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Asia An Operational Agenda for the 1990s Peter Midgley , ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i S ,~ri RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 157 Critchley, Reij, and Seznec, Water Harvestingfor Plant Production, vol. 11: Case Studies and Conclusionsfor Sub-Saharan Africa No. 158 Hay and Paul, Regulation and Taxation of Commercial Banks during the International Debt Crisis No. 159 Liese, Sachdeva, and Cochrane, Organizing and Managing Tropical Disease Control Programs: Lessons of Success No. 160 Boner and Krueger, The Basics of Antitrust Policy: A Review of Ten Nations and the European Communities No. 161 Riverson and Carapetis, Intermediate Means of Transport in Sub-Saharan Africa: Its Potential for Improving Rural Travel and Transport No. 162 Replogle, Non-Motorized Vehicles in Asian Cities No. 163 Shilling, editor, Beyond Syndicated Loans: Sources of Creditfor Developing Countries No. 164 Schwartz and Kampen, Agricultural Extension in East Africa No. 165 Kellaghan and Greaney, Using Examinations to Improve Education: A Study in Fourteen African Countries No. 166 Ahmad and Kutcher, Irrigation Planning with Environmental Considerations: A Case Study of Pakistan's Indus Basin No. 167 Liese, Sachdeva, and Cochrarte, Organizing and Managing Tropical Disease Control Programs: Case Studies No. 168 Barlow, McNelis, and Derrick, Solar Pumping: An Introduction and Update on the Technology, PerJbrmance, Costs and Economics No. 169 Westoff, Age at Marriage, Age at First Birth, and Fertility in Africa No. 170 Sung and Troia, Developments in Debt Conversion Programs and Conversion Activities No. 171 Brown and Nooter, Successful Small-Scale Irrigation in the Sahel No. 172 Thomas and Shaw, Issues in fhe Development of Multigrade Schools No. 173 Bymes, Water Usem Association in World Bank-Assisted Irrigation Projects in Pakistan No. 174 Constant and Sheldrick, World Nitrogen Survey No. 175 Le Moigne and others, editors, Country Experiences with Water Resources Management: Economic, Institutional, Technological and Environmental Issues No. 176 The World Bank/FAO/UNIDO/industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supply and Denand Balancesfor Nitrogen. Phosphate, and Potash, 1990/91-1996/97 No. 177 Adams, TheWorld Bank's TreatmentofEmploymentand LaborMarket Issues No. 178 Le Moigne, Barghouti, and Garbus, editors, Developing and Improving Irrigation and Drainage Systems: Selected Papersfrom World Bank Seminars No. 179 Speirs and Olsen, Indigenous Integrated Farrnirng Systems in the Sahel No. 180 Barghouti, Garbus, and Umali, editors, Trends in Agricultural Diversification: Regional Perspectives No. 181 Mining Unit, Industry and Energy Division, StrategyforAfrican Mining No. 182 Land Resources Unit, Asia Technical Departnent, Strategy for Forest Sector Development in Asia No.183 Nijera,Liese,and Harnmer,Malaria: New PatternsandPerspectives No. 184 Crosson and Anderson, Resources and Global Food Prospects: Supply and Demandfor Cereals to 2030 No. 185 Frederiksen, Drought Planning and Water Efficiency Implications in Water Resources Management No. 186 Guislain, Divestiture of State Enterprises: An Overview of the Legal Framework No. 187 De Geyndt, Zhao, and Liu, From Barefoot Doctor to Village Doctor in Rural China No. 188 Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investnent Programs No. 189 Frederick, Balancing Water Demands with Supplies: 77Te Role of Management in a World of Increasing Scarcity (List continues on the inside back cover) WORD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 224 ASIATECHNICALDEPARTMENTSERIES Urban Transport in Asia An Operational Agenda for the 1990s Peter Midgley The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright 0 1994 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing March 1994 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findigs, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 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The complete bacldist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications. which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, US.A, or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Idna, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0253-7494 Peter Midgley is senior operations officer in the World Bank's Resident Mission in Indonesia. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Midgley, Peter. Urban transport in Asia : an operational agenda for the 1990s / Peter Midgley. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no.224. Asia Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-2624-4 1. Urban transportation-Asia. 2. Urban tansportation policy- Asia. I. Title. EL Series: World Bank technical paper ; no. 224. Hl. Series: World Bank technical paper. Asia Technical Department series. H311.A78M53 1994 388.4'095-dc2O 93-295 CIP -S .ei~uContents Foreword vii Acronyms and abbreviations ix Abstract x Executive Summary 1 Part One- Introduction 1 Part Two: Sector background I Part Three: Prospects for the 1990s 5 Part Four. Conclusion 6 Part One: Introduction 9 Geo-demographic scope 9 Economic development 9 Poverty 10 Urbanization 10 The role of urban transport 12 Part Two: Sector background 13 Urban transport characteristics of Asian cities 13 Non-motorized vehicles 13 Motorization 14 Traffic congestion 15 Environmental impacts 17 Urban transport intrastructure and facilities 21 Traffic engineering and traffic management 25 Urban travel by mode 31 Urban freight transport 34 Traffic laws and cnforcement 36 Urban transport administration and regulation 37 Urban transport equipment and consultancy services 38 Fmancing of the urban transport sector 38 External aid 44 iii Part Three: Prospects for the 1990s 51 Introduction 51 Economic productivity 53 Personal mobility 59 Environment 64 Financial viability 68 Part Foun Conclusion 73 Introduction 73 An integrated approach 75 References 77 Annex tables 79 Boxes 1.1 Improving urban productivity 11 1.2 Strategy for alleviating urban poverty 12 13 Improving the urban environment 12 2.1 A summary of the traffic management systens that have been implemented in Singapore 26 2.2 Traffic engineering in Bangkok 26 23 Public tansport in lndian cities 30 2.4 Truck overloading in Bangkok 35 2.5 Truck terminal use in Surabaya 36 2.6 Truck park use in Jakarta 36 2.7 Costsharingguidelinesformasstransitlinks tonewtownsinJapan 41 2.8 BOT procedures in Hong Kong 42 2.9 BOT procedures in Indonesia 43 2.10 Experience with Bar porposals in Bangkok 43 3.1 A research agenda motorization 53 32 Electronic road pricing in Hong Kong (1983-4985) 54 33 Demand management strategies 55 3A Transitway proposals in Karachi 56 3.5 Mass transit and land development in Japan 57 3.6 Land value increases and mass transit 58 3.7 Mass transit and city centergrowth in Mexico City 58 3.8 Threshold for conventional bus sevices 58 3.9 Potential roles for non-motorized vehicles 61 3.10 A World Bank financed NMV program in Shanghai 62 3.11 An example of complementary NMV delivery services in Bogota, Colombia 62 3.12 An agenda for NMV usc in Asian cities 63 3.13 Typical pedestrian imporvement programs 63 3.14 An example of an effective vehicle inspection and maintenance program 65 3.15 The components of an urban road safety program 67 3.16 The environmental area concept 67 3.17 Variations of the BOTapproach 70 3.18 Property development and urban rafl systems in Hong Kong 70 3.19 Procedures to adopt with regard to BOT schemes 71 iv Figures 1.1 Proportion of urban population in Asia by country income group (1980-2000) 10 2.1 Population per vehicle rates in selected Asian countries in 1988 14 2.2 Congestion on urban expressways in Tokyo 16 23 Inner-city average travel speeds in selected cities in Asia 17 2A Global vehicl emissions 18 2.5 Carbon monoxide exposure levels in Bangkok 19 2.6 Staff per bus ratios in selected Asian city bus companies 29 2.7 Percentage of thips by public transport and by other transport modes in selected cities in low-income Asian countries 32 2.8 Percentage of trips by public transport and by non-public transport modes in selected cities in mniddle-income Asian countries 33 2.9 Percentage of trips by public transport and by non-public transport modes in selected cities in high-income Asian countries 34 2.10 Geographic distribution of external aid in the urban transport sector in Asia by low-income country group (1980-1989) 44 2.11 Sources of external aid in the urban transport sector in Asia (1980-1989) 45 2.12 Sectoral focus of cxtcrnal aid to the urban transport sector in Asia (1980-1989) 46 2.13 Sources of aid in Asia by sector (1980-1989) 46 3.1 Mass transit corridors in Curitiba, Brazil 57 3.2 Mass transit corridor (detail) 57 3.3 A World Bank financed NMv network in Shanghai 61 3A The environmental area principle 67 Tables 1.1 Growth prospects for the 1990s 9 12 World Megacities 2000 11 2.1 Average peak hour travel speeds airport to CBD by region and cDuntry income group 18 22 Urban mass transit systems in Asia 23 2.3 Mass rapid transit systems in Asian cities 24 2A Light rail transit systems in Asian cities 24 25 Guided rapid transit systems in Asian cities 25 2.6 Bus priority facilities in Asian cities 27 2.7 Percentage distribution of vehicles by urban public and private bus companies and parastansit in selected Asian countries 28 2.8 Operating characteristics of paratransit services in Bangkok (1989) 31 2.9 Urban transport equipment nroduction in selected Asian countries 38 2.10 Transport concessions in Bangkok 43 A.1 Asia region population and urbanization data (1980-2000) 80 A.2 Asia region population and urbanization growth (1980-2000) 82 A3 Population l980,1990, and 2000 of cities with 1 million or more inhabitants in 1990 84 AA Growth in number of cities 1980-1990 88 A5 Urban transport infrastructure in selected Asian cities 89 A.6 Asia urban public transport data: bus companies low-income countries 90 A.7 Asia urban public transport data: bus companies middle- and high-income countries 92 A.8 Asia urban public transport data: tram /lrt companies 93 A.9 Asia urban public transport data: metro/mrt cnmpanies 94 A.10 Asia urban public transport data: grt systems 95 A.11 Asia urban travel data (non-motorized and motoized trips) 96 A.12 Asia urban travel data (motorized trips) 97 v Acknowledgements The report was prepared in the Infrastructure Division of the Asia Technical Department of the World Bank by a team headed by Peter Midgley (Senior Urban Planner), and oDmprising Christian Diou (Urban Planner) and Shunso Tsukada (Transportation Specialist) The team would like to thank the following expert who contrbuted with background papers for the preparation of the report: Roger Allport (urb ndevep t and urban bansport), Philip Comwell (sector issues on China and Thailand), John Cracknell (sector issues on Korea), George Esguerra (sector issues on the Philippines), Charles Melhuish (Economic Development and Urbanization), Richard Podolske (sector issues on India), Miceael Replogle (non-motorized veiddes) and Michael Walsh (environment and air pollution). Infonnation on external aid was provided by the Govemments of Austalia, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Gernany, Italy, and the United Kingdom through the offices of their respective Executive Directors. The final report benefitted from the disussion of interim findings at meetings and conferences in Tokyo, Bangkok and Vancouver hosted respectively by the Ministry of Transport of Japan, the Econonic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and the Pacific Rim Council on Urban Development Specal tha-iks go to Ralph Gakenheimer, Jeff Gutmnan and Frida Johansen for taking the time to review successive drafts of the report and for their constuctive comments. The team also wishes to acknowledge the help provided by friends and colleagues at different stages of report production, especially Les Barkerand the Asia Hotiwe, We would also like to thank Mike Rollins for help in getting the report rdy for publication. The report would not have been possble without the encouragement and support of Peter Ludwig, Ali Sabeti and Daniel Ritchie, the tolerance and udestandig of our respective spouses and the patience and dedication of Gertrude Stubblefieldk vi - d Foreword This report, prepared by the Asia Technical Depart- the world (6.3% in East Asia and 3.1% in South Asia), ment, diagnoses Asia's urban transport problems with several countries achieving double-digit rates. and outlines a corresponding agenda for Bank lend- Like the 1986 Policy Study, this report strongly ing and technical assistance activities. This work focusses on efficiency. Urban areas are conceived should be placed in the wider perspective of the primarily as economic mechanisms, responsible for Bank's 20 year involvement with urban transport and increasing share of the countries' national pro- projects in developing countries. It is cf particular ducL It is therefore of utmost importance to ensure importancetorelateittotheBank'sl986UrbanTrans- efficiency in both traffic flow and the provision of port Policy Study, the most recent statement of basic publictrnsportservices.Thereportgoesbeyondthe principles which underlie Bank interventions in this PolicyStudy in urging the introduction of urban oad field. The current paper can be seen as a continent- user charges to achieve short-term traffic efficiency specific application of those principles,enriched and and generate funds for expansion of capacity. Simi- modified by the subsequent internal and extemal larly, the current report retains, strengthens and ex- research. If the Asian example is folowed by other tends the case for private sector involvement in regional departments in the Bank, one could expect urban transport in speaking of ownership of bus in the second half of the decade anew statement of operations or the build-operate-transfer approach to Bank urban transport policies. major urban roads and mass transit systems. The Asian continent provides a perfect place to This report explores new areas that the Policy test urban transport policies and strategies. It con- Studydidnotexamine.First,citiesareseeninexplicit tains 3 billion people, more than half of the world's environmental terms, where transport problems population. It is urbanizing at startling rates with strongly impact on air and water quality, noise and much of the urban growth taking place in already other aspects of the living amTient. Second, the pov- large cities. By the turn of the century, the continent erty aspect of urban transport is explicitly discussed will have 13 megacities and 160 cities with popula- in the walking and non-motorized transport modes. tionsabove one million; nearly half of the continent's The report calls for a sharper focus of the Banlks population. Poverty remains a problenm Asia has700 research and project work on these modes. million people living at annual incomes under $370 Finally, large-scale urban public transport sys- per capita which represents nearly three quarters of tems constitute an area where this report diverges the world's poor. However, absolute poverty in East from the Policy Study. Without abandoning the effi- Asia has decreased form 400 million in 1970 to 180 ciency objective, the report has a more positive atti- million in 1990, a decrease of over 50%. In addition, tude towards such modes as urban rail rapid transit the continent has experienced in the past decade (metros) and the light-rail systems. This is due to a economic growth rates far above anywhere else in better understanding of advantages enjoyed by pub- ..i lic transport modes which operate on separate or expressed in ffiis report will be the World Bank lend- protected rights-of way, whatever the guidance and ing program in this sector propulsion technology of vehides. It has been recog- nized that an urban transport strategy based on a combination of traffic management methods and public transport modes operating in mixed traffic cannot be expected to cope alone with problems on a scale experienced today in many cities. This paper Daniel Ritchie sees these modes as high potential candidates for Director investment agendas in very large and highly con- Asia Technical Department gested cities in Asia. The testing ground of ideas The World Bank vim Acronyms and abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank INUTD Infrastructure and Urban Development AGT Automated Guided Transit Department Transport Division (of the ALS Area Licensing Scheme World Bank) ARP Additional Registration Fee JICA Japan Intcrnational Cooperation Agency (in Singapore) KCR Kowloon Canton Railway (Hong Kong) ASTIN Asia Technical Department Infrastruc- KMB Kowloon Motor Bus (in Hong Kong) iure Division (of the World Bank) ELRT Light Rail Transit ATC Area Traffic Control mpg miles per gallon AVI Automatic Vehicle Detection MRR Middle Ring Road (in Kuala Lumpur) BECL Bangkok Exprcssway Company Ltd. MRT Mass Rapid Transit BOT Build, Operate and Transfer MTR Mass Transit Railway (Hong Kong) CDB Central Business District NMV Non-motorized vehicle CMB China Motor Bus (in Hong Kong) NOx Nitrogen Oxides CNG Compressed Natural Gas ODA Official Development Assistance co Carbon Monoxide OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation C02 Carbon Dioxide and Development Db Decibel OECF Overseas Economnic Cooperation Fund DOH Department of Highways (Thailand) (of Japan) EPA Environmental Protection Agency Pb Lead (of the US Government) PM Particulate Matter ERP Electronic Road Pricing PRE Policy, Research and External Affairs de- ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for partment (of the World Bank) Asia and the Pacific SEATAC Southeast Asian Agency for Regional ETA Expressway and Rapid Transit Author- Transport and Communications Devel- ity of Tha;land opment FES First Stage Expressway (Bangkok) SBS Singapore Bus Services GDP Gross Domestic Product SPURT Seventh Plan Urban and Regional Trans- GNP Gross National Product port study (in Thailand) GRP Gross Regional Product TIBS Trans-Island Bus Services (in Singapore) GRT Guided Rapid Transit TRB Transportation Rescarch Board HC Hydrocarbons TRRL Transport and Road Research IFC Intemational Finance Corporation (of Laboratory the World Bank) UNDP United Nations Development Program WDR World Development Report ix Abstract The extent to which Asian cities meet the challenges It is dear that the denands on the sector will be even of urbanization and contribute to macroeconomic greater in the 1990s and that new approaches are performance will, to a large extent, depend on how needed to rectify the issues inherited from the past efficicntly they can transport the goods, services, and meet the following chalienges of the future. information and people upon which their economic These challenges are unique in their scope, scale and activitics depend. The intrinsic development of the paceof changeand require a responsewhich is tailor urban transport sector and its response to the pace, made to the region. The paper presents new ap- scale and nature of urbanization ant' economic de- proaches for the transport sector, the implications of velopment in the 1990s will determine to a large these actions for World Bank operation and the role extent the nature and formof Asian citiesin theearly of agencies in ensuring the availability of adequate twenty first century. The performance of the urban and timely external aid. transport sector in Asia in the 1980's has been mixed. x Executive Summary Part One: Introduction Nn-motorized transpor2: Asia has the widest vari- ety of non-motorized forms of transport in the world. In terms of economic growth. Asia is undoubtedly They form the backbone of the transport system for the most dynamic region in the world today. The the poor in many cities for both personal and goods iimpressive performance of Asia in terms of economic movements. Bicycles are by far the most numerous. development and the growth in population is caus- Exact numbers are hard to come by, but it is esti- ing the region to grapple with extremely rapid rates mated that there are some 300 million bicycles in of urbanization. The extent to which Asian cities China, 66 million in Japan, 45 million in India and six meet the challenges of urbanization and contribute million in Korea. These four countries alone account to macroeconomic performance will, to a large ex- for more than half of the world's estimated total tent, depend on how efficiently they can transport bicycle population of 800 million. the goods, services, information and people upon which their economic activities depend. Motkizatiorn Asia accounts for justover ten percent Currently, waLking and cycling are often the sole of the world's automobile population and over 25 means of gaining access t* employment and social percent of the global truckand bus fleet. Within Asia, services for the urban poor who cannot afford public the majority of these vehides are in Japan which transport services. Vehicle emissions are increas- accounts for 70 percent of the region's automobiles ingly being recognized as the dominant cause of and 62 percent of trucks and buses. Motor cycles are localized air pollution and health problems. And the inceasing in numbers throughout the region as peo- pressing demands for motorized forms of personal ple strive for cheaper and more usable altematives to mobility are generating pressures on the road net- the motor car for urban personal mobility. For some, work and resulting in congestion which threatens the the motorcyde is a logical progression from the bicy- sustainability of socio-economic progress. cle and for others it offers a faster alternative to slow The intrinsic development of the urban transport and crowded buses. sector and its response to the pace, scale and nature of urbanization and economic development in the Vehicle ownership restraints: Most developing 1990s will determine to a large extent the nature and countries in Asia have some form of deterrent to form of Asian cities in the early twenty first century. vehicle ownership. High import duties, registration fees, excise taxes and road user charges are the main Part Two: Sector background forms curently in use. Such restraints also form a ready source of tax revenue and are relatively easy In the process of analyzing the urban transport situ- to impose. This was the reason for their introduction. ation in Asia, we were struck by the diversity as weU Few Governments have attempted to use control as by the wide range of performance between indi- mechanismsto clampdown onvehicleownership. vidual city systems. Restricting car ownership is unpopular in any soci- 1 ety,butin thedevelopingeconomiesof Asiait is seen areas in Asia. This is especially surprising given the by polticans as going against the aspirations of the high concentration of such vehicles in the region. rising middle dass and depriving them of one of the Street lighting, bus stops, bus shelters and bus bays most important benefits of development--personal are rarely adequate in low- and middle-income coun- mobility. How to manage rising vehide ownership try cities. Often located near junctions and where the and use in urban areas and avoid congestion is a sidewalks either no longer exist or are too narrow, major challenge for Asia in the 1990s. bus stops often cannot accommodate the crowds of people waiting for buses. Shelters, when provided, Traffic congesdorn The substantial growth in vehide are rudimentary and usually damaged. No provision fleets is dearly evident in the urban areas throughout is made for seating or for the aged and infirrn. Rarely theregionin theform of increasing trafficcongestion. are bus stops provided with lighting, timetables or Not only does such congestion promote greater fuel route information. consumption, and the resulting increase in air pollu- tion, but the severe increase in transit times can have Expressways and mass transit: In order to overcome substantial impact on economic productivity. Few the inadequacy of the street network in meeting mo- countries in the region have made a serious effort to torized vehicle demands, seven cities have devel- reduce congestion and even fewer have succeeded. oped expressway networks (Bangkok, Jakarta, There is an argument that all major cities suffer from Osaka, Pusan, Seoul, Singapore and Tokyo) and five traffic congestion and that traffic will always grow to cities have urban toll road systems (Bangkok, Hong the same level of congestion independently of the Kong, Jakarta, Osaka and Tokyo). There are 37 mass network improvements introduced. It is often said transit systems carrying 17 million passengers per that as no city has found a solution, congestion is a day in 26 cities in Asia. Over two thirds of these way of life that has to be accepted. systems are in high-income countries and, somewhat surprisingly given their high capital and operating TNvel speeds: Peak hour travel speeds average costs, the bulk of the remainder are in low income about 16 Idlometers per hour in the center of most countries. Developing countries in Asia are unique large cities in the world. Singapore is one of the few in the development of private sector financing of large cities in Asia where inner city travel speeds urban t ansit systems. As many as six mass transit exceed this average and this is because a conscious schemes with varying levels of private sector financ- decision has been taken to manage congestion for the ing and operation are under active consideration in well being of citizens and for the well being of the the region (two in Bangkok, one in Manila, one in ecnomy at large. Karachi and two in Taipei). Although much interest has been expressed in private sector participation, to Envionmmental impacts: Increasingly, the urban date no privately financed urban mass transit system transport sector is generating adverse environmental is yet operational in Asian developing country cities. conditions in many countries in the region. Vehicle emnisions are polluting the atmosphere, motorized Traffic management and traffic restraint: As an al- vehiles are gnerating intolerable noise levels, traf- temative to creating more physical capacity through fic accidents are claiming more lives and the road major investment in urban transport infrastructure, infrastrcture being built to accommodate urban many cities have attempted to make more effective traffic is often visually intrusive and blocks access use of existing road space by traffic engineering tech- from one community to another. In the battle to niques. Some have attempted to translate these tech- combat congestion and increase personal mobility, niques into effective traffic management schemes to the enviroment of Asian cities is paying ea . increas- reduce demand and / or give priority to moving peo- ingly heavy price. ple rather than vehicles-by providing facilities for high occupancy vehicles such as buses. Unlike traffic Facilities forroad users: Cities in Asia lackadequate management measures, which seek to manage exist- road space to accommodate the ever increasing de- ing traffic flows more effectively, traffic restraint mands for mobility of people and goods. In attempt- measures seek to discourage the use of cars in order ing to provide sufficient capadty fbr motor vehicles, that other road users, especially public transport, most cites have sacrificed the needs of pedestians. pedestrians and goods vehicles may benefit. The Outside of Japan and China, there is no evidence of main restraint measures in use in Asia are parking special facilities for non-motorized vehicles in urban controls and area licensing. 2 Parking and mtraint masures: Most cities in Asia people in Asian cities as being inadequate, over- control on-street parking with varying degrees of crowded and unresponsive to demand. success d epending on the level and extent of enforce- ment applied. Singapore is the only city, probably in Urban travel patterns: Inlow-incomecountries, pub- the world, with effective traffic restraint measures lic transport is the predominant modes of motorized centered on its famous Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) travel in most cities. Buses account for over 60 per- which was inaugurated in 1975. It is accompanied by cent of motorized trips in Bangladesh, China, India strict controls on the amount of parking which busi- and Pakistan. In middle-income countries it would ness and public agencies may provide there. These appear that walking and non-motorized modes are measures, coupled with the development of effective less significant than in low-income countries. Inmost bus and mass transit public transport systems, have middle-income cities bus use predominates but in cut the number of cars entering the restricted zone in some cities such as Seoul, and more recently, Manila the rush hour by three quarters and as a result Sin- and Pusan, rail systems are beginning to take a share gapore is relatively unjammed. of public transport trips. The travel characteristics of large cities in high-income countries are differenti- Area liceuing: Experience with area licensing, al- ated from such cities in low-and middle-income thougheffectiveinSingapore,hasrevealedtheneed for countries by the use of mass rapid transit and com- political consensus and commitment to enforcement muter rail systems. Over two-thirds of motorized which other countries in Asia have found hard to trips in Osaka and Tokyo are by rail based public achieve. Attempts to institute area licensing in World transport. Bankprojectsinthelate 1970sinBangkokand inKuala Lumpur failed in part due to resisance from the car Urban freight In trying to cope with congestion owning lobby and central area business interests. caused by freight traffic, many cities in the region have instituted 'truck bans" which operate by time Bus operans Buses form the backbone of urban of day and/or along certain roads or within certain public transport services throughout Asia with the areas of the city. Distribution centers and freight notable exception of Japan and Australia (where in terminals have been built and proposed in many both countries extensive use is made of rail based cities to resolve the problem of truck parking. urban public transport). Mostcdtieshavebus systems which are owned and operated by the public sector TrafficlawsandenforcementTrafficlawsarerarely but many cities have private sector operations and enforced in developing country cities in the region. infornal 'paratransit" systems operate extensively In many cases the laws themselves date back to in most cities in South East Asia. legislation drawn up in colonial times or are derived from traffic codes in North America, Europe or BuscompaniesandparatansitnallcitiesinChina, Japan. Whatever the reason, the laws often do not in the People's Democratic Republic of Korea and in reflect conditions in developing country cities. Since Australia ownership is public In Hong Kong, Korea, traffic regulations can only be effective when pedes- in Malaysia and in Singapore ownership is private. trians and drivers observe them, they depend on the In all other cities ownership is mixed. Data on pam- extent to which the vast majority of people under- transit operations is incomplete but where it exists it stand them and acknowledge their reasonableness. suggests that paratransit is the predominant form of Their effectiveness also depends on the extent to urban public transit in Bangladesh, in Indonesia, in which they are enforced. Pakistan, in the Philippines and in Thailand. Administration and regulation: Providing for the Bus services: Throglhout the region, the lvel of serv- many and expanding needs of the urban transport is ice provided by bus operators in developing cDuntry often frustrated by institutional weakness. There are citieshascorninued to deterorateovertime.Inthecase considerable problems involved in managing urban of public sector operatiors, companies are frequently transport services and in coordinating urban trans- observed to be saddled with poor management, oper- port plans and the provision of urban transport in- ated by labor regulated by restricidve praclices, con- frastructure. A characteristic of most cities is the very stained by inadequate financing poL;cies, affected by largenumberof differentagenciesresponsibleforthe poor maintenance of vehicles, and unable to provide various modes of transport and infrastructure re- adequate service frequencies and route networks. Not quirements as well as the overall planning and de- surprisingly, urbanbus services areperceivedbymost velopment of the urban transport system. This has 3 often led to overlapping responsibilities with a resul- Fare weveuue In most low-income countries pub'ic tant lack of clarity as to who does what. There Is also sector bus operations do not recover their expendi- evidence of insufficient numbersof trained staff and htres from fares. A major cause of inadequate fare this has been perceived as a major factor inhbiting revenue isvleakage,/ either through passengers sim- the sector's development over the past decade. ply not paying the fare or through ticket collectors pocketing a proportion of fare revenues. The extent Equipment and consultancy services: Outside of such fare 'leakage' is rarely known, admitted or Europe and North America, the market for urban documented. transport equipment and services in Asia must be one of the largest in the world. From available data Cot recovey: In Korea and in high-income coun- it has been possible to tabulate a total of 120,000 tries such as Hong Kong and Singapore, road based vehicles in the bus fleets of 48 of the 101 cities with urban public transport is provided by the private populations in excess of one million. To this must be sector and fare revenues cover expenditures. Unlike added the 1,900 Light Rail Transit (LRT) units and most cities in Asian middle-income developing 6,500 Main Rapid Transit (MRT) units identified in the countries, Korean cities have been able to maintain larger cities of the region all of which run on some investment in infrastructure and municipal services 1,300 kilometers of electrified double track Japan at high levels. Much of this due toastrong municipal alone has 120,000 traffic signals; the total for the financial base and effective management of munici- region is probably well over one milliorL The volume pal finances and services. and value of trade in the manufacture and supply of equipment and in the provision of consultancy serv- Private sector participation: Cost sharing schemes ices is, however, not in anyway fully documented. It with participation from the public sector and private is therefore impossible to assess its extent it is un- developers or the community are being used more doubtedly significant. and more in some Asian cities to finance urgently needed urban twansport infrastructure. The conces- Fmancir4 Over the past decade, the growth in traffic sion arrangements which provided the bulk of urban has outpaced the rate of investment in urban tras- public transport in developing countries and in de- port infrastructure and services in most cities veloped countries in the past are being revitalized throughout the Region. In many cases, both national and refurbished in Asia in the form of Build4Oper- govermnents and city authonties have been unable ate-Transfer (BOT) schemes as a way of attracting or unwilling to address these needs by mobilizing private sector capital, entrepreneurship, manage- additional revenues from the sector, ether by in- ment skills and efficiencies into a sector which is creasing prices or by reducing subsidies. unable to develop, modernize and expand under public sector tutelage. Expenditure: Typically, the public sector is involved in financing some or all of the following: urban trans- External aid: External aid flowing into the urban port infrastructure, urban public tarsport equip- transport sector in Asia amounted to some US$ 1.9 rment and operations, maintenance of urban roads, billion between 1980 and 1989. just over two-thirds traffic management and traffic enforcement. In most of this amount was allocated to what are currently countries the scale of funding in the sector is quite defined as low-income countries and the bulk of the large. In marny countries the distribution of funding remainder to middle-income countries (0.1 percent is skewed over time, geographically, by city size was allocated to two high income countries-Brunei and/or importance and by sub-sectoral preferences and Singapore). or demands. Sources of aid: Japan was the main source of devel- Sourcee of funds: As in most parts of the world, in opment assistance financing in the urban transport Asiaurban transport investmentsand operations are sector in Asia between 1980 and 1989 with US$1.1 financed from taxation, user charges (such as fares), billion, which represents 59 percent of total aid and borrowing and private investment Certain countries 91 percent of all biateral aid. Other bilateral re- in Asia, however, make also make extensive use of sources amounting to US$108 million or six percent the private sector in the provision of urban transport of the total were provided by Australia, France, Ger- services, many and the United KGngdom during the period. 