metropolitan-scaled environmental limits. While coastal areas of city benefits from assets remaining that will require strategic action dissipation of pollution by sea breezes, the inland areas to conserve and protect. These include the 2,000 ha suffer from high levels of air pollution. The majority of mangrove forest, the forest lands in the upland of the population continues to travel by bicycling and catchment areas that are degraded but remain open walking, but the trend is shifting toward motor vehicles. space and can be rehabilitated, and the Kigamboni The use of motor vehicles increased from 24,600 in 1979 (across the harbor bridge), which still has relatively to between 605,000 and 705,000 in 2011. The increase healthy ecosystems that will soon come under much in emissions from motor vehicles is contributing to the greater pressure. degradation of air quality of the city, which has also been driven by the use of charcoal as a primary household The city’s aquatic ecosystems have been most burdened fuel. and degraded by the impacts of urbanization. Poor land management, ineffective waste water treatment, Key Findings and inadequate solid waste management are severely degrading the limited remaining resources. It is essential Institutional fragmentation restricts effective urban for the city to identify the environmental assets that can environmental management. Many institutions are be reasonably saved and take the necessary actions to involved with aspects of environmental issues, including conserve and protect them so that previous mistakes are those of a local nature that are required to be addressed not repeated. at the national level or vice versa. There is a multiplicity of legislation, with each institution having its own legal Informal settlement is inevitable and is currently the framework. Organizational capacity further challenges single biggest driver of ecosystem loss. The city needs environmental management, with lack of effective to accelerate the necessary actions to provide affordable systems and enforcement (i.e., development control), housing and basic services in order to make future urban fiscal decentralization, and human resources. settlement activities more environmentally sustainable.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 3                                                  Page 4 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities I. INTRODUCTION A. Methodology The city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania has undergone a The Urban Environmental Profile was developed period of unprecedented rapid urbanization that has based on the collection of data using the Rapid Urban contributed to the degradation of the city’s natural Environmental Assessment (RUEA) tool developed environment. The arrival of thousands of in-migrants jointly by the United Nations Development Programme, year after year has overwhelmed the city’s ability to United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS deliver adequate public services, housing and jobs. – Habitat), and the World Bank (Leitmann, 1994). The Unplanned, densely populated informal settlements that purpose of the RUEA is to document available data lack basic water, sewer, and waste services now cover and identify gaps in knowledge. A questionnaire was much of the city’s land area. developed to guide the collection of data and to generate an existing baseline on a range of environmental Climate change is placing further strains on the city’s Information. ability to manage the urban environment. Increasing levels of rainfall from climate change contribute to storm runoff The RUEA questionnaire seeks numerous charts to levels that exceed the capacity of the city’s infrastructure, be populated with specific data on sanitation, solid causing flooding and the spread of pollution. Such waste, energy, and other urban systems and services. conditions have degraded the quality of the city’s natural Identification of the key environmental assets and key environment and the vital ecosystem services that they drivers of environmental degradation within Dar es provide. Salaam required a comprehensive review of reports on urban planning and infrastructure services. The required The Urban Environmental Profile of Dar es Salaam has information was too complex to fit into the RUEA been prepared as the first component of the assignment questionnaire format. Therefore, the process evolved to “Promoting Green Urban Development in Africa: the definition and annotation of an outline for the profile Enhancing the Relationship Between Urbanization, that was then developed into this document. Environmental Assets and Ecosystem Services,” a project being conducted under the leadership of the World Bank. There is considerable information available on the An overall objective of the project is to link the study topic of urban planning, as this has been the subject of of urban environmental issues with the advancement considerable academic research. However, the emphasis of more sustainable urban growth. Profiling the city’s has been on spatial planning and the social and economic environmental assets provides a reference and a platform implications of informal settlements rather than the on which cities can develop policies and procedures that urban environment. Data on urban forestry, land and will safeguard the natural assets as they continue as soil, and air quality was not widely available or does not urban centers of political, social, and economic activity. appear to have been developed. The Urban Environmental Profile summarizes the existing Recent environmental impact assessments for proposed quality of the city’s environmental assets, identifies the sanitation and solid waste projects have been important key drivers of environmental vulnerability, and describes sources of information. However, as the information the key institutional challenges and constraints. By is generated for projects rather than as part of a consolidating into one document Dar es Salaam’s drivers comprehensive planning initiative, the data is limited and challenges in environmental management, this to specific areas of the city. There also has been little document can inform and empower municipal officials, development of baseline inventory or analytics of the non-governmental entities, citizens, donors and other city’s environment assets. advocates to more effectively promote sustainable and inclusive development.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 5 Consultation with key stakeholders informed the drafting B. Summary of Report of the profile. A kick-off workshop held in Dar es Salaam in September 2014 introduced relevant municipal The Urban Environmental Profile report is organized as officials and stakeholders to the objectives and intentions follows: of the study. Participants provided overall direction on relevant secondary sources of environmental data, such Section II Dar es Salaam Context provides an overview as municipal development plans and strategic planning of the physical context background and of the impacts documents and reports prepared by national-level of rapid urbanization and climate change, and draws the environmental ministries, the World Bank, and UN. link to the urban environment. Information was also gathered from interviews with municipal officials. Section III Quality of the Environmental Assets of Dar es Salaam describes the state of the key environmental A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the intermediate assets of the city: the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, findings was presented during a second workshop in marine and coastal ecology, and the air; and attempts to December 2014. During the event, key stakeholders infer the associated historic and current trends. provided preliminary comments and feedback that guided the refinement of the Profile. Section IV: Drivers of Environmental Vulnerability and Degradation describes the key issues that drive degradation, and its impacts. Drivers include inefficient spatial development, informal settlements, effluents, storm water runoff, solid waste, and emissions. Section V: Institutional Issues and Challenges describes the key factors that constrain the city of Dar es Salaam’s ability to effectively address environmental management challenges. Section VI: Summary provides a synthesis of key findings of the study.                                                  Page 6 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities II. DAR ES SALAAM Map 1 CONTEXT Dar es Salaam is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the east and the Coast (Pwani) region to the west (Figure 1). The city stretches 100km from the Mpiji River in the north to beyond the Mzinga River in the south, comprising a total land area of 1,630.7 km2 (about 0.2% of the entire Tanzania mainland’s area) (ILRI, 2007). It is the largest city in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam was established as a port and trading center in 1862. It grew rapidly from the early 1890s when the colonial administrative headquarters of German East Africa (including Kenya and Uganda) was located there. The German colonial codes for the development of the city and local government system was largely continued by the British, who controlled the city from 1916 to 1961. The British established a Town Planning Figure 1 City of Dar es Salaam Location Department in 1947 and Town Planning Legislation and Source: Andreason, 2013 a Master Plan were created in 1948. Dar es Salaam was 5 granted city status in 1961 and is divided politically and administratively into three districts - Kinondoni, Ilala and The 2012 Census identified the population of Dar es Temeke - that were declared municipalities of the city in Salaam at approximately 4.36 million people, at a density 1999 (Kyessi, 2010). of 3,133 per km2 (URT, 2013). Another study, on the density of urban spatial growth in Dar es Salaam, found a Dar es Salaam is the fastest growing city in Tanzania density of 2,688 people per km2 (Andreasen, 2013). The and in East Africa. By the late 1970s the city was future population projections for Dar es Salaam suggest established as the predominant urban center in the continued absolute increases in population with the region and was approaching a population of 1 million. population anticipated to increase to more than 7 million The city has grown at or above the rate of 5% for the people by 2025 (USSDM, 2013). past three decades, exceeding the national average rate of near 3% (Table 1) (URT 2002, 2012). The rapid A consequence of rapid urbanization has been the growth in population has been due to both high rural- decline in the quality of the urban natural environment. urban migration and natural birth rate of about 4.5 % per The impacts of climate change have exacerbated the rate annum. and extent of environmental degradation and have made the city’s efforts toward environmental management all the more challenging. Table 1 Population of Dar es Salaam by Municipality Political 2002 2012 2002 2012 Absolute Share of Average Unit Count1 Count2 Count3 Count3 Increase3 Absolute Annual Increase3 Growth Rate3 Kinondoni 1,083,913 1,775,049 44% 41% 691,136 37% 5% Ilala 634,924 1,220,611 26% 28% 571,359 30% 6.8% Temeke 768,451 1,368,881 31% 31% 614,758 33% 5.9% Dar es 2,487,288 4,364,541 100% 100% 1,877,253 100% 5.8% Salaam 1 Source: 2002 ward level data acquired from the National Bureau of Statistics. 2 Source: 2012 census (National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania et al., 2013). 3 Source: Own calculations based on the above.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 7 Table 2 Population and Growth Trends in Dar es Salaam A. Urbanization Year City Growth Population Without urban planning and development controls to Proper Rate (%) Density (p/sq km) guide its rapid growth, the city is now characterized 1948 69,227 N/A by a vast area of unplanned and informal settlement areas. The colonial development model, with its low- 1957 128,742 2.4 N/A density areas and open spaces, has not been updated to 1967 356,286 7.1 256 meet the demands of post-independence urbanization. 1978 843,090 7.8 605 Detached single story buildings at low development densities still predominate (Kyessi, 2010). The last Master 1988 1,360,865 4.8 977 Plan was prepared in 1979, when the population was 2002 2,487,288 4.3 1,786 20% of the current population. As the adoption of a 2012 Master Plan has been delayed, the 1979 Master 2012 4,364,541 5.6 3,133 Plan is technically the guiding document. However, it is Source: Housing and Population Census Reports URT, 2002, 2012, Andresen, 2013 severely outdated and systematically ignored. Decades of rapid and unplanned urbanization have resulted in the proliferation of informal settlements and slums, a housing shortage, and inadequate infrastructure and Map 3 services (Sutton 1970; Kironde 1995; URT 1997:10-11, Kyessi 2002) (Kjellen and Kyessi, 2013). It is estimated that approximately 80% of all buildings within Dar es Salaam are located in unplanned areas (Hill and Linder, 2010). Dar es Salaam has expanded from its center outward along major arterial roads, forming a radial development pattern; in addition, the fastest-growing areas of the city are the informal settlements in the city periphery, which lack infrastructure and transit services. There is an intensive densification and consolidation process occurring in existing settlement areas, and most of the urban population growth is on formerly vacant or agricultural land. Urban development has taken place significantly along the coast and the major arterial roads (including Ally Hassan Mwinyi (Bagamoyo), Morogoro, Nyerere and Kilwa Road) taking advantage of the better accessibility and availability of lower cost land, and reinforcing the mono-centric and radial development pattern (Kyessi, 2007). Radiating from the Central Business District (CBD), the immediate residential areas are Kinondoni Oyster Bay, Magomeni Regent Estate, Mikocheni, Kawe, Mwananyamala, Sinza, Manzese, Ilala, Kurasini, Chang’ombe, Buguruni, Kiwalani, Kigamboni, Figure 2 Growth Rate of Dar es Salaam Wards Source: Andreason, 2013 Mbezi Beach, Tegeta, Msasani, Kunduchi, and Bunju (Kyessi, 2007). 14                                                  Page 8 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Dar es Salaam’s fastest-growing areas by population are now those far from the city center (Figure 2). Peripheral wards have received 42% of the total population increase between 2002 and 2012. Medium-distance wards, 10-15 km west, south west, and south of the city center, have experienced 24% of the increase. To the north, rapid growth is found more than 15 km away from the city center. Population growth in the southern coastal areas that are not serviced by any major roads is less than the other areas (Andreasen, 2013). The city’s rapid population growth and rural-urban migration, coupled with inadequate availability of affordable housing, has resulted in new developments concentrating on the periphery of the city (Figure 3) (Kyessi, 2013; Moss and Happold, 2013). A 2011 survey of roughly 6,000 households settled in Dar es Salaam’s peri- urban areas (Ricci et al., 2012) shows that the majority (64%) moved from another municipality in the Dar es Salaam region to the peri-urban area, while 36% moved from other regions of Tanzania (rural to peri-urban) (Macchi et al, 2013). The public sector has not been able to keep up with the resulting demand for housing or provide a positive environment for housing development Figure 3 Pattern of Urban Growth due to scarce resources, diminished capabilities to raise Source: Shand, n.d.a. revenue, limited institutional capacity and the absence of a responsive policy framework (Moss and Happold, 2013). 100 Most of the population growth in the previous Number of Unplanned Settlements decades has been absorbed by informally-developed 80 settlements. High population density and development intensity characterize many unplanned settlements, as 60 well as: ease and low costs of entry, informal allocation of land but with efficient socially-regulated land delivery 40 mechanisms, unregulated markets, and unserviced land 20 that is subdivided at will and sold (Kyessi, 2007). Many housing structures are in poor and dilapidated condition 0 Unplanned Settlements requiring major improvements or replacement. 1979 1990 2000 2004 2014 Figure 4 Growth in the Number of Informal Settlement Between 1982 and 2002, more than 15,500 ha of formerly Source: Lupala, 2002, URT, 2005, Kyessi, 2014 vacant or agricultural land was converted into urban land uses. More than 75% of these new developments can be classified as informal settlements, while only roughly 15% were converted into planned residential areas. Only about 8% of these newly developed areas accommodate other uses, including industrial or commercial uses, transport or public services (Hill and Linder, 2010).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 9 B. Climate Change Impacts and Challenges Figure 5: Trend of mean minimum temperature anomalies during the cool months (June-August) at Dar es Salaam International Airport Climate change is projected to affect precipitation variability, storm frequency and temperature, resulting in sea level rise and storm surges; coastal and beach erosion; submergence of some nearby islands; intrusion of salt water in fresh water bodies (wells and boreholes); and erosion and destruction of lifelines (i.e. roads, bridges and coastline). The mean precipitation has been projected to increase Rainfall intensity during the long rainy season over coastal areas, Figure 11 shows mean and absolute 24-hour maximum rainfall for the period 1971–2009. Source: Provided by Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA), 2010 Mean Figure 5 Mean Annual 24-hour maximum Rainfall rainfall ranges in Darover from es Salaam 50 mm 1961-2009 in April-May to 10mm for including Dar es Salaam, by up to 6% by 2100 Source: TMA, 2011 July-August. The absolute 24-hour maximum rainfall for the time period studied was (Matari et al., 2008). While it is unclear whether recorded within the past decade. 2.2.3 Rainfall overall rainfall in Tanzania will increase or decrease Rainfall amount Mean and absolute 24 hours maximum rainfall for Dar es Salaam with climate change, it is expected that increasing Figure 6 five indicates Figure 11:that Meanmean andannual rainfall absolute has maximum 24 hours Dar es for declined inrainfall Salaam over Dar es the past Salaam 160 decades (as recorded at the Dar es Salaam Airport station). Figures 7 through 10 variability will lead to both droughts and floods of display 150 the number of rain days for various locations in Dar es Salaam, and a declining 1991 140 may be seen at all four locations. trend increasing magnitude and frequency (Watkiss et al., 130 2005 1995 2011). There has been a general reduction of total Figure 120 6: Trend of mean annual rainfall for Dar es Salaam International Airport station 110 Timeseries of mean annual rainfall in Dar es Salaam annual rainfall per year in Dar es Salaam over the 1001800 1996 1995 1999 Rainfall (mm/day) past five decades (Figure 5). 90 80 1600 1996 2005 1400 70 Mean annual rainfall (mm) 2003 Mean and absolute 24-hour maximum precipitation 1200 60 1976 1977 501000 for the period 1971–2009 ranges from over 50 mm 40 800 1987 in April-May to 10mm for July-August (Figure 6). 30 600 20 400 Rainfall intensity is likely to increase as climatic 10 0 200 Figure 3: Mean annual minimum temperature (1971 – 2000) variability increases in coming years with the 1 Jan 0 SFeb Mar Bukoba Apr May Musoma Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 Months progression of climate change. Drainage designs are Years 2 Mwanza Annual Linear trend Mean 24 hours max Absolute 24 hours max already accounting for a projected increase in the Source: Provided by Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA), 2010 Lyamungu Figure 6 Precipitation Intensity 3 by Tanzania Source: ProvidedArusha Moshi Meteorological Agency (TMA), 2010 Kilimanjaro intensity, duration, and frequency (IDF) of rainfall Source: Tanzania 4 Meteorological Agency TMA, 2011 Same resulting from an increase in longer and more Kigoma Singida Tabora Tanga Both rainfall amount 5 and intensity are variables of concern Mlingano from the point of view of Pemba concentrated rainfall (Figure 7). For example, the flooding in Dar6 es Salaam. Intensity is likely Dodoma coming years with the progression of climate change. to increase Ilonga as climatic variability rises in Zanzibar 21 surface water drainage systems proposed in the 7 Morogoro Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Metropolitan Development Project 2.2.4 Flooding 8 Sumbawanga Iringa Mafia are being designed to accommodate 15% increased A brief analysis Mbeya 9 of rainfall corresponding to recent significant floods experienced in Dar Igeri precipitation intensity over current conditions (URT, es Salaam is provided in Table 2. Many of these were associated Lindi with strong El Niño episodes. Thus 10 improved forecasting of El Niño and improved Mtwara public warning systems 2014b TSCP). This increased intensity is anticipated could play a role 11 future. in reducing damages in the Songea to take effect approximately 12 years into the life of 12 the project (URT, 2014b TSCP). E 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Source: Matari et al. (2008) Heavy rainfall frequently causes flooding in the 2.2.2 Temperature city, particularly in low-lying, flood-prone informal Analysis of both maximum (Figure 4) and minimum (Figure 5) temperatures at Dar es settlement areas, which positions the poor with Salaam International Figure 7 Airport Projected indicate Intensity, significant Duration positive trends and Frequency over the of Rainfall past in 4-5 Curves decades. heightened vulnerability to flooding. In addition to Dar es Salaam Source: International Climate Fund, 2014 (reference of Procesl and COWI, 2014 data) 24 property loss and occasional loss of life, widespread Figure 4: Trend of mean maximum temperature anomalies during the warmest months (December-February) at Dar es Salaam International Airport health risks result from overflow of onsite sanitation, sewers and drains, contamination of wells and springs and the spread of diseases such as malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and diarrhea. The city’s poor are challenged by current conditions and their situation is likely to worsen without interventions that address the impacts of climate change. Source: Provided by Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA), 2010 Figure 8 Trend for Mean Temperature over 5 Decades Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency TMA, 2011 20                                                  Page 10 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities A rise in temperature, coupled with an increase in 200 Population exposed (thousands) precipitation, could have wide-ranging effects. By 2100, 150 mean annual temperature for Tanzania is expected to increase by 1.7°C, including areas around Dar es Salaam 100 Llala (Matari et al., 2008). This rise in temperature could Temeke also trigger an increase in the urban heat island effect, 50 Kinondoni which would bring a gradient of higher temperatures Total Dar Es Salaam where densities of people and the built environment are 0 greatest. These higher temperatures could impact urban 2005 2030 2050 2070 agriculture (evapotranspiration, heat stress), disease Figure 9 Exposed Population to 100 Year Storm with Mid-Range Sea Level incidence (direct effects of extreme heat on humans, as Rise and No Adaptation Source: Watkiss et al., 2011 well as on disease vectors, e.g., by increasing humidity), hydropower generation (increased evaporation in reservoirs), and household electricity requirements. Models also anticipate a projected increase in the number of days exceeding 32°C by 2050 (Watkiss et al., 2011). Analysis over five decades, shows a significant increase Table 3 Significant Floods in Dar es Salaam, 1983 - 2006 in mean temperature (Figure 8). Increases in mean temperature, combined with reduced annual rainfall, Monthly Rainfall could lengthen the dry seasons or intensify droughts. Year Months Long Actual % of Number Recent extreme climatic events, for example, the Term (mm) Long of droughts of 2006 and the floods of 2010, severely Mean Term Affected impacted the transport, energy and health sectors, with (mm) Mean People adverse socio-economic implications (Watkiss et al, 2011). 