4 Funding from multilateral agencies in urban trans- * increasing personal mobility: through improv- port in Asia amounted to US$657 million or 35 per- ing access by all elements of the population to urban cent of the total for the period 1980 to 1989. The main services and jobs; source of funds was the World Bank Group which * improving the urban environment: through provided US$ 603.1 million which represents 32 per- the provision of environmentally friendly urban cent of the total and 92 percent of all multilateral aid. transport services and infrastructure which are bene- ficial to the form of urban growth; and Aidalocationbysub-sector.Theprimaryallocation * ensuring financial viabiity- through the financ- of external aid (47 percent of the total) was to urban ing of urban transport services and infrastucture in a road infrastructure (for urban road construction, im- waywhich is affordable to local governments and to all provement and maintenance). Urban rail invest- users of the urban transport system. ments take second place (accounting for 33 percent). Traffic management (a modest eight percent), tech- Economic productivity nical assistance (seven percent) and bus related ac- tivities (a very modest five percent) account for the Economic productivity is being constrained by con- remainder. gestion and to reduce it will require managing ve- hicular travel demand (which requires action on Inpact and benefits of aid: Judging by the severe vehicle ownership and traffic restraint), increasing congestion to be found currently in most cities which passenger carrying capacity (which requires action have benefited from external aid in the 1980s, the first on public transport and mass transit) and giving reaction would be to say that the impact has been greater priority to freight movements. minimal! However,the totalvolume of externalaidhas Vehicular travel demand is a product of motoriza- beenverysmnallandthescopeofinterventionshasbeen tion and the use of motorized vehicles for trip mak- very discrete. The total volume of externl aid in the ing. A clearer understanding of motorization trends sector for the whole of Asia for the ten years between in Asia and possible control measures is an essential 1980 and 1989 is less than half of total urban transort ingredient to managing motorized vehicle use in expenditure of Hong Kong in the ten year period be- Asian cities Managing the use of motorized vehicles tweenl976and 1985,and a quarterof proposed expen- and the capacity of the road networkwithin cities can dituresonDOT sciemesinBangkok.Rardyhasexternal be achieved through traffic management measures. aid been directed at solving problems throughout the Reducing vehide demand within congested urban urban transport system in a given city or country. areas involves demand management. With conges- Usually such aid is directed at one or more crtial, but tion levels i; ;tigh that they are beginning to impact nevertheless discrete, components of the system directly on city productivity, demand management and/or at specific geographic locations withinithe city. is no longer a theoretical option. It is central to reliev- Hence problems not addressed in one part of the sys- ing congestion now and in the future and must be tem often engulf solutions addressed in another part of firmly pld on the urban transport agenda for cities the syste. firoughout the region. Increasing passenger carrying capacity is the Padt Three: Prospects for the 1990s realm of public transport and mass transit systems. Improvements in bus operations and the provision The perfomance of the urban transort sector in Asia of bus priority facilities in the mad network can in the 1980s has been mixed. In city states such as achievehigherpassenger carryingcapacities inpub- Singapore and Hong Kong it has performed remark- lic transport systems. In large cities, where passenger ably well in keeping pace with the growth in demand demand is concentrated along corridors serving city of people arnd goods. Elsewhere, in low- and middle- centers increased capacity can also be achieved income countries alike, conditions have detenorated. It through mass transit systems. is dear that the demands on the sector wil be even Freight movements are of equal importance as greater in the 1990s and that rew approaches are passenger movements to city productivity but the needed to rectify the issues inherited from the past and needs of freight are often overlooked in dealing with meet the following challenges of the future: traffic congestion. Measures to streamline freight transport in cities will need to be considered in the enhandrigeconomicproductivity:throughserv- urban transport agenda for Asian cities to serve the ingtheransportneedsofurbanbusineandindustry goods transport needs of commerce and industry. 5 Personal mobility overdue. All urban transportprojectswithoutexcep- tion should be designed to explicitly address envi- Personal mobility in cities is especially problematic ronmental issues. In all cities subject to lending for low-income groups who tend to suffer from poor operations in the urban transport sector, an environ- location and poor access in most countries in the mental stock-taking is needed to assess the extent of region. The poor are tending to live more and more adverse environmental impacts resulting from the on the periphery of cities with often tenuous trans- urban transport sector or prospective actions in it. port links to employment opportunities. Even when Cost-effective environmental action plans and im- such links exist, low-income groups are obliged to provementprogramsspecifically related tothe needs walk long distances to reach affordable public trans- of the sector need to be drawn up and agreed with port services which do not penetrate low-income local authorities. neighborhoods. Within this general framework, actions are Non-motorized vehicles offer a low-cost altema- needed with regard to the nature and extent of vehi- tive to low-income groups for personal mobility in cle emissions, to safety and accidents and to commu- many cities in Asia and yet it is clear that the use of nity severance, visual intrusion and the need for non-motorized vehicles is being increasingly margi- environmental management. nalized by a variety of factors. How to incorporate non-motorized vehiles as an integral part of the Financial viability urban transport system is a major challenge in the region in the 1990s. A start is being made in the Bank The magnitude of financial requirements for devel- by undertaking a detailed inventory of NMV needs oping the urban transport sector in low- and middle- and opportunitiesfortheirdevelopment, developing income countries in Asia has not been estimated. It ktechnical guidelines for the management of NMVs in undoubtedly exceeds available resources and with mixed traffic and in urban environments; and under- central and local governments already strapped for taing pilot schemes in selected cities to manage NMV revenues, the search for urban transport financing movements more effectively and to encourage and will not be easy in the 1990s. expand their use. Constraints on public sector financing have re- Walking is an important mode of transport in all sulted in innovative approaches to urban transport ities and the only form of personal mobility for finance in several countries in the region. These will manyof thepoorand underprivileged. Few fadlities need to be developed further in the 1990s and will exist for pedestrians and walking space is being pro- involve maidng more efficient use ofmore traditional gressively eroded by motorized vehicles. This trend financing mechanisms such as fares, local taxation, needs to be reversed in the 1990s in an effort to user charges, domestic borrowing and external bor- substantially improve walking conditions in cities. rowing as well as exploring further the potential for Pedestrian improvements are needed in large and private investmenL smal cities. In larger cities, such programs need to address the deficiencies of the past as well as plan for Part Four. Condusion the future. In smaller cities, there is greater scope for introducing the foundations for adequate attention The urban transport challenges in Asia are unique in (and funding) to the needs of pedestrians now and their scope, scale and pace of change. They require a in the future. response which is tailor made to the distinctiveness of the region and which recognizes its inherent di- The urban environment versity. This is in itself is a major challenge. There are three main groups of recommendations Urban transport has contrbuted significantly to the which emerge from this analysis which provide a deteriorafionoftheurbanenviromnentinAsiainmost basis for the development of a strategic response to countries throughout the region. Unless measures are these challenges in the 1990s. taken inthe 1990sto redress the degradationwhich has already occurred and to design urban transport infra- 1. the first concerns new approaches which need structure and services to be environmentally friendly, to be taken in the sector, the cities of Asia will pay a heavy price in terms of the Z the second concerns the implications of these health and weIllbeing of their ctizens. actions for World Bank operations; and A World Bank agenda for environmental action in 3. the third concerns the role of the World Bank the urban transport sector in Asia is already long and other development agencies in ensuring the 6 availability of adequate and timely external aid for In terms of Improving the urban environmentk the development of the sector. Vehide emissions can be reduced by promoting New approaches greater fuel economy, the use of unleaded petrol, cleaner diesel fuel and alternative fuels as well as the In terms of enhancing economic productivity introduction of closed loop three-way catalysts and inspection and maintenance programs to ensure that Motorzation As vehicle ownership is the driving the anticipated benefits of emission control strategies force in urban areas for stimulating demand and are not lost through poor maintenance or tampering causing congestion, a clearer understanding of with emission control devices. trends and possible control measures is essential. Road safety has to be brought to the forefront of the Congestion: Strategies and action plans need to be minds of planners and engineers along with the im- prepared for each major city to deal with Congestion portant details of design affecting road safety that and differentiated according to current and potential might otherwise be overlooked or considered insig- levels of congestion. nificant. Mass transit: A clearer understanding of the role of Environmental standards need to be established mass transit within the overall transport system is within cities concerning the scale and type of infra- needed along with an assessment of the potential for structure and vehicles and the associated levels of air mass transit to influence urban development. Mass pollution, noise and speed which can be tolerated transit technology requires incremental develop- within each neighborhood. ment and more work is needed on how to achieve reductions in capital and operating costs: In terms of ensuring financial viability: Urban freight In improving goods movements in Traditional financingmechanism:suchasfares,local Asian cities, a comprehensive approach is necessary taxation, user charges, domestic borrowing and exter- which recognizes that urban freight handling is first nal borrowing wil need to be used more efficiently. and foremost an inherently private sector activity composed of many closely inter-related elements Private sectorfinancmng efficient mechanisms need to and that freight movements are just as important as bedesignedtoattractprivatesectorfinancetothesector passenger movements. induding the use of bond issues, cost sharing schemes, cross subsidy of capital investment from the sale of In terms of increasing personal mobilityv property development rights, joint venture schemes and build-operate-transfer (Br) schemes. Non-motorized vehicles: (NMVs) are an attractive form of personal mobility in an increasingly environ- World Bank oW eratioms mentally conscious world but their future is depend- ent on their being treated as an integral part of urban The recommendations corcenung actions which need transport systems and on understanding the condi- to be taken for the sector to adjust and respond to the tions under which they can be cost-effective relative challenges of development and growth in the 1990s to (and complimentary to) other modes of transport have several important implications for the nature and composition of the World Banks lending operations. WaLdng; is an important mode of transport in all cities and the benefits of pedestrian improvement Urban development context: First, urban transport programs accrue to all sections of urban society but lending should subscribe to overall urban develop- especially to low income groups; pedestrian im- ment objectives and fitwith urban developmentpoli- provements will not alleviate poverty, but they will cies within the region and member cDuntries. save lives and reduce the risk of injury and will improve walking conditions for the poor and under- Role of urban tansport Second, the role of urban privileged who are too often neglected and treated transport in meeting urban development objectives as second class citizens in urban transport programs. needs to be dearly articulated. 7 System performance: Third, although lending op- procedures used successfully insectorloansneedsto erations maynot finance investments throughout the be explored and adapted to the needs for investment urban transport system, they need to take account of in the sector and to the requirements of individual the performance of the system as a whole in the memnber countries in the regions. A programmatic assessment of costs and benefits. Acdions in one part approach will also need to be developed with regard of the urban transport system effect all parts of the to lending operations to ensure their sustainability system to some extent. A comprehensive view is over time in a sector where the real developmental therefore needed. impacts are measured in decades rather than in years. This implies naking a long term commitment A holistic approach: Fourth, a holistic approach is to the sector and long range programming of staff needed in lending operations. Given the issues con- and resources with expertise in the sector. fronting the urban transport sector in Asia in the 1990s, two approaches are possible. One would cen- The role of the World Bank and development agencies ter lending operations around the theme of demand management which brings into focus the role of con- Although the World Bank has an important role to gestion pricing, mass transit and environmental playinthesectorinthel99Os, itcannolongeroperate management in relieving congestion, curbing the un- alone. Nor should it. The World Bank is in no position restrained use of motor vehicles and improving per- to monopolize the development of urban transport sonal mobility for the urban poor. The other would in Asia. Its staff resources in the sector are limited in center lending operations around the theme of envi- quantity and its range of operations are also limited ronmental management which brings into focus the by the nature of its lending instruments and by com- role of all elements of the urban transport system in peting priorities from other sectors. respecting the urban environment in its human, Other multilateral agencies such as the ADB, UNDP ecological and physical dimnensions and in promot- and ESCAP can be more responsive and more effective ing more environmentally appropriate forms of in addressing technical assistance, training, institu- urban growth. Both approaches are interrelated and tional development and demonstration projects in the emphasis toward one or the other or both would the sector than the World Bank. Bi-lateral agences depend on the situation in a given city or country. can often mobilize resources more rapidly and ar- range for technology transfer more efficiently than Timing: Fifth, urban transport lending must be more multilateral agencies including the World Bank. responsive in terms of timing. The pace of change in Already the World Bank has taken part in several Asia is speeding up and delays in decision making regional initiatives involving collaboration with ex- and project execution are proving to be more and ternal aid agencies. These initiatives now need to be more costly in terms of system performance and in expanded and developed further. The challenge be- terms of the measures needed to rectify problems not fore us is to ensure that the combined resources of dealt with in a timely fashion. the development community and the private sector can, with the assistance of the World Bank, respond Lending instruments: Finally, new urban transport appropriately to the needs of individual cities and lending instruments will need to be explored to governments in such a way that by the year 2000 achieve faster response times and sustainability in Asia's urban transport systems are not unique due the sector. In the past, the World Bank has relied to congestion but are unique due to their efficiency exclusively on project lending to finance investments in meeting the travel demands of all sections of in the sector. Policy based lending maldng use of urban society. 8 Part One: Introduction Geo-demographic scope of the region as a whoic has averaged nearly seven percent per annum during the 1980s. This compares The Asia Region has different coverage for different with world economicgrowth of around threepercent organizations. As this report draws on several col- per annum arid less than two percent for developing laborative studies between the World Bank, the countries. Thus the record for the Asia region is Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the United Na- impressive when compared with the world as a tions Economnic and Social Commission for Asia and whole, and particularly when compared with devel- the Pacific (EsCAP), Asia is considered in tWs report oping countries in other regions. to include countries within these organizations (see The growth outlook in the 1990s is more favorable Table 1, Annex 1) fordevelopingcountries in Asia than in otherregions Asia is estimated to have a total population of 3 (seeTablel.1). According to the 199OWDR, percapita billioninhabitantsin1990or56percentoftheworld's incomes in South Asia appear to be set to continue population. The vast rnajority are concentrated in the growing at 3.2 percent per year. Pcr capita income in 16 countries classified in the 1990 World Develop- developing countries in East Asia is projccted to ment Report (WDR) as low-income economies with grow at 5.1 percent leading to a 65 percent rise in GNP per capita below $545 in 1988. This group of average incomes by 2000. countries also contains the majority of the region's urban population and the majority of cities with populations in excess of one million. Table 1.1 Growth prospects for the 1990s The region has sevcral distinctive characteristics. GDP per capita growth raks It contains some of the lowest (Bangladesh) and high- Countrvgroup 1965-1980 1980-2989 1969-2000 est (Japan) GNPs per capita; it contains some of the lowest (Bhutan) and highest (Singapore) urbaniza- Industrial countries 2.8 2.5 2.6 tion rates; and it has some of the smallest Cronga, Developing Guam) and largest (China) national population countries 3. 2.3 3. groupings. It's climatc, geography and topography East Asia 4.8 6.7 5.1 are as diverse as its peoples, cultures, religions and South Asia 12 3.2 32 gDvcmments. ~~~~~~~~Sub-Saharan governments. Africa 2.0 -22 0 03 Economic development Eastern Europc 45 0.8 1.5 M.EEAb 3.9 0.8 2.1 In termns of economic growth, Asia is undoubtedly LAcC 3.4 -0.6 2.3 a.indluding Chzina the most dynamic region in the world today. Not- b. Europe, Middlc East and North Africa withstanding the disparitics in the economic per- C. Latin Ancrica and the Caribbean fornnceof individual economies, thegrowthin CDP Sw. World Deudoprnei Report 1990 9 poverty FigP LI poprton of urbn population in In spite of impressve economic growXt in 1985 Ada Asia by country Income group (1980-2000) still had the vast majority, 72 percent, of the worlds 1__ poor. Some 700 million people in Asia had annual 200 Incomes below $370 per capita. The incidence of 90 poverty is hier in South Asia (51 perent) than East 1990 Asia (20 percent). 110 The 1990 WDR sets out what might be achieved in 1970 reducing poverty through the expanded provision of social services for the poor coupled with growth 60 scenaios which make productive use of labor. Under these assumptions and within the context of rela- tively favorable conditions for the global economy, the wDR estimates that Asia's share of the worlds poor would decline from 72 percent in 1985 to 53 s_ percent in 2000. In South Asia, where the region's poor are conem- 20 trated,thewDRconsidersthereisconsiderablepoten- 10 tial toward reducing poverty, partcuEly in India. The prospects for Bangladesh are also good but are bleaker in Paldstan. Strong measures will be needed Low iddl Hig to prevent poverty from deepeing over the decade. SoUfl World Urhaizatim Prospects 1990. According to the WDR, East Asia is expeced to achieve the most dramatic impact on poverty reduc- tion. The incidence of poverty is expected to fall from 20 percent in 1985 to 4 percent in 2000 with a reduc- urbanresidens wiin the totalpopulation would be tion in the number of absolute poor from 280 million from39 percent in 1990 to46percentbytheyear2000. to 70 million The Philippines may well be a notable hI 1980, Asia already had 72 cities with popula- exception to this trend as could be China if present tions of a nillion or more. In the past decade, 29 socil safety nets are not maintained or replaced additinal towns grew into ties with populatios dunnrg the currnt market reform process. in excess of one millon. Cities of this size are ex- Riingcomesandstrongemploymentgrowthin pected to reach 160 in number by the end of this the middle income countries of Asia are seen by the cenry in Asia. WDR as uncrsngly ccmlrg poverty t those wbo The number of Asian megaiies (cities with a cannot directly benefit from tiis process-the eld- population i excess of ten million) is more than erly, the infirm and children. The use of sodal safety doubling every decade. Between 1980 and 1990 they nets will therefore be incrasgly necessry for pov- incrased from two (Tokyo and Shanghi) to five erty alleviatio in tiese counties. (with the addiion of Beiing, Calcutta and Seoul). Bythe year 2000, ee is expected tobe 13megaci- Uirbanization ties in Asia with a combined population of 179 mil- lion. Within a decade, more than half the world's 21 The impressive performance of Asia in terns of megacities and two hirds of the 18 megacities in the ecoomnuc development and the growth in popula- devdoping world would be located in Asia (see tion is causing the region to grapple with extremely Table 12). And the majority of these would be in low rapid rates of urbanization. Already, more thanlhaf Inome countries. of the world's urban population increases occur in The implications of these slatcs indicate the Asia and the majority of this growth is occring in magntude of the tasks facing urban managers in the regionWs low income countries (see Figure 1.1). Asia over ihe decade of the 1990s and beyond. Fur- An analysis of the latest United Nations data timore,itisapparentthaturban areas wiUbecome reveals some startling statistics. It is esfimated that increasingly more important contributors to by the tun of this century, the urban populati in ecnomic growth in Asia and that effidient urban Asia will increase by 420 million fwm 1.2 to 1.6 ares will be inreasngly viewed as catlyst for billion. The resultant incease in the proportio of stimulat gowth and development. 10 Table 1.2 World Megacities 2000 As these recommendations provide a framework Megacity for the mnanagement of the urbanization process in Region/country No. Name Population Asia and for the role of the urban transport sector, Asia 13 179.4 ~~~~~~they are summarized below. Asia 13 179.4e Bangladesh (1) Dhaka 12.2 Improving urban productivity and environment China (3) Beiing 14.0 Shanghai 17.0 The UPED paper begins by pointing out that to in- Tianjin 12.7 crease the productivity of the urban economy and India (3) Bombay 15.4 assure its contribution to macoeconomic perform- Calcutta 15.7 ance requires actions at the national and city levels. Delhi 13.2 It involves shifts in the role of central governments Indonesia (1) Jakarta 13.7 from direct providers of urban services and infra- Japan (1) Tokyo 19.0 structure to "enablers," creating a regulatory and Korea (1) Seoul 12.7 financial environment in which private enterprises, Pakistan (1) Karachi 11.7 households, and conununity groups can play an in- Philippines (1) Manila 11.8 creasing role in mecting their own needs. It will also Thailand (1) Bangkok 103 require some measure of decentralization of respon- Africa 1 12.9 sibility to municipalities for urban finance and the Nigeria (1) Lagos 12.9 management of infrastructure. The proposals to FMENA 1 11.8 adhieve this are presented in Box 1.1 Egypt (1) Cairo 11.8 The challenge of urban management in the uLc 4 72.1 economic environment of the 1990s is to improve Argentina (1) Buenos Aires 1Z9 productivity while directly alleviating the growing Brazil (2) Rio deJaneio 12.5 incidenceofurban poverty, and therebyalso improv- Sao Paulo 221 ing equity. The proposals to achieve this are pre- Mexico (1) Mexico City 25.6 sented in Box 12. Noriho America 2 exlc y 30.7 The third area identified by the UPED paper as USA (2) LosAAnees3.7 requiring attention is the cmerging environmental A (York A13. cisis in towns and cities throughout the developing New York 16.8 world. The UPED paper recognizes that environmen- Total 21 306.9 tal issues are poorly understood in developing coun- surwcUN:Worm Urbeihon Prbsyicts I99. tries and that a major research and development effort is necessary to identify effective approaches to their solution. The requirements for sustainable ap- proaches to the management of the urban environ- The ADB estimates that in 1985, urban areas in ment are presented in Box 13 selected Asian developing countries contribute-' on average 55 percent of GDP and that by the end ot this century urban areas would account for more than two thirds of total economic production. It should be Box 11 Improving urban productivity noted, however, that these estimates may be some- what inflated by the higher prices of goods and (1) Strengthen the management of urban infra- services in urban areas. structure at the city lovel; Until recently, little attention has been given by () Improve the city-wide regulatory framework the intemational developmen t community tD the im- to increase market efficiency and to enhance the pri- the international development community to the im- vate sector's provision of shelter and infrastructure; pact of the urban sector on macroeconomic perform- (3) Improve the financial and technical capacity ance. The 1991 World Bank Urban Policy and of municipal institutions through more effective di- Economic Development (UPED) paper, sets out the vision of resources and responsibilities between cen- broad policy framework, policy agenda and recom- tral and local governments; and mended strategy for improving the productivity of (4) Sengthen finncial srvices for urban devel- urban economies, alleviating urban poverty and de- veloping effective approaches to addressing the sou U 1r90s,WodE nkDk,1e9:A1 urban environment. fw dw 199os, World Bank, 1991. U The role of urban transport Box 1.3 Improving the urban environment Urban transport has an important role to play in achieving the objectives outlined in the uPED paper. (1) Raisc the global awareness of the urban envi- The extent to which Asian cities meet the chal- ronmental crisis in order to develop the political lenges of urbanization and contribute to macroe- support for action; (2) Improve the information base and under- conomic performance will, to a large extent, depend standing of the dynamics of environmental deterio- on how efficiently they can transport the goods, serv- ration in urban areas; ices, information and people upon which their (3) Develop city-specific urban environmental economic activities depend. strate' s.that respond to the circumstances of indi- Walking and eycling are often the sole means of vidua lIties; (4) Identify programs of curative action for cities gaining access to employment and social services for to redress the most serious environmental conse- quences of past public policies and private behavior; and Box 1.2 Strategy for alleviating urban (5) Formulate effective national and urban poli- poverty ciesand incentivesto prevent furtherenvironmental poverl3r 1 ~~~~~~~~~~deterioration. (1) Manage the economic aspects of poverty Souncz: UrbanPolicyandEwnmomicDelopnet:An through increasing the demand for the labor of the Ageda fr the 1990s, World Bank, 1991. poor, alleviating the structural constraints inhibiting the growth and productiv.ty of the informal sector, and increasing the labor productivity of the poor; a() Manage the social aspects of poverty through the urban poor who cannot afford public transport increasing social sector expenditure for human re- services. source development of the urban poor, increasing Vehide emissions are increasingly being recog- access of the poor to infrastructure and housing to nizcd as the dominant causeof localized air pollution meet their basic neods, and recognizing and support- and health problems in Asian cities. And thepressing ing the efforts of the poor to meet their own needs, and demands for motwized forms of personal mobility (3) Targeting "safetynet" assistance to thosemost in Asian cities are generating pressures on the road vulnerableto shorttcrm shocks, suchaschildren and network and resulting in congestion. women who head households through direct trans- The intrinsic development of the urban transport fers of food assistance, health care, employment and sector and its response to the pace, scale and nature provision of other basic needs on a short term basis as well as measures to moderate the decline in pri- of urbanization and economfic development in the vate consumption. 1990s will determine to a large extent the nature and formn of Asian cities in the early twenty first century. Sau,pe: Urban Policy a9nd Worlt Baric, WIC D^ PThenatureof this process and roleof international Agenda for f 1990s, World Bank, 1 991and bi-lateral development agencies are discussed in the folowing chapters of this report. 12 Part Two: Sector background Urban transport characteristics of Asian cities hai, and 'bike and ride' in Osaka and 'park and ride' in Adelaide. in the process of analyzing the urban transport situ- With few exceptions these measures are having ation in Asia, we were struck by the diversity as well little effect on the rising tide of motorization con- as by the wide range of performance between indi- fronting all countries in the region. The high rites of vidual city systems. urbanization, economic growth and rises in personal In Asia, Singapore presents an example of what incomes are generating demands for personal mobil- must be one of the most efficient urban transport ity that threaten to engulf the region's cities with systems in the world and Bangkok provides an ex- levels of congestion and air pollution similar to those ample of one of the least efficient and most congested experienced in Los Angeles and Mexico City. cities in the world. Transport technology ranges from the most sophisticated in Japan (monorails, linear Non-motorized vehicles induction motors, automated guided transit systems, peoplemovers, etc.) to the most simnple in China Asia has the widest variety of non-motorized forms (walking and cycling). of transport in the world. They form the backbone of Every conceivable mode of urban transport is the transport system for the poor in many cities for being used, and being used ex,'ensively, somewhere both personal and goods movements. in Asia-walking and cycling; pedicabs; motorcy- Most non-motorized vehicles (NMVS) are pedal- des; guided bus systems in Japan and in Australia; powered in the form of bicycles and triycles. Many inetrosin Australia, China, HongKing,lndia,Japan, Asian cities use tricycles as taxis. Called "cycde-rick- Korea and Singapore; trams in Australia, China, shaws" in India, "becaks" in Indonesia, trishaws" in Hong Kong, India, Japan and, until very recently, Malaysia, 'samlors in Thailand and "siklors" in Viet- Vietnam; light rail and jeepneys in Manila; suburban nam, these resourceful adaptations of the tricycle do rail in Bombay, tuk-tuks and ferries in Bangkok; much the same workas motorized taxis elsewhere. monorails and guided rapid transit in Japan; rick- Heavy-duty tricycles often haul up to half-ton shaws in India and becaks in Indonesia coupled with loads and in Bangladesh, trishaws transport more every conceivable form of bus from double-deckers tonnage than motorized forms of transport. The use in Indonesia to articulated trolley buses in China. of animal powered NMVs for freight haulage is com- A greater variety of approaches are being used in mon in small towns throughout the region. The most Asia to manage urban traffic than in any other region widespread is the bullock cart but other, more exotic, of the world: area licensing and road pricing in Sin- varieties exist: the "calesa and sled" in the Philip- gapore; with-f,ow, counter-flow and tidal-flow bus pines, the "andong and dokar" in Indonesia and the lanes in Bangkok, toll expressways in Jakarta, area "tonga" in India. wide traffic control in Hong Kong, Tokyo and Sin- Bicycles are by far the most numerous and the gapore, non-motorized vehicle only routes in Shang- most used mode of personal NMV transport. Exact 13 numbers are hard to come by, but it is estimated that provision of ampe bicyde paridng and -bike and ride" there are some 300 million bicydes In China, 66 mil- faclitis in most major Japanese citles. lion in Japan, 45 million in India and six milion in China and Japan provide examples of avoiding Korea. These four countries alone account for more automobile dependance and reducing the impacts of than half of the world's estimated total bicycle popu- excessive motorizadon through encouraging NMV lation of 800 million., use (and heavy Investment in effilent public trans- It is common knowledge that China leads the port in the case of Japan). Both countries are also world in the production and use of non-motorized attempting to manage vehile ownership, In the ase vehicles as the basis for rural and urban transport of China to prevent it; and in the case of Japan, to needs. In 1949, China began with three factories pro- reduce it. ducing 14,000 bicycles per year. By 1983, this modest beginning had grown to 115 factories producing 30 MotorIzation million bicycles annually. By 1987, domestc bicycle sales had reached 37 milion, surpassing total world- Asia has 56 percent of the world's population and wide automobile sales.Mass production, stand- accounts for just over ten percent of the world's ardization, special bicycle facilities (cycle lanes and automobile population and over 25 percent of the parldng) and subsidies for commuting to work by global truck and bus fleeL Within Asia, the majority bicycle have resulted in the bicyde being the domi- of these vehicles are in Japan which accounts for 70 nant form of transport in all Chinese cities. Typically, percent of the region's automobiles and 62 percent of well over 50 percent of urban trips arebybicyde. The tumdc and buses. urban bicycle fleet increased annually by eight per- Some *'f e world's highestand lowest motoriza- cent in the 1960s, by 13 percent in the 1970s and by tion rates are to be found within the region, as can be 17 percent in the past decade. seen from the analysis of the most recent vehicle Shanghai and Tiargin in China rival each other as ownership data presented in Figure 2.1. beig the bicycle capitals of the world. Both have In low-income counties vehicle ownership rates larg concentrations of bcydcles; the bicycle fleet in range from as high as 63 persons per vehicle in Sri Shanghaiisthelagestintheworldat6.8million(and Lanka to as low as 250 in India; in middle-income growing at 17percentannually).TianjinhasasmaLler countries they range from as high as 10 in Malaysia fleet (around 45 millionbicycles) but thehighest rate of bicycle use in the world at 80 percent of vehicle rates in t-ips (compared with 73 percent in Shangi). seLgck 2an opuntf in 1986 Outside of China, the trend over the past decAsadn hanr vehide) been a reduction in the number and use of non-motor- imed vehces. City expansion and increasing travel hutia 250 distances is one factor contributing to his tdecease. In cidna 247 Delhi, city sprawl was a major factor in the reduction Palcta IN of cycle trips from 36 percent in 1957 to 17 percent by wa 1981. In ote cases, Govenment attitudes to NMvs as S Ltk6 beng difficlt to reguate, unsafe, nhumane or sym- _ 4 bols of -backwardness" have lead to the discourage- TilmI ment or eradication of cycle taxis. In Jakart, some Korea 100,000 becaks were confiscated in the late 1980s and Malaysia dumped into the sea in order to reduce traffic cong%Hes- Hm%X lion. In Surabaya, becaks cannot use or cross makin Tdwan,CWi 10 roads but are allowed to drctlate within neghrbor- Slrppore _ incone hoods. Europe 42 Midle xnca Orly in Japan are NMVs coming back into vogue Japan - - h incme as an alternative mode in joumrey to work trips. USA 1I3 Census figures for 1980 showed that 72 illion cor- muters (15percentof thetoal) rodebiyces toworkor 1 10 10 1000 to commuter rail stations. Biccle ownership in Japanonp vele has climbed fom an averge of one per household in gn,Wah 1ndiiOnlU 0t iaP5C 1970 to 1.5 today. National leislation empowers the 14 to 124 in the Philippines; and in high-income coun- production at 20 percent. The total number of motor- tries they range from as high as 2.3 in Japan to 18 in cycles in the country has risen from 2.5 million in Hong Kong. 1981 to 10.6 million in 1989 and motorcycles (includ- The relation between vehicle ownership and CNP ingscooters and rnopeds) account forbetween40and per capita is remarkably constant throughout the 85 percent of the motorized vehicle fleet in India's region. In some countries, however, annual growth twelve largest cities. rates in the vehicle fleet in the 1980s were quite dramatic and far in excess of GN1' growth. For exam- Vehicle owncrship rcstraints ple, between 1984 and 1988 the annual growth of the motor vehicle fleet in the Republic of Korea was 30 Most developing countries in Asia have some form percent, in China 14 percent, and in Pakistan and of deterrent to vehicle ownership. High import du- Thailand nine percent each, compared with about ties, registration fees, excise taxes and r'ad user two percent in the United States and thiree percent in charges are the main forms currently in use. Such the United Kingdom. restraintsalso form areadysource of tax revenueand Duc to the inadequate data base, it is difficult to are relatively easy to impose. This was the reason for assess present and future levels of motorization their introduction. within urban areas. In Thailand, it is estimated that Until very recently, the use and ownership of the Greater Bangkok Metropolitan Area accounts for automobiles in China waslimited to official business more than one-third of the national vehicle fleet. and taxis. In Japan, car owners are charged a US$ Between 1982 and 1988, this "urban fleet doubled in 2,000 equivalent registration fee every two years for size and between 1989 and 1990 automobile sales the life of the vehicle. In Singapore, import duties, registered an astonishing 40 percent growth. registration fees and 'registration lotteries" combine Large increases in the size of the urban vehicle to make car ownership expensive and limited in fleet are also being observed in China, in India, in quantity. Indonesia, in Malaysia and in the Philippines. Al- Few Govermnents have attempted to use control though the growth in the urban vehicle fleet may not mechanisrns to "clamp down" on vehicle ownership. be as extreme as that being experienced in Bangkok, Restricting car ownership is unpopular in any soci- it is clear that urban vehicle growth is higher than the ety, but in the developing economies of Asia it is seen national average in most countries in he region. by politicians as going against the aspirations of the In India, some 30 percent of vehicles are concen- rising middle class and depriving them of one of the trated in twelve metropolitan areas which account most important benefits of development-personal foronly sixpercentof thetotal population.In thepast mobility. decade, the growth rate of vehicles in metropolitan Within urban areas, such controls have little impact areas has averaged 11 percent per annum and has as they pay no regard to when, where or how often the reached as high as 17 percent in Madras. vehicle is used, nor to the costs which it imposes in those places or at those times, Ownership controls may Motorcycles therefore be justified in 'city states" such as Singapore where every vehicle is a potential contributor to con- Motor cycles are increasing in numbers throughout gestion,butthisishardlythecaseinother,largelyrural the region as people strive for cheaper and more countries How to manage rising vehicle ownership usable alternatives to the motor car for urban per- and use in urban areas and avoid congestion is a major sonal mobili ty. For some, the motorcycle is a logical challenge for Asia in the 1990s. progression from the bicycle and for others it offers a faster alternative to slow and crowded buses. Traffic congestion In Bangkok, the number of motorcydles is ex- pected to rise from 459,000 in 1990 to over 600,000 by The substantial growth in vehicle fleets is dearly the turn of the century, if current trends continue. evident in the urban areas throughout the region in There could be as many as three million motorycles the form of increasing traffic congestion. What con- in Bangkok within thedecadeif trends were to follow stitutescongestion in one city may notin another. An what is happening inTaipei where there is nowmore absolute definition would be all vehicles bumper to than one motorcycle per household! bumper at zero speed. This occurs frequently in India has experienced a staggering increase in the Bangkok at approaches to intersections. Once ownership and in the production of motorcycles. through the intersection, vehicles travel at speeds in Ownership iF increasing at 17 percent annually and excessof 40kilometers perhouruntil theyhitthe next 15 blockage, where they can be delayed for five minutes The most reliable data comes from Japan, where it or so. would appear that average travel speeds have de- On the expressway system in Tokyo, congesdon clined significantly in most cities. Between 1980 and is defined as average speed (moving and stationary) 1985, speed. declined from 26 kilometers per hour in below ten kilometers per hour. In the case of the Nagoya, and 22 kilometers per hour in Osaka, to 20 Tokyo expressway network, this ranges from 2.8 kilometers per hour in both cities. In Tokyo, outside hours per day oil the Waterfront route to as much as the expressway network, the decline is even more 22.5 hours on theCircle route (see Figure22,below). dramatic as over the same five year period speeds For the ten routes in the network, the average is 10.3 have drpped by six kilometers per hour from 21 to hours per 24 hoursl 15 kIlometers per hour. No data exists for speeds in The Tokyo expressway data is collected "on-line" the centrd areas of these cities but given this low fron detectors on a continuous basis and is used by the city-wide speed data, it is likely that Central Business Expressway Authority to monitor and redirect traffic District (CBD) speeds are below ten kilometers per armund cogested sections of the network. No other hour in peak periods. city in Asia has this level of sophistication In terms of In India, overall journey speeds in large cities are data colection and congesion m nag L around 20 to 25 kilometers per hour and in smaller The congeston threshold of ten kilometers per cities the range is larger, between 15 and 30 kilome- hour used in Tokyo is a reasonable yardstick against ters per hour. Within central areas of most cities, which to assess congestion. Despite the multitude of however, speeds are between five and 12 kilometers transport studies undertaken in the region, there is per hour and well within the congestion range i little reliable data on travel speed. Data have been spective of city size. In the largesk cities, Bombay and gleaned from a variety of sources with differing lev- Calcutta, there is data to show that speeds have been els of reliability. In the discussion that foLows, the deciiring around three percent annually over the speeds quoted present at best a crude measure of past decade. TLme series data is not available for traffic conditions for comparison purposes and for other cities, but a decline in speed can be assumed. attempting to define a problem which everyone rec- Average speeds in Chinese cities are low. This is ognizes but few can quantify. parficularly evident in large cities such as Shanghai and Tianmn where inner city traffic speeds rarely Figure 2. Congeston ork urban expressways exceed 15 kIlometers per hour and where the city in Tokyo centeris congested with speeds around eightklome- (hours per day) ters per hour in peak periods. Data from Anshan, 24_____________________________ Fushun, Shenyan and Thanjin suggests that in most 24 _ Outbound cities, bicyde speeds are often higher than speedsby other modes, especially public transport. 20 *_ Inbond In Indonesia, congestion is concentrated in Jakarta Both where peak hour traffic speeds can be as low as seven kilomees per hour on certain roads within a ten kilo- 16 meter distance from the city center. Currently, traffic speedsinjakartaaveragebetween 15 and 16kdlomets per hour during buiness hours and average trip 12 - speeds per 24 hours in 1990 were 9A kilometers per hourforbuses (Cludingtranses) and 19.3 kilometers i 11 ii 111 1 per hour for other raffic. The situationin oier cities is 8 I - H 1^ i l critical with peak hour speeds anging from 20 kilometers per hour to 30 Idlometers per hour. 4 The traffc congestion in Bangkok is widely per- ceived to be the worst in the region due to the dura- tion and extent of delays. On average each car is O z ] L E ] estmted tD spend 44 days equivalent each year in C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 WF Bangkc'ks ever inceasing taffic jams. Peak hour Urban exprsway mbr traffic speeds in central Bangkok have decined by an average two kilometers per hour per year between Sou= Inamnt Plies*r UrbTrn rtn S Modchi 1985 and 1990 and are currently estimated to average nine kilometers per hour. 16 Not only does such congestion promote ater Figure 23 Innewcity average travel speea In fuel consumption, and the resulting increm in ai s electd es in Asi polution, but the wevere icease in trat times can tKm/h) have substantlal impact on econormic productivity. A recent study by the Japan Intenafional Coop- 32 eration Agency (ncA) condluded that Bangkok cur- rently loses about one-third of its potential gross city 28 product due to congestionnduced travel dely and _ Low hncome this could rise to about two-thrds if no actions are 24- dle h,0 taken . Paradoxically, four years of buoyant High___we economic growth have created such traffic conges- 20 ES ncome tion that many foreig investors are re-evaluating their plans to open offices in the city. Few counties in the region have made a serious 16 effort to reduce congestion and even fewer have 12 - succeeded. There is an argument that all major cities 12 suffer from traffic congestion and that traffic will always grow to the same level of congesion 8ude- pendently of the network improvements introduced. It is often said that as no city has found a solution, 4 * * - * congestion is a way of life that has to be accepted. f * * | Peak hour travel speeds average about 16 kdome- oL * * * tus per hour in the center of most lage cities in the P? worlLSingaporeisoneof thefew hrg citiesinAsia / I , , where inner city travel speeds exceed thi average, as can be seen from Figure 23, and this is because a Sem VaUloshudyeporbmludramlwp.pe conscious decisionhasbeentkentomanageconges- ton for the wel being of citizens and for the well being of the economy at large. Cearly these data are dependent an the loan In Singapore, the combine effeP-I of restraining of airports in relation to city centers and on the type motorization, restitng vehicle access to the CaD and and capacity of the airport access road. Itis,however, providing efficient, afordable andrhigh quality public the only data available to compare travel speeds in transport altemaivestothecommuter have ulted in all cities with populations in excess of two millin in averge peak hour travl speeds of around 30 k 1lme- the region and world wide tars per hour. Even me remarkable is te stability of An analysis of these data shows that with an av- tese speeds between 1984 and 1988 erage speed of around 28 kilometers per hour Asian In attempting to assess levels of congestion in cities rank lowest in the world (see Table 2.1, below). Asian cities, it is worth looking at the traffic flow Even the ighest average speeds in cities in high-in- indicators provided in a recently published analysis come countries m Asia oly approxiate the world of life inthe worlds lagestmetrophitanareas. These average of around 31 kilometers per hour. indicators are derived from personal estimates by respondents to a questonnaire concering the time Enviinmental impacts it takes by car to travel tD the cBD from the airport during the morning rush hour. Increaily, the urbantransport sector is generating Travelspeeds to airports in low-income and high- advseenviom tlcondionsin manycountries income countr are o average higher thanin cities in the re Vehicle emissions are polluting the in mniddle-income coDmtnes. Speeds in cities in mid- atmosphere, motDrized vehides are generating itl- dle-income cotries range from around 12 kilome- erable noise levels, taffic accidets are claiming ters per hour mn Manila) to 2B kiloneters per hour more lives and the road infastructurebeing built to (Pusan) and average21 kometers per hour. Speeds accomnodateurban trafficis ofmenvisuaflyintruive in cities in low- and high-icme counties range and blodcs acoess from one commurdty to another. from 16 kilometers per hour (in Poona) to 60 kilome- In the battle to combat congeston and incrase per- tes per hour (in Singapore) and average 28 and 32 sonal mobility, the enviment of Asian citiesis kilometers per hour respectively. paying an incrasingy heavy price. V7 Table 2.1 Aveage peak hour travel speeds airport lems. Further, vehicles contribute significant to COD by region and country income grup amounts of hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrge (iomete per hour). emisdsons whih are fequety toxic as well as con- Country iomanegmvp tributing to photochemical smog in cities with the Region Low MIddle High Total appropriate meteorological conditios Astia 278 Middle 3Hh VA b l Some 70 percent of carbon monoxide and 46 per- Asia 9 20 312. 27.8 cent of hydrocubons in Bombay are reportedly due EMENA . . 392 24^ 32.4 to vehicle emissions. Similar condiions exist in Cal- LAC335 *- 335 cutfs In Thaiad the Office of the Nadonal Environ- North ment Board has monitored levels of carbon Aerica monoxide, partculate matter and lead near major Afric 29.0 497 393 roadsiBangkoksincel984.Accordingtoteirlatest Total 27.9 33_7 31.2 31.1 annualreport,incertainareasofthecitywheretraffic a. indudes uuR is high partilate mattes concntrabons far exaed the daly Vehick ons and air poutioa _t ar quality standards of 330 mogram/cubic V m aieP on any day,andareashighas2-3timesstandard As can be seeinFgu2.4, thevales on some daysi sible for around 20 percent of global vehicle emis- Astudy of blood-lead levels ofpolicemen in Bang- sios of carbon monoxdde (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) kok who had been subject to three different rates and the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and the region is of exposure to vehicular traffic, found a statistically responsible for about 105 percent of global vehide significant link between traffic eposue and blood- emissions of cabon dioxide (CQz). lead level& Other airpoua, such as nitrogn and Asiabasedcompaniesarerapidlybecomingmajor ozone from photochenical oxidant reactions, are producers of motor vehicles and increasingly these cuently at relatvely low levels in the city due to vrehicles are staying in the region. Many have no favorab mteoonlogicalcnditions (prevailing sea- pollution controls. sonal monsoon winds and sea breezes). Many motorycles in Asia are powered by two- _ stroke engines (which have been largely phased out Fgue 2.4 Global vehicle emissions of most oer areas oftheworld) whichemitasmudh Promt) as ten tmes more hydcsand smoke per kdb- meter than four-stroke motorcycles and even cars. 69 In Asia diesel vehicles (trucs, buses and,in some cases, taxis) represent a higher proporton of the 3 o vehicle fleet and of total kilometers driven than in sD Nox most highly industialized countries. The polution from these vehicles is exceibated by glneraly poor _HC (and, in some cases, exceedinglypoor) vehidlemain- 40 tenance characteristics. Many of the fuels used in theregionare amongthe dirtiest in the world, especaly with regard to sulfur 30 in diesel fil and lead in petrol, and in many Asian countries today, it is not yet possible to purchase unleadedpetroL 20 As a resut of the large and growing populatio of poorly mai d ve t m _L if any,- 10 hzidon corrls, powered bsr unsaRy ditt fixls, most _ maor cites of Asia are already expecing serious motorvebiderelatedak pofluiorquentlyoopof 0 t, of other serous env inn prblms. Eope North Amerim Asia Othe In virtually every city for whch data is avaiable, S and hE=v=ramVmA9Aa-Pa* carbon monoxide, lead and particulate levels are the R Wal, iE. primary source of the emisions causing these prob- 18 In 1989, the Environmental Protection Agency of Hong Kong issued a White Paperon pollution in the Fingre S Carbon monoxide exposure levels in city which reported that: (CO levels In ppm) approximately 1.5 to 2 million people are exposed to 50 unacceptable levels of sulfurdioxideand nitrogen diox- ide and about three million people are exposed to high - o|ue/6ma particulate levels. Many people are exposed to unac- ceptable levels of all three pollutants. 40 -- - Commuting in car The air pollution problem in many urban areas is compounded by the life style and climate in many of 30 thewarrnerAsian cities. Much of theregion is located in a tropical zone with an outdoor lifestyle. As a result there is much greater public exposure to vehi- 20 de emissions than in more temperate climates. In a recent study conducted by the East West Center, an individual in Bangkok carried a personal l* exposure monitor throughout the day. Carbon mon- oxide levels were found to increase dramatically dur- ingavehicletripcomparedtolevelsinahouse,even 0o l0 30 40 5 60 70 80 90 100 when a charcoal stove was in use (see Figure 2.5). ExpOucf time (minutes) Quantifying the health impacts and costs of vehi- cle emissions is very difficult. No data is available for Asia but a recent study carried out for the American swm uJTmasprt andth Ewo m ett Asi-Pacfi Lung Association concluded that . M. Wals, 1991. National health costs worth between S4.43 billion and $93A9 billion per year due to automotive and Uneadedpetrol andlow-leadedpetrol,whichhas exhaust polution could be avoided. been relatively rare in much of the region, is starting to spread rapidly and either already exists or is likely In spite of the technological advances which are to soon exist in Japan, Taipei, Korea, Hong Kong, now readily available, countries in Asia have made Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. Thai- limited progress in reducing vehicle emissions. land announced the introduction of unleaded petrol Prospects are not entirely bleak. The wealthiest in May 1991 'to combat worsening air pollution." country in the region and the one with the largest 1nl992,motorcyesinTaipeiwillbesubjecttothe vehicle population, Japan, has traditionally been one most stringent motorcycle standards in the world of the world leaders in motor vehicle pollution con- which may assist other cities ir. the region with simi- trol and has one of the cleanest fleets in the world, at lar two-stroke motorcycle problems. least for petrol powered vehicles. In 1990, Japan started to introduce particulate controls on diesel Noise polMuion vehicles, boding well for future control of this espe- cially hazardous pollutant in other countries in the Traffic noise is becoming an increasingly worrying Region. irritantin mostcitiesin Asia. Little data exist onnoise Rapidly industrializing areas such as Taipei and levels but buses and trucks are major culprits, as is Seoul have recently introduced state-of- theart con- evidenced by data from Bangkok (one of the few trols on new petrol cars and are rapidly putting cities where noise measurenents have been under- comprehensive vehide control programs in place. taken). Decisions have been made to do the same in Hong Data collected alongside densely travelled roads Kong and in Singapore. In Thailand, the government in Bangkok revealed daily noise levels between 75 has announced that all new cars produced by Sep- decibels (Db) and 80 dB, much higher than the 70 dB tember 1993 would need to be equipped with cata- standard recommended by the United States Envi- lytic converters and it is estimated that 87 percent of ronmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for long term passenger cars sold in Thailand overthe past decade hearingprotection. More than 75 percent of buses,60 could immediately switch to unleaded petrol. percent of trucks and 25 percent of mini-buses emit- 19 tednoiselevelsinexcess of 100 dB at a distanceof 0.5 creased at a rate of nearly nine percent per annum meters over the past five years. Accidents have important adverse socio- Acddents economic impacts. Various research studies have as- sessed the economic losses associated with traffic Traffic accidents are one of the major causes of mor- accidents to ar ant to as much as one percent of tality and hospitalization in developing countries in GNP in developing countries. Between 1985 and Asia. Traffic growth, undisciplined road user behav- 1987, the material loss caused by traffic accidents in ior, poorly maintained vehicles and inadequate traf- Shanghai increased by 33 pereent per annum, totall- fic control and engineering all contribute to increases ing US$ 2.6 million in 1987. in the incidence of traffic accidents. The statistical base for accidents and accident rates Visul intrusion for developing countries in the region is rather frag- mented and unreliable. Under-reporting of traffic In anycity, traffic reduces the visual quality of street- accidents and incomplete collection of accident data scape and of the city in general. The visual quality of are common. What is certain, however, is that the most Asian cities has deteriorated, and much of it is situation is much worse than reported. For example, due to traffic related visual intrusion. In road widen- in Dhaka, Bangladesh, it is estimated that thenumber ing schemes, trees and green verges have been e of road fatalities reported in the police statistics rep- ovved; where they remain, they can hardly be seen resents at best only 50 percent of the number of such or appreciated among the traffic and air pollution. fatalities recorded in the hospitals. Increasing use is being made of elevated roads, fly- Figures that are available suggest that accident overs and pedestrian overpasses which obstruct rates are well in excess of those recorded in devel- views and dwarf adjacent buildings. oped countries and that there are higher accident In most cities, the steetscape is cluttered with rates in urban areas than elsewhere, even incountries poorly designed, located and maintained signs, with low motorization rates. Forexample, the metro- poles, wires and railings which obscure each other politan area of Dhaka accounts for 40 percent of and thestreetingeneral.Only inSingaporeandparts motorized vehicles in Bangladesh but the city ac- of some Japanese cities, such as Kobe and Nagoya, counts for over 50 percent of all traffic accidents. have attempts been made to locate structures and Some 3,400 fatalities were registered on Shang- street furniture to be as unobtrsive as possible; and hai's road network during the five year period 1984- to design them well when they have to be obtrusive! 1988. The incidence of traffic fatalities in Shanghai is ten times that of Tokyo and is due to the high pro- Communityseen:=ce portion of pedestrians and cyclists 'at rilsk in the traffic network and delays in providing first aid to It is common knowledge that roads perform two accident victims. contradictory functions in cities: they provide the In India, over 40,000 people are reported to lose essential liks by which people and goods can move their lives annually in motor vehicle accidents. Over but they also separate people and communities from 11 percent of fatal accidents and 29 percent of total one another (except at specific crossing points). accidents take place in the 12 largest cities and one InmanyAsiancities, roads arebeginningto sepa- third of fatalities in urban areas are pedestrians. Fatal rate people more than link them. Impassable barriers accident rates in metropolitan cities range from 13.7 are being created by increasing conversion of four to 28.7 per 10,000 vehicles, compared with 2.1 in lane roads into one-way high-volume, high-speed Japan and 3.8 in Australia. roads. The addition of median barriers, protective In many cities traffic accidents are increasing at an fencing, flyover approach ramps and limited access alarming rate. For example, the number of road acci- expressways and toll roadsare forcingpedestrians to dentsin Bangkok is reported to have doubled in three walk further and further to 'cross the road' . In some years from 14,000 in 1985 to 31,000 in 1988 and in cties, the technical term 'traffic cell is beconing a Delhi, the number of fatal accidents increased from physical reality! 