1983 May 197.8 405.6 205 N/A 1989 Dec. 117.8 175.6 149 N/A A 2011 study projected exposure of the city’s population 1995 May 197.8 374.2 189 N/A (more than 100,000 residents) to a 100 year storm event by 2030 in the absence of adaptation measures (Watkiss 1997 Oct. 69.3 250.8 361 19,170 et al, 2011) (Figure 9). The 2011 study also noted that Nov. 125.9 152 121 Dec. 117.8 231 196 Temeke’s coastal areas have the most people at risk from a 100 year storm, while significantly fewer people are at risk in Ilala. 1998 Jan. 76.3 107.3 141 N/A Feb. 54.9 123.7 225 March 138.1 155.2 112 Dar es Salaam has experienced a number of significant April 254.2 319.9 126 flood events over the past few decades due to rainfall that has been well above the average monthly mean, 2002 April 254.2 569.4 224 N/A including four months with rainfall above 200% of mean (Table 3). The flood of December 2011 was caused by some of the heaviest rainfall in Tanzania since the 2006 Nov. 125.9 240.4 191 10,758 Dec. 117.8 230.4 196 1960’s (UPI, 2011). December 2011 flooding displaced approximately 10,000 people (2,000 families) and affected an estimated 50,000 people (10,000 families), 2011 Dec. N/A N/A N/A 15,563 particularly those residing around the Msimbazi River basin. Damage to property and infrastructure was 2014 Jan.-April N/A N/A N/A 750,000 massive (IFRC, 2012). Most recently, April 2014 floods displaced approximately 2,000 people with Msimbazi Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency, 2011; Hambati and Gaston, 2014 River floodwater entering 600 houses, washing away 13 houses and requiring 283 patients to be treated for waterborne diseases associated with contaminants from the flooded water (ReliefWeb, 2014; Hepworth and Joseph, 2014).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 11 The most affected areas are the lowlands found along Protection of environmental assets threatened by river valleys, areas occupied mainly by unplanned the impacts of climate change are directly tied to the settlements, and areas already exposed to flooding protection of economic assets. Infrastructure within events that will be exacerbated by climate change Dar es Salaam worth US$48 million is vulnerable to a (World Bank, 2011; Hambati and Gaston, 2014). Areas 0.5 meter sea-level rise and another US$82 million is prone to floods include: Msasani bonde la mpunga vulnerable to a 1 meter sea-level rise. Other assets at risk (about 60ha mixed residential, commercial and are residential and commercial buildings, urban farms, institutional settlements), one of the fastest-growing coastal mangrove and other forests. The cost to build a settlements in Kinondoni municipality; Msimbazi valley; seawall to protect vulnerable coastal homes and hotels Jangwani (a slum area characterized by annual flooding against a 1 meter rise in sea level has been estimated during rainy season); Mikoncheni (already challenged by at US$337 million. The cumulative costs for repairing storm water drainage); and the city center (exacerbated homes in Msasani Bonde la Mpunga, Hanna Nassif and by poor infiltration and outdated non-functioning storm Msimbazi valley informal housing areas have continued water drainage system). Areas severely affected by to climb due to the yearly impact of floods (Kebede and flooding include: Kunduchi and Bahari beaches (Griffiths Nicholls, 2010). and Lwiza, 1988; Masalu, 2002). At the Kunduchi beach area, the coastline has retreated for about 200m over It is predicted that on average about 400m of landward the last 50 years, destroying residential houses, public retreat would occur due to erosion in Dar es Salaam services, and other tourism facilities, as well as the under a 1m sea-level rise (Mwaipopo, 2000). A total land historic fish market and a seawall constructed to protect loss estimated at 247 km2 and 494 km2 is expected for a the Ocean Road (Casmiri, 2008). 0.5 and 1 meter rise of sea level, respectively (URT2003). On behalf of a Mayor’s Task Force, Ardhi University A 2005 assessment estimated the total risk exposure undertook a flood modeling exercise that provided an in Dar es Salaam as 36,000 people and US$130 million indication of the effects of climate change on flooding in assets. By the 2070s, this risk exposure grows in different communities in Dar es Salaam. A hazard dramatically due to a combination of urbanization, assessment using historical data indicated that a large socio-economic change and sea-level rise. The 2070 part of Dar es Salaam will be subject to flooding. In estimate of risk anticipates that over 350,000 people and terms of land area, the exercise found that Kinondoni infrastructure assets worth approximately US$5.3 billion Municipality is likely to be affected the most by floods could be exposed to a 100-year coastal flood (Nicholls et in the future: 35% of the area in 5 years, 67% in 10 al., 2008). However, there is a general lack of information years and 70% in 50 years. In addition, Ilala is likely to regarding the vulnerability of population and assets in be extensively affected by floods, 10% in 5 years, almost low-lying areas to critical climate thresholds. 22% in 10 years and 41% in 50 years. Temeke will have less flooding although some wards will be affected (World Bank, 2011) (see Table 4). Table 4 Projected Extent of Flooding Impacts throughout Municipality The study considered a worst-case scenario, assuming from 2011 Base Year all natural and/or artificial defenses fail under the most extreme events, providing a detailed quantitative context Municipality 5 years 10 years 50 years of the potential exposure that could be used to assist coastal planners and policy makers. About 8% of Dar es Kinondoni 35% 67% 70% Salaam lies within the low elevation coastal zone (below Ilala 10% 22% 41% 10m elevation), estimated to be inhabited by more than 143,000 people and is an economic asset estimated to Source: World Bank, 2011 be worth at least US$168 million in 2005. Over 30,000 people and US$35 million in assets are located within the 100 year flood plain. The study considers alternative scenarios for 2013, mapping the population and asset values at risk with and without sea level rise (Kebede and Nicchols, 2010).                                                  Page 12 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities CHAPTER 4.0: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE CONDITIONS 4.1 BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 4.1.1 Topography III. QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS IN THE URBAN Dar es Salaam city is divided into three zones, namely the upland zone comprising of hilly areas to REGION the west and north of the city, the middle plateau, and the lowlands, which include Msimbazi Valley, Jangwani, Mtoni, Africana and Ununio areas (FIGURE 10). Dar es Salaam’s terrestrial, aquatic and coastal LEGEND ecosystems and the quality of the air have been Ecological Zone degraded by the impacts of rapid and unplanned Lowland Plateau Middle Plateau urbanization and climate change. The following section Upland Plateau reviews the state of each of these assets, the trends District Boundary in the condition of the asset, and the environmental problems that are being experienced in the city. A. Terrestrial Ecosystems Dar es Salaam City Region is characterized by four distinct landforms (Mutagaywa, n.d.a.) (Figure 10 and Figure 11): (1) The shore land, constituted by the land immediately Environmental Impact Statement of the Proposed Rehabilitation/Improvement (PROCESL/COWI, 2014) abutting the Indian Ocean, comprising sand dunes, tidal Figure 10 Water Drainage System inZones of SurfaceGeomorphological of Dar es Ilala Municipality, Dar Salaam es Salaam Source: URT, 2014a TSCP Region swamps and cliffs. FIGURE 10 MAP OF DAR ES SALAAM MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ZONES Report (2) The limestone coastal plain located west of the Topographically the city lies in a flood plain and/or near flood plains and thus flooding is one shore land extending to Pugu Hills, which is overlain characteristic of the city, particularly when there are heavy rains. The beach and shoreline comprise with Pleistocene and sand with fairly uniformsandrelief lying dunes and tidal swamps. Coastal plains composed of limestone extend 10 km to the west of the between 15 and 35 m above mean sea level and city, slopes 2-8 km to the north, and 5-8 km to the south. Inland, alluvial plains comprise a series of steep- of less than 3%. The width of the plain extends 8 to sided 10 valleys. The upland plateau comprises the dissected Pugu Hills (Dongus, 2000). U-shaped km to the southeast and west, narrowing to 2 km The at topographical conditions can be seen in FIGURE 11 below and in TABLE 8. local Kawe to the north. It is composed of poorly-graded white buff sand overlying sandy clay of varying permeability in highly variables sequences. The seaward fringe of the 11112014 - Ilala EIA Report.docx 57/211 plain is generally formed by raised coral reef limestone. (3) The inland alluvial plains, flowing from the Pugu Hills to the east, dissect the Coastal plain in a series of steep sided U-shaped valleys, culminating in creeks and mangrove swamps before entering the Indian Ocean. The city’s harbor, penetrating 10 km inland along the Kizinga and Mzinga Creeks, forms the principal topographical feature of the region. These valley soils are generally (PROCESL/COWI, 2014) Figure 11 Dar es Salaam Topography poorly drained silt clays enriched with organic matter. Source: URT, 2014a FIGURE 11 (4) The deeply dissected hills form the western boundary MAP SHOWING THE TOPOGRAPHY OF DAR ES SALAAM REGION of the region with altitudes ranging from 100 to 200 m TABLE 8 above mean sea level with some points reaching 330 LOCAL TOPOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS IN DAR ES SALAAM m. It is characterized by steep, weathered slopes and Level Condition well drained unconsolidated gravelly clay-bound sand. Lowland <5m Areas in the bay area, river mouths and hinterland along the coast. Marsh and swampy areas widely spread; soft soil, thick and drains poorly Occasional outcrops of raised coral limestone also occur Flat plains/terraces, extend along the coast and are generally a few kilometres Plain/Terrace 5-20 m around Wazo-Kunduchi. wide. Geologically it belongs to the coastal plain. This makes up the dominant part of the residential terrain of Dar es Salaam, and are gently sloped areas, consisting of residual weathered limestone (Murram- Terrace/Hill 20-60 m earth material); many of these terraced areas of 500 m to 1 000 m are observed around the banks of Dar es Salaam City, and have been known to act as flood plains This zone extends to the Southwest of the study area, the geological origin of Hill 60-150 m which is raised coral reefs, the undulation of which is dependent on the degree of weathering. In the Western region of Dar es Salaam, 30 km inland, composed of limestone Mountain > 150 m associated with sandstone of the older geological area, steep and rigid slopes are formed (PROCESL/COWI, 2014) 11112014 - Ilala EIA Report.docx 58/211                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 13 The following table (Table 5) describes the general extent of landform conditions at different elevations within the city from <5m to >150m. The diversity of elevations and landform types generally supports a diversity of wildlife and vegetation distributed throughout the different zones. An aerial photo illustrates the general footprint of settlement while the darker colors represent areas of less developed, less disturbed land cover (Figure 12). As a consequence of both land area consumed by residential use and a need to cut the trees for building materials and energy supply, there is little remaining of the original Figure 12 Dar es Salaam Source: Google Earth, 2014 coastal forest. Table 5 Dar es Salaam Local Topographical Conditions Landform Type Level Condition Lowland <5 m Areas in the bay area, river mouths and hinterland along the coast. Marsh and swampy areas widely spread; soft soil, thick and drains poorly. Plain/ Terrace 5-20 m Flat plains/terraces, extend along the coast and are generally a few kilometers wide. Geologically it belongs to the coastal plains. Terrace/Hill 20-60 m This makes up the dominant part of the residential terrain of Dar es Salaam, and are gently sloped areas, consisting of residential weathered limestone (Murram- earth material); many of these terraced areas of 500 m to 1,000 m are observed around the banks of Dar es Salaam City, and have been known to act as flood plains. Hill 60-150 m This zone extends to the Southwest of the study area, the geological origin of which is raised coral reefs, the undulation of which is dependent on the degree of weathering. Mountain > 150 m In the Western region of Dar es Salaam, 30 km inland, composed of limestone associated with sandstone of the older geological area, steep and rigid slopes are formed. Source: URT, 2014a The land and soil cover have been severely degraded by the large spatial footprint of informal settlements. Between 1982 and 2002, more than 15,500 ha of formerly vacant agricultural lands had been converted to urban development. Seventy-five percent of new development has been classified as informal development; 15% converted into planned residential development; and 8 -10% developed for commercial and industrial, public and other uses (Hill and Linder, 2010). Both commercial development and informal settlements have resulted in areas of impervious or disturbed land area that prevent vegetation growth and inhibit infiltration of stormwater (URT, 2014c TSCP) (See photos). Photo: Shows general landform type how the green forest canopy is partially displaced by buildings and road. Source: AECOM                                                  Page 14 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Dar es Salaam contains approximately 2500 ha of The Pugu Hills Forest Reserve (2,180 ha), contains less protected forest reserves including the Pande and than 400 ha in reasonable condition. A 2010 study found Dondwe Coastal Forest and the Pugu Forest. Pande Pugu and Kazimzumbwi forests declined more than 30% Game Reserve (1,226 ha) is on a low sandstone ridge over 30 years due to urban and peri-urban expansion and 6 km north-west of the city and 16 km inland from the encroachment from nearby communities (Figure 13). Indian Ocean. There are four distinct tree-species, with While this reserve and others offer non-extractive the remaining forest surrounded by fire-maintained biodiversity benefits to the city, such as upstream grassland and secondary scrub, while three endemic water catchment purification services and habitat that plants and two near-endemics have been identified. supports the region’s wildlife, they also serve as markets Dondwe Forest, to the south of the city, has not been for forest products. Little enforcement of forest law and mapped. Parts of the forest flood seasonally. Both forests limited restriction to access has resulted in poaching of are managed by the Wildlife Division of the Ministry of forest products (CCIAM, 2011). As the headwaters for Natural Resources and Tourism (Birdlife International, the Msimbazi River, destruction of forest catchment can online, 2014). The Pugu Forest Reserve, a rainforest impact water quality and quantity downstream (NEMC extending into Dar es Salaam, is protected and managed and UNEP, 2014). under District Authority control. It is the source of the Msimbazi River. One the largest kaolinite deposits in the The coastal forests provide a wide range of goods, world is located inside the reserve (protected planet. including medicinal plants, fuel wood, building materials net, 2014). The forest reserves occupy a broader region and food that are vital for public and private use. beyond Dar es Salaam’s boundary of approximately 70 sq However, the collection of these goods and other km (CCIAM, 2013). activities such as charcoal making, cattle grazing, fire ignition, pole and firewood collection, hunting and poaching, honey harvesting, and construction activities, have contributed to the degradation of the forest (Ilala Municipal Council, 2007) (See Section IV). Pugu Forest 1995 Pugu Forest 2010 Legend Road Built Area Rail Central Bushland River PFR Closed Forest Cultivated Land Class Name Grassland Bareland Woodland Figure 13 Pugu Forest Cover Maps (1995 on left; 2010 on right): Pugu Forest experienced a decline in forest coverage (23% loss) from 1995 to 2010 due to settlement expansion and agricultural cultivation in peri-urban areas of Dar es Salaam. Source: Lupala et al., 2014                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 15 The degradation of the forest lands contributes to a The highly developed areas of Dar es Salaam, such number of environmental problems, including the loss as Ilala, contain non-bird species that are tolerant of of flora and fauna, biodiversity, water recharge and humans such as house rats, common toads, crows and infiltration, and carbon sequestration capacity as well sparrows (URT, 2014a TSCP). Kinondoni and Temeke as the sedimentation of rivers. The coastal forests are generally contain a broader diversity of wildlife due recognized Important Bird Areas (IBA), hosting numerous to less development compared to Ilala. In addition to IBA species including a few that are globally endangered, the human-tolerant animals common to Ilala, Temeke as well as endemic and near-threatened species. This also contains snakes (Psammophis spp.), skinks environmental habitat of rare coastal forest condition is (Mabuya varia) and terrapins (Pelusios sp.), vervet essential for survival of these coastal forest birds. monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), lesser galago (Galago senegalensis) and the banded mongoose (Mungos An additional IBA designation runs from the open bay mungo) (URT, 2014c TSCP). of Ras Kiramoni in the north, up to and including Ndege Beach, to Ras Ndege, east of Mbwamaji village—a Urban Tree Canopy total length of 40 km (Birdlife International, 2014). The city site on a natural harbor backed by low hills is an Within the urbanized areas, street trees are heavily important feeding ground for several seabirds which impacted by roadside conditions (see photos below). rarely venture inshore of the coral reef. Within the Tree and shrub species growing in Dar es Salaam IBA are tidal mudflats, river inlets, saltpans, extensive include Mango tree (Mangifera indica), Neem tree mangroves, coastal thicket and several offshore islands (Azandiracta indica), Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), which create a remarkably diverse coastal environment. Hibiscus schizopetalus, and Ashoka tree (Polyalthia With a tidal range of nearly four meters, up to 25 km² of longifolia)(URT, 2014a) (Prime Minister’s Office, 2014a). exposed sand and mud can be available to birds at low While an urban tree canopy with diverse heights can tide (BirdLife International, 2014). provide microclimate control, promote infiltration of floodwaters, birdlife and biodiversity, the absence of Challenges for Dar es Salaam’s Urban Street Trees and Tree Canopy Photos: Dar es Salaam’s street trees are heavily impacted by roadside conditions such as tires on a tree surrounded by compacted soil and rocks; and vehicle parts stacked against a tree with oil-soaked soil. Source: AECOM Photos: Roadside zones devoid of any trees or vegetation are found in both planned and unplanned areas. Maintaining healthy street trees is challenging when there is limited space allocated for tree growth. Source: AECOM                                                  Page 16 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities urban canopy can facilitate suspension of road dust, Overview of Terrestrial Asset Trends higher temperatures and flooding (USDA, 2014). Given Dar es Salaam’s landscape of woodland and coastal the absence of available studies on the quality of Dar es shrub lands has since become fragmented, deforested Salaam’s street trees and tree canopy, the images on the and settled following decades of development footprint prior page show how the city’s trees have been impacted expansion and infill. As a result, the areas of extensive, by settlements and roads. contiguous terrestrial habitats that remain are generally limited to the periphery of the city (Google Earth, 2014). The images below show healthy canopy coverage and However, most of these forested, undeveloped areas - practices, such as roadside nurseries, which provide with the exception of reserves such as Pande, Dondwe some of the temporary environmental benefits and Pugu - lack formal conservation protection and are otherwise provided by healthy street trees. Dense and thus threatened by encroachment. If development trends contiguous urban tree plantings with diversified canopy continue as modelled, these larger, contiguous habitats heights can increase the amount of urban forest area are likely to continue to become fragmented and reduced while potentially forming ecological corridors for linking in size by encroachment at the margins, further straining disconnected natural areas. overall catchment. Examples of Urban Street Trees, Tree Canopy and Temporary Vegetation Providing Environmental Benefits in Dar es Salaam Photos: In some areas, Dar’s urban tree canopy provides shade, interception of road dust, micro-climate control and amenity values. Source: AECOM Photos: Roadside markets of tree and plant material are frequent alongside Dar’s roads. These nursery markets can provide some benefits of planted street trees by absorbing rainwaters, intercepting road dust and providing temporary wildlife habitat. Source: AECOM                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 17 Figure 7: Location of Dar es Salaam Rivers and Streams The lack of comprehensive, baseline data documenting an inventory of terrestrial assets in Dar es Salaam, such Legend as an urban natural areas inventory or a tree canopy Main River survey, makes it challenging to understand the current NEMC Dar es Salaam Rivers Rehabilitation and Management Project Small River state of terrestrial assets and to identify locations of Stream significant change. Similarly, baseline inventories of trees, Dar es Salaam City forests, birds, etc. can enable prioritization of valuable 1.0. Project Overview and Rationale assets or those most at risk, to inform allocation of limited fiscal and municipal resources for conservation, 1.1. Rivers and streams monitoring and restoration efforts. Data on vegetation and wildlife that is available has been generated for In this programme design document, the term river means natural, freshwater surface streams that have considerable volume compared with its smaller tributaries. The discrete projects, largely through environmental and tributaries are known as brooks, creeks, branches, or forks. Rivers are the main stems social impact assessments covering specific areas. This and larger tributaries of the drainage systems that convey surface runoff from the land. segmented inventory data inhibits a broader, more They flow from headwater areas of small tributaries to their mouths, where they may Figure 14 Dar es Salaam Rivers and orStreams comprehensive view of overall environmental health.discharge into the ocean, Source: major rivers NEMC , 2009 namely: a major lake, a desert basin. Dar es Salaam City has four Mpiji, Msimbazi, Mzinga, and Kizinga and several streams (Figure 1). Source: JICA (2008). B. Aquatic Ecosystems The freshwater ecosystems of Dar es Salaam include both surface waters (1,123.087 ha of rivers and streams) and groundwater resources (Dar es Salaam MP, 2013). Legend The main rivers within the city include: Msimbazi, the Main River Small River largest river in the city; Mpiji; Kizinga, with the largest Stream catchment area; and Mzinga (Figure 14 and Figure 15). Catchment Area Three of Dar es Salaam’s four major rivers are heavily Dar es Salaam City Boundary degraded. While the predominant aquatic assets of Dar es Salaam are rivers, small wetland areas are designated as protected in Ilala, such as the wetlands of Kata ya Chanika (180 ha) and Kata ya Kinyerezi (67 ha) (URT, 2014a TSCP). 