700 in 1977 to 1,270 in 1985. In Shanghai, traffc Few cities have attempted to provide pedestrian accidents increased by 12.5 percent annually be- links, spaces or infrastructureto facilitate movement twecn 1985 and 1987 and fatal accidents have in- within, and between, Centrl Business Districts, res- 20 dential commnunities and shopping or market areas. borhoods. Bangkok and Jakarta have "coarse In manycitles, railway tracks(once physicalbarriers, grained" networks which divide each city into havebecome the onlyway for pedestrians togetfrom "super-blocks" through which it is impossible to one part of the city to another in relative safety. pass by motor vehicle. Urban transport infrastructure and facilities Pedestrianfacilities Urban transport infrastructure comprises not only Inattemptingto providesufficientcapacity formotor the space allocated to the movement of vehicles but vehicles, most cities have sacrificed the needs of also pedestrian facilities, non-motorized vehicle fa- pedestrians. Road widening schemes have reduced dilities, stmet lighting, public transport facilities and sidewalks to less than one meter in width in many mass rapid transit infrastructure. Although the road cities. Where sidewalks exist, they are poorly main- space between building facades is the domain of tained with broken paving slabs and broken curb- urban transport, it servesa multiplicity of uses, many stones. In many cases, open drains force pedestrians of which do not enter into the traditional area of to walk on the road which in turn reduces the capac- concern of the traffic engineer or the transport plan- ity of the road widening scheme. ner. In most cities in Asia it is the "high street" of Pedestrian crossings are usually provided in city Englandorthe"mainstreet"of theUsA; itis tlhespace centers and high-income areas only. They are im- for shopping, for social contact, for markets and pressive design features which are never respected trade. Since time immemorial it has been a place of by motorists or enforced by the police except in conflict between' vehicles and people. And rarely has high-income countries such as Singapore, Japan and it been organized to cater for both. Australia. As pedestrians, who are by and large the poor, Roadspace have no right to disturb motorists, who are by and large rich, by crossing the road on pedestrian cross- Cities in Asia lack adequate road space to accommo- ings, pedestrian bridges are provided where space date the ever increasing demands for mobility of permits. These bridges are often located without re- people and goods. This can be best illustrated by gard for pedestrian flows or needs. In some absurd comparing the length of road network per capita in cases, bridges have been located in such a way that selected cities. Most cities have road network densi- they force pedestrians to walk into the road (and the ties per thousand inhabitants in the 400 meters (Ja- traffic). karta) to 600 meters (Manila) range. The exceptions Median stripsandbarriersare used in manycoun- are Singapore, with as much as 2.7 kilometers per tries to "protect" pedestrians from traffic. In reality thousand,and HongKong with as littleas230meters such devices protect "traffic" from "pedestrians" per thousand. who are forced to walk long distances before finding Most urban roads in Asia were designed and laid a pedestrian bridge, which, if they are not old or outbefore the advent of the massive levelsof motori- infirm, they can use to cross the road. zation and demands on personal mobility experi- With the exception of high-incone countries such enced throughout the region in the pastdecade. With as Australia and Japan, there are no specifically few exceptions, the majority of the roads in urban designed pedestrian streets in Asian cities. Most ci- areas are two lanes wide and the majority af arterial ties in low-income countries have market "streets" streets are four lanes wide. where theconcentration of stall holdersand pedestri- Junctions are frequent and ill-designed for turning ans is such that no motorist would attempt to enter. movements. Few cities have a road hierarchy based But the notion of closing streets to traffic for the on functional criteria; most are based on road width. benefit of the walking public has not permeated Although most roads within the city center are municipal thinking in most cities. paved, roads in the fast developing suburbs are often The lack of attention to pedestrian needs in most unpaved, depending on the profit margin of the countries in Asia can be illustrated by a simple fact- developer. with the exception of Japan there is no data on such Where the poor live, roads are usually non-exis- facilities. The Japanese, on the other hand, are proud tent. In most cases "roads" are narrow alleys which to publish the fact that the total number of pedestrian cannot accommodate motorized vehides such as crossingshasincreasedfrom77,643in1967to698,991 cars, vans or buses. In many cities the road network by 1985; and, that over the same period, the total is incomplete, especially within low income neigh- length of sidewalks has increased from 5,590 kilome- 21 ters to 72,824 kilometers; the number of pedestrian dearly lighted to reveal pedestrians to approaching bridges has increased from 737 to 10,088 and the motorists. number of pedestrian underpasses has grown from 101 to 2,140. Public transport facilities Non-motorized vhiclefacilities Bus stops, bus shelters and bus bays are rarely ade- quate in low- and middle-income country cities. Outside of Japan and China, there is no evidence of Often located near junctions and where the side- special facilities for non-motorized vehicles in urban walks either no longer exist or are too narrow, bus areas in Asia. This is especially surprising given the stops often cannot accommodate the crowds of peo- high concentration of such vehicles in the region. ple waiting for buses. Shelters, when provided, are Japan had some 45,000 kilometers of biycle paths rudimentary and usually damaged. No provision is in 1985 (compared with 10,558 kilometers in 1975). made for seating or for the aged and infirm. Rarely Most major cities have "bike and ride' parking facili- are bus stops provided with lighting, timetables or ties and bicycle lanes are common in CBDs. route information. China must have the most extensive bicyle prior- Bus stations vary from being well designed so- ityfacilitiesintheRegion(andintheworld)although phisticated terminals (in India) to overcrowded there are no data on the quantity or lengths. Bicycle 'parking lots" (in Jakarta). Located more for the lanes are demarcated by moveable barriers at the convenience of the bus operator than the public, they approaches to junctions in most cities. A special bi- are often difficult to access, impossible to move cycle underpass has been built in Shanghai and a around in, and centers of chaos and frustration for special bicycle 'level' has been incorporated in passengers and bus drivers alike. multi-level interchanges in Beijing and Tianjin. An In many cities, bus terminals are defined by exclusive non-motorized vehicle network is planned parked buses on the streetL In the case of paatransit, for Shanghai which has already begun the imple- rarely are bus stops or bus terminals/stations avail- mentation of the first phase of a 20 kilometer network able due to the quasi-legal oroutrightly illegal nature in and around the CBD. of these services. Elsewhere, non-motorized vehicles are forced to compete with motorized vehicles on the roads and Urban expressways with pedestrians on the sidewalks. With few excep- tions, there is little evidence to suggest that facilities In order to overcome the inadequacy of the street net- have even been planned in Asian cities. work in meeting motorized vehidle demands, seven citieshavedevelopedexpresswaynetworks: Seoul(731 Street lighting kilometers),Tokyo (200kilometerswith 110kilometers under construction), Osaka (238 kilomneters), Pusan Street lighting is generally inadequate in Asian cities (145 kilometers), Singapore (96 kilometers), Jakarta (46 outside of Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore and kilometers) and Bangkok (24 kilometers). Japan (where the number of street lights has in- Five cities in the region have urban toll road sys- creased from 190,150 in 1967 to 1.6 million by 1985). tems: Bangkok, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Osaka and Inmostcitiesinlow-incomecountriesthequantity Tokyo. Of these, Hong Kong and Jakarta have pri- of streetlightsisinsufficient Inbothlow-andmiddle vately financed urban toll roads (two in Hong Kong income countries there is no differentiation of street and one in Jakarta); two more are under construction light intensity (or oolor) by road hierarchy. Most (oneinHongKongandoneinBangkok);andseveral majorarteries,expressways,citycentersandhigh-in- under consideration (in Bangkok, Hong Kong, Ja- come neighborhoods have some form of continuous karta, and Kuala Lumpur). lighting but rarely is it designed or located in re- Indonesia has the most extensive govemrnment sponse to driving, non-motorized vehicle or pede- owned toll road system in Asia There are some nine strian needs. toll roads with a total length of 273 kcm and four toll The worstconditions arein China where the lights bridges with a further three toll roads under con- aresodim as tobealmostuseless.Thebest coneitions struction that will add 58 kilometers to the network are in Singapore where "yellow" lights derarcate in 1991. arterial routes and expressways from other "white- In Indonesia, the capital and operating costs of light roads; and where all pedestrian crossings are these schemes (whether public or private sector) are 22 meant to be recovered from the road user through Table 22 Urban mass transit systems in Asia toR payments. The toll rates are based on benefits to Country City MRT LR7 cRT Total toll road users, derived from estimates of vehicle operating cost and time savings, and the need for the Low construction, operation and maintenance of the toll income 6 4 3 0 7 road system to be self-financing. The govermment China Anshan .. I .. 1 normnallycontributesanequityparticipationtocover Beijing I .. .. 1 the share of costs that could not be self financing. Dalian .. I .. 1 Tianjin I .. I Mass transt systems India Calcutta 1 1 .. 2 Korea Thereare 37 mass transit systemscarrying 17million (DrM) Pyongyang 1 .. I passengers per day in 26 cities in Asia. Over two Middle thirds of these systems are in high-income countries income 3 2 1 0 3 and, somewhat surprisingly given their high capital Korea Pusan 1 .. 1 and operating costs, the bulk of the remainder are in Seoul 1 .. .. 1 low income countries (see Table 2.2 below). P'ulippines Manila .. 1 .. 1 Mass transit modes can be distinguished from High other forms of public transport by their need for income 17 9 S 10 27 specific infrastructure to operate. This infrastructure Australia Adelaide .. .. I I can be above ground, below ground or at grade; but Melbourne .. 1 .. I wherever it is located it usually needs tobeseparated Sydney .. .. 1 1 from other traffic or pedestrians. Hong Hong Kong 1 2 .. 3 It is useful to distinguish three modes: KDng Japan Chiba .. .. 1 1 RAPIDTRANSIT(Mr)systems,oftencalled"metros", Ina. .. 1 1 are rail based and fully grade separated (either above Kitakyushu .. 1 1 2 or below ground or physically protected when at obe . 1 2 grade), with the highest available capacity and travel Kyoto 1 l .. 2 speed performance characteristics; Nagoya I .. .. Osaka .. 1 2 LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT (LRT) systems, often called Sapporo 1 1 2 -trams" or "streetcars," are rail based and capable of Tokyo 2 2 1 5 operating at grade (within road rights-of-way) or Yokohama .. .. 1 1 grade separted, with higher capacities and higher Yukarigaoka . .. .. I I speed performances than buses; and Singapore Singapore m .. .. GUIDED RAPID TRANSIT (GRT) systems are non-rail Total 26 15 12 10 37 basedandfullygrade separated systemswhich make Sanre: Annex Tables 8, 9, and 10. use of special guidance mechanisrms and track; in- cluded within this category are the "new technology systems" such as "Guided Bus," 'Monorails" and in one direction (pass/hid). Some 81,000 pass/h/d "Automated Guided Transit" (AGT) systems. were counted on one section of the Hong Kong MRT in 1987. Mass Rapid Transit (MWr) Tokyo has the most extensive urban mass transit system in the region with a municipal subway net- Of the cities in the region with populations exceeding work and a rapid transit authority metro network. one million, thirteen have operatingMRT systems (see The Tokyo system also comprises "private railways" Table 23) and three more (Bangkok, Shanghai and and commuter rail and carries over two million pas- Taipei) are planning or building them. The most sengers per day. extensive systcms are found in Japan (in Tokyo) and Although efficient, the system is operating at the simplest systems in China (in Tianjin). "bodies touch, fee quite strong pressure, yet some- MRT systems have demonstrated a capacity to how magazines can be read" levels of 200 percent carrybetween 50,00 and 75,000 passengers per hour nominal capacity, an improvement over conditions 23 in the late 1960s when the system was operating at Table 2A Ught rail trnsit ytem.s in Asian citles 'bodies affected by jolts of train and cannot move, Net- even hands" levels of 250 percent nominal capacity. -ork Line Stations Ph/a Coumby Idty Ckms) (no.) (no.) (000) Light Rail Transit (LRT) Low Income 106z 33 598 10 Eleven cities have LRT systems (see Table 2.4, below). Cliu: The majority are conventional tram systems which An* 29 1 19 2709 0 have been in existence since the 1930s; the M ila, Daiana 14.7 3 29 6000 Kitakyushu and Tuen Mun systems are more re- 705ia4 cently constructed LRT systems; and the Manila sy- 79.0 29 1 274.0 tem is the only grade separated light rail system Mi e 15.0 1 is 27U operating in the region. Philipphe: Manila is extending its light rail system, and on- Mana 15.0 1 18 278.0 ging studies in Jakarta are examining the feasibility 1igh income 125.1 19 262 51 for guided bus transit and light raiL Hong Kong Karachi is considering the development of a 90 HangKong' 169 6 97 352.6 kdlometer partially elevated bus/light rail "transit- TuenMun 233 5 41 150.0 way' system. The first section is expected to be light Japan: rail with remaining sections developed initially as Ihakyushu 15.4 1 .. 46 busways, but designed for convertibility to light rail Kyoto 252 2 32 98. in the future. Osaka 18.7 2 40 532 s 8.4 1 23 280 TolyoW 172 2 29 116.1 Table 2.3 Mass rapid transit systems in Asian cities Total 26.7 53 871 2A67.1 Net ork Lin Sations m S/dayAn Tiabele Counby/it kms) (nOJ (noJ (000) Low income 80.5 6 65 705.1 China: ~~~~~~~~~~~Gadde Rapd Transi (GiRT) Be§mg 40.0 2 29 500.0 Tain 8.0 1 8 30.0 Ten cities in the region have 'li-tech' CRT systems da operating of which siC are in cities below one mil- Cacutta 10.0 1 11 60.0 lion; all GUr systems, with the exception of those in Korea (DPR): Adelaide and Sydrey, are in Japan (see Table 2.5). Pyongyang 225 2 17 115.1 The simplest techology used is the guided bus Middle income 137.8 5 122 2,53.2 system in Adelaide, but it requir extensive preci- Korea: sioninthe dedsgn and construction of the track' the Pusan 213 1 20 3310 systems in Japan use advanced teInology for auto- Seoul 116.5 4 102 2,2192 mated gudance and/or operation to save on what High income 4845 29 443 12,569.2 are perceved as rsitg staff costs. Hong Kmng 39.0 3 37 1,624.7 Most GRT systems have been built as alternatives Japan: to LRT systems and are designed to meet the trport Kyoto 6.9 1 8 130.0 needs of an intermediate volume of passenge be- Nagoya 60.2 4 61 926.6 tweenb systemsandbuses Inseveralcases,AGTs Osaka 99.1 6 79 2,525.7 and mnoails have been lopted to reduce the cost Sapporo 40.5 3 38 550.4 of land acquisitio as the track take less widi than Tokyo' 205.8 10 197 6,591.8 a conventioal roadway or Lir systerm Most link a Singapore 33.0 2 23 220.0 specific cmmnity to the city center, and the mono- rail in Tokyo serves Haneda airporL Totl 702.8 40 593 15,82785 AGT system are under constuction in Nagoya a. udgouutrri and Taipei. Osaka is developig a linear motor sys- sowcw Anna Table 9. fte Trials are underway for guided bus systems in 24 Japan and a guided bus system, similar to the Ade- Two schemes are under consideration: the hide system, is under consideration in Jakarta. A Hopewell scheme which is a US$3.1 billion project to Brazilian air-powered system is also undergoing tri- build a combined 60 kilometer elevated rail and 57 als in an amusement park in Jakarta. kilometer elevated expressway (with Hopewell Holdingsof Hong Kong) and the US$2.1 billion 'Sky- Financing mass transit: BOT train" scherme to build a 34 kilometer elevated mass transit system (with Lavalin of Canada). Developing countries in Asia are unique in the de- 'he World Bank is involved in the preparatory velopment of private sector financing of urban tran- stages of the Karachi scheme where potential exists sitsystems. Asmanyassix mass transitschemeswith for private sector participation in the first section of varying levels of private sector financing and opera- the proposed transitway system. don areunderactiveconsiderationin the region (two Some systems in other cities are associated with in Bangkok, one in Manila, one in Karachi and two property development schemes which are attractive in Taipei). to the prospective developers and are intended to Privatesector interest not withstanding, to date no contnbute to the financing of the mass transit infra- privately financed urban mass transit system is yet structure. operational in Asian developing country cities. The Experience with this approach in Asia, outside of Calcutta metro was funded by the central govern- Japan, is limited to Hong Kong where it is estimated ment with a contribution from Japan, the Manila LRT that development profits will have funded about 15 was a tumkey contract financed by loans from the percentof the HK$38.6billioncapital cost of theMrT. Belgium govemment and foreign banks with about Consideration is being given to this approach in 30 percent central govemrnent equity. Bangkok, where the Hopewell mass transit scheme Thailand is the pacesetter in attracting private is linked to substantial land development rights; and sector finance for urban mass transit with a growing in Taipei, where an innovative approach is being list of Build-Operate-Transfer (BT) projects in and taken to station developrnents for the MRT in which around Bangkok It would seem that the levels of equity stakes are held by the transit company, the cDngestion are so high in Bangkok that private inves- land owners and the private developer. tors fe that such schemes can be financially viable. Traffic engineering and traffic management Table 2.5 Guided rapid transit systems in As a complement to creating more physical capacity Asian cities through major mvestment in urban transport infra- ____________oities______________ - structure, many cities have attempted to make more Net- Passw effective use of existing road space by traffic engi- work Statms day neering techniques. Some have attempted to ts- C.wifylcity System (km) (no.) (000 late these techniques into effective traffic Austalia: management schems to reduce demand and/or Adelaide Guided giveprioritytomovingpeopleratherthanvehicles- Bus 12.0 3 22.8 by providing facilities for high occupancy vehicles Sydney Monorail 3.6 .. .. such as buses. Japan: Traffic engineering makes use of simple tech- Chiba Monorail 153 18 .. niques such as lane markings, channelization (traffic Ina ACa 12.7 13 19.5 islands, median strips, etc), traffic signs and traffic Kikikyushu Monorail 8.4 12 26.3 signals to improve the flow and safety of traffic. Kobe ACTa 6.4 9 41.4 Often these simple measures are combined with Osaka AGTa 6.6 8 55.1 slightly more sophisticated techniques such as com- Tokyo Monorail 132 5 85.7 puterized 'area traffic controlr (ATC) systems, one Yokohama AGe 11.0 14 .. way street networks, bus lanes and bus priority Yulcarigaoka Monorail 3.6 6 0.9 measures to manage the traffic systern of a whole city center more efficiently. Total 92.8 88 251.6 In very rare cases in the region, traffic numnage- z Acr=auwmaW 'ded transit ment is used as part of a package of policy and Sowm- AnnexTa le regulatory measures designed to reduce non-esser.- 25 tial vehicle usage, protect the environment, reduce fuel consumption and reduce accidents. Box 2.1 Box 2.2 Traffic engineering in Dangkok provides an example of such use of traffic manage- ment measures in Singapore. Bangkok's bus lanesinitiallyreduced cartravel times In Singapore, thesc techniques have proven effec- by up to 29 percent over the roads concemed while tive not only in reducing congestion but also in im- sts firs eiTcg phernet, nredued tavel times by 27 proving public transport speeds, reducing accidents percent and, through reducing the number of stops, and saving fuel. In other cities, they have proven achieved lsavingsof asmuchasl8percentwithin difficult to sustain without complementary meas- the ATC area which was only three kilometers u res to reduce car usage as can be seen by comparing across. the early rcsults of such a scheme in Bangkok in 1982 Som,: a)yer of ua hnfixcma&n ian Hax&k J. H. (see Box 2.2) with the congested conditions in the city Jones, N. W. hlarler and A. J. Downing, mum., 1982 today (as described carlier in this report). Area traffic control The most sophisticated systems in the region are to be found in Japan and Australia. In Tokyo and Area Traffic Control systems provide for the central Osaka traffic flows are monitored continuously and computerized management of traffic signal control- signal timnings can be adjusted Oon-line to divert led junctions along traffic corridors and/or within traffic to less congested sections of the network The specific areas with complex or intense traffic flows city of Sydney has pioneered and developed a traffic (such as Central Business Districts). responsive control system called SCATh (Sydney Co- ordinated Adaptive Traffic Systen) which is also being used in Shanghai (an example of intra-regional technology transfer). Box 2.1 A summary of the traffic Japanhas thehighestdensityof ATCsystems in the management systems that have been region with a total of 34,500 intersections under area implemented in Singapore traffic control in 74 cities. Bangkok, Bombay, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Pusan, Seoul, (a)Street usage strategies Shanghai, Singapore and Taipei have all, to some One-way schemes degree, developed ATC systems. ATC is the most tech- Bus bays nology-intensive traffic management measure and b)Signalized traffs c control the one which relies most on imported hardware and Arca traffic control (ATC) software.ATCisbeingintroduced inBeijingand more Green link determining system (Glide) extensive ATC systems are being considered in Bang- (c)Road pricing and car pools kok, Jakarta and Shanghai. Ar lcensing scheme (ALS) When used appropriately, ATC systems can not Parksnd-ride only reduce congestion but also impact on fuel effi- (dWCar parking and vehicle inspection ciency and fuel savings as is evidenced from recent Parking space control research in Singapore. Average morning peak hour Adjustment of parking fecs speeds increased by 16 percent from 25.7 kilometers C:ornpulsory vehiclc inspection system per hour before the ATC scheme was introduced to Incentives for thc replacement of old cars with 31.7 kilometers per hour under ATC operation. new ones (e)Public transport management In Singapore, the ATC scheme is estimated to have Encouraging the usc of public transport system reduced average fuel consumption per passenger in Discouraging car owncrship through various the morning peak hour by 18 percent from 83 kilo- fiscal measures meters per liter to 12 kilometers per liter. Aggregate (0Othersystems fuel savings (gasoline and diesel) are estimated to Imposition of speed limits have risen annually from 8.5 million liters in l982 (six Driver information months after the scheme was introduced) to 9.8 mil- lion liters by 1986. nhe Case of S S. W. A& ng 1989. O gS on the basis of these estimates, the capital cost of the ATC scheme was "recovered" on fuel savings alone within its first two years of operation. 26 Bus lanes Table2.6 Buspriorityfacilities in Asian cities Bus lanus Bsways Bus lanes (devel ped initially in France in the early Bus law Lengah S 1960s) and busways (developed initially in the USA Lengt Spe/h Lengt Spwd in the 1970s) are used widely in Europe and North Country/city (kms) (km/h) (kms) (bm/k) Amcrica for giving priority to buscs (and other high Low income 13.7 occupancy vehicles such as taxis and car pools) in Indonesia: congested city centers and/or along congested com- Jakarta 13.7 muter routes. Busways are used extensively in Brazil Middle income 221.7 .. 0.0 where, in Sao Paulo, they have been found to carry Philippines: up to 20,000 passengers per hour-equivalent to rail Manila 21.7 20.0 0.0 based mass transit systems. Thailand: Many cities in Asia have introduced bus lanes but Bangkok 200.0 35.0 0.0 reliable data is only available for facilities in fourteen High income 459.7 .. 25.0 ci ties (see Table 2.6). Australia: The most extensive bus lanc networks are to be Brisbane 3.0 found in Tokyo and Bangkok. The Tokyo network Mclboume 13 17D comprises 'with flow" bus lanes which providc pri- Perth 3.8 ority only during the peak hour for peak direction Sydney bus flows. The Bangkok network is more sophisti- Hong Koaig: cated and comprises 24 hour bus lanes many of Hong Kong which are 'contra-flow' (operate in the opposite Japan: direction to traffic flows along a one-way street) and Kitakyushu .. .. 4.0 provide "short-cuts" for buses through the one-way Kyoto 93.0 17.0 street network. Ngy 902D 2. Japan is the only country in Asia which has made Nagoya 59.0 .. 21.0 25.0 use of busways. They are found in two citics, Kitaky- Tokyo 238.0 14.0 ushu and Nagoya. The Nagoya system is the most Tore. extensive but is only partially physically segregated Singapore: from other traffic. Singapore 68.0 A 13.7 kilometer bus lane has been recently estab- 2S.0 lished inJakartaanda further 18 kilometers of buslanes Totl 695.1 . arescheduledtobeopenedby theendof 1991. Asystem SOr5 lw'ws Uran Transpt Syskm 1989; and study repos ofbuswaysisbeingconsidered (along with LRT) tomeet the mass transit needs of Jakarta and Karachi, and busways have been proposed in Bangkok cies may provide there. These measures, coupled with the development of effective bus and niass tn- Traffic restraint measures sit public transport systems, have cut the number of cars entering the restricted zone in the rush hour by Unlike traffic management measures, which seek to three quarters and as a result Singapore is relatively manage existing traffic flows more effectively, traffic unjammed. restraint measures seek to discourage the use of cars A recent survey found that in 1989 the number of in order that otherroad users, especially public trans- vehicles entering the restricted zone during the port, pedestrians and goods vehicles may benefit. morning peak period (7.30 am to 10.15 am) was The main restraint measures in use in Asia are park- 51,000 compared with 74,000 in 1975, before the ALs ing controls and area licensing. scheme was implemented. This is even more impres- Most cities in Asia control on-street parking with sive when seen in the context of Singapore's devel- varying degrees of success depending on the level opment. In the 14 years of ALS operation, the and extent of enforcement applied. Singapore is the restricted zone has grown by a third in terms of only city, probably in the world, with effective traffic employment, a tenth in size, and the vehicle popula- restraint measures centered on its famous Area Li- tion in Singapore has increased by 68 percent! censing Scheme (ALS) which was inaugurated in This scheme is now being upgraded to full road 1975. It is accompanied by strict controls on the pricing that will, over time, be extended to the whole amount of parking which business and public agen- island. Various other measures (import duties, addi- 27 tional registration fees (WOOs), "bonuses" for scrap- public. In Hong Kong, Korea, in Malaysia and in ping old cars, annual road tax increases and a quota Singapore ownership is private. In all other cities system for the maximum numbers of new vehicles ownership is mixed. Data on paratransit operations that can be registered) are being also used effectively is incomplete but where it exists it suggests that in Singapore to curb the growth in vehicle owner- paratransit is the predominant form of urban public ship. transit in Bangladesh, in Indonesia, in Pakistan,inthe Experience with area licensing, although effective Philippines and in Thailand. in Singapore, has revealed the need for political con- Ascan beseen from Table 2.7, it wouldappear that sensus and commitnent to enforcement which other in termsof vehicle fleetsparatransit and publicsector countries in Asia have found hard to achieve. At- bus companies predominate in low income coun- tempts to institute area licensing in World Bank pro- tries; paratransit and private bus operations pre- jects in the late 1970s in Bangkok and in Kuala dominate in middle income countries; and private Lumpur failed in part due to resistance from the car and public sector operations predominate in high owning lobby and central area business interests. income countries. In 1983, Hong Kong was the first city in the world Throughout the region, the level of service to test the technical, economic and administrativc provided by bus operators in developing country viability of electronic road pricing (ERP) to curtail cities has continued to deteriorate over time. In the traffic as an alternative to parking controls, area li- case of public sector operations, companies are fre- censing and physical restraint measures. ERRP was quently observed to be saddled with poor manage- found to be effective in reducing congestion by time- ment, operated by labor regulated by restrictive of-day and location but it was abandoned in 1985 practices, constrained by inadequate financing poli- because (a) car drivers felt singled out and discrimi- cies, affected by poor maintenance of vehicles, and nated against (taxis were seen to create more conges- tion but were exempted from ERP charges); (b) ERP was considered an invasion of privacy (and the in- Table 2.7 Percentage distribution of vehicles by stallation of closed circuit television cameras to catch uan Z.7 antate bution ies by defaulters did not help); (c) the Government did not -urban public and private bus companies and succeed in effectively explaining the purpose and paratransiti selectedAsiancountries benefits of thesystem; and (d) it was perceived by the Bus companies % public as yet another ploy by Government to raise % % Para revenues (as vehicle taxation had recently been in- Country Icity Public Private transit creased substantially and had already resulted in a Low income 22A 8.3 68.9 reduced vehicle use and growth in the fleet). BI ow 4.es3 6895.7 Despite the apparent unpopularity of traffic re- Chna 4.. 97 straint measures, further consideration needs to be China 100.0 .4 given to them in Asia in the future if central business India 702. 29.4 .3 districts are to survive. Current developments in Indonesia 2.3 6.4 91.3 clectronicroad pricing (ERP) technology mayprovide Korea (roR) 100.0 .. a more palatablc way for restraining peak hour de Myanmar 50. 50.0. mand for travel by car. Pakistan 243 18.9 56.8 Middle income 7.9 20.1 72.0 Urban bus serices Korea .. 100.0 Malaysia .. 100.0 Buses form the backbonc of urban public transport Philippines 1S 8.0 90.1 services throughout Asia with the notable exception Thailand 15.1 5.4 79.5 of Japan and Australia (wherc in both countries ex- High income 43.1 36.8 20.1 tensive use is made of rail based urban public trans- Australia 100.0 port). Most cities have bus systems which are owned Hong Kong .. 47.0 53.0 and operated by the public sector but many cities Japan 89.6 10.4 have private sector operations and informal "para- Singapore .. 100.0 transit" systems operate extensively in most cities in South East Asia. Total 199- 14.0 66.1 In all cities in China, in the People's Dcmocratic Sore: las Urbn Tnranspot Systews 1989 andvariousstudy Republic of Korea and in Australia ownersh ip is reports and seminar papers. 28 unable to provide adequate service frequencies and such as Indonesia and Thailand, the public sector is route networks. both "owner" and "operatoe' of bus companies and Many publicly owned bus operations are highly regulator of competing private sector services subsidized, subject to revenue leakage and over- Public sector bus operations are generally ineffi- staffed (see the staff per bus ratios presented in Fig- cient and subsidized. In Indonesia, where large pub- Lire 2.6). lic bus companies were created in the early 1980s to Even where services are provided by the private serve Jakarta and eight regional cities, central gov- sector, in many cases deterioration of services and emient expenditures on these companies between frequencies has also occurred due to restrictive poli- 1979 and 1984 amounted to 15 percent of total spend- cies and regulations by public authorities. ing on urban services by all levels of government. Restrictive fare policies and licensing controls China has the most extensive network of public have often inadvertently accelerated the deteriora- sector bus companies in the region with an annual tion of service as well as the condition of the vehicles. ridership of 26 billion passengers and with 45,000 Thisinturnhasaggravated overcrowding, increased buses distributed over a total route length of 106,000 the incidence of breakdowns and added to poor kilometers in 310 cities. China is one of the few service frequency and stimulated the continued de- countries in the region to make extensive use of dine and deterioration in general levels of service trolley buses. Ten cities have trolley bus networks; and comfort. the most extensive are in Shanghai and Shenyan Not surprisingly,urbanbusservicesareperceived where trolley buses account for one third and one by most people in Asian cities as being inadequate, half respectively of total ridership in each city. overcrowded and unresponsive to demand. Fares have been kept at artificially low levels for several decades in China as public transport was Public sector bus companies considered part of public welfare. In recent years, the operatingcostsof public transport havebeen increas- The public sector hasbeen traditionallyresponsiblefor ing substantially and operators have been incurring theprovisionof public transportscrvices inmob. Asian increasing losses which are met by subsidies from cities. In countries such as China, India and Australia local governments. ownership is vested with the public sector, in others, In India, urban bus services are usually provided -by State Road Transport Corporations or by city Figure 2.6 Staff per bus ratios in selected Ai corporations and the private sector is effectively cityre b2.6 compaffipers rais nsletdAsa banned. In 1988, the Association of StateRoad Trans- city b"s companies port Underiakings comprised 66 members which owned 90,000 buses with an annual ridership of 18.6 Adelaide billion passengers. Most of these bus companies are Nagoya I I I l providing inadequate urban services and are operat- Manila Public 5@:ctV1 ing them at a loss. Singapore Public sector bus operators typically operate Soul - Private sector under the dual burden of politically restrained fares -liong Kong and strong labor union pressure requiring excessive Bangkok staffing. For example the Calcutta State Road Corpo- Bangkok _ _ ration currently employs 17.5 workers per bus com- Madras pared with three in Singapore and two in Adelaide. Shanghai The result is typically loss-mnaking operations which Bombay provide neither a quality or quantity of service that Karachi meets demand (see Box 23, below). Tianjin _ Employers in some cities in India provide their Jakarta own bus services rather than rely on the public bus Beijing ___ company. Exacerbating the problem is the very large Calcutta size of some bus companies in an industry where 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 economies of scale are known not to exist after an operation reaches between 300 and 400 buses. For example the Maharashstra State Road Corporation Souwc World Bank, Uran Transport Data Book 1987 with over 100,000 employees and nearly 14,000 buses is among the largest bus companies in the world. 29 Overall, these state run bus companies have losses Arrangements are made about levels of service and that are estimated to have reached US$ 100 million route structure based on fivc year plans. Grants are in 1985 and are a major drain on government rc- providedbygovernmcntforstudenttravelconcessions sources. and tlhese, in the case of KMw, amounted to 55 percent of operating costs in 1988. Private sector bus companies In Singaporc, govcrnmcnt involvement in public transport did not result in a loss of private owncrship In Asia, with the exception of Hong Kong and Singa- or subsidies. lmprovemcnts were achieved over sev- pore, private sector bus operations are predomi- cral years by reorganizing 11 bus companies into nantly run by small operators. four, then three, and ultimately one, and through the Seoul has a flect of 8,000 buses operated quite infusion of mnanagement skills and better enforce- efficiently and wilhout subsidy by somc 90 private ment of regulations. This approach, although slower groups or companies operating as a cooperative than a govemment take-over, brought steady im- under franchises issued by the municipal transport provements yet preserved the financial viability of board. public transport operations. In Pusan, bus services are provided by 65 private Singapore currently has two privately owned bus companies which operate as an Association with companies, Singapore Bus Scrvices (SS3) established some 2,300 buses on a route-franchise basis. Each in 1978 and Trans-Island Bus Scrvices (TlBs) estab- company typically operates between one and five lished in 1982 to introduce competition with sBs. In routes and the frequencies and fares arc set by gov- 1988, SBS had a fleet of 3,000 buses operating on 220 emment agencies. routes and ThBS had a fleet of 340 buscs operating on In Kuala Lumpur, conventional bus services are 24 routes. provided bycightarea-franchised privatc companies with a combined fleet of around 1,000 buses and by Paratransit services many route-franchised owner-operators with a com- bined fleet of around 500 minibuses. Paratransit scrvices are mostly provided by the infor- Private bus .ompanies are found in HongKongand mal sector. Rarely encouraged officially, paratransit Singapore. In Hong Kong the financial objectives of operations provide an important service in cities public transport operations are, reportedly, to make a throughout the region with the notable exceptions of profit out of the system. The two majorbus companies, China and high income countries such as Australia, KowloonMotor Bus(KMB)and China MotorBus(CMB), Japan and Singapore. arefranchisedbygovemmentand receivenosubsidies. Reliable data on paratransit is unavailable due to the informal, and sometimes illegal, nature of the services. From the findings of a study undertaken in 1981 of paratransit use in selected Asian cities it is Box 2.3 Public transport in Indian cities evident that paratransit use is widespread and pre- dominant in secondary cities in low-income coun- Urban transport in India today presents a deprcssing ties and bewildering picture The scene is marked by the preponderancc of over-aged vehicles of out-modedM designs and obsolete technologies, invariably over- "jeepneys" which have progressed from being an loaded beyond permissible limits, plying on poor informal "pirate taxi" system (developed using us road surfaces under hazardous traffic conditions. Arm '.rplusjeepsaftertlheSecondWorldWar)into Passengers are callcd upon to endure excessive jour- a majr public transport business with an officially neytimesand totoleratelongperiods of waiting, not estimrated fleet of 28,000 ownerdriver vehicles (un- to speak of accident hazards. Increasing congestion, noise and air pollution, growth of travel demand in official estimates put the fleet as high as 60,000 vehi- gcometric progression, stagnant putelic transport cles) carrying 23 million passengers -laily. supply capacity and cvcr incrcasing gap between Present day jeepncys are assembled locally by a carningsandexpenditurcofpublictransportorgani- thriving industry. With flamboyant and brightly zations are some of the more conspicuous features of pitdcahok dmdwt lgn n urban travcl that cause concern. If the situation is painted coachwork, adored with slogans and already bad enough, thefuturetrendsprojectamuch chrome plated accessories, and with cassette players more explosive situation by the turn of the century. pumping out the latest disco music, the presentJeep- ney has been described as a mobile cclebration expe- Souce: PublwTrsasport:Thclndiaua Sw,V.Nagaraja rience. All this is in the interests of marketing and attracting patronage in a highly competitive market. 30 Paratransit vehicles in Bangkok carry 13 million is certainly the case in Bangkok. Where unhampered passengers per day which represents 15 percent of by strict entry and service regulations, it would ap- the 8.1 million public transport related trips nadeby pear that the urban transport market can respond to bus, minibus, taxi, rail and boat in the city in 1989. the inadequacies of the physical road network. Paratransit services comprise some 7,900 "silors A dilemma in the field of paratransit is that al- (light trucks converted into six-seat vehicles), 7,400 though such services provide an affordable public "samlors" (three-wheeled vehicles, also known as transport service at no cost to governments, they are 'tuk-tuks" because of their engine noise, which carry seen as inefficient users of road space. upto three passengers) and 16,600 hired motorcycles This is illustrated well in the case of Manila. Al- which ply the narrow "sois" or alleys which make up though jeepneys provide extensive coverage, high the secondary road network in Bangkok. Hired no- frequency, almost door-to-door service which is af- torcycles, although increasingly popular, are consid- fordable to the majority of the population, they are ered relatively unsafe given the probability of being considered by Government to be inefficient users of involved in an accident in one year is greater than 50 road space. percent . Revenues exceed expenses for all modes, with the Urban travel by mode excess of revenues over expenses ranging from 41 percent in the case of silors to 181 percent in the case Comprehensivedataonurban travel pattemsin Asia of hired motorcycles (see Table 2.8, below). does not exist. The reliability, nature and timing of A recent study of paratransit in Southeast Asia the data that is available is so variable that statistical concludes that while it is well known thatparatransit comparisons are impossible. In attempting to assess provides low performance services tailored to what travel characteristics in Asian cities, we are obliged, people can pay, an often overlooked benefit is that therefore, to use what little data exists as being rep- paratransit also compensates for the inadequacies of resentative of conditions in the region as a whole. the road network in many Asian cities. Data from Bangladesh, China, India and Indone- Usingdata foreightcitiesin SoutheastAsia (Band- sia provide glimpses of typical conditions in low-in- ung, Bangkok, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, come developing countries; data from Korea, Medan, Singapore and Surabaya) the study found Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand present the that the greatest varietyof paratransitmodes,both in picture in middle-income countries; and data from terms of vehicle types and seating capacities, gener- Hong Kong, Japan and Singapore provide an indica- ally exists in places with the least amount of road tion of conditions in high-income countries. capacity per capita and a poor road hierarchy. This Low-income countries Table 2.8 Operating characteristics of paratransit An analysis of urban travel characteristics by all services in Bangkok (1989) modes in low-income countries are presented in Average per vehide Samlor Silor Motorcycle Annex 1 Table 11. Walking and non-motorized vehi- cles are the predominant travel modes in most cities. Trips per day 20.6 16.0 283 This is still likely to be the case despite the increase Passengers per day 42.0 26.1 343 in vehicle ownership (especially motorcycles) which has occurrred since the survey data was collected. Working davs per weck 6.6 6.7 6.7 Not surprisingly, public transport is the predomi- nant modes of motorized travel in most cities (see Working hours per day 10.2 11J7 12.1 Table 2.7 and Annex 1 Table). Buses account for over Revenue per day (USS) S 17.70 S 1275 S 9.33 60 percent of motorized trips in Bangladesh, China, India (except for Kanpur where buses account for 11 Expenses per day (USS) S 12.53 S6.51 S3.32 percent of trips) and Pakistan. In Indonesia, how- Revenue/Expenses 1A. 1.96 2.81 ever, buses are not the predomninant mode. In Jakarta, they account for 42 percent of motorized trips and, Income per day (USS) S 5.17 S 624 S 6.01 in Surabaya, they account for only 24 percent of motorized trips due to the intensc use of motorcycles Monthly income (USS) S150.97 5181.73 S174.80 (which accounted for 46 percent of motorized trips Source: The Study on Medium to Long Term Improvemwent/muage- in 1984). ment Plan of Road and Road Transport in Bangkok, pIcA, 1990. 31 BANCLADESl1. Dhaka, Bangladesh is one of the * motorized households which make up ten per- poorest cities in the region and, not surprisingly, the cent of the urban population; majority of trips are cither on foot or non-motorized * public transport oricntated households which modes of transport. The only data available dates represent 60 percent of the urban population; and back to 1980, at which time 21 percent of trips were * walking and/or NMV depcndant households on foot, 35 percent by rickshaw, 34 percent by bus, which account for the remaining 30 percent. four percent by auto-rickshaw and only six percent by car. Public transport is the dominant forrn of urban motorized travel, especially in large cities such as CHINA. Walking and cycling are the predomi- Bombay, Delhi and Madras, accounting for about 80 nant modesof travel in all Chinesecities and bicycles percent of all motorized trips. play an important role in personal mobility due to Walking and cycling trips are less common in Govemment policies to promote their use over the large cities, such as Bombay (where they account for past 40 years as an alternative to motorization. 15 percent and 10 percent respectively of total trips) In 1986, average travel distances for bicycle trips thaninsmallercitiessuchasKanpur(wherewalking were around five kilometers in most cities (ranging accounts for 72 percent of all trips) and Lucknow from 4.6 kilometers in Anshan and to 55 kilometers (where NMVs account for 53 percent of all trips). in Fushun) with travel times less than 30 minutes. TriplengthsvaryconsiderablybycitysizeinIndia Bus trips are slightly longer, ranging from five averagingaround fivekilometers incities with popu- kilometers in Tianjin to 8.7 kilometers in Fushun but lations below 100,000 to around 11 kilometers in bus travel times are almost double those of bicycles cities with populations above 200,000. in all cities. INDONESIA. Motorized forms of transport are INDIA. InIndia,thetravelcharacteristicsofurban used more in Indonesian cities than in Bangladesh, households fall into three broad categories: China and India. Some 60 percent of trips in Jakarta and 55 percent of trips in Surabaya are motorized. Motorcydes are becoming important urban modes of travel in both cities where they account for be- Figu re 2.7 Percentage of trips by public transport tween 13 and 26 percent of all trips. and by other transport modes in selected cities in tn 1985, th tprate of alo tin r t lo-icm Asa conremr 1985, the trip rate for low income residents of low-income Asian countries Jakarta was two-thirds that of high income groups and the average trip distance of low income groups MW&acM . . was about half that of high income groups. C_- - The differential in trip making between rich and ChnWbmf - - * poor can be seen with some clarity in Jakarta where - - .- - 60 percent of low income trips are on foot and 63 Gn"4 c : = = , , * percent of high income trips areby car. Undoubtedly gmrn-w - - - . similar disparities exist in other low-income coun- gma nM = - - - - tries, with the notable exception of China. A adn"1= - - _ Middle-income countries U.i,biV (II) _ - - -i _ Urban travel characteristics of middle-income coun- KUIJ.UOUI) c = 1. - - -tries are presented in Annex 1 Tables and and are =4 c - I - I ~ - - -- .summarized in Figure 2.8. _ _ _ _ _ Data on all modes are only available for cities in Sur.boya nii = _ T _Korea and Malaysia where it would appear that ra.wI walking and non-motorized modes are less signifi- KWNO ___ _-cant than in low-income countries. In most middle- lOW a 60 40 20 0 2 40 60 W 10D incomecitiesbususepredominatesbutinsomecities Odhwtruuport Pubflctrmspat such as Seoul, and more recently, Manila and Pusan, Sonru Annex Table 12. rail systems are beginning to take a share of public ________________________________ transport trips. 32 KORE Datafor Koreaarederivedffromcompre- MMALYSu In 1984, around one third of tips hensive urban transport studies undetaken In 1982 were made by car and one third by bus. Motorcycles Since then Pusan has put into service a 32 kIlometer and walldng accounted each for ten percent of trips subway line and the metro system in Seoul has ex- with non-motorized vehicles (two percent) and tas panded from one line, 7.8 kilomneters in length to (eight percent) making up the remainder. eight lines, 117 kilometers in length. Thevastmajority of ripsnbothcites werebybus THE PHnIUIqNE. In Metro Manila, there were an in1982,withcasaccountingforless Ohanten percent esimated 16.3 million person trips per day in 1989 of all trips. Shce then, the rise in car ownership and and the majority are by public transport. Jeepneys the rapid increase in motorcycle use (estimated to account for 75 pecent of public transport trips while have grown at 15 percent annualy since 1983 ) will the LRT system accounts for only a modest three have lead to more trips being made by these modes. percent. Within the LRT corridor, the system is re- This can be seen in the case of Seoul where, In the ported to carry 35 percent of public transport de- six years between 1982 and 1986, car trips increased mand and has led to a 15 to 20 percent reduction in from nine percent to 16.6 percent. During the same vehicle flow (principally jeepneys). period, the subway increased its share from 7.4 per- Car usage has increased from 26 percent of motor- centto16.8percentandtheproportionoftripsbybus ized trips 1980 to 35 percent in 1989 despite recent decresed from 66.6 percent to 50.6 percent. years of slow economic growth . Although comparative data are not available for Pusan, it would appear that a similar phenomenon THAMAND. The majority of trips in Bangkok are has occured there as it is reported that since the by bus and by car but an increasing proportion of opening of the subway, one third of bus passengers tnips are beng made by motorcycle as people search have diverted to the subway along the mass transit for ways to cut through traffic jams. conridor. The average trip length in Bangkok is currenty estimated tobe 6.6 kilometers and is forecast to reach over ten kIlometers within he next fifteen years due ___________________________ t to the continued expansion of the city . Figure2.8 Percentageoftripsbypublic Despite the plethora of studies on Bangkok's trnport and by non-public truport modes in urban transport system, data on travel time is illu- selected citie in middleincome A: 'an countries sive. Journey times are neverte onsidered ex- cesve and,worstof al, unpredibeduringthe MI BUS working day for all modes of trans . cm Ril Speed data indicate that buses (which have the Korea advantage of using bus lanes) actually travel at psn (1982 speedsfaster thancars dunngpeakhours,indicati that the door-to-door time advantages of cars over Seou (1962) buses may be very little in the city. Mdayda High-income comties [uda The travel caracteristics of lare ciaties in high-in- Lumpur _ come countries are differentiated from such cities in rmpphm low- and middle-ncome countre by the relatively higher use of mass rapid transit and commuter rail Mandla (196) systems. Overtwo-thirds of motorized trips inOsaka and Tokyo are by rail based public transport. Thdlad Figure 2.9 presents the breakdown of public trans- Blcgkk -.198) 1port and non-public transport motonzed trips in Bangkok .9~) _ _ - selected high income countries. The lack of data on % 100 50 0 so 1W waDking and the use of non-motorized vehicles in Nan-pui tso*rt Public ftrnsxt transport studies in high-income countries probably means the use of these modes is both insignificadt So= Amx Table L and not problematic to the performance of the trans- port systenL 33 HONGKONG. Around90percentoftripsinHong JAPAN. The proportion of bus trips in Japanese Kog are made by public transport and a quarter of cities is very low (accounting, in 1985, for 3.6 percent, ihesewerebymzrin 1988. As canbeseen from Figure 6A percent and 8.4 percent of motorized trips in 2.22, below, the proporion of trips by the MRT has Osaka, Tokyo and Nagoya rpectively) compared more thn doubled between 1980 and 1988. with other cities in high-income countries in the The sht to rail mass transit in Hong Kong has region. been at the expense of ferry services (which saw their In Osaka and Tokyo the majority of trips are by shre of trips dedine from nine percent in 1976 to rail (subway and commuter rail) reaching as high in three percent by 1988) and minbuse. The quantity 1985 as 73 percent of motorized trips in Tokyo and of minibus has been held constant by Govenmuent 65 percent in Osaka. In Nagoya, which is repre- dnce 1976, resulting in a decline in their share of trips sentative of smaller cities, the majority (around 60 fm 28 percent in 1976 to 17 percent by 1988. percent) of motorized trips in 1985 were by car. Rail Bus services maintained their 46 percent share of trips accounted for 28 percent of the total which is public tansport trips from 1976 (before the introduc- still a higher proportion than in any other city in the tion of the MrT) to 1980 (after the Mxr went into region outside of Japan. service) after which there was a minor decline to 43 The only comprehensive data available concem- pecent by 1988. ing the proportion of walking and bicycle/motorcy- It is reported that by 1988, car ownership fell detripsisforTokyo.Walkingaccountsforl3percent sharply as a result of restraint tuxes but bus flows of totll commuting trips in central Tokyo, higher incased and congestion remains as severe as ever. than the Metropolitan Region average of seven per- Average joumey times are reportedly around 30 cent. Bicycles and motorcycles are used more for minutes for all mode& commuting (presumably to rail stations) in the outer suburbs of Tokyo, where they acoDunt for between SINGAPORE. The majority of trips in Singapore ten and 25 percent of trips, than in the center (where are by bus but the MRT syst, whih began opera- they accoDunt for 11 percent of trips). dions in 1987, had already accounted for 14 percent of daily public transport trips by 1989. Urban freight transport Cifies throughout the world are cenders of consump- tion and production. It is not surprisin& therefore, Figure 2.9 Percentage of trips by public ftport that inbound feight usually exceeds outbound or and by non-publc transport byodes in selected "back haul" freight in terms of volume. dtie in high-income Asian counties This is the case with most cities in Asia and this mtE hAn uS directional imbalance in rad-based figit volumes Hong Kmg Rail oftencausesoutbound truckstobeemptyandinbound trucks to be overldod in an effort to reoDver the costs Hong r _of the round trip journey on the inbound trip. Kong (1986) Overloading is also caused by seasonal peak de- mands exceeding the capacity of the trucking fleet. Japan Often truck fleets do not expand to meet peak de- mands because competition for available 'back Naga (1996) LElhaul' is already severe. The impact of such overload- ing in Bangkok is illustrated in Box 2.4. OSaka (19F6) The dirctonal imbalance of freight also causes congestion due to outbound truclks queuing for Tokyo (1966 hours and sometimes days to pick up "back-haul" cargo. The nature of this problem canbe observed in % lW s 50 o SD 00 Bangkok, where in 1988, ihe annual tonnage of in- Non-publc fapowt Public nspt bound cargo (41A million tons) was nearly fourtimes higher than outbound cargo (11.1 million tons) and Sul ADrSXTb 12 where inbound laden trips (3.7 milLion) were thuee times higher than outbound laden tips (1.1 nillion). 34 Trucks are estimated to represent 20 percent of tween 15hOD and 21hOO cvery day exccpt official total vehicle flow (excluding motorcycles) in Bang- holidays. Small cargo vehicles whose tare weight is kok and the truck flect has been increasing at 12.5 less than 1600 kg are exempt from thcse restrictions. percent annually between 1982 and 1988. These restrictions apply to moving vehicles. In Pusan, between 1973 and 1983, daily urban Therefore, when the restricted period begins, trucks freight volumesincreascdfrom75,000tonsto295,000 must stop wherever they are inside the dty and asa tons; a fourfold increase in ten years. The majority of result many trucks end up parked on inner-city freight in Pusan is nmving within the city accounting streets for many hours. for 50 percent of daily volumes in 1983 (compared There are several designated truck routes which with 46 percent of inbound/outbound volumes and allows premises along these routes to bc serviced at four percentof "through volumes).Trucksandvans all times. accounted for around 20 percent of traffic volumes in 1983. JAKARTA. Trucks whose gross vehicle weight is Intryingtocopewithcongestioncausedbyfreight heavier than 3.5 tons are not allowed to enter the traffic, many cities in the region have instituted downtown area of Jakarta in the moming between 'truck bans" which operate by time of day and/or 07hOO and 09:00 and in the aftcmoon between 15hOO alongcertain roads or within certain areasof thecity. and 17h00 on weekdays and between 07hOO and Distribution centers and freight terminals have been 09hOO and between 13h00 and 15hOO on Saturdays. built and proposed in many cities to resolve the These restrictions do not apply to trucks owned by problem of truck parking. the Government and the Army, nor to trucks used for the transportation of fuel, food and cement. Truck bans Articulated trucks are not allowed into the city between 06hOO and MOO- tractors with 20 foot con- Anumberof largecitiesindevelopingcountrieshave tainer are banned from the city between 06hOO and imposed truck bans of various forms. They fall into 22hOO; and tractors with 40 foot containers are two categories: area-wide bans and routelimitations. banned from the city at aU times. These vehicles are Bangkok and Jakarta use the first type of restriction, allowed on the toll roads, ring roads and harbor while Manila the second. roads at all times. The following detailed descriptions provide an example of truck ban operations in these cities: MANILA. The passage of trucks is banned on eleven specific routes in Metro-Manila between BANGKOK. Four and six-wheeled trucks are re- 07hOO and 09hOO and between 16hOO and 19hOO, stricted in the Greater Bangkok Area during peak Monday through Friday. hours (06h00-09h00 and 16hO-20hOO) every day ex- Where these measures have been introduced they cept official and school holidays. Ten wheelers and have contributed to the alleviation of traffic conges- larger trucks are restricted in the morning between tion, but they have caused other problems. 06hOO and lOhOO and in the afternoon/evening be- Congestionhasbeenshiftedtotheperipheryof cities where long lines of trucks are observed waiting for the end of restricted time period for entering the city. Box 2.4 Truck overloading in 8angkok Large trucks are forced to limit their operation to onlyoff-peak hoursorduringnighttime, which signifi- The loading of trucks beyond the legal limit is com- cantlyreduces truckutilization rates and usersof truck- monplace. Even government trucks are consciously ing services suffer from inconveniences due to overloaded. It is not uncommon fora 10-wheel truck s (tare weight 8 tonncs, legal payload 13 tonnes) to be shortened service times and also from higher freght 60 percent o.erloaded (ic. a gross weight of nearly charges. 29 tonncs instead of 21 tonnes). Such a heavy load concentrated in a single 10-wheel truck causes as Freight tetminils much damage to the highway pavement as five ve- hicles loaded to the legal limit. Few freight terminals have been built in the region Sowrce Senth Plan Urban and RWia TrTAuJrtL, Work- outside of Japan. Most truck operators do not under- ing Paper No. Freight, Halcrow Fox, 1990 (May). stand the benefits of using truck terminals. In most developing countries the majority of truck operators 35 are "owner-drivers" or small family-owned compa- nies. They try hard to minimize out-of-pocket cash Box 2.6 Truck park use in Jakarta expenditures and, so long as the use of truck termi- nals incurs what are perceived as "extra" costs, they The Bekasi Truck Park is comprised of a fencod-in will not use them (see Box 2.5, below). site lying at the north of Jakarta with access from the main road through gate-house. The site offers no facilitics other than partially paved land. The site is Truck park no longer in use because truckers were unwilling to pay a premium foruse of a site offering no Inprove- Truck parks are designated areas where trucks can rr;.ntsoverthe existing roadside.Outsidethe site, for park for short periods of time, awaiting prearranged some listance, on both sides of the road, trucks and time for ollection ordelivery, instructions regarding traile*., were parked on the edges of the road, either awaiting the tirne of day when they could legally next assignments, or permitted time to cnter the city. enter Jakarta, or transshipping loads from trailer Some of the truck parks are just fenced rough Street vendors, tire repair agencies and other small grounds, whilc others are leveled parking areas with traders were very much in evidence. proper entrance/exit arrangements and eating/rcst- Soura: Rtad Freight Transport in rm Aras, icrow ing facilities. Fox and AssOdates with DuC Interational Inc, 1986 Currently, therc do not seem to be any truck pa rks in use in the Rcgion. The main reason for this is that, as long as there is a charge for the use of these ledge their reasonableness. Their effectiveness also facilities, truckers tend not to use them (see Box 2.6). depends on the extent to which they are enforced. Enforcement is the responsibility of the police and Traffic laws and enforcement tthe courts. In many developing countries in the Re- gion, the police force allocated to traffic duties is Traffic laws are rarely enforced in developing coun- usually understaffed and inadequately trained to try cities in the region. In many cases the laws them- manage the traffic flow let aloneenforce the law. And selves date back to legislation drawn up in colonial the courts are too overwhelmed to prosecute ade- times or are derived from traffic codes in the North quately the cases brought before them. The result, in America, Europe or Japan. Whatever the reason, the too many cities, is an unhealthy disrespect of traffic laws often do not reflect conditions in developing regulations. country cities. Since traffic regulations can only be InJapan, thedevelopmentoftrafficlawsandregu- effective when pedestrians and drivers observe lations has kept pace with the growth inmotorization them, they depend on the extent to which the vast and mobility. Efforts have also been made to rein- niajority of people understand them and adknow- force and expand the number and quality of traffic police. L_________________________________ 5 Generally speaking Japanese traffic police are comunitted and enthusiastic about their work. Fur- Box 2.5 Truck terminal use in Surabaya thermore,sincethereisacomparisonoftheincidence of traffic fatalities and accidents occurring within aU The Sidotopo Terminal was built in Surabaya in prefectures in Japan is conducted annually, there is 1975. It is now jointly operated by a private sector a certain degree of competitiveness among different and city governmenL It offers parking and ware- housing facilities, along with canteen and hostel All areas in their efforts to reduce the number of traffic trucks are required to pass through the terminal and accidents. make payments. For many of the users, it represents In many ci ties in the region, pedestrians and driv- only atollcollectionpointandnotafacility forcargo ers alike are unfamiliar with traffic regulations. In handling. It is understood that many trucks pass surveys undertaken by the Central Road Research straight through, paying their due, only to g a receipt which, if they are subsequently stopped by Institute of India it was found that 50 percent of the police, provide an evidence of compliance with driving license holders had no knowledge of traffic the regulation:. rules and that 63 perc-ent admitted they did r.ot ob- serve the rules of the road. SDwc &xt Frih un8spt mO Urban Anus, H;alcow Fox and Assodates with BUE Internationl Inc, 198& In trying to grapple with congestion, traffic police often ignore traffic regulations and overrule traffic 36 engineering devices that appear to get in the way of in the Region. As a general rulc, the greater is the keeping the traffic moving. degree of regulation the less cfficient is the servicc In Manila, it is reported that the operation of the and the greater is the need for subsidy. In some computer controlled ATC system was greatly ham- countries, public transport operations are highly pered by the tendency of the police on point duty to regulated as they are perceived as social services. In request that the traffic signals be placed under man- others, regulations are designed to protect the con- ual control during peak periods. The independent sumer from unsafc or unreliable operators. In some, manual operation of signalized junctions negated the regulations are designed to attract potential car users vcry advantages of the ATC system which are to link to public transport and/or bus users to mass rapid signal timings between junctions. Similar problems transit. exist in Bangkok. The most frequently regulated aspects of public Traffic police are usually underpaid and over- transport operations are the fares. Often such regu- worked with few incentives to improve their per- lations inhibit the development of the very service formance when confronting thousands of irate they are designed to protect by not allowing opera- commutersduringcongested peak hours. In Manila, tors to raise fares to meet rising costs or vary fare an experimcntal scheme was introduced in 1989 at 60 structures according to different levels of service. In intersections to improve the enforcement of traffic some cascs fares are regulated in such a way as to laws and minimizc the manual control of traffic sig- allow public sector operations to cover costs but also nals. provide a bench mark above which private operators Under this scheme, local companics sponsored par- would not hike fares unreasonably. ticularintersectionsand wereallowed free publicity in The growth of informal paratransit operations is the form of dedicated signs. In return the companies often a market response to an over-regulated public paid allowances to the traffic police including meals, transport system. Paratransit services are also regu- uniforms,etc. Thescheme isreported tohavehad some lated in many countries by route or area franchising measure of success but detailed "before-and-after systems. In others, the development of paratransit is study results are as yet unavailable. limited by regulations on vehicle imports or registra- Often the traffic police become de facto traffic tions. In this way, Hong Kong allowed the bus compa- engineers and traffic planners either because of their nies to flourish while ridership was eroded from inherent legal powers or due to the lack of such minibusoperatorswhosevehicleflectandcompetitive- professional staff in the city. ness was 'stabilized' during the growth of the MRT. Restrictions on the supply of buses in the public Urban transport administration and regulation and private sectors in Jakarta have contributed, along with inefficiencies in service operation, to peak hour Providing for the many and expanding needs of the bus passenger transport volumes remaining static urban transport sector in the Region is often frus- between 1985 and 1990. It is estimated that if the trated by institutional weakness. There are consider- supply of buses had been allowed to increase, there ableproblemsinvolvedinmanagingurban transport would have been a 21 percent growth in passenger services and in coordinating urban transport plans volumes ovcr the same five year period. and the provision of urban transport infrastructure. For t}.e public sector to providc sufficient bus A characteristic of most cities is the very large capacity vould cost anestimated US$28.0 million;an number of different agencies responsile for the vari- alternative would be for the public sector to concen- ous modes of transport and infrastructure require- trate its funding on the provision of bus priority ments as well as the overall planning and infrastructure and allow new private operators to developmentof the urban transportsystenmThishas take care of bus fleet expansion which is currently often led to overlapping responsibilities with a resul- restricted below requirements by regulation. tant lack of clarity as to who does what. Despite the proliferation of public transport regu- There is also evidence of insufficient numbers of lations in Asia, the region is relatively well endowed trained staff and this has been perceived as a major with public transport services compared with devel- factor inhibiting the sector's development over the oping countries in other regions of the world. This past decade. does not mean there is not room for improvement in The most frequently regulated urban transport Asia: bus companies in China, India, Indonesia and service is public transport. Bus operations are regu- Pakistan provide less than adequate servicesatenor- lated with varying degrees of intensity in every city mouscost to thenational and municipal budgets. The 37 private sector, both formal and infornal, is alive and of local production of urban transport equipment is well in the provision of road based public transport presented in Table 2.9 below. services in most countries in the region (with the notablc exception of China). Expansion of services is Urban transport cons ultancy more often hampered by regulation than by capital or entrepreneurship. Consultant firms with specialized urban transport Fortunately, the region provides sufficient exam- sr rices have developed in the Region over the past ples and varieties of "regulations that work' in Hong decade in Australia, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Kong, Korea and Singapore to serve as models for Japan, Korea, Taiwan (China) and Thailand. improving the regulation of public transport else- Many urban transport studies are, nevertheless, where. still being undertaken by European and North American consultancy firms. But, in more and more Urban transport equipment and countries, these non-regional firms are associating consultancy services with local firms and/or regionally based firms. Outside Europe and North America, the market for Financing of the urban transport sector urban transport equipmentand servicesin Asia must beoneofthelargestintheworld.Fromavailabledata Over the past decade, the growth in traffic has out- it has been possible to tabulate a total of 120,000 paced the rate of investinent in urban transport in- vehicles in the bus fleets of 48 of the 101 cities with frastructure and services in most cities throughout populations in excess of one million. To this must be the Region. In many cases, both national gover- added the 1,900 LRT units and 6,500 MRT units iden- ments and city authorities have been unable or un- tifiedin thelargercitiesof the regionallof whichrun willing to address these needs by mobilizing on some 1,300 kilometers of electrified double track additional revenues from the sector, either by in- Japan alone has 120,000 traffic signals; the total for creasing prices or by reducing subsidies. the region is probably well over one million. Consultancy services have been used extensively Expenditure throughout the region. Every major city and many seDondarycities have had atleastone "urban transpor- Typically, the public sector is involved in financing taton study' undertaken by consultants, several capi- some or all of the following. urban transport infra- tal cities have had many such studies. Major studies structure, urban public transport equipment and op- using extensive consultant assistance are on-going in erations, maintenance of urban roads, traffic mianycitiesinChina,India,Indonesia,Korea,Malaysia, management and traffic enforcement. In most coun- Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand. tries the scale of funding in the sector is quite large. The volume and value of trade in the manufacture and supply of equipmcnt and in the provision of Table 2.9 Urban transportequipment production consultancy services is, however, not in any way in selected Asian countries fuly documented. It is therefore impossible to assess Ta7it ysms its extent; it is undoubtedly significant. Trffic Urban transport equinnent Country Rail Bus signals Low income It would appear that there has been a considerable China 1 growth in the production of urban transport equip- India X A ment in Asia in the pastdecade. Whereas in the 1970s, Indonesia x x X most equipment was imported into the region from Middle income Europe and North America, the 1980s saw the begin- KoIa IL A ning of local production of equipment such as traffic Philippines .. signals and Japan has become a major supplier of High income road and rail based public transport vehicles and Australia IL IL IL associated equipment. Japan L. IL a A complete inventory of manufacturers and sup- L = mom, x = less;.. =unkno. pliers is not available but an indication of the extent Soww Janes Urban Transport Systems, 1989. 