16 The rivers have been degraded due to the impacts of encroachment, erosion and sedimentation, effluents from waste water and runoff, and solid waste. The following is a summary state of conditions of each river Figure 15 Dar es Salaam River Catchments (Table 6). Source: NEMC and UNEP, 2014 Figure 1: Dar es Salaam Main Rivers and Streams and Catchment areas Encroachment of settlements into riverine corridors and catchment areas, the discharge of sewage and solid waste, sediment, sand mining, river bank 1 Dar es Salaam Rivers Rehabilitation and Management Project Design Document erosion, deforestation and the impervious footprint of development have reduced the quantity and quality of water and the ecosystem as a whole. Recent studies have shown that several locations along the Msimbazi River are highly contaminated, making the river water unsuitable for potable water and the soil unsuitable for urban agricultural cultivation.                                                  Page 18 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Table 6 Dar es Salaam Rivers and General Character of Pollution River Character/Source of Pollution Quality Kizinga Pugu catchment area. Only one used for surface water supply as has Some parameters exceed Tanzania stable mean annual flow rate throughout the year. Exceeds Tanzania National Standards for drinking water national standards for chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen quality. demand concentrations posing threat to drinking water quality. Mzinga Pugu catchment area. Unstable flow rate; higher in rainy season/lower Meets the standard for domestic use. in dry season. Sand mining is common. The Mbezi, a tributary, has been degraded by sand mining. Mpiji Runs through less developed areas, less vulnerable to pollution. Sand Data on water quality is not available mining is common. Msimbazi Pugu Catchment and shallow groundwater are important water source Unsuitable for potable water. Coliform for residents for drinking, bathing, agriculture. 1000 times safe swim levels at mouth • Industrial discharge of treated and untreated of river. waste water, especially in Ilala. Concentrations of lead in the water • Ubungo, Vingunguti and Buguruni Waste Water Stabilization exceed Tanzania Bureau of Standards Ponds discharge their effluents directly to tributaries. and World Health Organization standards. • Leachates discharge from closed solid waste dumps of Vingunguti and Tabata. pH as high as 12 compared to the legal • Outfalls for storm water drainage systems that collect standard of 8.5, a level which causes from industrial, residential, commercial, institutional severe burns to skin. areas, and informal sector activity premises. Chromium (VI) at 75 times the legal • Effluents from on-site sanitation systems, mainly in limit for waste water discharges, which residential areas, flow overland, through groundwater can cause cancer and birth defects by seepage, and by outcropping on hillsides. Indicators of disease causing faecal • Heavy metals in soil and water were determined at four points contamination which exceed the World along river valley, indicating potential for pollution transfer Health Organization limits for safe use to food chain as is popular for vegetable cultivation. of waste-water in agriculture. • Solid waste dumping from settlement areas. Yombo A small river with a basin area of 24.9km. Heavily polluted by industrial Lead contamination of waters due to wastewater. high soil lead levels attributed to local vehicle emissions. Source: NEMC and UNEP, 2014; URT, 2014a; URT, 2014b; Mwegoha, 2010; URT, 2014f; Hepworth and Joseph, 2014                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 19 • At the entry point to Dar es Salaam (at Kisarawe) the E.coli count is 75 to 100 per 100 mL of water, a relatively low amount indicating good quality water. However, at Selander Bridge, the coliform count is more than 1,000 times the level considered safe for swimming (coliform count between 250,000 and 400,000 per 100 mL of water) (UNEP NEMC, 2014). Fecal coliform indicates water contamination with human and animal excreta. High levels indicate serious health risks for diarrhoeal diseases which can be a particular threat to healthy childhood development (UN, n.d.a.). • Settlements, such as those adjacent to the Morogoro Road crossing of the Msimbazi, have degraded river vegetation, filled portions of the river edge with sand and gravel, eroded soil and contributed significant sediment and effluent loads that degrade the river’s habitat and water quality. • The Msimbazi also has high concentrations of heavy metals in the water, such as lead, that exceeds WHO drinking water standards. Furthermore, the presence of heavy metals in soil and water indicates the potential for pollution Photos: Settlement encroachment of Msimbazi River, at Morogoro transfer into the food chain, especially since Rd. Crossing. portions of the Msimbazi river valley are popular Source: AECOM for vegetable cultivation (Mwegoha, 2010). • High values of chemical oxygen demand (COD) Overview of Aquatic Asset Trends concentrations (range between 487 and 654 While the headwaters of Dar es Salaam’s rivers are mg/l) have been observed indicating strong generally in good condition, the quality and ecological organic pollution. The Tanzania Bureau of function becomes increasingly poor as they flow from Standards notes that maximum COD concentration the city’s periphery through more populated and should be 60 mg/l (Mwegoha, 2010). built-up settlements and areas of industrial activities. • High levels of pollution in the rivers is evident Threats to the overall health of the river will increase as from biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)2 and development progresses towards the city’s periphery and dissolved oxygen (DO)3 data. In some sections catchments become more populated. of the river, DO levels are lower than 5 mg/L, the minimum concentration required to support a Pollution data indicating significant impacts of diverse population of fish (NEMC and UNEP, 2014). wastewater and industrial and drainage effluents within two of the city’s major rivers (Msimbazi and Kizinga) The city’s rivers and streams receive waste water from combined with unabated sand mining of river beds and sanitary facilities and from septic tanks of adjacent the decline in forest coverage suggests that overall water industrial and residential use. It is common to see quality parameters will continue to show deterioration. tributaries of rivers including Mlalakuwa, Mbezi, Furthermore, deteriorating water quality may likely Msimbazi and others flowing with sewage during the become more common in river locations farther dry season. During rainy periods, sewerage from pit upstream. latrines or septic tanks is released into storm water and into the streams and rivers. The rivers are also used as Comprehensive baseline efforts such as the proposed Dar illegal dumping sites for solid waste, a situation common es Salaam Rivers Rehabilitation and Management Project in areas of high population density that lack solid waste are essential for documenting current ecological health, management systems (NEMC and UNEP, 2014). identifying threats and prioritizing actions which can prevent further degradation while promoting restoration of ecological functions. While the Dar es Salaam Rivers Project is focused on the Msimbazi, perhaps the study can serve as a model for data collection and analysis of the city’s other major rivers and tributaries.                                                  Page 20 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities C. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Dar es Salaam’s coastline is approximately 100 km long, reaching from the Mpiji River in the north to Mpakani village in the south, and includes sandy beaches; rocks, cliffs and platforms; coral reefs, mangrove forests, estuaries, and seagrass-covered lagoons (Hartnoll. 1975; Kairu and Nyandwi, 2000) (UNEP, 2011). The coral reefs within Dar es Salaam’s island and bay areas, established within the broader 26km2 Marine Protected Areas designation in 1975, were found to have high diversity in the 1960s and 1970s. However, surveys in the 1980s and 1990s described general degradation due to destructive fishing techniques and tourism (Muhando, n.d.a). Studies in 1999 and 2000 noted that while live hard coral cover increased in most locations, the species composition changed (Muhando, n.d.a). Furthermore, the city’s marine system provides habitat for endangered species including marine turtles, hawksbill (Eretmochely imbricata) and green turtle (Chelonia mydas), sea turtle, dolphins, humpback whales and whale sharks (URT, 2011 as referenced in URT, 2014d). Figure 16 Locations of Reported Beach Erosion (areas of erosion in lighter shading and sand accretion the darker shading) Surges of beach erosion have been recorded at numerous Source: Nyandwi, 2010 locations along Dar es Salaam’s coast since the 1970’s (Figure 16). Areas that are known to be severely affected by beach erosion include the Kunduchi (north of Dar es Table 7 Mangrove Forests within Temeke Salaam) and Bahari beaches (Figure 16) (Griffiths and Forest District Area (in hectares) Lwiza, 1988; Masalu, 2002) (Kebede and Nicchols, 2010). Number Beach erosion has also been identified as a severe threat to Dar es Salaam’s coastal areas at Ununio, Mbweni, 1 Mbezi River 570.3 Kimbiji, Kigamboni, and Vijibweni coastal areas (Samaki, 2 Mbuyuni 476.7 2015). At the Kunduchi beach area, the coastline has retreated about 200m over the last 50 years (Casmiri, 3 Shugu/ Mtandika 270.8 2008), while the average rate of erosion for the city 4 Ras Dege 245.0 area has been estimated about 3 – 5 m/year (Fay, 1992) 5 Mbwa Maji 29.6 (Kebede and Nicchols, 2010). 6 Mji Mwewma 80.9 Mangrove forests exist throughout coastal areas of 7 Mtoni 378.4 Dar es Salaam, but are considered highly threatened, Source: URT, 2014c TSCP particularly in Temeke District. Kinondoni District (reference to Dar es Salaam Marine Ecology Conservation Project) supports 314 ha of mangroves (Kunduchi Creek with 68.7 ha; Ras Kiromoni 20.2 ha; and Mbweni area 100.6 ha) while Ilala sustains 39ha of mangrove forest with the majority located in one stand at the mouth of the Msimbazi river (Samaki, 2015). Temeke District has the most extensive coverage of mangrove forest (see Table 7) with 7 distinct forests covering more than 2,000 km2. However, mangrove forests in Dar es Salaam face considerable threats to forest decline due to exploitation and uncontrolled use (Samaki, 2015).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 21 Most mangrove forests, including Kunduchi, Mbweni and Mtoni, were harvested intensely in the 1990s and 2000s, resulting in severe fragmentation. The area of mangrove forest decreased from 2,516 hectares (Semesi, 1991) to 2,170 hectares (TCMP, 2001), along with a considerable decrease in density, height and canopy cover. In addition, Dar es Salaam has been losing coastal beach habitat due to coastal storms (City Links, 2014). Opportunity exists to restore mangrove forests at Kinondoni. A 2008 survey by NEMC revealed some recovery of the density of mangrove trees at Kinondoni after government and stakeholder conservation initiatives (UNEP, 2011). The coastal and marine systems have suffered from the degradation of land and aquatic systems that have caused sedimentation and high turbidity. The deteriorating aquatic system has had a major impact Figure 17 Areas of Dynamite Fishing on the fishing industry, a significant source of livelihood Source: World Resources Institute, 2010 in the city. Aquatic resources have been polluted from the discharge of urban sewage and effluents, subject to invasive flora and fauna, and depleted and/or exploited Overview of Coastal Asset Trends by dynamite fishing methods (Figure 17)(UNEP, 2011). Dar es Salaam is unique among cities globally as one of the few cities that contain a marine reserve system Pollution of beaches and coastal waters is a growing of islands, coral reefs and bays. While studies of coral concern due to upstream solid waste disposal and reef health suggest that trends of coral reef growth are discharge of heavy metals, oil and industrial wastes improving, mangrove destruction and surges of beach that flow untreated from city rivers and stormwater erosion reflect a depletion of coastal and marine assets. (Samaki, 2015). Large amounts of sediment, nutrients Dynamite fishing and increasing water temperatures and other pollutants are deposited throughout the associated with climate change might likely reverse any year by Dar es Salaam’s rivers into near-shore waters, recent coral reef recovery due to reef destruction and polluting the city’s coastal beaches and inter-tidal mud coral bleaching. Furthermore, the continued release of flats. Areas experiencing beach and nearshore pollution effluents from Dar es Salaam’s wastewater collection include Selander Bridge Beach, Ocean Road Beach, system and the steady input from polluted rivers draining Mbagala Kuu and Mjimwema (Samaki, 2015). the city suggest future trends of further coastal asset Locally, Ilala’s coastal waters face considerable sewage degradation. pollution from Aga Khan Hospital; coastal effluents in Comprehensive inventories and assessments of the Temeke are from KTM Textile industry, Dar es Salaam coastal and marine assets can strengthen the baseline port and Kigamboni refinery plant; while Kinandoni’s understanding of existing conditions, such as the coastal assets are degraded by wastes from tourist hotels Kinondoni Integrated Coastal Area Management Project (Samaki, 2015). Periods of heavy rainfall (March to May) and projects from the World Wildlife Fund. Also, bring the largest volume of pollution into Dar es Salaam’s continued investment in these coastal area studies coastal waters, and resources from oil, heavy metals, can enable identification of opportunities for resource industrial and sewage pollution have been ranked among enhancement, such as banning sand mining and restoring the most severe threat according to the 2015 Coastal mangrove forests, along with the capacity and resources Rapid Impact Assessment (Samaki, 2015). for long-term implementation and environmental management.                                                  Page 22 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities D. Air Quality The local air quality of Dar es Salaam is driven by 2500% coastal and inland air circulation zones. Coastal 2190% Percent Over/ Under WHO Standard area air patterns help to mix air and dissipate most 2000% pollution concentrations (ICF, 2009). Inland areas can 1500% retain concentrations of air pollutants that can impact ecosystem and human health. Cars and gasoline-burning 1000% engines are a large source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from the fossil fuels. 500% 200% 118% Based on limited available data, most recent measures of 0% -3% 72% air quality indicators are exceeding WHO recommended Carbon Nitrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Total -500% Monoxide Dioxides Oxides Dioxides SPM limits. Figure 18 Roadside Ambient Air Pollution Levels The quality of urban ambient air quality was assessed Source: O.C. Othman, 2012 in a 2010 study by measuring the levels of the atmospheric pollutants sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen The degradation of air quality promotes formation dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (NO) of ground-level ozone that can be harmful to people, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) at different animals, crops, and other materials by inhibiting localities within the city. The sites were selected to cover respiratory systems and altering cellular formation industrial, commercial, residential, and tourist-beach (US EPA ground level, 2014). Ground-level ozone also areas. The study confirmed that persons working or interferes with the ability of sensitive plants to produce just walking along the Gerezani area, Uhuru Street and and store food; visibly damages the leaves of trees and Askari Monument Road junction were being exposed to other plants, harming the appearance of vegetation high levels of NO2, SO2, CO and SPM (Figure 18). Most in urban areas, national parks, and recreation; leads of these exceedances are attributable to transportation to increased susceptibility of sensitive plant species to emissions. The concentrations of particulates were disease, damage from insects, effects of other pollutants, consistently high at Gerezani, Kariakoo, and at Askari competition, and harm from severe weather; and causes Monument and Muhimbili (MMC) (Table 8) (Othman, adverse impacts on ecosystems, including loss of species 2010). diversity and changes to habitat quality and water and When Dar es Salaam air quality study results were nutrient cycles. compared to results from earlier studies, the pollutant levels showed an increasing of pollutant exposure Overview of Air Quality to Dar es Salaam City residents. (Othman, 2010). A Based on the limited available data, it is clear that some review of prior air quality studies at discrete locations indicators of air quality in Dar es Salaam are exceeding in Dar es Salaam shows levels of Nitrogen Dioxides and national and WHO standards. Since exceedences such as Sulphur Dioxides that have consistently exceeded WHO suspended particulate matter, SO2 and NO2 are largely standards, particularly at inland and industrial locations attributed to transportation emissions, roadside air such as Kariakoo and Gerezani. However, coastal location quality is likely to continue to degrade as the vehicle such as Kunduchi Beach Hotel have generally had less air population continues to increase on unpaved roads quality degradation due to coastal breezes. (See Drivers Section on Emissions). Furthermore, the combination of industrial production within areas of The Urban Air Quality Monitoring Capacity Building high vehicle presence seems to yield considerable Project (ARMCBP), initiated in Dar Es Salaam with UNEP exceedences of standards, such as at Kariakoo and support, monitored five locations in the city in 2007 for Gerezani. particulate matter 10 (PM10), NO2, SO2, and O3. Unlike the studies in Table 9, the UNEP study found that only PM10 Dar es Salaam’s coastal areas appear to provide a levels exceeded Tanzania and World Health Organization moderating effect on air quality parameters; however, standards (URT, 2014a TSCP). The UNEP study also further study over time across a full range of air quality attributed the high PM10 levels to increased traffic parameters will confirm the accuracy of locational volume, industrial activities and suspended roadway dust findings. from unpaved surfaces (URT, 2014 a, b).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 23 Table 8 Air Pollutant Levels in Dar es Salaam as Reported in Literature Site NO2 SO2 SMP CO Reference (ug m-3) (ug m-3) (ug m-3) (mg m-3) 298 872 414 --- Othman (1996) 250 3290 187 --- NEMC (1992) Askari --- 3968 --- Mwakibete (1991) monument 43.7 Henricson (1999) 44.8 7.4 Musabila et al. (2003) 1000 9867 762 9.7 This study (2010) 497 1886 723 --- Othman (1996) 428 3352 692 --- NEMC (1992) Gerezani 5110 1687 --- --- Othman (1991) 59.8 9.6 Musabila et al. (2003) 567 9833 1175 15.3 This study (2010) 288 1520 782 --- Othman (1996) Kariakoo 249 3323 757 NEMC (1992) 733 10533 1134 18.0 This study (2010) 290 1662 136 --- Othman (1996) MMC 200 3319 609 NEMC (1992) 42 4757 187 1.8 This study (2010) 75 309 78 --- Othman (1996) Kunduchi 187 1230 85 NEMC (1992) B Hotel 20 235 77 0 This study (2010) Several <53 <1385 <1161 --- Jackson (2005) sites WHO guide 200 350 230 10 value Source: O.C. Othman, 2012 The ARMCBP’s initial inventory of air quality data is a Dar es Salaam has developed an accounting of key step in helping to establish a baseline understanding greenhouse gas emissions for January 2012 through of urban development impacts on air quality. Regular April 2014, however, this information has not yet been monitoring that builds upon this project and other earlier made available (CDP, 2014). A greenhouse gas inventory studies can help the city develop a more comprehensive is essential for assessing Dar es Salaam’s contributions understanding of how air quality changes over time in light to global climate change. Furthermore, a baseline GHG of development and environment changes in the city. inventory will enable the City to identify opportunities for improved energy-efficiency that can reduce operating costs and enhance adaptation and resilience to climate change impacts.                                                  