38 In many countries the distribution of funding is Total expenditure on transport between 1976 and skewed over time, geographically, by city size 1985 amounted to US$4.9 billion of which the private and/or importance and by sub-sectoral preferences sector provided 71 percent of funds. As a percentage or demands. of public cxpenditure and of CDP, government in- In Indonesia, it is estimated that between 1984 and vestment in transport peaked at 6.6 percent and 1.3 1989 nearly 50 percent of all public sector urban percent in 1982-83, but decreased to 25 percent and infrastructurc expenditure was allocated to the OA percent in 1986-87. However, when govemment urban transport sector. Urban road expenditures equitycontributionstotheMTRCareincludedin 1981, (funded equally by central and local govemrnment peak transport investments reach 13.5 percent of resources) accounted for only 16 percent of the total. total public sector expenditure and 2.6 percent of The remaining 34 percent was for public transport GDP. investments principally in rail investments, rehabili- In Thailand, annual capital expenditure on trans- tation and operations in Jakarta. Around 80 percent port in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region accounted of the costs of these urban bus and rail services were for around 20 percent of government budget be- being met entirely by central government resources. tween 1985 and 1988 increasing to 25 percent in 1990. With the exception of Beijing and Tianjin, urban While the public sector was responsible for all capital transport expenditure in China has been negligible expenditure until 1988, since then, there has been a until relatively recently. For example, annual invest- conscious decision on the part of the government to ments in urban transport infrastructure in Shanghai reduce its share to around 40 percent by the end of quadrupled between 1983 and 1985 from US$20 mil- the current national plan in 1992. The remaining 60 lion to US$80 million and have averaged US$115 percent is to be funded by the private sector. million in 1986 and 1987 (which, in 1987, represented about six percent of municipal tax receipts after de- Sources of revenue ducting transfers to central government). Currently, Shanghai is planning to spend in excess As in most parts of the world, in Asia urban transport of US$380 million annually on urban transport infra- investmnuts and operations are financed from taxa- structure which represents around three percent of tion, user charges (such as fares), borrowing and Gross Regional Product (CRP) and is the upper limit private investment. Certain countries in Asia, how- of affordability in the sector when one considers that ever, make also make extensive use of the private typical levels of transport investmcnt in developing sector in the provision of urban transport services. countries are close to five percent of GDP. Although In Shanghai, taxes on vehicles and transport high compared to historical levels, this investment is which could be considered as user fees are estimated still below the expenditure required to finance the to generate around two-thirds of the funds for urban needs evidenced by Shanghai's present transport transport investment expenditure (at three percent of situation, which is near crisis. GRP) . These comprise a Highway Maintenance Fee In Hong Kong, govemmcnt expenditure on trans- (a tax on vehicle use), a bicycle tax and vehicle u tili- port by 1988 had largely becn devoted to new high- zation taxes By intemational standards, road trans- wayprojects. Largesumshadbeenspentonbuilding port users in Shanghai pay a high percentage of the MRT and improving rail facilities. Smaller transport costs. amounts had been spent on improving the airport, In Hong Kong, where the majority of cxpenditure port facilities and public transport. All public trans- in urban transport sector is by the private sector, port modes in Hong Kong are operated either by public sector urban transport revenues make a sig- private companies or by independent govemment nificant net contribution to the govemment's fi- corporations. The only public transport costs in- nances. In fiscal 1987/88, transport expenditures curred by government concern the provision of bus were 56 percent of land transport revenue. Fuel taxes terminals and ferry piers. Private investments by the (31 percent), vehicle registration taxes (31 percent) bus, tramway and ferry companies are excluded and vehicle licenses (22 percent) generated over 80 from the government's expenditure accounts, as is percent of revenue in the sector. the investment by the Mass Transit Railway Corpo- In India, urban road infrastructure is financed ration (MTRC), which amounted to nearly US$3.2 bil- from general local govemment revenues (property lion between 1975 and 1988 (and includes US$0.9 taxes and "octroi"-a tax on merchandise entering billion as equity contribution from govermment and municipal jurisdictions) and from state budget allo- US$23 billion provided by commercial loans). cations (in the form of grants to local governmcnts 39 and/or in the form of allocations to state agencies to 25 percent. In one case, the ticket collector noticed whicd provide infrastructure within urban areas). he was being watched and threw his ticket book out The central government also provides funds to the of the bus window which suggests that he had even states for road construction, some of which are used printed his own forged tickets and these were being in urban areas. issued to passengers in lieu of the real ones! Central and stategovcrnmentroad transportreve- In Korea and in high-income countries such as nues are derived from fuel taxes, vehicle registration Hong Kong and Singaporc, road based urban public and licensing fees, and tariffs and taxes on the pur- transport is provided by the private sector and fare chase of motor vehicles and parts. Between 1974 and revenues covcr expenditures. Unlike most cities in 1981, it is estimated that nationally road transport Asian middle-income developing countries, Korean expenditures were around 40 percent of revenues. citieshavebeen able to maintain investment in infra- City corporations and municipalities tax road trans- structureand municipal servicesat high levels. Much port through the "octroi". These revenues and prop- of this due to a strong municipal financial base and erty taxes (whiclh are usually assessed on rental effective management of municipal finances and values and are kept artificially low because of rent services. control) provideinsufficientfundsforurbanservices In the case of Taegu (the third largest city in let alone major urban road investments with the Korea), the municipality has historically allocated result that state agencies are assuming an ever in- about half of its general account to capital expendi- creasing share of total road expenditures. tures and in most years has recorded a surplus cash Public transport revenues do not meet expendi- balance of around ten percent of revenues. In 1985, tures in public sector bus operations in India. Low urban transport investments were estimated to rep- fares, delays in fare increascs and the non-reimburse- resent 40 percent of capital expenditures. Local taxes ment by state governments of concessions to student provide the majority of revenues and these are based bus riders coupled with inefficient operations and on land prices which have risen continuously in the high staff per bus ratios are the main causesof public past and which reflect, albeit indirectly, investmnent sectorbuscompanydeficits.Staterunbuscompanies and/or improvement in the urban road systerm. In generated losses of US$100 million in 1985 which addition, the ity issues 'highway bonds" to finance were metby subsidies from state and central govern- urban transport infrastructure. These bonds are a ment general revenues. form of earmnarked revenue and compulsory savings In most low-income countries public sector bus since their purchase is mandatory for residents reg- operations do not recover their expenditures from istering vehicles in the city . fares. A major cause of inadequate fare revenue is Bond issues are also being used in Bombay by the "leakage", either through passengers simply not city development corporation to finance a new rail paying the fare or through ticket collectors pocketing link between the city and New Bombay. The bonds a proportion of fare revenues. The extent of such fare are to be serviced from revenues from property de- 'leakage" is rarelyknown,admittedor documented. velopmentalong therail corridor and at rail stations. A study of fare leakage in Karachi provides some In searching for sources of revenue to finance interesting insights into the extent of losses which urban transport infrastructure, local governments in can occur through this practice. In a survey of 25,000 Japan are using taxation instruments which are tar- passengers and 170 trips, it was discovered that tick- geted to those who benefit most from the proposed ets were not issued to 46 percent of passengers Given investment. For instance, in 1980 the Sendai Munici- that some passengers without tickets travel free le- pal Govcrnrnent established a Special Railway Fund gally (police, bus company staff, etc), the actual non- to finance metro construction costs. The resources of ticketed passengers are estimated to be 40 percent. In this fund are provided by earmarking the incremen- a floating survey it was found that leakage occurred tal revenue derived from a 14.5 percent increase in through evasion by passengers (nine percent of the local corporation and business establishment taxes. surveyors were not asked to pay) and diversion by Similar schemes operate in Sapporo, Fukuoka and ticketcollectors (16percentof surveyorspaid thefare Kitakyushu . but received no ticket). The results of the two surveys indicate that leak- Cost shaing schemes age from passenger evasion probably accounts for between 15 and 20 percent of potential fare revenue Cost sharing schemes with participation from the and that fare diversion accounts foran additional 20 public sector and private developers or the conunu- 40 nity are being used more and more in some Asian of stations, in order to persuade transport operators cities to finance urgently needed urban transport to build an additional station for their needs. infrastructure. Cost sharing is sometimes used for local road Injapan, the government has issued guidelines on improvements where property owners contribute ways to share the cost of transport infrastructure land for urban transport needs. In one scheme in between public transport operators (both public and Medan, Indonesia, private landowners contributed private sector) and land developers for the construc- land for road widening (one private property owner tion of extensions to mass transit systems to serve donated land eight meters wide and 1.8 kilometers new town development projects in Chiba and Sen- in length) and for new road construction. Private poku. Key features of these cost sharing schemes are landowners have also contribution funds for small presented in Box 2.7. road construction projects and footpaths (as well as Another cost sharing procedure used in Japan for various public and religious buildings). commercially less attractive, but publicly desirable, Land and property development schemes on a projects such as community transit services is the largerscaleused to be linked to thedevelopmentand "Fhird Sector Scheme." Under this scheme, joint ven- extension of urban rail systems in Europe and North ture companies can be set up by municipal govern- America at the turn of the century. Private railway ments with equity contributions from the builder-cum-operators became skilled property de- municipality, industries and major leading compa- velopers at the time and the profits from land and nies such as banks and power companies. property development contributed significantly to The Kobe New Transit System company was set the investrnent cost of the rail operation. up in this way to build and operate an ACT system to These processes are still alive and well in Japan link Kobe Port Island with the CBD. The shares of this where the Tokyu Corporation (which is one of the joint venture company are owned by the Kobe City leading urban ail companies in Japan) undertook an Municipality (55 %), commercial banks 22%), lead- integrated 20 kilometer long urban rail and 3,000 ing companies in the city (13%) and companies in- hectare land development project over a period of volved in the project itself (%). some 25 years (1960 to 1984). The site has grown from For smaller urban transport investments, volun- being a vast and hilly area, scarcely inhabited and tzuy cost sharing schemes are common in Japan. underdeveloped, to a city of 440,000 people with an Wal communities often share the construction costs extended rail and bus service network. As is the case with most major private rail lines in Japan, the rail construction and operation costs are fully recovered by the farebox. Land and property development gains do not need to be, and legally BoxZ7 Costsharing guidelines formass canot be, earmarked to recover the costs of rail transit links to new towns in Japan construction and operations. However, the land and property development profits have contributed to Ca) thedcveionerpaystotheopueratorhaifofthe the financial success of the Tokyu Corporation structio Group in such a way that any credit the group (b) within thenew town area, thedevelopersels needed to finance urban rail expenditure would have the lnd for the urban rail system to the operator at been readily available at very favorablc terms (and a market price which reflects its undeveloped value; probably from within the Tokyu Group of Compa- (c) outside the now town area, the developer nies itself if needed). pays the operator the differncec in prire for land at its historic undeveloped value and its actual value (which will have risen due to the proximity of the Concessions and BOT new town development); and (d) onthebasisoftheabovecontributionsbythe In many cases the private sector is not willing to developer, central and local goverments will each wholly finance urban transport infrastructure due to provide grant funding up to 18 percent of the con- structicm cost of the urban rafl system. the risks involved in recovering te high start up costs of construction and provision of equipment Sawc- PriuieFinancig of Uphwa Tqunspart Inm5sruchar and/or rolling stock. An incentive which has bcen in Asia, Tecdmical Note Series for Urban rrmsport in Asi: An Operational StrakteW for the 199(s (d=at), Asro, traditionally used to mitigate these risks is the grant- March 1991. ing of an exclusive operating franchise to the private investor to operate the service without fear of com- 41 petition fora suffcient time to enable him to recuper- placed on the complementary costs to be borne by ate his investment and make a profit. government as a result of the BOT scheme or as a The concession arrangements which provided the result of the Oar scheme being operational ahead of bulk of urban public transport in developing coun- govemment's expenditure plans. DOT bridges, tun- tries and in developed countries in the past are being nels and elevated expressways need access roads, revitalized and refurbished in Asia in the forn of major utility diversions, etc and the opportunity cost Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) schemes as a way of to the public sector in providing these can be high. attracting private sector capital, entrepreneurship, In the caseof both the Tate's Caim Tunnel and the management skills and efficiencies into a sector Eastern Harbour Crossing, the Hong Kong govern- which is unable to develop, modemize and expand ment was obliged to commit expenditure to provide under public sector tutelage. feeder mads. The nature and potential of MOT schemes in the The procedures adopted in Hong Kong for provisionofurban transportinfrastructureservicesare processing BOT projects are summarized in Box 2.8. sunmaiized in later sections of this report. Theexperi- ercewiththefewBsoschemeswhichhavebeenimnple- INDONESIA. The Govemment of Indonesia has mented in the region is discussed below as part of the been a proponent of privately financed urban and alternative sources of urban transport infrastructure inter-urban toll roads for many years and has invited financing which are being tried in the region. private secor interest in 17 projects nationwide and BOT has been used in Hong Kong and Indonesia established guidelines for private capital investment in to finance toll facilitics; attempts are being made to toR roads. Theseguidelines are summarized in Box 2.9. begin Bor schemes in Thailand. These three coun- The sole DOT project to date is the North-South tries, therefore, provide the state of the art in term Linkexpressway,inJakarta.Thisisanclevateddual- of DOT practical experience in the region. carriageway toll road which opened recently after being constructed on a tight time schedule. The pri- HONG KONG. In Hong Kong, the government vate sector interests are all domestic and funding is rationale for supporting BOT operations is that they understood to be from a combination of sources believe the private sector is more efficient. By using including loans fom state banks. the private sector and MOT it reduces the need for more govemment borrowing, it avoids expansion of the cvivlservice and avoids raising more tax revenue. All of these are beneficial to government. Box 2.8 BaT procedures in Hong Kong Furthermore, the Hong Kong government has a conviction that the private sector is more efficient During the initial stages of the BOT process, the oGv- and responsive to demand than government itself emnment undertakes the following analyses of the thus thecompletion timesof BOT projectsareextraor- I poJpqc (a) an econonic appraisal to ensure it is of real dmanarly rapid, and far more so than gDvemment benefit to the community; could realize. (b) an evaluation of the cost to government; Govemment experiences to date with DoT have (c) a financial appraisal to determine likely re- involved the following projects: turms and cash flow characteristics; Cross Harbor Tunnel (1960s): a single-soutrce award (d) an establishment of acceptable tariffs; and in which government was forced to contribute 25 (e) ariskanalysisandcontingmncyplanifthings gowrong. percent of the equity owing to unfortunate tining; Before bidding, the following stops are taken: Eastern Harbor Crossing (1984): attempted pre- (a) thegovenmentestimatesofcapitalcost,op- ernptive bids were rejected and were followed by a eratingcosts,trafficand revenue,and financingcosts competitivebiddingprocessafterextensivefinancial are put in a sealed envelope which is opened after analyis bygovernent ad dfinedthe vabiliy of bids are received; and analysis by governmnent had defined the viability of (b) the govenunent defines in detail its strategy the project, and for negotiations, the timetable and organization. Tates Cairn Tunnel (1988): where a very substan- The competitive bidding process is a two stage tial amount of preliminary work was undertaken by procedur with bidders shortlisted to around three government and followed by competitive bidding. followed by parallel compeitive negotiations until In Hong Kong thc goverrunent has leamtbyexpe- rience that it is preferable to be the instigator rather SbW PrimteFw.dingofTmsprt nfmstrmclure in Asis, than the receiver of BoT proposals. Hong Kong has i ilport K J.. 199a also leamt that considerable emphasis needs to be 42 Tabl L10 Transport cncusiona i Bangkok Box 2.9 wT procedum In Indonesia Of Civil La"t USS soar pcedure aren poce by Pr J a NV Iec coutvt worb kuw (bWo) government coporation dchawrd with and opermting tol rod in IndonesT. Expriways 173 3 r cono ae shorteisted for each toll road and - DonMung (0) 1989 Imminent 16 033 quired to submit priminay febltytudleS TheSaord wgkcted cnsortium b then granted the right to nr- qSe Exp. (* 1988 ud y 32 138 gotiate the concdon within the folwng fram enSan work: (a) the. u eufilblddershouldfDmlolnntven- Sp stalled none 22 029 tore with Jm Mugas he til d nd .ll land Ranpit assoclated with itis owned bythestateand theJoint Siabui rejected* unudway 73 021 venture company builds It and operates It for a con- Tbird Stage cession period Exp. awarded none 30 0.79 (b) tie tol road should be an altnative to an &%s 94 5 efdstg road and be at let four ns wide; Tra/ (c)the i rs ble for the asRasm. and acquisition of all layd for the toil ad nd ht 3 13 expropriation procedures2 andS2 (d) the tol evd Is deamined by Presidential H n none 60 292 Executive Order and is set such that about half the reduction in vehice operat cost and time rt- Toga 267 lID5 h8 from use of the toll road accrues to the usa and * uobtm by gvro3 halfaccrues as tolls to the joint venture comnpay. a. indueb s b e Sourc Pivate Fb;mQaof EN = Th_t Wfipd Sam"= SJP Uran sd Rgama Tp Sha*d, ES- us Aia, Tedudial Note S!; for Ubnmr oItin 0WR, 19. AWL An OperaIonl Staty for tw 1990. A AW March 199L Distribution of id by aunby 1989by questionnaifom donor countries (excdud- Only ten low- and middle-incme countri have ingtheusAwhichdidnotrespond)andfrmtheADD benefitted Iom exenal aid in urban tansport be- and UNDP. Data amccrning the World Bank was twee 1980 and 1989. Of hose ounies with sinifi- collected fro'n Staff Appraisal Repots and Loan cant urban populations and/or major cities, Document. Banglesh, Korea CDPR), Lao PDR, Mongolia, Viet- Data is available from all respoding agncies, nam and, snce 1985, Malaysia wOuld appear from except Japan for 1990. The analyds is, threfore, lim- ited to the period 1980-1989 given the disrtons which would have occurrd in 1990 without data Box 210 Experience with DoT pwposals i from Japan (whikh is a major source of extrnal aid Bagh k in the sector). Where appropriate, data for 1990 is commented on separately. Mostproectsare not finncialyviable witoutpub- Extemal aid flowing into the urban tansport sec- hcer ibidy. torinAsiaamountedtosomeUSS1.9billionbetween There is no effectve s of prct devep 1980 and 1989. Just over two-thids of this amount Government has been reactive and sometimes was allocated to what are currently defined as lw- pre-empted by evets. The result is a multitude of income countries and the bulk of the remander to compethg projects producing bad tanspot pbn- mniddle-income ecutiies. I ve en men im and cmOsrU- The annual flows of total extemal aid in the sector ton diffigvalbues. are uneven over the period but show a steady in- and risks. In certain cases the govenment may be crease between 1984 and 1988. Somewhat surpris- liable forrgeompensatndais. ingly, middle-income countneshave seen their share F ey, there may be c impacts of aid incease fom less than ten percent in 1980 to wwe " otE 32 percent by 1989. SrJ SnenUuPall dwsn =RiTraxu*PtSu, Eswul Report, 199L 43 the data colected to have not been recipients of US$10 million was in the form of equity Investment external aid In the sector. and USS$6 milLion was in the form of tedcical The geographic distribution of urban transport asstance giants. aid varies coniderably by country Income group The United Nations Development Program and by geographic location With the low.income (UNDP) and the United Nations Economic and Sodal group ofcountries, Indonesia was themajorreciplent Cmmiion for Asia and the Pacific (EscAP) has country for all urban transport aid in the region, provldedatotalofUS$1.2millionfortechnicalassis- receiving more than four times the amount dlocated tance programs in 1987 and 1989. to India. Other low-income countries (Sri Lanka, Clearly, Japan and the World Bank provide the China and Pakistan) received only small amounts vast majority of resources to both low- and middle- (see Figure 2.10) income countries with Japan providing a greater The distribution among middle-income countries share to middle income countries. Apart from Japan is more balanced with Thailand, the Philippines and and Australia, other bilateral funding, although Korea accounting for around one third each and with small, has been made exclusively to low-income Malaysia accounting for the remaining two percent counties. UNDP assistance has been concentrated in (see Figure 2.10). middle-income counties and (until 1990) ADB fund- The geographic distibution of aid to the sector ing has been directed at low-income counties. during the period 1980 to 1989 confirms the shift detected during the past decade in global bilateal Figure 2.10 Geogruphic distnbution of extrn and multilatral aid from South Asia to South East aid in the urban transport sector in Asia by Asia. South Asian countries received only 18 per cent low-income country group (1980-1989) of urban transport aid even though these countries accounted for 39 percent of the total population of Tolo minieo Asia in 1990 and 24 per cent of the region's urban (TotUSSllion) population. Extnal aid in the sector has also been quite un- Se i L 78.7) 62_ evenly distributed in terms of dollars per urban in- Pakjj (S49.6) 39% habitant The rtio varies from US$0.10 in the case of China to US$21.9 in the case of Sri Lanka, a two (KU)5 hundred fold difference. Sources of aid kndiaff.3) 163% Japan was the main source of bilateral financig in Mu Q the urban transport sector in Asia between 1980 and 1989 withUS$1.1 billion, which represents59 perent Indonesia (S871.4) 68.6% of total aid (see Figure 2.11) and 91 percent of all bilateral aid. Oher bilateral resources amountig to US$108 million or six percent of the total were provided by Australia, France, Germany and the tl US$59.9 mmiinm) United Kingdom dunng the period. Funding from multilateral agencies in urban Thailand (205.4)34.6% transport in Asia amounted to US$657 million or 35 Malaysia(59.6) 1.6% percent of the total for the perod 1980 to 1989. The main source of funds was the World Bank Group which provided US$ 603.1 million whih represents 32 percent of the total and 92 percent of al multilat- eral aid. Phlipie ($190A4) 32.1% The Asian Development Bank and Fund (for non- concessional and concessional aid, respectively) ea ($187.5) 31.6% beg to allocate resources totalling US$53 niliion to the sector in 1988 and 1989. A further US$132.6 mil- lion has been allocated by the ADB in 1990 and 1991 Soure Etw Frn and Urbn Trtn m Asina, C. Di of which USS120 million was in the fonn of loans, am, 1991 (upiblshed draft) Figure Lii Sources of external aid in ffe urba of which US$120 million was in the fonn of loans, transport sector h Asia (19o 0 n1969) US$10 million was in the form of equity investment and US$26 million was in the form of technical assistance grants. ToW USS17 million The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the United NationS Economnic and Social OtherBilateral Commission for Asia and the Pacfic (ESCAP) has ($107.6) 5.W. provided a total of US$1.2 million for technical assis- tarce programs in 1987 and 1989. World B n Clearly, Japan and the World Bank provide the (5603.1)32.3% vast majority of resources to both low- and middle- income countries with Japan providing a greater share to ziddle income countries. Apart from Japan and Australia, other bilateral funding, although small has been made exclusively to low-income japan countries. UNDP assistance has been concentrated in Other multilateral ($1,100.8) 59% middle-income countries and (until 1990) ADB fund- (S54.2) 299/% ing has been directed at low-income countries. ra;t and the World Bank Smtrz Extfnd Finandng and Urhn Transport in Ask, C. Diou, msmi, 1991 (unpubihed draft). The share of World Bank resources has been over- shadowed considerably over the period by the Asia in 1990 and 24 per cent of the region's urban growth of resources from Japan. Between 1980 and population. 1989, the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund Extenal aid in the sector has also been qute un- (OEcP) has provided loans totalling US$ 1.054 billion evenly distributed in terms of dollars per urban in- equivalent for 34 urban trasport pwjects and the habitant The ratio varies from US$0.10 in lle case of Japan Interatonal Cooperation Agency (ICA) has China to US$21.9 in the case of Sri Lanka, a two provided grants totalling US$46.7 million equivalent hundred fold difference. for 33 technical assistance projects. Even before 1980, the World Bank and Japan Sources of aid dominated the urban trasport sector in Asia. Lend- ing began in 1972 for the World Bank (with a US$16 Japan was the main source of bilateral finandng in million urban tansport loan in Kuala Lumpur) and the urban transport sector in Asia between 1980 and for OBCF (with a US$90 million loan for metro con- 1969 with US$1 .1 billion, which represnts 59 percent struction in Seoul). The scope of these projects (road of total aid (see Figure 2.11) and 91 percet of all in the case of the World Bank and rail in the case of bilateal aid. Other bilateral resources amounting to oECF) was to dominate and differentiate each US$108 million or six percent of the total were agency's approachto thesectorformanyyearsinthe provided by Australia, France, Germany and the region. jicA begn providing technical assistance in United Kingdom during the period. 1971/72 with an urban transport study in Manila. Funding from multilateral agencies in urban Since 1972, Japan has consistently provided more tansport in Asia amounted to US$657 million or 35 resources (US$13 billion or US$74 million per year) percent of the total for the period 1980 to 1989. The to the sector in Asia than the World Bank (US$0.7 mnain source of funds was the World Bank Group billion or US$41 million per year). The increase in which provided US$ 603.1 million which represents resources from Japan and the World Bank was al- 32 percent of the total and 92 percent of all muldlat- most identical (a 4.3 to 4.8 increase) between the eral aid. decade of the 1970s and the decade of the 1980s. The Asian Development Bank and Fund (for non- Since 1972, Japan has consistently focussed aid in concessional and concessional aid, respectively) the sector in South East Asia. Indonesia has been the begantoaLlocateresourcestotHngUS$53 milionto largest recient country, accounfing for 47 percent the sector in 1988 and 1989. A further US$132.6 mil- of total Japanese aid in the sector. Thailand and the lion has been allocated by the ADB in 1990 and 1991 Philippines foblow with 21 percent and 14 percent 45 respectively. In comparison, the assistance provided (with grter emphasis on the former in the 1970s and by Japan in the sector to India, China and other on the latter in the 1980s). Bank lending was provided countries has been low. either in the form of ree-standing urban transport In the 1970's, the World Bank focussed more aid projecs (of which there were nine) or as componen in the sector toward South Asia; the latter accounted within ulban devdopment projects (of which tere for around 81 percent of lending (India and Pakistan were 22). accounted for 60 percent and 20 percent of loans Components included investments in road con- respectively). In the 1960's, Bank lending shifted to- stuction, street improvement, road maintenance, ward South East Asian countries which accounted traffic management, bus rehabilitation and acquisi- for 75 percent of loans (Indonesia and Korea ac- ffon, bus facilities (depots, maintenance, terminal, countedfor44percentand29percentofloansrespec- etc.) and bus priority schemes, pedestrian facilities tively). India, in particular saw its share of World and technical assistance and training. Emphasls was Bank urban transport lending fall from 60.7 percet given to short-to-medium term investments in road- in the 1970s to 20.4 percent by the 1980s. related infrastucture and services, the low cost op- Since 1972, Bank urban transport lending oc- tions which make the best use of existing facilities. curred in eight countries (plus China in 1991): hIdia The Bank has to date not allocated resources to the (12 loans), Indonesia (three loans), Korea (six loans), urban rail sector (with the exception of trams in Malaysia (two loans), Pakistan (one loan), Philippi- Calcutta, which represent 3.7 percent of the Asia nes (four loans), Sri Lanka (one loan) and Thailand lending program because it was judged that the pro- (two loans). posed projects did not meet economic and financial In some cases, especially in the earlier years, criteria. repeater" projects were undertaken by the Banc in By contrast, Japan has allocated 52 percent of its KualaLumpur(inl972andl976),inBombay(inl977 resources to urban rail (mass rapid transit in Cal- and 1985), in Calcutta (in 1978,1980, and 1983) and cutta, Seoul and Beijing and commuter rail in Indo- in Madras (in 1978,1980 and 1988). nesia, Kiorea and the Philippines) and 40 percent of World Bank urban transport lending in Asia was its resources to urban roads (principally urban toll driven by the twin objectives of World Bank urban roads in Jakarta and major highways elsewhere). policy: povertyalleviation and improvedityeffidency Figure 212 Sectoral focus of extenal aid to the Figure 2.13 Sources of aid in Asia by sector urban transport sector in Asia (1980-1989) (1980-1989) 100 100_ 90- Road Bu public tawport Wo ____ank 1 Rail Tecicl dstance so - =Traffic Rail sf OBsT management ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ auNemn 70 mwgmt70 60 60 Sore soFars rx nm,CDu 50w 91(npbidd) 501 xt ig UrTe AiCDjN 40640 30 3 20 2 10 IC 0 World Bwnk Japan Cox=er AR 0 Road Rail Traffic Bus Tedhnical Other AsoN199 EzunaubFisagend drat). SOW=prtmAk C EXtV7&dFAndncg and UrbanTiunqorH n Asia, C. Dimu, ASI?4, 1991 ,Iiahed draft). A=4N,1991 (UMublhised&drft). 