Page 24 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities IV. DRIVERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY AND DEGRADATION Drivers of environmental degradation are identified and described in this section. While environmental degradation in Dar es Salaam is the result of numerous drivers, the drivers described below have emerged from discussions with key stakeholders and review of existing literature as having direct actions which impact the quality and condition of the environmental assets described in Section III. The key drivers of degradation in Dar es Salaam include informal settlement, the extraction of natural resources, solid waste management, effluent, the extraction of water, and emissions. A. Informal Settlements The majority of urban spatial expansion of Dar es Salaam has occurred without guidance and has manifested as informal settlements throughout the city. Approximately 70%-80% of the population now resides in the dense, unplanned areas that are typically located in environmentally vulnerable areas such as those prone to flooding (Prime Minister’s Office, 2013a; Kyessi, 2010). Informal developments are characterized by rapid, unstructured, unplanned and unserviced growth (Kyessi, 2010). They are usually located in areas intended for recreational purposes; relocated from designated areas; or result from other exploitative strategies by developers. This increase in haphazard patterns of urban growth has caused economic inefficiency, environmental degradation and negative impacts to human quality of life. Large numbers of households live without access to safe water and quality sanitation and infrastructure; secure property tenure; or adequate opportunity to participate in government decision-making processes (ibid). Dar es Salaam has over 100 unplanned housing areas covering an area of at least 5,197 hectares (Kyessi, 2010). The settlement pattern includes small planned areas within the large unplanned urban landscape. Landowners informally subdivide and sell their land to small-scale developers. Detached (single story) buildings have predominated, very low population densities although existing unplanned areas continue to densify, and some of the more accessible areas are undergoing gentrification (Kyessi, 2010). Photos: Environmental degradation in informal urban peripheral expansion areas due to a lack of infrastructure services. Source: AECOM                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 25 Urban structure and development of Dar es Salaam Figure 50: Land uses in Dar es Salaam in 1982, 1992, and 2002 Growth in Dar es Salaam’s periphery is expected to continue in a similar pattern of development, bringing further degradation to the existing vegetation, land and aquatic resources (Figure 19 and Figure 20). A closer look Simulating urban futures at projected growth reveals considerable densification of river valley catchments, threatening the future ecological respective health of the numbers city’s waterways. be developed. All independent variables stay unchanged42 of cells todevelopment Residential is by far the the land largest and use in the simulation city, occupying results demonstrate the development to be expected without any 167,772 hectares (URT, 2013). The informal planning or policy interventions. residential The baseline scenario presented below applies the areas occupy 75% of the total residential area, logistic regression function as derived including from the calibration and is based on the land-use informal regularized (15,506 ha), informal consolidated and transport network data of 2002. The underlying assumptions of population growth (31,750 ha), and informal scattered (71,355 ha). Planned residentialhave already occupies been 49,160 described hectares (Moss above in Chapter 11.3 as being based on population figures and Happold, 2013). and projections by the UN (2008c). Unplanned Baseline shown simulation scenario areas have a continuous results growth trend since 1979, when there were 25 areas, increasing The simulation results can be seen in to 40 83 showing the land-use distribution for the Figure in 1990, 50 in 2000, 54 in 2004, and more than 100 areas years 2012 and 2022. The urban expansion is mapped as projected to take place until by 2014 (Lupala, 2002; URT, 2005; Kyessi, 2010). Informal settlements 2022 implied by to are anticipated adding 21,322 continue ha of informal residential use and selected 20,000 Plots to expand Project spatially along sitesradial the city’s to the urban growth fabric pattern of the (Figure 20)study area. It clearly illustrates the spatial (Prime Minister’s dimensionOffice, and2013) (Hill and Linder, distribution 2010). pressure that Dar es Salaam is likely to face in of settlement the near future. The characteristics of unplanned and un-serviced areas Figure 19 Source: Own Development illustration; 1982-2002 based on land-use Enschede; updated for 2002 by IRPUD and transport network data provided by ITC, Source: Hill and Linder, 2010 in Dar es Salaam vary Figure 83: significantly. Baseline They scenario are classified land-use Analysisforecasted for 2012 (left) and 2022 (right) distribution as: (i) high density, mostly found in central and strategic The urban structure of Dar es Salaam is often described as a four finger pattern locations; (ii) medium density, usually located in the following the four major arterial roads. Despite intensive densification and consolidation processes in existing settlements, most of the urban population growth is immediate periphery of the city center and in the process accommodated on formerly vacant or agricultural land. High land consumption mainly of ongoing densification; and (iii) low density, mainly in results from the fact that single storey buildings prevail and affordable land for the relatively large plots can only be found at the urban fringe. Although land consumption is the outer rings of the city. The land in low-density areas 125 is still partly used for agriculture. This leads to frequent flooding, soil erosion, ground water and air pollution, public safety issues, high cost of services such as potable water, long walking distances to water points, and lack of health services, schools, and playgrounds for children. The outward expansion of development into peri-urban and peripheral areas requires expansion of infrastructure services such as drainage, sewage and roads in order to service new settlements. However, infrastructure development is not keeping pace with settlement, resulting in the degradation of environmental assets through unplanned actuaries such as road construction, which erodes fragile coastal forest edge, contributes sediment to rivers and conveys solid wastes and untreated effluent. Informal settlement has negative impacts on human health. Cholera was found to have a high incidence of transmission in informal settlement areas due to population density which promotes direct transmission Figure 20 Planned and Informal Residential 2012-2022 from person to person (Figure 21) (Penrose et al, 2010). Source: Hill and Linder, 2010 Source: Own simulation 42 This is a specific characteristic of the presented model. Other models might for example integrate results from other models like for example transport models, thus, they might up-date road network and travel times. As no such model exists for Dar es Salaam, here all other independent variables stay unchanged. 185                                                  Page 26 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Hospital and dispensary health statistics indicate the prevalence of water borne disease, vector borne disease and parasites, infections, and malnutrition in informal settlements. The high incidence of diarrhea, intestinal worms and gastroenteritis are indicators of poor sanitation conditions and contamination of food and soil with human excrement. Poor personal hygiene is also evident from the fact that water-washed diseases (e.g., infectious skin and eye diseases) are widespread, as are fecal-oral diseases such as diarrhea and dysentery. B. Extraction of Natural Resources Photo: Charcoal Making in the Forest Source: CCIAM, 2013 The dependence of urban-based livelihoods on extraction of the city’s natural resource base continues to drive Table 9 Fish Catch in Dar es Salaam both decline and depletion of the environmental assets. Extractive activities include fishing, harvesting of trees, sand mining, quarrying, and, to a lesser extent, the Year Quantity (Kg) Value (Tsh) harvesting of medicinal plants. Dynamite fishing, coral 2006 6,224,786 1,873,436,000 and sand mining, mangrove cutting, and seaweed farming have a marked effect on degradation of the coastal 2007 8,410,336 2,102,584,000 environment (URT, 2009). The major pressure causing 2008 8,395,185 2,269,096,000 coral reef degradation in Dar es Salaam coast is dragging of 2009 7,847,897 2,746,764,000 seine nets and dynamite fishing (UNEP, 2011). 2010 8,397,463 2,939,112,000 Fishing has been a major economic activity in the city of Total 39,275,668 11,930,992,000 Dar es Salaam, contributing about 29 per cent of the city Average 7,855,134 2,386,198,400 GDP (BOT, 2007). Each municipality has several landing Source: UNEP, 2011 sites along coastal villages to support the fishing industry, including: Kunduchi, Msasani, Mbweni and Ununio in Kinondoni municipality and Kigamboni, Buyuni and Mtoni Kijichi in Temeke municipality. A ferry fish market in Ilala municipality also serves as a landing site during peak catches (UNEP, 2011). The average annual catch is approximately 7,855,134 kilograms of fish worth Tsh 2,386,198,400 (Table 9). Countrywide, the number of fresh and marine fishermen has more than doubled between 1993 and 2006, placing further pressure on marine resources (URT, 2007a).(UNEP, 2011) A driver of deforestation has been the increasing use and preference for using charcoal and household fuel. From 1991-92, 51% of households used charcoal as the primary fuel; usage increased to 69% in 2000-2001 and 78% in 2007 (Malimbwi and Zahabu, 2008). Usage levels in 2009 included 200,000-300,000 bags (avg. 50 kgs) of charcoal per month (URT, 2009). More recently, in 2012, 94% of households relied on firewood and charcoal as primary fuel. The increase in charcoal use reflects lower costs than alternative fuels and is easily available in Figure 21 Cholera-prone Areas in Dar es Salaam forests (Household Budget Survey, 2012). Source: Ardhi University, 2011                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 27 Charcoal is also the major source of energy for hotels, Table 10 Household Fuel Preferences bars and small-scale food vendors (Table 10) (World Bank, 2011). This has resulted in deforestation, Fuel Preference (%) woodland degradation, habitat destruction, loss Type of Fuel of biodiversity, environmental pollution, all having 1991-1992 2000-2001 2007 significant impact on catchment areas and the loss Charcoal 51 69 78 of carbon sequestration potential (URT, 2014b TSCP). Collectively, this is equivalent to a loss equal to at least Kerosene 28 25 13 2 percent of Tanzania’s gross domestic product. Use of Electricity 15 4 5 charcoal creates indoor air pollution, due to crowding Firewood 1 2 4 and poor ventilation in the informal settlements, which Source: CHAPOSA, 2002, in Malimbwi and Zahabu, 2008 impacts the respiratory health of residents of these neighborhoods. It also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions (World Bank, 2011). While mangroves in Kinondoni are threatened by salt mining activities, the Kinondoni Integrated Coastal Area Management Project (KICAMP) has formulated a comprehensive plan for the coastal area, resulting in a ban on sand excavation in critical areas (World Bank, 2014). Mangroves are also harvested for firewood and charcoal- making, salt and lime production, building poles, and clearing for building sites for urban expansion and agriculture, road construction and hotel construction, as is evident at Kunduchi, Mbweni and Ununio areas (UNEP, 2011). Various types of pollution such as municipal sewage, garbage and oil pollution are also a threat. (URT, 2009d). Photos: Informal settlements, established on closed quarry site, without proper stabilization. Source: Professor Kyessi, 2014 The rapid growth of the population and economic activities in Dar es Salaam city are driving the demand for new buildings and infrastructure construction requiring sand, limestone, and clay. Due to the scarcity of sand, there has been an expansion of illegal sand mining. While mining activities are regulated by the Government, including government-designation of mining areas and issuance of licenses, enforcement is inadequate (UNEP, 2011). Data on the extent of mining and quarrying is limited, but it is common to see people mining sand for sale (Malele, 2009). Sand mining occurs along the coast at Kunduchi Beach. Exploitation activities are also undertaken along major river valleys, which lead to erosion of riverbanks and land degradation. Inland areas of rivers along the Msimbazi, Tabata, and Malalakuwa are also freely mined. Mining at the Kunduchi quarry site for aggregates and stone for building construction purposes, Kunduchi Stone, and in Kibugumo, Boko-Magereza and Bunju ended when the site was closed in 2008. Limestone is quarried from Wazo/Kunduchi outcrops for the local cement factory (see photos). Clay is extracted from the upper Msimbazi River valley for the manufacturing of bricks. Salt is mined at the shore of the Indian Ocean for domestic consumption.                                                  Page 28 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities C. Solid Waste 4000 About 60% of waste generated in Dar es Salaam remains uncollected and may end up in storm water 3500 drains, contributing to pollution of runoff water, rivers and coastal waters and exacerbating annual flooding 3000 37% events and the spread of disease. While implementation 63% of Sustainable Dar es Salaam’s solid waste management Trash Collection Rates 2500 reforms increased waste collection from 21% in 2001 to 40% in 2007, solid waste management services are still 2000 basic in most unplanned areas. 1500 41% The rate of collection within each municipality varies 59% (Temeke (27%), Ilala (39%) and Kinondoni (41%)) 1000 39% 27% Average Amount with the city-wide total average rate of collection at Collected 500 61% 73% (tons/ day) approximately 37% (Figure 22). While the data in Figure Average Amount 22 is more current than the data below from 2010 (Table Not Collected (tons/ day) 0 11), both data sets generally correlate to an average Llala Temeke Kinondoni Total rate of collection of approximately 40% across the City. Municipality Municipality Municipality (Ilala Municipal Council, 2012) (URT, 2014a. TSCP b. Figure 22 Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates by Municipality TSCP, c.TSCP). In more affluent areas of the city, waste Source: Ilala Municipal Council, 2012; URT, 2014a TSCP, bTSCP, cTSCP; AECOM is generally collected curbside by local authorities or private operators and transported to the city’s only landfill at Pugu. In less affluent areas the waste is picked up by handcart for delivery to neighborhood collection sites where local authorities or private sector services pick up the waste and transport it to Pugu (Breeze, 2012). Table 11 Disposal of Municipal Solid Wastes by Municipality Ilala Kinondoni Temeke Totals Average % of Average % of Average % of Total Citywide Total % of City (tons/ Total (tons/ Total (tons/ Volume Waste Per Day Wide Total Method of Disposal day) Volume day) Volume day) (tons) 430 39 458 23 280 27 1,168 28% Amount of Solid Waste Transported and Disposed to the Pugu Kinyamwezi Sanitary Landfill Amount Recycled or 176 16 365 18 5 0.5 546 13% Reused Amount Controlled with 250 23 507 25 10 10 767 18% On-Site Disposal Amount Remaining 244 22 696 34 737 71.5 1,677 40% Without Control Disposal of Incinerate - - - - - - - - 1,100 100 2,026 100 1,036 100 4,158 100%* Total Rounded Source: Dar es Salaam Infrastructure Development Programme, DCC, 2010 Only one operating landfill at Pugu serves as the disposal source for the city’s collected waste.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 29 Data from each municipality shows that 40% of uncollected waste remains uncontrolled while 18% or approximately 767 tons per day is controlled on site by burying or burning (Table 11). Approximately 13% or 546 tons of waste per day is recycled or reused. The lack of services, such as a comprehensive network for waste collection, transfer stations, and transport and disposal systems leads to waste being dumped in riverbanks, drainage canals and open spaces. Ambiguous governance that results in unclear bylaws related to short-term contracts and waste collection charges are further reasons why collection rates remain low (Jones, Figure 23 Trends in Population with Volumes of Waste Generated 2013). and Collected 1994-2012 Source: Jones, 2013 Waste generation is likely to continue to grow with the population and even exceed the rate of collection primary waste disposal site for the city projected through 2012 (Figure 23). It is estimated that Dar es Salaam could generate more than 12,000 tons en closed . LOCATION OF PUGU Dump Site per day by 2025, representing a tripling of the waste 6-lane road (under construction) 4-lane road generated in just 14 years. Of further concern is the 2-lane road significant cost per ton among municipalities within the dump Other road Railway city for collecting only 40% of waste generated (Breeze, DSM Region boundary 2012). The main reasons for the failure to collect solid waste rt waste are lack of equipment, low priority given to solid palities waste services by municipalities, inadequate financial resources, inaccessibility of areas, lack of space for ni transfer stations in informal areas, lack of small-scale industrial sector economy/market for processing wastes sta) (recycling) and lack of national policy and legislation on recycling (URT Rio+20, 2012). Local municipal entities have authority under the proposed Environmental Management Act to plan, design, build, establish standards, manage, monitor, evaluate and report on municipal solid waste operations and have drafted a ite has plan based on capacity and available resources. Dar local authorities note that there are upwards of 50 to 60 asibly neighborhood collection sites across the city. Twenty- six planned Wards, 64 unplanned Wards and several Figure 24 Location of Pugu Dump Site hundred sub-Wards are responsible for the collection of Source: Ardhi University, 2010 solid wastes and related fee collection through formation of community-based organizations (CBOs) to establish and operate community or private waste collection systems at the neighborhood level. However, building reasonable capacity for collection and handling of waste at the Ward and sub-Ward level has been challenging (Breeze, 2012).                                                  Page 30 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities The 65 hectare landfill is located on the city’s periphery Table 12 Estimation of Pollution Loads to Groundwater at Dumpsites in (near the headwaters of the Msimbazi River and Pugu Dar es Salaam Forest Reserve) requiring considerable transport costs from Kinondoni, the CBD, and Temeke (Figure 24). The Pollution Loads (x 100, tons/year) Dump- Area open dumpsite is not lined and does not meet basic Site (ha) environmental controls as waste are scattered across COD BOD5 TOC NH3-N the surface without application of daily or monthly Pugu 50 450 42 240 156 cover material to keep wastes from spreading by wind Kajiungeni and birds (Prime Minister’s Office, 2013). Open fires dumpsite are burning across the site while compaction efforts Kunduchi 32 268.8 26.9 153.6 99.8 are limited as bulldozers spread waste after it has been (New searched through by waste pickers (Breeze, 2012). MECCO) (closed Inadequate facility management at Pugu Landfill has 2010) compounded environmental problems as the leachates Vingunguti 10 84 8.4 48 31.2 from the existing dumpsites discharge directly into the (closed in existing watercourses (Table 12). All parameters of 2001) groundwater quality measured at Pugu (per Table 12) Tabata 6 50.4 5 28.8 18.7 indicate high levels of pollution in groundwater and (closed in impacts on surface waters (Mato, 2002; Prime Minister’s 1992) Office, 2013). Source: Groundwater Pollution in Urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania by Mato, 2002 Four of the city’s closed landfills still contribute to degradation of environmental assets through leachate Table 13 Composition of Waste in Dar es Salaam and illegal dumping. The Tabata Ward site in Ilala currently has a residential community settled on top of Waste Components Wet Weight (%) the closed landfill and there is evidence of groundwater leachate flows to nearby watercourses (Prime Minister’s Kitchen Waste 45 Office, 2013). Also, illegal dumping has been observed Grass/wood 25.1 at Kigogo (Breeze, 2012). Papers 4.1 Methane gas, a high intensity greenhouse gas, is generated Ceramic and stones 0.3 and released by landfills. Mtoni landfill has a gas capture Metals 1.7 facility that has mitigated some release of greenhouse gasses by capturing gasses for generating approximately Plastics 2.0 2.5 MW of electricity (URT Rio+20, 2012). However, this Glass 2.9 facility ceased operations in 2012 (Chacha, 2015). Leather and rubber 1.0 Landfill closure processes can take years for full Textiles 1.1 settlement and release of methane gasses from Others 17.1 decomposition. Prior to full closure, gas leaks and Total 100 structural concerns of landfill settlement remain risks to Source: Prime Minister’s Office, 2013 environmental and community resources (US EPA, 2007). The high organic composition of Dar es Salaam’s solid The high composition of organic solid waste in a city waste is a driver of water quality degradation. Studies where 40% of the waste generated remains uncontrolled, confirm that about 40-45% of the wastes are organics can cause considerable nutrient loading of drainage from kitchens and 10% are yard wastes, while the rest channels and rivers, once the waste is transported into of the wastes are less organic materials such as plastics Dar es Salaam’s water bodies. The resultant nutrient (2%), metals (1.7%) and ceramics / stone (.3%) (Table 13) concentrations contribute to high nutrient levels observed (Breeze, 2012; Ilala Municipality Study, 2012). in rivers throughout the city (NEMC and UNEP, 2014). Though the city does not have a large-scale compost facility, this high organic composition of waste suggests considerable opportunity for managing waste and nutrient loads through large-scale compost collection and processing (Jones, 2013).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 31 66 DAR ES SALAAM CITY ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK D. Effluent in section 3 of the Environmental Management Act (EMA) No. 20 of 2004 which defines “hazardous waste as any 8.2 Liquid waste solid liquid, gaseous or sludge waste which by reason of its 8 .2 .1 Sewerage system chemical reactivity, environmental or human hazardousness, The sewerage system of Dar es Salaam is a collection of small Wastewater its infectiousness, toxicity, explosiveness and corrosiveness is harmful to human health, life or environment”. E-Waste independent drainage areas rather than a fully integrated network. The system is composed of separate systems with Sanitation and drainage infrastructure capable Due to operational and maintenance is hazardous due to presence of toxic substance, which damages the environment and human health. deficiencies a combination of gravity and pumped flows, comprising approximately 170km of 100 to 1000 mm diameter of serving this rapidly urbanizing city is severely coupled with sub-standard construction, the pipes covering a total area utility of almost has with 1,700 hectares The Government through Vice-President’s Office (VPO) has adequate access manholes. The existing sewerage systems underprovided and of poor quality. The existing sewage deteriorated. The remaining started to take measures on electronic waste management. 