46 The fundamentally different approaches taken by Although their overall share was very modest, other the major sources of extemal aid to the sector in Asia bilateral donors allocated 19 percent of their aid to has been the cause of friction in some cases in the the rail sector. past. The Japanese approach to urban transport is Traffic management (US$156.3 million) represented based on the long term development of urban rail a modest A percent of all extemal aid. The majority of systems without which most cities in Japan would aid (62 percent) to this sector was allocated by the have been engulfed in car induced traffic chaos. This World Bank with Japan providing 30 percent and other approach has in the past been sometimes perceived donors the remaining eight percent. by the Bank as promoling large scale, costly projects Technical assistance and bus-relaecd activities ac- which only solve part of the problem and which are count for seven and five percent respectively of total inefficient compared with alternative uses for the aid. The najority of technical assistance funds (43 often massive resources involved. percent) were provided by the World Bank; Japan The World Bank approach hasbeen seenby Japan and other donors provided the remaining 38 and 19 as being wider in scope and more closely related to percent respectively. The vast rnajority of assistance other sectoral needs. It has also been seen as leading to bus public transport was provided by the World to piece meal solutions which although less costly Bank which accounted for 70 percent of the total. initially, increase reliance on road based transport Japan provided no assistance to the bus sector and systems, especially buses, which cannot cope with for other donors it represented 18 percent of their the increasingdemands for mobilityand mass transit total allocations. in major cities in the region. Since 1989, there has been a noticeable increase of Since 1989, the Asia Technical DLepartment of the around US$370 mnillion in the resources of bilateral World Bank and the Ministry of Transport in Japan donors other than Japan targeted at the urban rail have had two infonnal discussions on the different sector. ln1990,theUnitedKingdomallocated resources approaches taken in the past and are beginning to (US$52.6 million) to the Beijing Subway, France learn from each other's experiences in a sector where provided funds (US$18 million) to supervise the con- there are no straightforward solu tions. These discus- struction of the Jabotabek (Jakarta Region) railway and sions are on-going and it is hoped that the pooling of in 1991,Genrianyprovided financing (US$300 rnillion) experiencebetween Japan, the World Bank and other for the first stage of the Shanghai metro. bilateral and multilateral agencieswilllead toa more In addition 1990 witnessed the addition of two comprehensive and collaborative approach to the newdonorcountries to thesectorinAsia:Spain(with allocation of external aid to the sector in the 1990s. US$19.6 million allocated for traffic management in Indonesia) and Canada (with US$0.7 million allo- Sectoral focus of external aid cated to technical assZtance in the sector in China). When the analysis of the sectoral focus of urban Impact and benefips of aid transport aid is expanded to include all donors, it can be seen tht each donor has a specific approach to Judging by the severe congestion to be found cur- recipient requests. The breakdown of aid by sector rently in most cities which have benefitted from ex- and donor is presented by donor in Figure 2.12 and ternal aid in the 1980s, the first reaction would be to by sector in Figure 2.13. say that the impact has been minimal! However, the A major share of external aid (US$0.9 billion or 47 total volume of external aid has been very small and percent of the total) was allocated to the urban road the scope of interventions has been very discrete. infrastructure sector (for urban road construction, The total volume of external aid in the sector for improvement and maintenance). Japan in fact con- the wholeof Asia forthe tenyearsbetween 1980 and tributed themost totheroadsector(US$445.7million 1989 is less than half of total urban transport expen- or51 percent) although it only represented 40 percent diture of Hong Kong in the ten year period between of total Japanese aid and this sector was always 1976 and 1985, and a quarter of proposed expendi- thought of as dominated by the World Bank. tures on Bso schemes in Bangkok. Urban rail investments take second place in terms Rarely has external aid been directed at solving of sectoral focus accounting for US$613.9 million or problems throughout the urban transport system in 33 percent of all aid. Over 90 percent of urban rail a given city or country. Usually such aid is directed related aid was provided by japan which also allo- at one or more critical, but nevertheless discrete, cated the majority (51 percent) of itsaid to thissector. components of the system and/or at specific geog- 47 raphic locations within the city. Hence problems not specific projects have been negatcd by disbenefits addressed in one part of the system often engulf elsewhere in the system (for example, the provision solutions addressed in another part of the systemn. of bus lanes without the provision of adequate bus In assessing the impact of aid, there is little quan- services); tifiable data on results outside of the World Bank. * lack of continuity (due to shifts in funding Most external aid projects have been built and most priorities,staffing,oradministrativeresponsibilities) technical assistance studies and training have taken hasleft manycities without the means tobuildon the place. Change has occurred as a result of external aid; experiences of what are often innovative and new in assessing the impact of this change it is worth approaches to problems in the sector; looking at the positive and negative results in so far * the time taken toprepare, approveandexecute as thcse can be assessed. projectsand programsis too long and the procedures On the positive side: involved in obtaining assistance are seen as over complicated and cumbersome (especially in the case * most projects and technical assistance pro- of the World Bank); grams have met their objectives; * insomecasesdonorover-enthusiasmwithpar- * most projects have been economically viable ticular approaches or modes of transport have (with rates of return in the 25 to 35 percent range in caused rejection or failure of projects (in the mid- the case of World Bank projects) including those in 1970s the World Bank stance on rail resulted in the the rail sector (the Seoul metro is estimated to have Bank being excluded from Singapore and the Bank's an economic rate of return of around 17 percent); enthusiasm with Area Licensing was rejected in * World Bank projects have been by and large Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur, and Bank projects have cost effective in their use of scarce resources; not materialized in either city ever since); - traffic management projects and technical as- * in other cases, bilateral agency enthusiasm sistance have changed attitudes in many cities in with the scope for exporting a particular technology favor of using low-cost traffic engineering tech- has resulted in a less than cost effective use of re- niques to make full use of existing facilities and sources (such cases range from over sophisticated manage traffic more efficiently; traffic signal technology to costly urban rail systems); a bus companies in several cities, especially in * in many cases, there has been an over-ernpha- India, have benefitted from more efficientoperations sis on the provision of civil works and equipment at as a result of World Bank projects; the expense of policy development, institutional de- - thefocusoflendingtowardalleviatingpoverty velopment, deregulation and issues conceming by the World Bank in the 1970s and early 1980s has fares; benefitted low income residents of many cities by * although often cited as the raison d'etre of inter- ensuring their concerns were not ignored in trans- vention in the sector, little attempt has been made to port planning and by improving their access to af- use urban transport assistance to reshape or improve fordable urban transport services; inefficient urban development patterns; and * replicability(extensionofprojectconceptsbe- * throughout the region, external aid has had vond the scope of the original project) has been little effect on the rising tide of motorization (urban achieved in several cases (the expansion of the bus rail schemes which were designed to reduce car use lane network in Bangkok, privatization of bus serv- have in fact only reduced bus ridership). ices in Kuala Lumpur; traffic management in Korea); and Appropriateness of aid * technical assistance, in the form of studies and training, has introduced innovative thinking and Several issues in the sector have not been addressed greater self reliance for those responsible for manag- by external aid; some of these have only emerged ing the sector in many cities. recently but many have been there for a long time. The environment, the use of non-motorized vehi- On the negative side: des, the needs of pedestrians, paratransit, safety, urban freight and the movement of goods, the pri- * in many cases, interventions were too limited vate sector provision of infrastructure and the inter- in scope with the result that benefits achieved by relationship of urban transport infrastructure and 48 urban development are some of the important as- tion schemes have not been an important part of pects of the sector which have not been addressed In external aid focus. Given the scale of traffic accidents external aid programs and projects in the 1980s. in developing countries gencrally and in Asian cities In addition, at least with regard to World Bank in particular, this is somewhat surprising. projects, less emphasis seems to have been given to Urban freight forms the life blood of many Asian urban poverty in recent urban transport projects two cities, cspecially port cities which are numerous in projects in Indonesia in 1988 estimated that only six the region. Little attention has been given to freight percent and twelve percent of project investnents movements apart from several studies financed by: would benefit the poorand, in thecase of oneproject in Korea in 1988, urban poverty is not mentioned. * JICA in Indonesia (Jakarta Harbour Road Pro- The lack of attention to the environment is of ject in 1980-82) and Thailand (Bangkok Urban Truck particular concern. This is probably due to the envi- Terminals Construction Project in 1978-80); ronment not being given sufficient attention by the * ADAB in the Philippincs (Metro Manila Urban world community until relatively recently, to there TransportationStrategyPlanningProject:Truck Op- not being any appropriate and affordable solutions erations in 1984); available and to the issue being secn as of national * the World Bank in Indonesia as part of a high- rather than urban importance in terms of dealing ways projcct (Land Transport Dcvelopment Plan: with vehicle emissions (through changing gasoline Rcad Freight Transport in Urban Areas in 1986); and and retrofitting vehicles). * UNDP in Bangkok (Seventh Plan Urban and Only very recently and in China, has any real Regional Transport study in 199'- .01). attention been given by external aid agencies to the needs of non-motorized vehicles in the region. Sev- The role of the private sector in the provision of eral initiatives of a research nature have been under- urban transport services has always been of concern taken by the United Kingdom through its Transport to the World Bank which has consistently advocated and Road Research Laboratory but little has been the privatization of bus services as being a more achieved on the ground to facilitate the use of this efficient way of improving productivity, account- important mode of transport. Pedestrians have been ability and performance while ensuring affordability short-changed by extemal aid agencies. World Bank to the users, especially the poor. projects have financed pedestrian facilities as a con- The Bank has noted with interest the move toward sequence of traffic management schemes (pedestrian privatization of infrastructure through BOT opera- overpasses, pedestrian crossings, etc) but little has tions but has only very recently begun to intervene been done to study the needs of pedestrians, the in the process (in a possible project in Karachi, majority of whom are poor, or finance meaningful through technical assistance in Manila and through facilities for them. possible IFC participation in Bangkok). The ADB has The lack of attention to non-motorized vehicles recently provided equity in one scheme in Bangkok and pedestrians is partly explained by the lack of and UNDP has financed a study in Bangkok which export potential on the part of bilateral donors and looked into transportconcessions in depth as well as partly by not knowing what could be done until other transport issues in the city. traffic issues werebrought under control (apart from The interrelationship between urban transport in- providing bicycle lanes and sidewalks when oppor- frastructure and urban dev. lopment has escaped the tunities arose) on the part of multilateral agencies, in attention of all donors in the sector induding Japan particular the World Bank. which has the most experience, albeit in the private Given the scale of paratransit operations through- sector, of integrated mass transit and urban develop- out the region, it is surprising that little attention has ment schemes. been given to this fundamental means of transport Apart from two abortive attempts to introduce for the poor. Apart from studies of public transport traffic restraint in the late 1970s by the Wo:Id Bank, operations undertaken by research institutions in the measures to deal with motorization have also eluded UK, France and the USA, little has been done even in the attention of external aid in the regiom The grow- World Bank projects to assist paratransit in the 1980s. ing tide of motorcycles hasnotbeen addressed in any Road safety has been the concern of several bilat- projects or technical assistance programs. eral donors in the transport sector but little has per- While external donors have not addressed these colated through to the urban transport sector in a issues, several countries in the region have. Hong meaningful way. Clearly, traffic engineering Kong was the first country to integrate mass transit schemesimprovesafetybutspecificaccidentpreven- and urban developrent through the leasing of air 49 nghtsaboveMRTstations. HongKongandSingapore would be proud of. Sadly, neither Hong Kong nor have taken steps to manage demand and, in the case Singapore provide external aid ... yet! of Singapore, to deal realistically with car ownership, To sum up, thebenefitsof external aid in the sector improve the environment and provide facilities for have been visible, albeit marginal. For external aid to pedestrians. Both cities/countries have urban trans- be more meaningful it needs to adapt to the changing port systems which most other cities in the world issues of the sector in the region. This is the subject of the next part of this report. 50 Part Three: Prospects for the * _( *~ .,{.177990s Introduction * improving the urban environment: through the provision of environmentally friendly urban The performance of thc urban transport sector in transportservicesand infrastructurewhicharebene- Asia in the 1980s has been mixed. In city states such fiial to the form of urban growth; and as Singapore and Hong Kong it has performed re- * ensuring financial viability: through the financ- markably well in keeping pace with the growth in ing of urban transport services and infrastructure in a demand of people and goods. Elsewhere, in low- and way which is affordable to local governments and to all middle-income countries alike, conditions have de- users of the urban transport system teriorated and as the decade of the 1990s unfolds, the predominant legacies of the 1980s in the region are: In meeting these challenges, the region has estab- lished an impressive record in the development of * increasing motorization and use of motor ve- the following, at times innovative, responses which hicles in cities; are proving to be successful in improving the per- * chronic traffic congestion coupled with in- formance of individual parts of the system: creased air pollution, fuel consumption, travel costs and joumey times; and enhancing economic productivty: * need for the systematic accomodation of the separate needs of motorists, public transport, freight * Singapore has demonstrated that the com- vehicles, non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians. bined effects of restraining motorization, restricting vehicle use and providing efficient, affordable and It is clear that the demands on the sector will be attractivepublictransportservicescanavoid conges- even greater throughout the region in the 1990s and tion; and that new approaches arc needed to rectify the issues * toll expressways arebeing introduced in Indo- inherited from the past and meet the followingchal- nesia and Thailand as differentially priced alterna- lenges of the future: tives for the motorist to the congested road network. * enhancing economic productivity: through incesing personal mobility: serving the transport neods of urban business and industry; * paratransit services have survived initial at- * increasing personal mobility through improv- temnpts to restrict them and now provide the back- ing access by all clemcnts of the population to urban bone of services for the poor (especially in smaller services and jobs; cities); and 51 * Hong Kong and Manila have introduced the tions with regard to moving people which can be first LRT systems into the region outside of Australia taken within the urban transport system to reduce and Japan. congestion: improving the urban environment: * reducing vehicular travel demand; and * increasing passenger carrying capacity. * China and Japan have demonstrated that the bicycle can be a low-cost, environmentally friendly Vehiculartravel demand isa productof motoriza- and energy efficient alternativc to motorized travel tion and the use of motorized vehicles for trip mak- for short trips; ing. A clearer understanding of motorization trends * vehiclc emission controls and unleaded fuel in Asia and possible control measures is an essential are being introduced in several countries in South ingredient to managing motorized vehicle use in East Asia as a first step in mitigating the detrimental Asian cities. Managing the use of motorized vehicles environmental effects of motorization; and and thecapacity of theroad network withincitiescan * area traffic control has becn used effectively in be achieved through traffic management measures. Singapore to reduce fuel consumption. Reducing vehide demand within congested urban areas involves demand management. ensuring fina ncal viabil ty: In smaler cities and in cities where congestion b widely dispersed, traffic management measures can * efficient road based public transport services increase capacity and channel more effectively de- have been developed in Hong Kong, Korea, Malaysia mand. In the highy congested centes of most larW and Singapore as a result of private sector initiative; cities in the region,however, littlenorecapacitycan be * Thailand is expanding the urban transport derived frm traffic management shmes and the network in Bangkok through the private sector pro- are not enough resources, time or space to provide vision of rail based urban mass transit systems and suffiient road infasucture to meet current or e- toll expressways; pected demand. With congestion levels so high that * bond issues are being used in Korea and in they are beginning to impact directly on city produc- Bombay as a supplement to tax revenues for financ- tivity, demand management is no longer a theoretical ing urban transport infrastructure; and option. It is central to relieving congestion now and in * development agencies have made significant the future and must be firmly plaed on the urban contributions to the sector in the form of technical trnsport agenda for cities throughout the region. assistance, project funding and the supply of equip- Increasing passenger carrying capacity is the ment which have helped sustain its development in ram of public transport systems. Improvments in recipient countries throughout the 1980s. bus operations and the provision of bus priority facilities in the road network can achieve higher It is now time to capitalize on the initiatives and passenger carying capacitiesinpublic transportsys- experiences of Asian countries and development tems. In large cities, where passenger demand is agencies alike in the 1980s to meet the challenges of concentrated along corridors serving city centers in- the 1990s. In this endeavor, the World Bank has the creased capacity can also be achieved through mass opportunity to play an important role in the devel- tansit systms opment of the sector and in the role of the sector in Given that in most cities in the region with popu- the development process lations in excess of five million, conventional bus systems can no longer cope with city center induced Economic productivity public transport travel demands, increasing passen- ger carrying capacity with nass transit is an ageda As a result of the review of the performance of the item for the 1990s in many cities in the region. urban transport sector in Asia presented in Part Freight movementsareof equal importancetocity Two of this report, it is clear that the economic productivityaspassengermovements,buttheneeds productivity of most cities in the region is being of freight are often overlooked in dealing with traffic constrained by congestion. In Bangkok, people congestion. Measures to streamrdine freight transport conduct business with cellular car phones in air in cities will need to be considered in the urban conditioned limousines while spending hours in transport agenda for Asian cities to serve the goods Bangkok's traffic jams. There are basically two ac- tansport needs of commerce and industry. 52 An agenda for managing congestion requires ac- tion in the following four areas: Box 3.1 A research agenda motorization * motorization; Topic 1: Suppressed demand * demand management; trendsi * mass transit; and Scoscten an motorization gavcndre- * urban freight. prospective growth In incomes and iberalization policies. Molorization Output: directed at providing govem- ments with realistic and practi- While motorized vehicle ownership levels in Asia are demand and supply to avoid still well below those of industrialized countries, congestion in urban areas. motorization is on the rise in the majority of cities. At Countries: China, Vietnam thebeginningof the 1980s, there wasa largediversity in vehicle ownership levels in developing countries Topic 2 Motorccles in the region. The range is now narrowing upward Scope: analysis of factors which pro- in South East Asia with the dramatic risc in motorcy- mote motorcycle ownership in cle ownership. It will narrow further in the 1990s and low- and middle income coun- the rate of increase will undoubtedly exceed expec- tries in Asia. tations (just as it has historically). The reasons for this Output: trends in ownership and options are well known: ~~~~~~~~~~~~for regulation of demnand and are well known: supply in urban areas. Countries: India, Indonesia, Thailand * historicallycar ownership increases rapidly with rises in income and can double or triple within a dec- Topic 3: Control measures ade; the same probably holds true for motorcydes; Scope analysis of measures adopted in * cars and motorcycles have a personal mobility Asia to control vehicle owner- value as well as a status value with the result that ship and their impacts, successes rises in vehicle ownershi p have proved very difficult and failures. to contain; and Output: recommendations concerning * several countries in the region consider the car the use and potential impact of (and motorcycle) industTy asofstratgicimportancecontrol measures on motoriza- (and motorcycle) industry as Of strategic importance tion growth rates in low- and for industrial development and encourage the devel- middle-income Asian countries. opmcnt of domestic markets which further stimu- Countries: Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore lates vehicle ownership. As vehicle ownership is the driving force in urban areas for stimulating demand and causing congestion, faiure (with area licensingpromotedby the World Bank, a dearer understanding of trends and possible control in the case of Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur,). measures is essential. The World Bank has an opportu- Success and failure seem to depend on several nity to initiate and support research into motorization factors: in Asia in threc important areas (Box 3.1): a success is clearly linked to the availability of * suppressed demand; alternative forms of public transport which are at- * motorcycles; and tractive to the motorist; but * control measures. * failure is caused by inadequate planning and marketing of the concept and its benefits for all Demand management users, particularly the motorist; and * failure is also associated with pricing mech- The region has a rich experience in trying to avoid con- anisms being perceived as sources of extra revenue gestion in city centers by modulating the demand for for government rather than sources of funding to urban rnotorized car trips through traffic restraint meas- improve the urban transport system for all users. ures and pricing mxehanisms. In Singapore, the experi- Without some form of restraint, the future of ence has been successful but elsewhere there has been Asian cities in rapidly developing low- and middle- 53 incomc countries in Asia looks bleak - even for thosc countries which think they can afford the massive Box 3.2 Electronic road pricing in rcsources necessary for thc scale of infrastructure to Hong Kong (1983-1985) meet anticipated denand. The more cor Ieling argument in favor of re- uThe21-month pilot stageof Hong Kong'sElectronic straint is that not only does congestion become man- Road Pricing (Ear) Scheme, lasting from July 1983 to ageable but also the scale of investment in road March1985, demonstrated the technical feasibility of ERP. infrastructure is less. This should allow for invest- Emu is a fonn of automatic vehicle identification ment in public transport which should be more cost (Avi), in which each vehicle has an electronic number effective in moving people than cars. plate-the size of a video-cassette tape-mounted This approach was taken initially with area licens- undemeath the vehicle. ing, traffic management and bus based public trans- Whenever a vehicle passes over a toll site, an interrogator power loop embedded beneath the road port in Singaporc and congestion was kept under surface sends out electronic signals to the moving control. However more recently, Singapore has vehicle's numberplate and relays the vehicle's iden- made major investments in rail mass transit and tification code to a roadside computer. urban expressways. Hence, even with demand man- iThe data is transmitted to the control centre via uageent hexreissways Hnee , ee withl dband mans- dedicated lines. The system sends a monthly bill to agement there Is a need for additional urban trans- the motorist giving a breakdown of the toll sites port infrastructure. crossed, similar to a long distance telephone bilL The linkage of demand management (through li- In addition, roadside closed-circuit television censing or congestion pricing) with mass transit is cameras automatically shoot pictures of vehicles being seen by many as the way to overcome political with fulty or tampered number plates. and popular opposition to what are perceived as The technical and econonmic feasibility of the ESP system based on a true subset of the full system was unacceptable restrictions on personal mobility. found to be above the performance equirement, oc- It is clear that mass transit itself is no cure for ceeding wedl over 99% effectiveness and reliability" congestion and that many of the benefits expectd S| w: RsdPriig:APraporHlmgKangT.D. Hau, from mass transit could be achieved in a more cost- 1989 effective way with restraint measures. It can be argued that in major cities, with high levels of motorization, traffic restraint is unachiev- able today without upper-scale mass transit to pro- and not insignificant recurrent costs (estimated at vide motorists with an acceptable alternative. It can around US$2.5 million annually in Hong Kong) but alsobeargued thatproperroadtransportpricinghas expeeriece in Hong Kong suggests that with beneit- becn shown to be an irreducible requisite to mass cost ratios in the order of 14 to 1, these costs are more transit as a form of traffic restraint, unless physical than recovered by the benefits that would accme. restraint of road transport is possible. In most congested city centers in major cities in This dual approach is being recommnended in Asia, little more capacity can be derived from traffic Bangkok where the development of a mass transit management schemes and there are not enough re- system is seen asprovidinga high quality alternative sources, time or space to provide sufficient road means of transport to the private car or motorcydle infrastructure to meet current or expected demand. and therefore an opportunity for the progressive With congestion levels so high that they are begin- introduction of area road pricing This could well be ning to impact directly on city productivity, demand the way through the demand management dilemma management is no longer a theoretical option. It is which has plagued Bangkok for nearly a decade. central to relieving congestion now and in the future Developments in technology may soon enable and must be firmly placed on the urban transport road pricing to bc more applicable, with electronic agenda for cities throughout the region. road vehicle licenses or number plates being charged Strategiesand action plans need tobeprepared for in relation to vehicle use as routinely as using and each major city and differentiated according to cur- paying for teleplone calls (by distance, duration, rent and potential levels of congestion: time of day and equipment features). This technol- ogy has becn available since 1983 (Box 32). * curativestrategies torelievehighlevelsofcon- Electronic road pricing requires substantial initial gestion and avoid it increasing; and investment costs (estimated to have been in the order * preventive strategies: to avoid severe conges- of US$30millionforafullsysteminHongKonginl985) tion beginning. 