92.6% of (Figure 25) is the served population by 15 pumping stations, nineusesystems system operated by DAWASA provides services to on-site sanitation. Among efforts being done include the establishment of the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) are discharging into waste stabilization ponds (Table 24) and the remaining discharge directly into the Indian Ocean about 10% of the City’s population (URT 2014b TSCP). Management Strategies and Action Plan (2009-2013) for Tanzania. through a sea outfall. The existing sea outfall (Plate 8.2) is a 1,000mm pipe, which extends 1km into the ocean. It Dar es Salaam’s sewerage system (Figure 25 and Table 14) is designed to collect sanitary waste through about 199 kilometers of sewers serving approximately 10-14% of the city area (Moss and Happold, 2013). The collected sewerage discharges to 8 independent waste stabilization ponds that provide primary treatment only, allowing the raw sewage solids to settle before discharging the remaining liquids to streams and rivers. The system also includes 15 pumping stations and a sewage sea outfall (Water Utilities and Performance Review Report 2012-2013, IWA Water Week). However, the system contributes minimally-treated sewage directly into Dar es Salaam’s rivers. Analysis of water samples from the Vingunguti Waste Stabilization Ponds suggests that the ponds are not working to design specification and are failing to adequately treat sewage disposed at the site (Hepworth and Jones, 2014). Figure 25 Figure 25: Distribution Distribution of of sewerage facilities in es Salaam City Facilities in Dar es Salaam City Sewerage Dar Industrial waste also appears to be deposited in the Source: DAWASCO (2010) Source: UNEP, 2011 stabilization ponds as indicated by high metals levels. These metals pose a risk to the operation of the ponds and downstream users (Hepworth and Jones, 2014). Table 14 Waste Stabilization Ponds Location Pond Area Wastewater Sources Proportion of Receiving River/ Stream (Ha) Discharge University of Dar es 1.52 Domestic, laboratories, 70% Institutional, Mlalakuwa Salaam workshops, health centre 30% Residential Mabibo (Ubungo) 2.69 Industrial, institutional, 50% Industrial, Msimbazi residential 50% Residential Vingunguti 5.54 Industrial 85% Industrial, Msimbazi 15% Residential Buguruni 2.93 Residential 75% Residential, Msimbazi 15% Industrial Kurasini 4.08 Industrial, residential 80% Residential, Kurasini 20% Industrial Mikocheni (Msasani) 4.08 Industrial, residential 85% Industrial, Mikocheni 15% Residential Lugalo 3.18 Ammunition, hospitals, 75% Institutional, Mlalakuwa schools and laboratories 25% Residential Source: UNEP, 2011                                                  Page 32 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities On-site uses include: pit latrines (73%), septic tanks (19%) with soak pits system and constructed wetlands to treat wastewater and the remaining 0.4% have no toilet or use bush/field (National Bureau of Statistics, 2013) (Mahenge, 2014). Many residents in informal areas discharge waste water directly into streams as they cannot afford the cost of pit latrines. Also, pit latrine leachate contaminates surface and ground waters via leaks and overflows of latrine systems during flooding. Wastewater has been found to impact Dar es Salaam’s groundwater reserves, compromising this secondary drinking water resource (URT, 2014a). A 2010 study of 45 wards found that the percentage of informal residents lacking improved sanitation ranged from 71.7 to 97.3%, with a mean of 92.4% (World Bank, Photo: Solid waste collected in drainage channel 2011). In heavy rains the pit latrines tend to overflow Source: AECOM and human excreta spreads into settlement areas, and waterways, and seeps into the ground. Due to the high water table and poor drainage system, this polluted water can remain un-drained in the settlement for a long Table 15 Existing Surface Water Drainage System period of time, a major factor in disease prevalence in the settlements (World Bank, 2011). Municipality Total # Drains % Poor Conditions Stormwater Kinondoni 443 38% Where drainage infrastructure does exist, more than Ilala 157 58% 50% is in poor condition (Table 15). The existing drainage Temeke 225 53% network covers central Dar es Salaam and has outfalls onto the estuary and Msimbazi River. This network is being Source: Moss and Happold, 2013; AECOM extended inland with new connections, but the central Dar es Salaam existing drains are not being sufficiently upgraded to deal with the increasing overland flow due to Lack of regular maintenance, illegal construction of rapid urbanization. The Dar es Salaam City Council indicate additional structures, and the practice by residents of that of the 825 km of installed drains, only 422 km are in dumping refuse into the drains has led to deterioration good condition. There is frequent clogging of drains due of drain function (Prime Minister’s Office, 2013). In to poor maintenance and insufficient protection from silt, informal settlements, alleyways are often too narrow solid waste and/or construction debris (Dar es Salaam to enable waste collection trucks to enter; thus, waste Masterplan, 2012-2032). disposal is a major problem and waste is often dumped into ditches and drains, or alongside drainage channels, Drainage corridors used for waste dumping further obstructing flow. Even though per capita water use in Dar deteriorate drainage functions. Clogging of drainage es Salaam is fairly low, waste water and fecal disposal corridors causes inefficient stormwater drainage. This remain problematic. Moreover, with rains concentrated condition is prevalent in the informal areas where there during a few months of the year, stormwater drainage is no solid waste collection or sewerage (URT, 2014b). is particularly precarious. During these months, The Community Infrastructure Upgrading Programme overflowing rivers, roads, and latrines create transport (CIUP) is one of the most recent initiatives aimed at and mobility problems, and contribute to the spread of improving infrastructure in unplanned settlements. Dar fecal pollution (Kyessi, 2013). es Salaam was a pilot case study undertaken through the Local Government Support Project. The program focused on upgrading basic infrastructure and services in low-income settlements while increasing participation in planning and development to improve sustainability, foster accountability, and strengthen capacities of local authorities (Kyessi, 2010).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 33 Effluent Case Study: Msimbazi River The extensively built environment within the Msimbazi catchment and along its edges (see photos on right) has contributed to flooding and flows of wastewater and storm water effluent into the Msimbazi River (Hepworth and Joseph, 2014). These pollution impacts have been severe and the level of pollution and degradation of the riverine corridor is well established (see Table 6). These flooding impacts are also anticipated to be exacerbated by climate change. The following is a case study analysis of the cumulative impact of urban development on the river, from when Photo: Drainage ditches collect sediment, solid waste and animal wastes, it enters Dar es Salaam near Pugu landfill on the far left, concentrating these pollutants and conveying them through flood events to when it exits Dar at the Ocean, highlighting the need downstream. for an integrated approach to urban and infrastructure Source: AECOM planning. The graphics are diagrammatic to illustrate the concepts and do not represent technical analysis of the topography, drainage, or infrastructure systems. The Msimbazi River extends from headwaters in the Pugu Forest catchment area to the Indian Ocean and has three tributaries that connect with the main river, with an overall basin area of 240km2 (URT, 2014a TSCP) (Figure 26). Figure 27: Development encroachment, primarily of informal settlements within the lower catchment area along the Msimbazi and its tributaries, has degraded the overall land area, causing erosion and sedimentation of Photo: The catchment for the headwaters of the Msimbazi, located in the Pugu the river and streams. Forest, has low fecal coliform counts due to the limited amount of development in the area. Source: Google Earth, 2014 Figure 28: The informal settlements lack sewerage and drainage infrastructure. They rely primarily on on-site sanitation that results in untreated wastewater flowing directly and/or indirectly into the rivers. The storm water effluent is contaminated by the lack of sewerage. Poorly functioning municipal waste stabilization ponds at Vingunguti also contribute high levels of pathogens and industrial contaminants (Hepworth and Joseph, 2014). Figure 29: These areas also lack solid waste collection. As a result, solid waste flows into the rivers during storm events and pollutes and obstructs flow. Figure 30: Untreated wastewater from industrial land uses is a problem in highlighted areas of the city, adding levels of toxicity to the waste water effluent. Textile Photo: Msimbazi River outlet at Indian Ocean where fecal coliform counts, due industries, particularly some facilities on Nelson Mandela to effluents from upstream areas, register more than 1,000 times safe swimming Road, are a major source of chromium VI and high pH levels. Source: Google Earth, 2014; NEMC and UNEP, 2014 pollution found in the water (Hepworth and Joseph, 2014). Figure 31: The cumulative impact of the encroachment and the flows of untreated effluent, stormwater, and solid waste into the Msimbazi and its tributaries negatively impacts riverine habitats, and water quality and quantity.                                                  Page 34 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Msimbazi River: River and Tributaries Msimbazi River: Development Encroachment Sinza River Ubungo River Luhanga River Msimbazi River Figure 26 Msimbazi River and Tributaries Figure 29 Development Encroachment Msimbazi River: Msimbazi River: Untreated Residential and Commercial Effluent Solid Waste Impacts from Development Figure 27 Untreated Effluent from Development Figure 30 Waste from Development Msimbazi River: Untreated Effluent from Industries Poor Water Quality: High Fecal Count Good Water Quality: Low Fecal Count Figure 28 Untreated Effluent from Industries Figure 31 Combined Impacts on the Msimbazi River after river enters city Note: Arrows are notional and do not follow topography, Bubbles represent general location of settlements and industries Source: AECOM, 2014; Google Earth, 2014; NEMC & UNEP, 2014; Hepworth and Joseph, 2014                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 35 E. Extraction of Water Table 16 Current Water Source and Production Per Day Upstream land degradation in the Ruvu River Basin, growing water demand of the present-day city region Water Source Water Production Per Day in m3 far exceeding supply, and the growing amount of water extraction from limited groundwater sources threatens Lower Ruvu 182,000 the sustainability of Dar es Salaam’s water assets. Since Upper Ruvu 82,000 the 1950s, Dar es Salaam has relied on large-scale water transfers from the Ruvu River. However, the extraction Mtoni 5,000 of 264 million liters each day from the Ruvu River and Boreholes 3,000 an additional 6 million liters extracted per day from Total 272,000 the Kizinga River are likely contributing to downstream Source: DAWASA, 2006 degradation of Dar es Salaam’s aquatic resources by reducing the quantity and quality of river flows (DAWASCO, 2012). The city has two major extraction points along the Upper Water quality and reliability is low in unplanned Ruvu and Lower Ruvu River, called the Ruvu Water Works. settlement areas, and water is frequently purchased at Water from the rivers is captured, extracted, treated exorbitant prices from vendors, kiosks and neighbors. and transferred to reservoirs. Studies of the upstream A study of 45 of Dar es Salaam’s wards, containing 84% catchments of the Ruvu River show extensive evidence of of the city’s population, found that the percentage of increased sediment loading and water quality degradation residents in each ward without access to improved (Yanda, 2007) (Table 16). drinking water ranged from 37.8% to 90%, with a mean of 71.8% (Penrose et al., 2010). Subsistent urban The growing amount of water extraction from limited agriculture is also heavily impacted by water shortages groundwater sources threatens the sustainability and at times it becomes limited to rainy season of Dar es Salaam’s water asset. The exploitation cultivation (World Bank, 2011). of aquifers and boreholes threatens to accelerate degradation of groundwater through salinization due An environmental impact assessment reveals that the to coastal intrusion and consumption that exceeds increased extraction of water from the Ruvu River aquifer recharge capacity (Municipal officials, project reduces flows and quality of water, and may affect the workshop, Sept. 2014). From 1997 until the present, mangrove communities in the lower Ruvu estuary. It borehole drilling has increased tremendously and the may also increase sea water intrusion into the river, trend is expected to increase even more. Assessment increasing water salinity at the estuary and mangrove indicates that the coastal aquifers are vulnerable forest, affecting the habitat of fish, prawns, crocodiles to saline intrusion, causing irreversible salinization. and the marine environment in general. Increased water Over pumping of the groundwater has resulted in extraction will also have effects on the quantity of water encroachment of sea water into the coastal aquifers reaching the downstream users. The prisons and SEKAB (Mitoni, 2010). Water samples from Mikocheni, Oyster Bio-Energy Tanzania depend entirely on water from Ruvu Bay, Msasani, Masaki and city center areas show River for irrigation (NEMC, 2010). elevated chloride, sulphate and sodium concentrations, and over 50 percent of the samples were brackish A decrease in flows can exacerbate the natural decrease (Mitoni, 2010). In addition, partly due to the in dry weather flow of the river, reducing the river’s degradation of the river, the impacts of climate change ability to dilute pollutants discharged into it as well as (including flooding and ground water salinization) may achieve effective self-purification (Dar Rivers program, be exacerbated (Dar Rivers Program, 2014). 2014). Additionally, inefficient distribution systems exacerbate impacts from overall water loss, requiring The results of a 2009 household survey capture the more supply of water to be captured for reaching end importance of borehole for households: there has been an users, due to the large volume of water lost en route increase of people accessing water from boreholes (37.3 due to poor infrastructure (e.g., broken pipes) and percent) compared to 26.2 percent recorded during the unauthorized use. Broken pipes also serve as entry points 2006 Baseline Survey (World Bank, 2010). Based on the for bacteria, which may result in disease (World Bank, current surface water supply, only 31.9% of the demand 2011). will be met in 2015, and use of groundwater boreholes will increase to cover this gap between demand and supply (Mato, 2002, Ghent, 2012).                                                  Page 36 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities F. Air Emissions While the majority of the population of Dar es Salaam 1000000 travels by non-motorized modes, such as by bicycle and by walking, the trend is shifting toward motor 800000 vehicles. The increase in emissions from motor vehicles is Number of Vehicles 600000 degrading the air quality of the city. The number of cars in the city has increased from 24,600 in 1979 to 605,000 400000 - 705,000 in 2011. (Marshal and (Macklin Monaghan Ltd., 1979; Elinaza, 2012). The increase in the number of 200000 vehicles has compounded traffic congestion problems in the city. The situation is made worse by the increase 0 of motorcycles and tricycles in Dar es Salaam using city 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2021 2024 2027 2030 roads (Kiunsi, 2013). Figure 32 Projection of Vehicles in Dar es Salaam, TZ Source: UNEP, 2011 The increasing use of vehicles (Figure 32) has been driven by the rapid increase in population and urban sprawl. The mono-centric CBD structure with the arterial Charcoal, a primary source of cooking fuel in the city, roads originating from Centre has resulted in many City is also a contributor of local air quality degradation services and institutions located at one major point and (URT, 2014a TSCP). Charcoal combustion emits carbon with traffic flow from residential areas to the CBD during monoxide and nitrogen oxides, and the smoke also rush hours. (Kiunsi et al., 2006; Lupala & Kiunsi, 2011) includes particulates, formaldehyde and carcinogens, (Kiunsi, 2013). exposure to which can cause acute lower respiratory Inadequate roadway infrastructure has led to inadequate infections in children, chronic bronchitis or chronic capacity of roads to cope with increased number of obstructive pulmonary disease in women, and other cars due to three main factors: 1) low spatial road adverse health conditions (World Bank, 2011). The high coverage of only 2.5% of land in the city compared usage of charcoal in areas of intense road traffic can to Tanzania physical planning guidelines of 15 to 20% create pockets of degraded local air quality (URT, 2014a coverage; 2) poor road conditions due to lack of regular TSCP). maintenance; 3) lack of overpasses or underpasses at Industrial emissions are estimated to be the primary main intersections to facilitate smooth flow of traffic and driver of Dar es Salaam’s PM10 and PM2.5 emissions with limited parking, especially in the CBD, that results in road domestic and vehicle sources also contributing to PM side parking that further reduces road capacity (Kiunsi, pollution (ICF, 2009). The majority of Dar es Salaam’s 2013). local air quality degradation from emissions of SOx and Benzene are generated from domestic sources and transportation activities, including open air burning of household wastes, wood, and charcoal (ICF, 2009).                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 37                                                  Page 38 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities V. INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES A. Overview In discussing the key drivers and causes of environmental With the overall understanding established in the first vulnerability and the promotion, or lack thereof, of green part, the second half of the section explores the key urban development, the threads converge at governance institutional challenges and issues related to these four and institutional issues. This section, therefore, seeks to areas. Finally, the section concludes by offering some first characterize the prevailing institutional landscape suggestions and recommendations for improvements to around promoting green urban development in Dar es decision makers and practitioners. Salaam, thereby highlighting key institutional factors or challenges that may foster or hinder green urban The methodology undertaken comprised mainly: (i) data development, and finally offer some possible suggestions collection through desk research on the background of for improvements. To provide more tangible examples, the selected agencies/institutions for the institutional for Dar es Salaam, we focused on the environmental mapping and conducting face-to-face interviews assets of land and water and on the broader issues with senior technical staff in some of the agencies/ of urban planning and development, environmental institutions; and (ii) institutional context analysis using management and service provision (especially water and information mainly drawn from the interviews and sanitation). supplementary documents or data collected. The first half of the section will present an overview of The discussion here does not seek to be comprehensive the prevailing institutional landscape through a rapid and does not cover all relevant stakeholders, given institutional mapping organized around four main significant data and time constraints. Instead, through areas: (i) institutional structure, (ii) relevant regulatory the qualitative and anecdotal evidence provided by environment, (iii) typical processes and interactions focused discussions, it serves to highlight and reveal and (iv) capacity and resources as shown in Figure 33. some of the main institutional obstacles, to candidly The selected key agencies or institutions involved in the express issues being faced and reflect honest opinions, planning, execution and management related to the in the hopes of feeding into larger ongoing debates, environmental assets of land and water are introduced. assisting with tackling the challenges of green urban development and identifying areas for deeper analysis. Rapid Institutional Mapping Institutional Institution Structure Origin Legal/Constitutional Status; Identity Key Mandate/Responsibility Regulatory Policies Environment Regulations Acts Strategic Documents Processes and Reporting Relationships Interactions Coordination Mechanism Capacity and Organization Composition Resources Governing/Leadership Structure Staff Strength Figure 33 Rapid Institutional Mapping Source: World Bank Staff                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 39 B. Prevailing Institutional Central/ Regional Level Landscape At the central level, the Prime Minister’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG) is Institutional Structure, Capacity and a key player with functions straddling across all three Resources areas, as it is the main central agency overseeing all local For Dar es Salaam, the key institutional actors include government authorities. In addition, there are several both central and city-level agencies, and at times ministries and central-level entities as well as various regional agencies as well. These actors can be broadly subsidiary or autonomous regional entities directly considered under three functional areas: (i) urban involved, as elaborated below. planning and development, (ii) service provision (especially water and sewerage) and (iii) environmental a. Prime Minister’s Office Regional Administration management. The central government retains multiple and Local Government (PMO-RALG) – committed controls over local authorities. For example, the central to empower Regional Administration and Local government appoints senior personnel to run the urban Government Authorities to improve the provision authorities, and the Minister for Local Government of quality life and services to the community. approves the urban authorities’ by-laws, budgets and proposals for own source revenue generation (most The broad functions of PMO-RALG include: of the LGAs are still largely dependent on central fund transfers). Several central-level government agencies or • Facilitating Local Government Authorities national parastatals play crucial roles in areas under the to provide quality services; jurisdiction of the LGAs, for example in services provision • Managing the critical interfaces with Ministries (roads, water, electricity, drainage), land-use regulations and Development Partners and Local Government (especially land-use planning and land allocation) and Authorities and formulating policies; environmental management (Kironde 2009). (Please see • Monitoring support provided to Local Appendix B for organograms and figures related to this Government Authorities by Regional section on Institutional Challenges). Secretariats as well as regional affairs; Urban Planning Services Provision Environmental & Development (Water & Sewerage) Management Ministry of Lands, Housing and Ministry of Water Vice President’s Office, Human Development (MoLHHSD) Environment Division Energy, Water, Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) National Environment Management Council (NEMC) National Water Board Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism (MoNRT) Ministry of Health (MoH) Prime Minister’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG) Dar Es Salaam Regional Basin Water Boards Dar Es Salaam Regional Commissioner and Secretariat Commissioner and Secretariat Catchment Committees Water User Associations or Groups DCC, Master Planning Dar Es Salaam Water and DCC, Public Health Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO) Temeke DLA Temeke DLA, Public Health Dar Es Salaam Water and Llala DLA Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) Llala DLA, Public Health Kinondoni DLA DCC, Urban Planning, Utility Kinondoni DLA, Public Health Services and Environment Figure 34 Key Actors Involved Source: World Bank Staff                                                  Page 40 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities • Providing quality and timely information; iv. Providing technical and financial support • Providing sound advice to Local Government to the urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities on policies, approaches, Authorities (WSSAs) and Local Government systems and planning methodologies; Authorities (LGAs); • Facilitating capacity building; v. Coordinating the Ministry’s participation • Providing legal support and advice to in national and international dialogue the Ministry itself and to LGAs; initiatives on projects pertaining to the Currently, it has 9 Divisions, 6 Units and 5 affiliate management and development of water institutions. The more relevant departments include: resources; Division of Local Government, Division of Urban Development, Unit of Sector Coordination and Unit of vi. Providing strategic guidance, and technical Infrastructure Development. and operational support to Basin Water Offices to enable them carry out their b. Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human mandated functions, including water Settlements Development (MoLHHSD) – to resources assessment, monitoring and facilitate an effective management of land and regulation; human settlements development services for the betterment of social and economic well–being vii. Collecting information and providing such of the Tanzanian society, providing various land information and associated services to other related services to individuals and institutions in government institutions and to the public; the country. The core sector Departments within the Ministry are: Land Administration, Survey viii. Providing sector-related information and and Mapping, Physical Planning and Housing, guidance to stakeholders; and some core sector units are: Registration of Titles, Property Valuation, and District Land and ix. Mainstreaming cross-cutting and cross- Housing Tribunal. In addition, the ministry has sectoral issues such as gender, HIV/AIDS, an agency dealing with Housing and Building environment, health and land; and materials research, a commission dealing with Land Use Planning and also the National Housing x. Promoting the use of ICT in the water sector. Corporation. In particular, the Urban Water Supply and Sanitation c. Ministry of Water (MoW) - to ensure that Division under the MoW holds the key functions of: water resources are developed and managed sustainably in collaboration with all stakeholders. i. Advising on the formulation and revision of the national water policy and policy The Ministry has the following main functions: implementation strategies, particularly aspects of the policy and strategies that i. Formulating and revising the National Water pertain to urban water supply and sewerage Policy, policy implementation strategies, services. legislation and regulations; ii. Promoting the development and provision ii. Promoting the development, management of commercial water and sewerage services and use of the nation’s water resources, in accordance with the national water policy providing commercial water and sewerage and strategies. services, and providing community water supply and sanitation services in accordance iii. Monitoring the implementation of with the national water policy and strategies; commercial water supply and sewerage development programs. iii. Monitoring the implementation and performance of rural water supply and iv. Providing technical and financial support to sanitation as well as urban water supply and the operations of commercial water supply sewerage development programmes; and sewerage authorities. v. Monitoring the performance of commercial water supply and sewerage authorities.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 41 Basin Water Board staff. d) Water User Associations - legally constituted b water users in a particular locality; costs of the A levied on its members. Water Resources Management There has been a policy direction change in the role of the MoW towards that of coordination, policy and guideline formulation and regulation, instead of a service provider. As such, water resources management is the responsibility of the National Water Board, Basin Water Boards (divided into nine basins in the country), Catchment Committees, and Water User Associations or Groups. Representatives from district councils and local government authorities sit on the Basin Boards and Catchment Committees: a. National Water Board - a financially and administratively autonomous organization, financed by the Basin Boards; oversees, coordinates and facilitates the activities of Basin Boards. b. Basin Boards - financially and administratively autonomous, and financed through water user charges; water users are represented on the Boards. c. Catchment and Sub-catchment Committees - autonomous bodies financed from user charges, and will carry out such functions as are delegated by the Basin Water Board; they may employ staff necessary to carry out these functions, or may be Figure: Figure 35 Institutional Framework Water Resources Framework forInstitutional for Water Reso Management Source: National Water Sector Development Strategy, 2006-2015 supported by Basin Water Board staff. Source: National Water Sector Development S d. Water User Associations - legally constituted Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation bodies drawing their membership from water Similarly in the area of water supply, sewerage and sanita users in a particular locality; costs of the a service provider, but rather a regulator. Thus, such serv Association will be borne from charges levied on its members. government structures but delegated to “clustered” W (DAWASAA and DAWASCO in this case); however, sanita government authorities (discussed in later sections). 8                                                  Page 42 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities the performance related contractual arrangements with thei the responsibility for the management of these contract separately regulate the Service Providers. Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation Similarly, in the area of water supply, sewerage and sanitation, MoW is moving away from being a service provider to being a regulator. Thus, such service provision is now based on the local government structures but delegated to “clustered” Water Supply and Sewerage Authorities (DAWASAA and DAWASCO in this case); however, sanitation remains the responsibility of local government authorities (discussed in later sections). Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) – an autonomous multi-sectoral regulatory authority established under the Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority Act, 2001. It is responsible for technical and economic regulation of the electricity, petroleum, natural gas and water sectors in Tanzania. In the areas of water and sewerage services, EWURA is responsible for issuing licenses to WSSAs based on the submission of business plans and for monitoring and regulating performance of the WSSAs against these business plans. This includes the approval of tariffs for water and sewerage services based on the performance of the WSSAs in delivering services to consumers. As the business plans of the WSSAs are required to include Figure 36 Institutional Framework for Water Supply, Sewerage and performance-related contractual arrangements with Figure: Institutional Framework for Water Sanitation Supply, Sew Source: National Water Sector Development Strategy, 2006-2015 their Service Providers, the WSSAs have responsibility for Source: National Water Sector Development Strat the management of these contracts, and EWURA is not required to separately regulate the Service Providers. d. Vice President’s Office (VPO), Environment Division – th articulated in the Constitution of the United Republic of e. Vice President’s Office (VPO), Environment functions are stated in the Government Instrument made u Division – the mandate of the VPO has been The major roles and functions of this Office are to assist the articulated in the Constitution of the United the United Republic of Tanzania, and in particular under the E Republic of Tanzania (1977) Article 47 and i. Formulate Environmental Policy and ensure its imple its functions are stated in the Government ii. Monitor and coordinate National Environmental Man Instrument made under Article 55 of February, 2008. The major roles and functions of this Office are to assist the President on all matters concerning the United Republic of Tanzania, 9 particularly under the Environment Division: i. Formulate Environmental Policy and ensure its implementation; ii. Monitor and coordinate National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) activities.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 43 f. National Environment Management Council Local Level (NEMC) – to undertake enforcement, compliance, review and monitoring of environmental impacts a. Dar es Salaam Local Authorities (DLAs). Dar es assessments (EIAs) of development policies, plans Salaam Region1 is one of 30 administrative regions and activities, research, and to facilitate public in Tanzania with its regional capital as the city of participation in environmental decision-making, Dar es Salaam. The city consists of three districts raise environmental awareness and collect – Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke. Each district is and disseminate environmental information. governed by its own Municipal Council: Kinondoni Its functions include advising and coordinating (KMC), Ilala (IMC), and Temeke (TMC), in addition environmental management issues. In addition, to a coordinating Dar es Salaam City Council (DCC) NEMC has the power to set standards and issue – collectively known as the Dar Local Authorities permits for the discharge of effluents into the (DLAs). Also, each district is represented by a environment, including into water resources, Council headed by the District Commissioner, and and to levy penalties for non-compliance. The the districts are sub-divided into divisions, and NEMC sits directly under the VPO, and parallel to each division into wards. Each DLA has its own the Division of Environment (the NEMC is more set of technical and administrative departments. operational- and enforcement-oriented while the The Local Government Authorities are ultimately Division of Environment handles the policy and accountable to PMO-RALG (as such the Municipal legislative issues and international conventions.) Councils (MCs) do not report to the DCC but directly to the PMO-RALG). In terms of service NEMC is headed by a Director General (DG) under provision, such as water supply and sewerage, guidance of the Board of Directors of the Council. The DG the Local Government Acts of 1982 for both is assisted by Directors of directorates, Heads of units, District and Urban Authorities give the respective Heads of zonal offices, technical and supporting staff. authorities the powers to establish, maintain, Currently the Council has four technical Directorates operate and control public water supplies (Environmental Compliance and Enforcement, drainage and sewerage works. Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Research and Planning, Environmental Information, Dar es Salaam City Council (DCC). DCC does not have Communication and Outreach), one supporting an associated geographic jurisdiction and is largely Directorate, four supporting Units and three Zonal Offices mandated to have a coordinating role and attends (Northern Zone based in Arusha, Southern Zone based in to cross-jurisdictional issues. In addition, it currently Mbeya and Lake Zone based in Mwanza), with plans to provides some services for the city including: issuing expand to seven. By year 2010, NEMC had 91 technical permits for motorbikes, taxi and car parking in the city, staff and 53 supporting staff. In addition to available levy for banks and solid waste management (such as the technical manpower, NEMC out-sources additional management of Pugu dump site, the only one in the city). support in the implementation of its planned activities. It also manages certain city projects and programs such as Community Infrastructure Upgrading Program (CIUP f. Regional Commissioner and Secretariat – to - a low-income communities upgrading program, closed provide advisory and supervisory services to the in 2012), the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) project, and special LGAs and act as a facilitator for the transfer of initiatives on environmental issues such as working with power and authority from the central to local ICLEI (Local Governments for Sustainability) on carbon level. For example, the RS could provide physical emission for climate change. It also has the mandate planning, land development and engineering to oversee the updating of the physical master plan services through support for and regulation for Dar es Salaam (however, the latest round has been of technical designs, surveys, contracting and coordinated mainly by MoLHHSD instead – as discussed tendering. Dar es Salaam region is led by the later). The DCC has around 200-300 staff. Regional Commissioner (RC) who is assisted by 1 The region has a regional administration, headed by the Regional Commissioner, the Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) and in addition to a city administration, headed by the City Council and the Mayor of District Commissioners (DCs) who are assisted Dar es Salaam. by the District Administrative Secretary and Divisional Secretaries. RAS is assisted by Assistant Administrative Secretaries and professional staff.                                                  Page 44 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Kinondoni Municipal Council (KMC). Kinondoni is located At the local level in Dar es Salaam, regulations, guidelines in the northern part of Dar es Salaam City. It has an and by-laws are greatly lacking in all the relevant areas area of 531 sqkm with a population of around 2.5 (urban planning, development and environmental million people. KMC is an autonomous body with four protection), and government actions take place largely divisions - Magomeni, Kinondoni, Kibamba and Kawe through specific projects, but are not guided by a holistic - and sub- divided into 34 wards and 171 sub-wards. regulatory framework. The Municipality has three electoral constituencies: Ubungo, Kawe and Kinondoni. The Municipal is governed by a full council with 56 councilors. KMC has a staff Physical Planning and Development strength of around 6000 people in all. The Municipal Councils are basically responsible for the provision of Planning Act. The Planning Act is the key regulatory basic infrastructure and socio-economic services such as document behind physical planning and development. It district roads, solid waste management, water, health, spells out the responsibilities and roles at each level of education and management of development activities. government. For example: b. Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority 1. At the national level, the Director of Urban Planning (DAWASA) and Dar es Salaam Water and shall be the principal adviser to the Minister on Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO) – DAWASA land use planning and shall: (i) issue guidelines to and DAWASCO are the two main entities planning authorities on proposals for declaration responsible for water and sanitation within Dar of planning areas, preparation of general planning es Salaam. DAWASA owns the assets and has schemes, land use plans and detailed planning the responsibility to invest in expanding the pipe schemes, (ii) issue guidelines on planning standards network and water production, while DAWASCO and norms, (iii) approve all planning schemes, and operates the pipe systems, bills customers, and monitor and evaluate their implementation; (iv) collects and treats wastewater. DAWASA is an approve applications for change of use of land in autonomous public utility established in 1997, planning areas; and (v) approve applications made by and DAWASCO is a public parastatal company developers for subdivision of land or plots in planning financed by the state. areas, amongst other functions. Regulatory Environment 2. At the local level, the Planning Act provided that every city council, municipal council, town council Overall and township authority shall each become a planning authority in respect of its area of jurisdiction. Generally, a basic array of legal tools such as policies and Such local planning authorities shall: (i) prepare regulations to guide urban development and protect the general planning schemes, as well as detailed urban environment are available at the national level, but planning schemes for implementation in its area to a much lesser extent at the regional and local levels. of jurisdiction; (ii) grant planning consent; (iii) While there are fundamental regulatory frameworks at recommend approval of building schemes and sub- the national level, translation into relevant regional and division applications made by developers; (iv) secure local level regulations to allow for implementation is often the co-operation of all agencies, utility bodies, land insufficient. holders and other bodies and institutions involved in preparation and implementation of the planning The key national level documents currently in place process, (v) control the use of land, and development include: National Land Policy, National Human Settlement of land and buildings in the interests of proper Development Policy 2000, Land Act, Land Acquisition and orderly development of the planning area; (vi) Act, Building Acquisition Act, Urban Act, Planning Act, formulate by-laws to regulate zoning with respect to Local Government Reform Policy, Local Government Act, use and density of development; (vii) consider and Regional Administration Act, National Environment Policy approve all applications for consent to develop land 1997, Environmental Management Act 2004, National and grant the same, amongst other functions. Health Policy 1990, Water Policy 2002, National Water Sector Development Strategy, and the related Forestry Act and Mining Act etc.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 45 Master Plan. Dar es Salaam has had three master plans Environmental Regulations - the first was prepared in 1948, a second, revised in 1968, and the latest was approved and adopted for There are two key national environmental legislations implementation in 1979. The Town and Country Planning that provide the framework for the regulation of the Act, which is the principal legislation for urban and rural environment: planning in Tanzania, provides for review of such General Planning Schemes (the term used in the Act to refer to a • The National Environmental Policy, 1997 provides Master Plan or interim land use plan) every five years. a set of principles and objectives for addressing all aspects of the environment. While the In the 1990s, the Government, through the predecessor objective of the policy was to integrate a mulit- of MoLHSSD, requested the United Nations Development sectoral approach to environmental strategies, Programe (UNDP) technical assistance from to review the for the most part environmental issues have Dar es Salaam Master Plan. The UN Centre for Human been addressed under sectoral ministries. Settlements (UN‐HABITAT) initiated the Environmental • The Environmental Management Act, 2004 Planning and Management (EPM) process under the (which repealed the National Environment Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project to develop a Strategic Management Council Act, 1983) established a Urban Development Plan (SUDP) for Dar es Salaam framework for the governing of environmental including identification of priority actions. The SUDP issues and recognizes the existence of other was an overall dynamic framework which, among sector laws. It includes provisions for impact other things, provided for land use, city expansion and and risk assessments, prevention and control of sector investment strategies, as well as investment pollution, environmental quality standards, public in infrastructure and utilities. The SUDP was drawn participation, and compliance and enforcement up through broad consensus and by working groups (Pallangyo, 2007). The Act stipulated roles and consisting of a wide variety of stakeholders including responsibilities for each level of government. representatives from the Dar es Salaam City Councilors, government technical staff, utility agencies, the private These are supplemented by national level regulations sector, NGOs, central government departments and and standards such as EIA & Audit regulations 2005, donors. Outputs of the working groups formed the basis Registration of Environment Experts regulations 2005, for the SUDP, in addition to further technical inputs from Solid Waste Management Regulations 2009, Water land suitability analysis and environmental sensitivity Quality Standards regulations 2007 etc. In addition, analysis. However, the SUDP was never officially the Vice President’s Office has published the “Strategy adopted and gazetted as a master plan due to multiple for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water reasons. One key reason could be that the SUDP was Catchments” in March 2006, and has subsequently “essentially an environmental management framework prepared the “Urgent Action for Protection of Marine, built on environmental management strategies and Lakes, Rivers and Dams Environment” to address pressing action plans” and “has taken a form of something environmental challenges. These strategic actions less than what should have been expected of an define immediate measures to be taken to improve the integrated strategic urban development plan,” especially environmental situation, related to the conservation and lacking in addressing urban economy issues and thus protection of water sources. The two urgent strategic “rendering it a deficient tool for guiding urban growth action papers provide important guidance for the and development” (NNKYA, 1999). The EPM process implementation of comprehensive and prioritized water itself focuses on the analysis of interactions between conservation and environmental protection measures. development and environmental/natural resources with Local regulations, guidelines and by-laws are greatly an environmental management system as the essential lacking, although DLAs are making an effort to output but not necessarily a strategic development plan, establish them, along with help from NEMC. (For although the analysis could certainly form an integral example, Kinondoni has had environmental by-laws part of such a plan. on environment since 2003.) Instead, currently, Currently, a draft Dar es Salaam Master Plan for 2012- environmental protection at the local level is carried 2032 is in a protracted approval process so the version out largely on a project basis. One good example is the from 1979 (when the population was 900,000) is still Kinondoni Integrated Coastal Area Management Project valid. Effectively, there has not been a master plan (KICAMP)which yielded good results at the local level.2 guiding the city’s development for decades. Further, it However, sustainability of such project-based approaches complicates the tenure system, as the master plan is could be an issue. an enabling instrument for local development plans, 2 This project resulted in banning excavation of sands in critical areas as a way to which are a precursor for issuance of land titles. To prevent further beach erosion from occurring along the coastal area. Households date, the city remains a collage of patches of planned are also made aware of the value of mangroves and were involved in their protection, and combined with heavy protection from KICAMP, this has led to neighborhoods amongst largely unplanned areas. increase in mangroves. Complementing this, the government has also invested in a number of sea walls on highlight susceptible areas to sea level rise storm surges and coastal erosion such as Kunduchi Beach and Bahari Beach                                                  Page 46 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities Water Regulations Development Vision 2025 The water sector has been included among priority Millennium Poverty Reduction Joint Assistance Development Goals Strategy Strategy sectors in the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP/MKUKUTA). Pertaining to National Strategy for Growth & Reduction of Poverty the water sector, two key documents lay the foundation (MKUKUTA) for the regulatory framework: National Water Policy 2002 Local Government Reform Policy Health • The Water Policy of 2002 (amendment of 1991 Policy policy) – the main objective is to develop a National Water New comprehensive framework for sustainable Development Strategy Legislation development and management of the National Other Water water resources, in which an effective legal and Related Policies institutional framework for its implementation National Water Sector Strategic Water Sector Development Program will be put in place. The policy aims at ensuring Implementation Plan - Rural Water Supply & Sanitation that beneficiaries participate fully in planning, - Urban Water Supply & Sewerage - Water Resources Management construction, operation, maintenance and management of community-based domestic water Harmonized National Water supply schemes. This policy seeks to address cross- Sector Development Plan sectoral interests in water, watershed management Medium Term and integrated and participatory approaches Expenditure Framework for water resources planning, development and Operational Annual GoT management. Also, the policy lays a foundation for Budget Budget Process sustainable development and management of water resources in the changing roles of the Government Water Sector Dialogue & from service provider to that of coordination, Coordination, Joint Sector Reviews policy and guidelines formulation, and regulation. Figure 37 Relationship of Water Policy and Strategy with Others • The National Water Sector Development Strategy Source: National Water Sector Development Strategy, 2006-2015 - The main objective of the NWSDS is to develop a coherent, holistic and integrated strategy for the Water Sector in order to implement the National Water Policy. This will then allow the on-going sub-sectoral initiatives and projects to be set within the overall strategic and planning framework for the Sector. Furthermore, this strategy has been developed to support re-alignment of other water related key sectoral policies of energy, irrigation, industry, mining, and environment. The institutional framework underscores separation of service delivery and regulation to ensure fair play among the various actors and sectors. The relationship of these two main documents with other relevant national policies and financial planning framework is shown in Figure 38.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 47 Processes and Interactions At the national level, there are 13 Sector Ministries, and each establishes an Environmental Section with a Sector Physical Planning and Development Environmental Coordinator (SEC) (usually a single person) who is the main channel for coordination and ensures Formally, local governments’ planning authorities are that all implementations observe environmental issues. recognized as the preparatory authorities in charge In addition, there are Regional Secretariat and Regional of the planning, preparation and implementation of Environmental Management Expert (REME) responsible physical plans. After a draft General Planning Scheme for coordinating the higher offices with local government. (GPS) is completed, this will be submitted to the In the local governments (city/municipal/district), each Regional Secretariat, which either rejects or submits local council has a City Environment Management it to the MoLHSSD Director of Urban Planning with Committee and Environment Management Coordinator. recommendations and comments. Public consultations are undertaken at both the local and national levels. The In practice, especially at the local level, Dar es Salaam Director may make alterations or modifications to the does not have an effectively working structure for GPS after taking into account the public hearings and environmental coordination. DCC has the main views of the Regional Secretariat. Upon satisfaction, the coordinating role; however, as it does not have formal GPS is submitted to the Minister for approval. authority, the DLAs meet only “voluntarily” and thus depend on personal good relations to achieve holding In practice, however, the formal procedures are not routine meetings once a month among the DLA always followed, especially since the drafting of GPS environmental coordinators. Within the other three used to be under the Ministry. In Dar es Salaam, the DLAs, the environmental coordinators are usually not full latest Master Plan revisions were driven largely by the time but doubled up by public health officials. MoLHSSD and not the local government (rightfully coordinated by DCC). This led to issues of insufficient local buy-in and thus inability to complete the Master Water Plan.3 Without the Master Plan, Dar es Salaam is in a difficult position to develop any detailed planning The provision of water services provides a good example schemes to properly guide developments. As such, of the multitude of processes and actors involved in its planning regulations are largely still done on a piece- implementation. The overall responsibility for all water meal basis. issues, including water service provision, is the mandate of the MoW. It supplies water in Dar es Salaam through the DAWASCO, with the DAWASA as a smaller holding Environment authority, and EWURA also involved in regulations, in addition to local authorities. Given the limited reach In terms of environmental coordination and interactions, of the water services provided by DAWASCO, only a officially, both top-down and bottom-up approaches are minority of the city population can rely exclusively on designed. From the central level, there is the National piped water, and water distribution is mainly a private Environment Advisory Committee (NEAC) which is activity. While DAWASCO and SAWASA focus on bringing chaired by the Permanent Secretary of VPO, Ministry of water to the settlements (Kyessi, 2013), an increasing Environment. This is a non-permanent committee with part of Dar es Salaam’s peri-urban water supply is members as statutory posts, drawn from many agencies developed through Mtaa leadership and voluntary involved with environment (e.g., directors of Forestry, organizations in the water sector (Kyessi, 2010). This Water Resources, Mining etc.) Recommendations complex process and relationships are illustrated in by committee are taken to the Cabinet Environment Figure 39. Working Group (Ministers as members) and then tabled to cabinet. The NEAC convenes only when there are issues, which could be once or twice a year. 3 MoLHSSD realizes the issue and is taking corrective measures such as forming a Task Force involving all stakeholders, especially local ones. However, the original resources dedicated for the master plan formulation has largely been exhausted, and the upcoming election also causes uncertainty.                                                  Page 48 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities city population can rely exclusively on piped water and water distribution is mainly a private activity. While DAWASCO and SAWASA focus on bringing water to the settlements (Kyessi, 2013), an increasing part of Dar es Salaam’s peri-urban water supply is developed through Mtaa leadership and voluntary organizations in the water sector (Kyessi, 2010). This complex process and relationships are illustrated in the Figure below. Figure 38 Water Stakeholder Map Figure: Water Stakeholder Map Source: Kyessi, 2014 Source: Kyessi, 2014 C. Key Findings Institutional Challenges C. Institutional Key Findings 1. Institutional fragmentation within each government level and across levels – overlapping mandates, weak integration and coordination. Tackling environmental degradation issues involve Challenges Institutional multiple sectors, such as environment, urban planning, infrastructure and services provision, as well as require clear lines of responsibility and accountability. Currently, the city’s basic services 1. Institutional - water, fragmentation sanitation, within and drainage infrastructure each government - are severely a. On environmental underprovided issues, there are multiple and levelof poor and quality. across levels Environmental protection – overlapping mandates, weakand enforcement efforts agencies and are alsointimately largely inadequate. departments involved Institutional dysfunction is a key factor integration and coordination. Tackling environmental contributing to these - institutional fragmentation at the national level, especially the VPO’s occurs degradation issues involves both horizontally multiple at all levels sectors, such of governments, Environment and vertically Division across and as levels, NEMC. Locally, the exemplified in the as environment, urban planning, infrastructure and following areas: fragmented and ineffectively coordinated four services provision, as well as requires clear lines local governments pose challenges on all fronts of responsibility and accountability. Currently, the from overall urban development and service city’s basic services - water, sanitation, and drainage 18 provision to environment protection (eg. drains infrastructure - are severely underprovided and may literally stop at the boundary of a DLA). DCC, of poor quality. Environmental protection and the designated coordinating body is ineffective enforcement efforts are also largely inadequate. and not empowered to do so. Rather, in reality, Institutional dysfunction is a key contributing it is functioning as a “special projects office”. factor, as institutional fragmentation occurs both Without proper coordination, especially at the horizontally at all levels of governments, and local Dar es Salaam metropolitan level, it is vertically across levels, as exemplified in the following difficult to address cross-jurisdictional issues, areas: phasing or set priorities to achieve more efficient use of resources and produce positive impacts.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 49 b. Vertical coordination is also a challenge. The 2. Weak regulatory guidance, and lack of regulatory division in roles and mandates between levels of frameworks and tools, especially at the local level. governments are often ineffective and unclear. For example, the Planning Act states that the Facing the unprecedented rapid urbanization rate in local authorities shall “prepare general planning Dar es Salaam (around 5% for the past three decades schemes, and detailed planning schemes for and the fastest growing city in East Africa), the city is implementation in its area of jurisdiction” and ill-equipped with the necessary regulatory guidance “control the use of land, development of land and tools to direct growth and to provide affordable and buildings in the interests of proper and housing and basic services. As such, the majority of orderly development of the planning area”. Yet, the city’s residential area – 70% to 80% - is considered the Director of Urban Planning in MoLHSSD is unplanned and informal settlements. Further, the required to “approve applications for change fastest-growing areas continue to occur in the informal of use of land in planning areas” and “approve areas, especially on the periphery of the city. The rapid applications made by developers for subdivision urbanization without strategic guidance also resulted of land or plots in planning areas.” In fact. in the loss of urban ecosystems such as forest reserves, until recently, the issuance of building permits increased disturbance to land and aquatic systems, in Dar es Salaam has been centrally done by and unregulated stone and sand extraction for building MoLHHSD (and not the DLAs). This is not only material – all contributing to environmental degradation. a huge mismatch in terms of government-level The woeful lack in regulatory guidance, frameworks and responsibilities but has also created bottle-necks tools at the city level are most apparent in the following in formal approvals, leading to the growth of areas: informality, as the centrally-controlled process tends to be very slow. a. Dar es Salaam is still relying on a 1979 Master Plan and the current draft is stuck in a protracted c. In addition to the sometimes unclear and process. Without a Master Plan (and also overlapping roles across levels, coordination largely absent detailed physical plans), the between national and local-level agencies are local governments do not have a guiding weak, and agencies often act on their own decision-making tool or a basis for coordinating without sufficient involvement of the other infrastructure and overall urban development. relevant parties. A good example is on the Formal planning is carried out on an ad-hoc basis enforcement of environmental regulations. and covers only 20%-30% of the city. Both NEMC and the local governments are empowered by the Environmental Management b. The overall legal tools and mechanisms (e.g., local Act to regulate environmental violations. While policies, guidelines, by-laws etc.) to guide urban this allows flexibility on one hand, the lack development and environmental protection of clear jurisdictional demarcation results in actions are largely missing, and, if present, accountability issues and the no-one-is-in-charge apply only to specific Districts within the city phenomenon on the other. Further, on the or are outdated and thus impractical. Urban coordination side, VPO or NEMC may enforce development regulation and environmental environment measures with little involvement protection efforts are largely carried out of DLAs or other ministerial agencies; or DLAs through projects, on a case-by-case basis. would work on their own upon occurrence of Thus, enforcement and sustainability is a huge floods without coordinating with higher-level challenge. authorities. A further complication occurs within the local level where power plays may exist c. Further, especially at the local level, the DLAs between the mtaa, ward and municipality. do not have an integrated information database to serve different agencies and for different sectors; economic and social data are also not supported spatially. A proper inventory of river and aquatic systems is lacking, and archives for the river and swamps are not properly kept by the responsible authorities. Furthermore, they are not shared among themselves, not even upon succession from one authority to another when re-organization occurs.                                                  Page 50 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities 3. Loose adherence to prescribed regulatory processes. Suggestions and Recommendations Besides the lack in regulatory guidance and tools, 1. Consolidate, align and rationalize institutional the ability of both national and local-level agencies structure and mandates. Further consolidation and/ to carry out their necessary mandates according or realignment of mandates, roles and functions to procedures is largely lacking in practice. Often, of the agencies is needed – first within each level national level Acts would lay down the coordination of government, and also vertically across the and execution processes, from the national-level to levels. (For example, the roles and responsibilities the local levels. However, these formal procedures need to be clarified between: (i) VPO Division of may not be followed in practice. For example, Environment and NEMC; (ii) EWURA and MoW; MoLHSSD was the main driver of the Master Plan (iii) DCC, the Regional Secretariat and PMO-RALG revision for Dar es Salaam, although the local in terms of coordinating the Dar es Salaam local governments should have been the responsible districts; and (iv) local governments and service party. Or, due to many factors, agencies’ actions providers such as DAWASCO.) Further, the regulatory are not aligned with the safeguarding of the urban roles of various entities need to be rationalized in environment and the larger public interest. (For accordance with hierarchical functions. For example, example, government agencies or service providers the local authority, DLAs, should carry out the day- may build/provide services to or provide title deeds/ to-day functions and be the first line of initiation allocate land for development on environmentally and response, while central-level ministries should sensitive areas unsuitable for development (e.g., largely serve regulatory and policy-setting roles wetlands, river basins) or site their infrastructure on and provide back-stopping support, rather than haphazardly developed land.) detailed approval functions at the local level (such as planning approvals of individual parcels for land use 4. Lack of current capacity, resources and technical changes). It is imperative to clarify institutional roles, expertise; and competing priorities for resource functions and mandates to empower the various allocation. The lack in both financial and staff agencies with the necessary authority and power capacity and resources is a common challenge to plan, implement and enforce their regulatory highlighted by all institutions. For example on functions. Enabling this may require amendment of water basin management, each river basin officer existing laws or a commitment to enforce them and has to cover (including manage and enforce) a establishing new ones. very large geographic area, which is practically impossible. In the DLAs, while the total staff strength 2. Greatly improve, update and put in place necessary is large, the issue seems to lie with a mismatch in local regulatory framework and tools. Projects at necessary expertise and priority areas. For example, the local level are good initiatives and could serve environmental issues are typically not a priority as pilot experiments. However, these need to be area for the DLA (each DLA only has one or two backed by strong legal tools to allow systematic environmental officers and usually doubled up by treatment to tackle the many urban development public health officials to carry out the environment- and environment challenges. The legal tools are related work). Ineffective enforcement of necessary to translate national-level framework environmental protection actions is a key challenge, and guidance into implementable and enforceable and this occurs due to lack in capacity, dedicated measures which are contextual and endorsed locally. resources and also insufficient regulatory backing (For example, local governments should supplement or protracted judicial procedures. Further, with the their regulatory tools by developing or updating central government having played (and in various the necessary environmental by-laws, detailed local aspects, still playing) the main role for many years, development plans etc.) In addition, better data in most cases Local Government Authorities lack the collection, management, setting up an integrated experience, skills and resources to undertake their database and allowing smooth information exchange new roles. and flow between relevant agencies would greatly enhance regulatory functions and effectiveness. For example in the provision of water supply and sanitation services, the absence of adequate capacity and expertise to implement water resources management activities has led to ineffective water resources assessment, inefficient water allocation, and inadequate follow-up on water use and enforcement of water law. Skilled professionals in these sectors often have limited incentives and poor remuneration, which leads to them leaving the sector. The provision of water, sewerage and sanitation services has also suffered due to bureaucratic procedures, lack of autonomy, and lack of resources and facilities.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 51 3. Reinforce prescribed mandates and processes 5. Conduct public education and communication and improve inter-agency integration and initiatives. Creating public awareness and even coordination aligning across the chain of processes enabling community/self-policing would be another for urban development, basic service provision good way to strengthen the enforcement of relevant and environmental management. Further to environmental regulations. The objectives of consolidating and rationalizing the institutional conducting public education and communication structure, where the mandates and responsibilities initiatives could be multi-fold. The first objective are clear, better adherence to prescribed mandates is to demonstrate and publicize the benefits of and processes by each entity needs to be reinforced green urban environment and the direct positive in practice. For example, where joint actions or impacts to communities (e.g., improvements to consultations are required, the necessary actions and public health, increase in property values etc.). coordination should be undertaken; also, national- Secondly, the responsibilities of various government level agencies should not cite the reason for lack of agencies should be clarified to create transparency capacity at the local level to take over or interfere and build trust with the public. The public should directly with local responsibilities. Rather, a better be able to direct queries and report any misconduct way is to provide the necessary capacity building to the relevant authority and hold it accountable, or technical assistance to build up local capacity. and see that appropriate actions are taken. Coordination between all relevant agencies at various Conversely, the relevant authority would have the steps of urban development, service provision power to enforce its mandate without unnecessary and environmental management process should interference. Therefore, each agency could embark be strengthened, potentially through reinforcing on a communication campaign to outline its standard operating procedures, or setting up of mandate, responsibilities, assessment methods regular forums or specific task forces. (e.g., for licensing or permits) and publish public guideline documents through means (illustrations, 4. Institute accountability and track performance. pamphlets, websites etc.) easily accessible and Within each agency, it would be useful to devise understandable (in plain language free of jargon) monitoring and evaluation indicators and systems by the general public. In addition to the public at to track development cases, permits/licenses issued large, the management team in each agency and and conditions attached to them, in addition to an the local leaders should be the first target group to associated follow-up plan. This would allow better obtain alignment in thinking. Once these leaders monitoring and enforcement of the necessary are on board, it would be easier to rely on them to requirements and procedures. Audit mechanisms disseminate the correct messages and communicate could also be considered to assess the performance directly with their own reports/constituents to of both national level and local governments strengthen the cause. on aspects such as environmental regulation enforcement, together with built-in incentives or 6. Strengthen capacity and boost resources. In addition disincentives related to performance as determined to macro-level improvements such as increasing by the audits. Dar es Salaam’s own source revenue or increasing education and skills training, other steps could be taken to strengthen capacity and boost resources. Capacity could be improved, especially in the DLAs focusing on urban planning and development and environmental management, especially to: (i) implement the new Master Plan, (ii) develop strategic local area development plans, (iii) utilize GIS data for evidence-based decision making, (iv) enforce and monitor, and (v) plan and coordinate across DLAs and departments. In addition, consolidating institutional functions and structure, better planning to align staff numbers and skills with development priorities, or smart use of technology could help to increase efficiency for carrying out the necessary tasks. Each agency, especially the local governments, should also have control over its own budget and staffing plan and decisions, in line with their functions and obligations.                                                  Page 52 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities VII. KEY FINDINGS Informal settlement is inevitable and is currently the directly impact management of the environment, single biggest driver of ecosystem loss across the city of involve numerous levels of government regulation Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam is an important economic and coordination that limit the capacity of municipal engine of the country. It will continue to grow and attract departments to act in a timely and effective manner. A new residents, many of whom cannot afford housing number of initiatives are currently underway (e.g. the and are without the means to participate in the formal EcoPoor project, or UNDP - funded “Implementation of economy. The impacts of informal settlement that have concrete measures to reduce vulnerability of livelihood been described in the Profile will only worsen if the and economy of coastal and lakeshore communities in city does not take an active role in developing spatial Tanzania”) but any effective interventions will require plans that designate where informal settlements will be serious action to address the institutional weaknesses located and how they will be provided basic services. that prevent effective response. Without intentional urban planning intervention, the informal settlements will continue to be one of the Urban development has not been guided by a strategic primary sources of environmental degradation. planning framework that identifies the most critical natural assets and prioritizes their conservation. Dar es Salaam’s aquatic ecosystems have been most There is no planning structure or tools to assist town burdened and degraded by the impacts of urbanization. planners and environmental regulators with balancing The systems are under acute pressure and action is development with environmental conservation and to urgent if their deterioration is to be arrested. The rivers mitigate the loss of environmental assets. The lack of and streams within the developed urban area have been an updated master plan in the past 35 years has had severely polluted by encroachment and heavily impacted severe consequences on all aspects of urban spatial by solid waste and poor quality waste water treatment planning and the provision of basic urban services. The services. The Msimbazi River, the most important city lacks effective spatial development plans and urban water source for residents for drinking, bathing, and design standards to guide growth and development. agriculture, is the most severely polluted and degraded There is little integration of planning across sectors. This of the four primary rivers in the city. However, as is significant institutional failing has prevented the city common with other cities in Tanzania and Sub-Saharan from creating an effective framework to identify and Africa, there are limited resources available to invest in protect natural assets, to establish the means to evaluate the large-scaled grey infrastructure projects that will be development proposals, and to create a balance in required to mitigate the impacts of inadequate services tradeoffs between the interests of development and the such as sanitation. environment. Given these constraints, leadership and institutional There are broader metropolitan-scale environmental action to develop and advance feasible programs, assets remaining within the city that will require plans and policies capable of addressing key problems strategic action to conserve and protect. The continued are particularly important. It will be important to development of the city and its environmental impacts establish a regulatory and planning framework that need to be considered at the metropolitan scale. Spatial promotes integration across the sectors to support more and infrastructure planning should consider critical sustainable approaches. environmental assets to be protected and conserved as the city expands. These environmental assets include Institutional fragmentation problems are particularly the 2,000 ha of Mangrove Forest along the coast; the challenging in Dar es Salaam and restrict effective forest lands in the upland water catchment areas that are urban environmental management. Many institutions degraded but remain open bush land where forest can are involved with aspects of environmental issues, be regenerated; and the Kigamboni (across the harbor including issues of a local nature that are required to bridge), which still has relatively healthy ecosystems that be addressed at a national level or vice versa. There is will soon face the pressure of urbanization. It is essential multiplicity of legislation, with each institution having for the city to identify the environmental assets that its own legal framework. Environmental management are still worth saving and take the necessary actions to and regulation at the city level, as well as administration conserve and protect them so that past mistakes are not of services such as sanitation and drainage that repeated.                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 53                                                  Page 54 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abebe, Fikreselaissie K., 2011. Modelling Informal Settlement Growth in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. March, 2011. Andreasen, Manja Hoppe. 2013. Population Growth and Spatial Expansion of Dar es Salaam. An analysis of the rate and spatial distribution of recent population growth in Dar es Salaam Rurban Africa African Rural-City Connections. 2013. Ardhi University, 2010. Department of Urban Planning. Breeze, Robert, 2012. Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar Es Salaam. Draft Baseline Analysis. Prepared for World Bank. October, 2012. 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Environment and Urbanization. 1991 3:147.                                                  Page 60 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities DAR ES SALAAM Annex: Summary of Institutional Analysis Prevailing Institutional Landscape Institutional Challenges Suggestions and Recommendations Institutional • Both central and city level agencies, and at times regional • Institutional • Consolidate, align and Structure agencies are directly involved in aspects of urban/land and fragmentation within rationalize institutional urban environment management. each government level structure and mandates and across levels – • Multiple agencies at each government level are directly IX. APPENDIX overlapping mandates, involved (eg. centrally:PMO-RALG, MoLHSSD, MoW, VPO, weak integration and NEMCl; locally, the four DLAs plus service provider and private coordination companies). Regulatory • Basic array of legal tools such as policies and regulations to • Weak regulatory • Greatly improve, update Environment guide urban development and the protection of urban guidance, lack in and put in place necessary environment are available at the national, but to a lesser regulatory frameworks local regulatory framework extent at the regional and local levels. and tools especially at the and tools local level Appendix A: Summary of Institutional Analysis • At the local level, government actions take place largely through specific projects, but lacks overall regulatory guidance and framework. Processes • Formal structures and processes have been set down through • Loose adherence to • Reinforce prescribed and regulation. However in practice, these may not be followed, prescribed regulatory mandates and processes; Interactions or are not adequately capacitated. processes Improve inter-agency (For example physical planning is formally decentralized, but integration and in practice the draft Dar Master Plan has been mainly coordination aligning coordinated by MoLHSSD. Or, at the local level, Dar is not across the chain of equipped with effective environmental management processes for urban coordination mechanisms/people). development, basic service provision and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 24 Page 61                                  DAR ES SALAAM Page 62 environmental management • Institute accountability and track performance Capacity and • Large staff numbers in DLAs, however not sufficiently skilled • Lack of current capacity, • Conduct public education Resources or appropriately deployed. resources and technical and communication expertise; and competing initiatives priorities for resource • Strengthen capacity and allocation boost resources Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities                                                  25 Appendix B: Institutional Figures                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 63 DAR ES SALAAM Figure: Organogram of Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development (with most relevant departments and agencies highlighted) Source: MoLHHSD website c. Ministry of Water (MoW) - to ensure that water resources are developed and managed sustainable in collaboration with all stakeholders. The Ministry has the following main functions: Formulation and revision of the National Water Policy, policy implementation strategies, i. legislation and regulations;                                                  Page 64 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities 5 DAR ES SALAAM Figure: Organogram of Ministry of Water (with most relevant departments and agencies highlighted) Source: MoW website Water Resources Management There has been a policy direction change in the role of the MoW - towards that of coordination, policy and guideline formulation and regulation, instead of a service provider. As such, water resources management are the responsibilities of the National Water Board, Basin Water Boards (divided into nine basins in the country), Catchment Committees, and Water User Associations or Groups. Representatives from district councils and local government authorities sits on the Basin Boards and Catchment Committees:                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 65 3.2.2 Functions and Responsibilities of New Organisations The new institutional framework for water resources management is set out in Figure 3.1 and the main functions and responsibilities of each organisation in the framework will be as follows: Table 3.1: New Functional Responsibilities for Water Resources Management Organisation Functions and Responsibilities Minister responsible for Water Presents national policy and strategy to the Government. Ensures policies and strategies are implemented. Appoints Chairperson and members of National Water Board and Basin Water Boards. Determines a mechanism for appeals from all levels of framework. Ministry responsible for Water Provides for sectoral co-ordination, monitoring and evaluation. Develops and reviews policies, strategies, including legislation and financing. Formulates technical standards and WRM guidelines. Ensures dam safety. Monitors Water Quality. Deals with trans-boundary issues of national interest. Develops water resources of national interest. Maintains national WRM sub-sector information DAR ES SALAAM Monitors the National Water Board and the Basin Boards. Supervises the Water Resources Institute. (Agency). a) National Water Board - a financially Supervises the Drilling and administratively organisation,Agency. and Dam Construction autonomous National Water Board Co-ordinates and harmonises strategic actions of Water Basin financed by the Basin Boards; oversees, co-ordinates and facilitates the activities of Boards. Basin Boards. National Water Sector Development Strategy – and Co-ordinates 2006 to 2015 basin plans (e.g. sectoral and inter- 25 endorses b) Basin Boards - financially and administratively autonomous, sectoral, investment and financed priorities through and financing patterns, inter-basin water user charges; water users are represented on water transfer).the Boards. c) Catchment and Sub-catchment Committees - autonomous Co-ordinates bodies, technical financed from trans-boundary wateruserresources management charges, and will carry out such functions by national issues of as are delegated the Basin interest. Water Board; they may employ staff necessary to carryResolves inter-sectoral out these functions, or/ inter-basin conflicts. may be supported by Basin Water Board staff. Co-ordinates information management and assessment of water d) resources Water User Associations - legally constituted hydrological, (e.g. drawing bodies their hydrogeological membership from information, water and discharge permit registers, registers of water user associations etc). water users in a particular locality; costs of the Association will be borne from charges Supports basin water boards in the formation of water users levied on its members. associations/catchment organisations. Serves as a communication channel between the water basin boards and the Government Co-ordinates and facilitates the conduct of water audits and provides technical support Basin Water Boards Data collection, processing and analysis for WRM monitoring and resource assessment. Co-ordinates technical aspects of trans-boundary issues in the basin. Co-ordinate and approve basin WRM planning / budgets. Approve issue and revoke water use and discharge permits. Enforce water use permits and pollution control measures. Co-operate between sectors at the local level. Resolve conflicts between water users. Co-ordinate stakeholders. Integrate district plans into WRM plans Catchment / Sub-catchment Co-ordinate and harmonise catchment/sub-catchment integrated Water Committees water resources management plans. Resolve water resources conflicts in the catchment/sub-catchment, and other delegated responsibilities from Basin Water Board. Water User Associations Manage allocation of water resources at local level. Manage equitable allocation of water resources during drought. Mediate in local disputes. Regional Secretariat Representation on Basin Water Boards. District Councils Representation on Basin Water Boards. Representation on Catchment Committees. Formulate and enforce bylaws Promote efficient water utilisation Prepare district plans Figure: Institutional Framework for Water Resources Management Source: National Water Sector Development Strategy, 2006-2015 Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation Similarly in the area of water supply, sewerage and sanitation, MoW is moving away from being a service provider, but rather a regulator. Thus, such service provision is now based on the local government structures but delegated to “clustered” Water Supply and Sewerage Authorities                                                  (DAWASAA and DAWASCO in this case); however, sanitation remains the responsibility of local Page 66 authorities government Promoting Green Urban (discussed sections). in African Cities Development in later 8 4.2.3 Functions and Responsibilities of New Organisations The new institutional framework for the provision of water supply, sewerage and sanitation services is set out in Figure 4.2 and the main functions and responsibilities of each organisation in the framework will be as follows: Table 4.2: New Functional Responsibilities for Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation Organisation Functions and Responsibilities Minister responsible for Water Presents national sector policy and strategy to Government. Ensures policies and strategies are implemented. Ministry responsible for Water Develops policies and strategies. Advises EWURA in formulation of technical guidelines/standards. Co-ordinates planning for projects of national importance. Secures finance for infrastructure and capacity development projects. Monitors performance and regulates COWSOs. Provides technical guidance to Councils. Provides technical guidance and co-ordination for Water Supply and Sewerage Authorities (WSSA), including DAWASA. Provides technical support and monitoring for major capital works. Co-ordinates and monitors WSSA strategies and plans Supervises the Water Resources Institute. Supervises the Drilling and Dam Construction Agency. Water Supply and Sewerage Own, manage and develop water supply and sewerage assets. Authorities DAR ES SALAAM Prepare business plans to provide water supply and sewerage services, including capital investment plans. Secure finance for capital investment, and relevant subsidies. Contract and manage Service Providers. Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) – an autonomous multi-sectoral Provide services not contracted out. regulatory authority established under the Energy Formulate and by-laws forWater serviceUtilities Regulatory Authority Act, provision. 2001. It Providers for technical is responsible Service and economic Provide water supplyregulation and sewerageof the electricity, services petroleum, in accordance with contractual requirements. natural gas and water sectors in Tanzania. In the areas of water and sewerage services, EWURA Collect revenues for services. is responsible for issuing licenses to WSSAs, based Construction on the of water submission sector of business plans, and for infrastructures; monitoring and regulating performance of the Provide WSSAs against Consultancy these business plans. This includes services; the approval of tariffs for water and sewerage and based on the performance of the WSSAs services Supply goods; in delivering services to consumers. As Train thecommunities in water business plans related of the aspects WSSAs are required to include Community Owned Water Own and manage water supply assets. the performance related Supply Organisations contractual arrangements with their Service Operate and maintain water supply assets. Providers, the WSSAs have the responsibility for the management of these contracts Determine consumer tariffs. and EWURA is not required to separately regulate the Service Providers. Collect revenue for the provision of services. Contract and manage Service Providers. Energy and Water Utilities Approves business plans of WSSAs. Regulatory Authority Issues operating licences to WSSAs. Approves service tariffs. Publishes technical guidelines and standards. National Water Sector DevelopmentMonitors Strategywater quality – 2006 and performance of WSSAs. to 2015 44 Collects and publishes comparative performance data. Advises Ministry on impact of major capital works on customer tariffs Prime Minister’s Office - Co-ordinates planning of projects from local government authorities. Regional Administration and Co-ordinates local government authority budgets. Local Government Co-ordinates capacity building for local government authorities. Regional Secretariat Representation on WSSA Boards. Provides technical advice and support to local government authorities. Supervises and monitors local government authorities. Municipal and District Councils Representation on WSSA Boards. Co-ordinate WSSA budgets within Council Budgets. Disburse block grant funds to WSSAs. Co-ordinate physical planning with WSSAs. Delegated performance monitoring and regulation of COWSOs. Provide and/or promote on-site sanitation. Formulate by-laws concerning water supply and sanitation. Village Councils Promote establishment of COWSOs. Representation on COWSO management body. Co-ordinate COWSO budgets within Council Budgets. Resolve conflicts within and between communities. Formulate by-laws concerning water supply and sanitation. Ministry responsible for Health Develops policy, guidelines and strategies for sanitation. Provides technical assistance to councils for sanitation. Prepares Acts, Regulations and Standards for sanitation. Monitors, regulates and provides support and advice to councils and other stakeholders on sanitation issues. Figure: Institutional Framework for Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation Source: National Water Sector Development Strategy, 2006-2015 d. Vice President’s Office (VPO), Environment Division – the mandate of the VPO has been articulated in the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977) Article 47 and its Article 55 of February, 2008. functions are stated in the Government Instrument made under                                  The major roles and functions of this Office are to assist the President on all matters concerning Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 67 the United Republic of Tanzania, and in particular under the Environment Division: i. Formulate Environmental Policy and ensure its implementation; ii. Monitor and coordinate National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) activities; DAR ES SALAAM Figure: Organogram of Vice President’s Office (with relevant departments and agencies highlighted) Source: VPO website e. National Environment Management Council (NEMC) – to undertake enforcement, compliance, review and monitoring of environmental impacts assessments (EIAs) of development policies, plans and activities, research, facilitate public participation in environmental decision-making, raise environmental awareness and collect and disseminate environmental information. Its functions include advising and coordinating environmental management issues. In addition, NEMC has the powers to set standards and issue permits for the discharge of effluents into the environment, including into water resources and levy penalties for non-compliance. The NEMC sits directly under the VPO, and parallel to the Division of Environment (the NEMC is more operational- and enforcement-oriented while the Division of Environment handles the policy and legislative issues and international conventions.) NEMC is headed by a Director General (DG) under guidance of the Board of Directors of the Council. The DG is assisted by Directors of directorates, Heads of units, Heads of zonal offices, technical and supporting staff. Currently the Council has four technical Directorates (Environmental Compliance and Enforcement, Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Research and Planning, Environmental Information, Communication and Outreach), one supporting Directorate, four supporting Units and currently three Zonal Offices (Northern Zone based in Arusha, Southern Zone based in Mbeya and Lake Zone based in Mwanza), with plans to expand to seven. By year 2010, NEMC has 91 technical staff and 53                                                  Page 68 Promoting Green Urban Development in African Cities 10 Figure: Organogram of Dar es Salaam City Council (with relevant departments and agencies highlighted) Source: Translated from DCC website Kinondoni Municipal Council (KMC). Kinondoni is located in the northern part of Dar es Salaam City. It has an area of 531 sqkm with a population of around 2.5 million people. KMC is an autonomous body with four divisions namely - Magomeni, Kinondoni, Kibamba and Kawe, and sub- divided into 34 wards and 171 sub-wards. The Municipality has three electoral constituencies namely; Ubungo, Kawe and Kinondoni. The Municipal is governed by a full council with 56 councilors. KMC has a staff strength of around 6000 people in all. The Municipal Councils are basically responsible for the provision of basic infrastructure and socio-economic services such as district roads, solid waste management, water, health, education and management of development activities. Figure: Organogram of Kinondoni Municipal Council (with relevant departments and agencies highlighted) Source: KMC website 12                                  Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Page 69