54 Curative strategies for highly congested cities will * monitoring the introduction of ElectronicRoad embrace the dual approach being advocated for Pricing technology and tariff structures in high-in- Bangkok. This is clearly appropriate in cities that come countries in the region (Singapore and Hong have or are planning mass transit facilities (such as Kong); Calcutta, Delhi, Jakarta, Karachi, Manila, Pusan and * promoting pilot schernes to test the appropri- Seoul) but demand pricing mechanisms will require ateness of such technology in low- and middle-in- considerable marketing to overcome the resistanceof come countries; and motorists. * developing measures for controlling the use of Preventive strategies for smaller, less congested all vehiclesin thecontextofrapidlyrisingmotorcycle citiesand for largercities with low motorization rates owncrship. (such as can be found in Bangladesh and China currently) will initially make use of traditional meth- In addition, the agenda would need to take into ods (such as traffic management, parking controls account the real problems involved in persuading and charges, and bus priority measures) to pave the motorists to pay for commuting by car or give up way for thc progressive introduction of pricing using the car forcormnuting. The Bank, in collabora- mechanisms as congestion builds up. tion with otherdevelopment agencies, has an oppor- Research is needed into demand management tunity to assist governments in anticipating the measures for controlling motorcycle use in cities. resistance of motorists to demand mianagernent and Physical measures may prove more difficult to en- in preparing appropriate marketing strategies to force than pricing mechanisms given the ability of overcome such resistance. motorcycles to cut through or across physical barri- ers. Afss twansit It will be important for the World Bank and other development agencies active in the region to take a In the past the Bank has taken the position that leadership role in dernand management. borrowers should be encouraged to compare capital- The agenda for the World Bank with regard to intensive mass transit systems with other less expen- demand management provides the opportunity for sive systems and to carefully appraise the incorporating appropriate curative and preventive implicationsof suchmapDrinvestmentsinthecontext congestion strategies in current and prospective of the priorities of the city's or country's overal lending operations (Box 3.3) and monitoring devel- public investmnent program. In many cases, the opments in technology through: Bank's assessment of mass transit systems revealed Box 3.3 Demand management strategies Preventu wongeston strates Curatie wongestion strategies Objective avoid congestion developing in the future reduce existing congestion Approach: progressive restriction on car use in CBD restriction on car use in cBD, sub centers, and major transit corridors Methods: physical, pricing, and planning mechanisms traffic control, transit, pricing, and urban renewal mechanisms Scope: traffic management, pedestrian streets, bus lanes, mass transit, car pooling, area licensing, parking restrictions, localized (coD) area licensing, electyronic road pricing, area wide traffic calming traffic control, designation of environmental areas/standards Countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Indonesia, Korea, Philippines, Thailand Pakistan, Philippines Cities: Small to medium-sized Large 55 that it would have been better to have increased the to the exclusive use of buses. But several Initiatives capacity of existing bus services through bus priority are being taken in Asia to develop elevated "transit- measures, such as exclusivebusways and better road ways" which allow for conversion from exclusive access. bus use to light rail (see Box 3.4). In Asia, most cities in predominantly low-income Bank support for the progressive and incremental countries could not afford to cven consider mass-tran- development of mass transit systems is warranted in sit. Several cities in middle-incomc countries could large cities in low-income countries and in smnaller afford mass transit and did not follow this advice. but fastgrowingcitiesinmiddlc-incomecountriesin Metros have been constructed in Pusan and Seoul in the region as corridor flows are increasing and can- Korea, an elevated light rail system is operating in not realisticallybehandledbybuslanesad infinitum. Manila and contracts are being negotiated for sevcral This involves recognizing the longevity of mass rail-based systemsin Bangkok. Buswayshavenotbeen transit systems and viewing their performance built in Asian cities and Bangkok is the only city in the within a long term context when comparing their region to have made extensive use of bus lanes to costs and benefits with other more cxpedient alter- improve the performance of the bus system. natives. It also involves designing infrastructure to The argument for less costly busway systems is be compatible with changes in technology such that persuasivc. Brazil has developed an extensive and increases in system capacity can be achieved cost-ef- often high capacity system of busways in nearly all fectively at later dates without disruption to opera- metropolitan areas. But in many cases in Brazil, tions. The proposals under consideration in Karachi busways were not considered as the alternative to andJakartaandthedevelopmentof"pre-metro"(LRT mass transit; they were and are considered as a first deigned to be upgraded to MRT) systems in Germany stage in moving toward rail-based mass transit. The provide useful examples of how this can be done. most sophisticated busway system in the world in Studies of the performance of mass transit sys- the city of Curitiba was designed over a decade ago tems, usually rail-based, in developing countries with gradients and curves to permit a later conver- show that no system has been able to pay its way, sion to light rail. except for those in very high income cities (Hong The lack of enthusiasm with busways in Asia can Kong and Singapore). Even those that carry very bepartlyexplainedbythelackofroadspacetodevote high passenger volumes (such as in Mexico City) with apparently very good urban structure impacts, still impose burdensome and unsustainable subsidy Box 3.4 Transitway proposals int Karadhi payments on government. This presents a dilemma for governments and de- 'Me convcrtible transitway is seen as a fortuitously velopment agencies such as the World Bank when flcxiblc approach to mass transit improvemcnt. Im- considering mass transit systems since they may have plementation as busways avoids commitment of im- the capacity to satisfy increasingly high corridor travel practical investment levels, per kilometcr, and demandsbutareusuallynotdesignedtobefinanciauy permiti s effective use of muchshorter and non-con- self-supporting and, although economically viable in tiguous transita semnS. The nctwork itsef,asbusways,allowsimmcdiate their own right, they usually tum out to be not and extensive integration of routes and is far more economically attractive when compared with less flexible in the way it is initially used than is possible costly, but often less efficient, altematives. with a rail network. Because of low cost, the Two complemenlray options which have been prospects for early completion ofacitywide network TwocoApiementreay otionwh thav biee are far grcater than would be the case for a rail used in Asia point the way through this dilemma. systemn. One is to develop lower-cst, high-capacity mass Private bus operators using the convertible transit systems (Manila); the other is to share the cost busway can profitably own, maintain, and operate burdenmorewidelyaamongthebeneficiaries (apan). the required bus fleet, and paya toll sufficicnt to meet A third, which has yet io be developed anywhere, is the transitway operating and maintenance costs. The availability to convert transitways from bus to offset a proportion of the costs of mass transit to rail use aDows the investment in busways not to against the marginal benefits (and revenues) that be wasted when later circumstances encourage or accrue from its role in achieving more effective de- require conversion to rail." mand rz-anagement. A fourth, which has often beer. Sour . Re.inesting ass Transi-ASolution for Kaci, mentioned by suppliers and manufacturers of rail M. Tahir Soomro and David B. McBrayer, To Annual based systems but which has yet to be seriously Meetin& 1991 assessed, is the value of their contribution to air 56 quality and energy conservation when compared Figure 3.1 Mass transit corridors in with other modes. Curitiba, Brazil Ught rail systems offcr the potential for high ca- padty transit at lower costs than full-scale rail rapid transit systems. Recent developmcnts in LRT technol- ogy (especially acccecration) suggest that capacities of 50,000 passengers per hour per direction are pos- sible with four-car units operating at frequencies of ih_ ! one train per minute with running speeds of 60 kilo- meters per hour and 20 second dwell times at sta- tions. The Manila LRT was reportedlycarrying 16,500pas- sengers per hour per direction with two-car units op- eratingat two and a halfrninutecheadways in 1986.The construction costs of the Manila system were relatively low at USS 17.9 million per kilometer (despite the system being elevated and made earthquake resistent). The domnestic nominal cost has since morc tian dou- bled due to dramatic currency depreciations. This contributed around 15 percent of the capital cost of would have occured with any imported technology the Hong Kong MRT system. and reveals the necd for cushions to absorb forcign When planned correctly, therc is evidence to show exchange risks in volatile economies that mass transit systems can open up areas for de- Subsidies from the sale of property development velopment (see Box 3.5) and lead to increased devel- rightsassociated with mass transitschemescanbean opment densities along mass transit corridors (see effective method of sharing the cost burden of such Figures3.1 and3.2).High densitycorridorswithhigh systems more widely and providing a cushion capacity transport services are more eflicient form against fcoreign exchange risks. Development profits of urban development than urban sprawl, especially in ities where the majority of the population rely on public transport Land management and taxation policies, when in Japan prepared in conjunction with mass transit proposals, can ensure over time that a proportion of the devel- The Tokyu Corporation, which is one of the leading opment gains (see Box 3.6) derived from this process urban rail companies in Japan, has undertaken an passes to society. This can help offset the additional interestinf integrated urban rail and land develop- investmentsmadeby societyinamasstransit system ment project consisting of 20.1 kilometers of mass (as against street-based public transport) to secure transit and more than 3,000 hectares of land devel- high density corridor growth. opment. The area was formerly a vast and hilly area, scarcely inth.ited and underdeveloped. It has be- come a community of 440,000 people, centered around the mass transit system and feeder bus net- Figure32 Masstranitcorridor(dctail) work. Like most majorprivatcrail lines inJapan, the rail construction and opFration costs have been wholly covered by the farebox from users. Although, in this current financial situation and under the existing TihTouI taffic route government regulation on rail fares, development Hih denuty developmet FInE^ gains do not need to be, and cannot be, earmarked to Ld acws rood recover the costs of rail construction and operations, Busway the development gains have accrued to the Tokyu la1 access rod Corporation group which is the parent company of Ho density eveo pa 0 the Tokyu mass transit company. 7 trffic route Sourc: PriuLe Finciang of Urbn Transport In ia Asif,Shunso Tsukada and Roger Allport, AsnN, 1991. S7 Box 3.6 Land value increases and Box 3.8 Threshold for conventional mass transit bus services In Santiago there have ben big devlopments at 'It is obviously difficult to assess theoretically how metro terminals, Escuela Militar and Lo Ovalle; the large a city might grow before its city center out- upper class suburb of Provincia, served by line 1, has stripped the capacity of a road-based transport sys- boomed and there has been enormous commercial tem.butone can seewhen thebus system reaches its development on that side of the city centre. In Sao l, full potential, ie. when it is carrying about 16,000 pedestrian shopping centres have been integrated passengers per hour per direction in the main corni- with the metro. Land prices ar said to have doubled dors, and demand is still growing. This is the paint in two years alongside the light rail in Tunis, and the when rational people begin to say the buses cannot Porto Alegre system has also seen land prices grow- cope. It is not in Itself a justification for a metro, but tn8 strongly near its stations, where some buslners Itisasign that urbandevelopment may haverached development has already taken place. an important threshold." Sowure: Transport and Demlopment in Asia. Roger Allport Source: Tansport and DaueopLent in Asia, Roger Allport ASgnK 1990. AsnN,1990. In the review of mass transit experience in devel- personai mobility will rise and congestion will in- oping countries published by the TRRL, there is evi- crease in the city center. dence to show that although these systems do not in Although these changes take place over long time themselves cause city centers to grow, cities such as periods, it is important to assess these impacts, their Sao Paulo, Seoul and Mcxico City would have had value to society and how and when society should theirgrowth severelyconstrained without thecapac- pay for them ity of mass transit systems (see Box 3.7). The role of mass transit and demand restraint The review considers that cities with populations in measures in curative congestion management strate- excess of five million such as Bangkok, Bombay, Delhi, gies has already been discussed in earlier sections of Jakarta, Karachi, Manila and Shanghai have probably this report. Suffice it here to say that the extent to already reached the threshold wherein conventional which the cost of mass transit should or could be bus systems can no longer cope with city center in- cross subsidized from road pricing revenues, needs duced public transport travel demands (Box 3.8). to be assessed as an integral part of the process of The review concludes by stating that without developing and implementing such strategies. sone form of high capacity transport system, central Fmnally, the environmental benefits of electricaUy city activities will be forced to non-central locations, propelled nmss transit systems have rarely been sen- averagejourneydistances will increaseand therewill ously evaluated in comparison to other modes. The be a growth in inter-district traffic. The demands for invesTment costs of rail-based nuss transit systems are difficult to justify on the basis of air pollution control alone. Whatproportionof these costscouldbe justified needs to be assessed so that the environmental benefits of such systems can be really understood and taken Box 3.7 Mass transit and city center growth account of in asessing mass transit performance. in Mexico City The challenge for the World Bank in the 1990s is to talce a balanced view in assisting govemments in In Mexico City, lines 1-3 constitute 6 routes into the trying to resolve some of the following issues with ity centre, averaging 10 kilonmetcrs each. They cafy regard to mass transit: 900,000 could be work trips and a high proportion would be located in or just outside the central area. * how to take an incremental approach to the One does not have to look any further to realise that development of a strategic mass transit network the development of the centre during the last 20 which takesaccountof present needsand constraints years must have been profoundly dependent on the but allows for physical, operational, and technical metro system. evolution (such as transitways); Source: Trmnsport and Demelopment in Asia, Roger AUport, * finding ways to reduce the capital and operat- IsDN, 1990. ing costs of mass transit systems (through LRT for example) and in seeking ways to pay for them which 58 reflect their benefits to users, developers and society ceived little attention In the past by govemments or at large (which avoid or at least minimize outright development agencies. subsidies); Onc reason for this neglect is the assumption that a defining pragmatically the role of mass transit adequate provision of urban transport infrastructuTe within the urban transport system in terms of demand and facilities for the movement of people implicitly rnanagement and relative to otler modes of public provides forthe movementof goodsas well. Another transport (including non-motorized vehicles); and is the assumption that freight is so related to other * assessing the potential inter-relationships be- transport modes, especially ports, rail and shipping, tween mass transit and urban development in nanag- that the specialists and agencies in these areas will ing more effectively urban growth and productivity. resolve any problems occurring with goods move- ments within city boundaries. But this is not the case. Several steps havealready been taken within lend- Urban freight is also at the bottom of the pecking ing operations (in Jakarta), preparatory studies (in order when it comes to solving congestion. Trucks Karachi)and technical studiesexecutedbytheWorld are seen as taking away valuable road space from Bank on behalf of UNDP (in Bangkok) to begin to try commutcrsand should thereforebebanned fromcity and address some of these issues (such as light rail streets during peak hours or throughout the day. The tcchnology, value capture, incremental development consequences of these action on the trucking indus- and demand management). try, prices of goods and delays in transhipment are The Asia Technical Department has initiated re- rarely considered. views of mass transit and land development (with In attempting to improve goods movements in special emphasis on expcnience in Japan), mass tran- Asian cities, a comprehensive approach is necessazy sit and urban development and the private sector which recognizes that urban freight handling is fore- financing of urban transport infrastructure (with most an inherently private sector activity which is special reference to mass transit systems). flexible and responsive to demand; and secondly, that More needs to be done. The econonmcs of mass the freight handling systemn is conposed of many transit need to be revisited by the World Bank to take closely inter-related elements; and finally that freight into account the environmental, demand manage- movementsareofequalimportancetocityproductivity ment and urban structure implications of such sys- as are passenger movements and therefore deserve a tems relative to the prioritics of a city's overall public comparable share of attention and resDurces. investment prm-ram. In preparingan agenda forurbanfreight,theWorld It hasoften been said with regard to capital inten- Bank has an opportunity to assist governments im- sive mnass transit systems that 'they will only become prove the performance of the urban freight sector by: viable when the private sector considers them to be a good investment without government subsidies'. * assisting governments in creating regulatory The point of the statement being that this would of frameworks which allow for greater freedom of course never happen. choice and greater efficiency on the part of the private The private sector is investing in thcse systems in sector. Asia without, to date, subsidy requirements. This must * developing urban freight management pro- now be rcognized in the approach to the urban trans- gramswithin lendingoperationsin majrcities in the port sector taken by development agencies such as the region; and World Bank in the case of the Asia region in the 1990s. * making use of the experience and expertise in he dmefordebateispast;thisisthedecadeforaction freight handling from within the region; in thefastgrowingdtiesof Asia.The Bankcanbepartof that action by being balanced, objective but above all Personal mobility realistic in its assessments of mass transit options and their potential contnbution to the development process. Personal mobility in cities is especially problematic for low-incorr. jroups who tend to suffer from poor loca- Urban fight tion and poor access in most countries in the region. As pointed out by Professor Gakenheimer in a recent EDI Urban freight plays a critical role in the productivity Seminar on Transport Policies in Megacities: of cities and in the provision of essential supplies for "The potential payoff from incorporating the poor urban residents. In spite of the importance of urban in the public transportation system is very high in freight, urban transport related requirements re- social, political and economic terms for everyone". 59 The poor are tending to live more and more on the * affordability of NMVs for low-income groups; periphery of cities withoflen tenuous transportlinksto * social and political attitudes towards NMVs as employment opportunities. Even when such links being "backward; and exist, low-income groups are obliged to walk long * excessiveandofteninappropriateregulationof distances to reach affordable public transport services NMV use. which do not penetrate low-income neighborhoods. Non-motorized vehicles offer a low-cost alterna- The future for NMVs is dependent on their being tive to low-income groups for personal mobility in treated asan integral part of urban transport systems many cities in Asia and yet it is clear that the use of and on understanding the conditions under which non-motorized vehicles is being increasingly margi- they can be cost-effective relative to other modes of nalized by a variety of factors. How to incorporate transport (see Box 3.9) non-motorized vehicles as an integral part of the The actual and potential use of NMVs i aries con- urban transport system is a major challenge in the siderably in relation to city size. In smaller cities region in the 1990s. where distances are relatively short, NMVs are used, Walking is an important mode of transport in all and could be used more extensively, for work, shop- cities and the only form of personal mobility for ping and school trips. In larger cities, where average many of the poor and underprivileged. Few facilities trips lengths are longer, NMVs can play more of a exist for pedestrians and walking space is being pro- complementary role in providing access to public gressively eroded by motorized vehicles. This trend transport stops or mass transit stations for work trips needs to be reversed in the 1990s in an effort to as well as being used for shorter-distance shopping substantially improve walking conditions in cities. and other trips within neighborhoods.NMVs can also Although improving access to urban services and playa very important role in person and goods trans- employment involves motorized travel modes, the port in industrial areas and central business districts. marginalization of non-motorized vehicles and the Extensive use of NMVs in mixed traffic can pro- neglect of pedestrians warrants special attention in voke congestion and accidents unless provisions are the World Bank agenda for the sector in Asia in the made within the road network to segregate NMVs 1990s. from traffic. Several simple low-cost physical meas- ures can be taken to make NMv use safer and com- Non-moforized vehicles petitive with motorized transport. Many cities have extensive networks of narrow Non-motorized vehicles (NMVs) are an attractive lanes or alleys which are unsuitable for motor vehi- form of transport in an increasingly environmentally cle use but which are sufficiently wide for bicycle conscious world. They offer low-cost personal mo- use.The designation of NMv routes using such alleys bility, are non-polluting, use rencwablc energy, and and combined with appropriate facilities where are well suited for short trips in most cities in the NMV routes cross. traffic streets can be a simple and mrgion regardless of culture, income, location or size. practical way of developing safe and appropriate Forthesereasons,NMvscanbeappropriatemodes networks for segregated NMV use at little cost (see of transport in programs designed to address pov- Box 3.10 and Figure 3.3). In other cases, NMV routes erty alleviation, air pollution, congestion manage- can be established parallel to railway lines (as the ment and motorization. gradients are ideal for NMV use) or underneath ele- NMvs play a unique and vital role in urban trans- vated expressways. port in much of Asia and account forbetween 25and NMVs can be provided with segregated lanes on 80 percent of vehicle trips in many Asian cities, more existing streets and techniques exist to separate NMV than in any other region in the world. However, the turning movements and/or provide priority for future of NMvs in Asia appears to be threatened by them at junctions. several factors: Bicycle parking facilities are required at mass transit stations, wi thin central areas and shopping complexes * increasing motorization and useof motorcycles; to encourage thdir use and avoid encrachment and the * reduction in street space for safe NMV use; risk of theft. * longer trip distancesprompted by urban sprawl; Provision of small scale credit systemscan play an * exclusion of NMv needs in urban transport important role in making non-motorized vehicles planning and investnent programs; affordable to low-income groups, where the pricc of 60 Box 3.9 Potential roles for non-motorized vehicles A Bicycles can be competitive and complementay with other modes in meeting personal mobility needs: 1. for short trips between 0.6 and seven kilometers In length (on flat or undulating terrain) where bicycles would be faster than walking and more energy efficient than motorized transport; 2. for commuting trips to public transport facilities (bike-and-ride) as alternatives to walking or motorized "park-and-ride;" 3. for trips within neighborhoods (or residential environmental areas) where extraneous motorized traffic is incompatible with the local environment; and 4. for trip making by low-income residents as a faster alternative to walking and/or cheaper altemative to public transport. B. Cycle-rickshaws can play a useful role within the passenger transport system: 1. for local non-motorized paratrainsit services in cities where wages are low and where there is substantial surplus labor; and 2. for taxi, ambulance and 'school bus" services in low-income areas which are inaccessible to motorized vehicles and/or which cannot afford their services. C Cycle-rickshaws can also be effective in freight transport: 1. for small scale delivery services within central business districts and residential neighborhoods; and 2. for small freight haulage for micro-enterprises and within wholesale market areas. a bicycle in terms of their local wages can be equiva- Other employer credit systems allow workers to lent in scale to the price of a motor car for a European pay back the purchase of bicydles over a year or so at or North American. The Grameen Bank in Bangla- a cost equivalent to corrmuter bus fares. lines of desh provides an example of such micro-lending, credit can be established for bicycle purchase with using pooling of borrowers in small groups to secure incentives built-in to the terms of the loan for ade- loan repayments on such mobile assets as NMVs. quate maintenance. _Even with credit schemes of this type, bicycles can often be unaffordable due to artificially high pur- Figure 3.3 A World Bank financed NMV network chase costs due to taxation. More affordable prices in Shanghai for low-income groups can be achieved by reducing or eliminating import duties, purchase taxes, regis- tration and licensing fees on basic models. The influence of NMV use on motorization is de- *SS;>s h>xS; X X batable. There is no doubt that pronroting NMV use L L for bike-and-ride as an altemative to park-and-ride L L* for middle- and high-income car owners reduces car usage in Japan. It is, however, unlikely that potential 'L. car owners would purchase bicydes instead of cars buI>.; = [ , M in low- and middle-income countries in Asia. E l==% In terms of motorization, the greatest threat to L L NMV use comes from motorcycles which provide an L L attractive progression for NMv users and a cheaper U" bo boom bw on 10 altemative for prospective car buyers. __ C:limatic factors also effect NMv use in many Asian countries. Climate mitigates against NMV use by the rising middle-lass who aspire for air-conditioned comfort. But for low-income groups, who make up Shanghai CUD the bulk of urban populations, climatic factors can favor NMVs which provide cooler alternatives to overcrowded and non-air conditioned buses. 61 direction and naturc of change in NMV use in urban Box 3.10 A World Bank financed NMV arcas in Asia. program in Shanghai In the past, thc World Bank has been noticeably neutral with regard to NMV use. It has boen criticized The Non-Motor Vehicle (NMv) action program (esti- for impliitly benefitting motorized transport in lend- mated to cost USS7.8 million or US$0.4 million per ingoperations and for only occasionally payingatten- kilometer) would increase capacity for bicycles (and tion to theneedsof NMVS. In China (where the needs of other non-motor vehicles) by the provision of 19.4 kilometers of exclusive NMV routes each 2 x 4 lancs NMvs are overwhelming), the World Bank is address- wide (thereby providing a total of 77.6 kilomeLers of ingnon-motorized travel in a significant way(ascanbe bicycle lane in each direction) through: seen from Box 2.10 above). A more concerted effort is (a) the establishment of anetwork of ten routes nXcdcd now and in the future throughiout Asia toward serving the aii) from the conversion of 17.8 kilome- n ters of existing, but little used, secondary roads for encouraging NMV use where it is appropriate within exclusive rKmv use; and urban transport systems. (b) theconstructionofl.6kilometersof missing Setting an agenda for the Bank with regard to links(includingthcconstructionofanexclusivewNMv NMVs in Asia would initially involve subscribing to bridge across the Suzhou Creek at Puji) at six strate- ther importance within urban transport systems and gic points in the proposed exclusive NMV network. would comprise: Source: Staff Appraisal Report, Shanghai Metropolitan Transport Projct, World Bank, 1991. * undertakinga detailcdinventory of Nmv needs and opportunities for their development (a begin- ning has been made in this process by the Asia Tech- NMVs can also be used effectively to substitute for nical Department in the Urban Transport Technical inefficient motorized transport in delivery services Note "Non-motorized vehicles in Asia: issues and for goods (see Box 3.1 1) and messages or small pack- strategies" by Michael Replogle); ets (as many cities in Europe and North America are a developing technical guidelines for the man- discovering with the explosion of pedal-powered agement of NMVs in mixed traffic and in urban envi- courier services). ronments (using experience in such measures from Many factors influence modal choice with regard the Netherlands and China); and to NMVs and clearly their use can be beneficial in a * undertaking pilot scherr.es in selected cities to variety of conditions. The attitudes and actions taken manage NMV movements more effectively and to by the World Bank, multi-lateral and bi-lateral devel- encourage and expand their use. oprnent agencies, non-govemmental organizations, governments and the private sector influence the The possible steps and elements of this agenda are presented in Box 3.12 and are designed to identify which measures would be appropriate for inclusion Box 3.11 An example of complementary within lending operations. This agenda would not NMV delivery services in Bogota, Colombia only serve the needsof the Asia region butalsc other regions in the Bank which are considering encourag- "In the 1970s, the Ramo bakery delivered products ing the use of NMVs as integral parts of developing direct from the factory to 60,000 smaEI shops in Bo the urban transport sector and/or alleviating pov- gota using 135 trucks, which often operated with erty (such as Africa and Eastern Europe). partial loads and had trouble parking near their As a result of this approach, the Bank would be in a deliveries. better position to advise governments as to what can The bakery changed its distribution system so and needs t be done to assist Nmvs, and what are the that a much smaller fleet of trucks were used to hauol products to satellite warehouses, where aflect of 900 costs andbenefitsof actions to promote theiruse. Given cargo-tricycles picked up the baked goods for final the experience ard interest of bi-lateral development delivery. Total costs of the delivery system dropped agencies and non-governmental organizations in the by two-thirds from their previous level through this development of NMVs, opportunities exist for the Bank intermodal integration and differentiation, while ex- to take the lead in a collabrative effort in the rgion tD panding employment." pool resources in undertaking each of the steps out- Sourac: Sustainabketransprrtation PlanninR and Deel- lined in Box 2.12. A seminar on the issue of NMVs in moti: Lessons fronm egacities, Michael Replogle, May 1991. Asian cities would provide a useful forum to initiate this type of approach. 62 Box 3.12 An agenda for NMV use in Asian cities Stepl1: Inventoryof NMVneeds and opportunitles: vehicles: typology and use/cost and affordability/manufacture/assemnbly/maintenance costs Us5: volumes/capacities/speed and distance/geometric standaros/safety and accidents integration: with pedestrians, public transit, freight transport, in neighbtorhoods, in commercial areas facilities: networks and routes/priority/segregation/parking/storage regulations: registration/licensing/usc of roads/sidewal ks/di mensions/welghts/inspection procedures Step 2: Development of technical guidelines forNMvsL routes: surface/gradients/drainage; lane dimensions/width; signs/markings/lighting lanes: warrants; safety and separrators signals: warrants/height/type/NMv actuated/ ATC parking: location/type/theft prevention/charges facilities: bridges/underpasses/barriers to other vehicles Slep 3: Pilot NMV improvement schemes: Objective: determine effectiveness of NMV mcasures and their costs and bencfits in large and medium-sized cities. Scope: physical measurcs to develop routes, small networks, priority facilities in mixed traffic; monitor- ing and evaluation. Locations: within low-income neighborhoods and along travel corridors serving CBDS, industrial and com- mercial areas. Countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, Vietnam Pedestrians grams presented in Box 3.13 specifically designed to meet pedestrian needs in cities. Walking is an important mode of transport in all An important constraint to the development of cities and yet in low- and middle-income countric= pedestrian facilities in thepasthasbeen lack of funds. in Asia few facilities exist for pedestrians and pede- Municipal govemments in particular need to be en- strian space is being progressively eroded by motor- couraged to investigate the possibility of funding ized and non-motorized vehicles. pedestrian improvements from such sourcesas park- In terms of accidents, pedestrians are the most ing fees, area licensing fees, electronic road pricing v. Inerable group of road usersand they no tonly lack adequate space for walking but also rarely have fa- cilities that are safe, especially for the young, elderly Box 3.13 Typical pedestrian improvement and infirm. programs Often, pedestrian facilities are regarded as luxu- ries which cannot be afforded or are simply over- Central Area Programs: looked in road improvement plans. In cases where pedestrian streets, precincts, networks pedestrian facilities are provided, they are often sidewalk widening and management Low-income residential neighborhood programs: pooriy designed, badly located or not respected by pedestrian networks, paved footpaths (and stair- drivers and shop-keepers, or enforced by the police. cases), footbridges (over canals and waterways), Examples of techniques for improving pedestrian paved bus stop areas (and shelters), street lighting safety and providing pedestrian facilities abound in Other residential/neighborhood programs: the high-income countries in the region (Australia, sidewalk paving stret lighting, environmental Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore) and in traffic man- other trafetc and speed reduction programs) agement literature. Traffidtransport corridor programs: The World Bank and other development agencies pedestrian refuges, footbridges, underpasses, have an opportunity to assist governments in low- barriers/fences, signalized crossings, sidewalk and middle-income countries in giving priority to paving. developing and financing the types of action pro- 63 charges and bettermcnt taxes /surcharges (in central environmental action in the urban transport sector in business districts and middle- to high-income resi- Asia is already long overdue. Considerable urgency dential areas). is now required on all fronts and in all countries on Other possibilities such as the allocation of say ten the following: percent of all majorroad related civil workscontracts to pedestrian improvements also need tobecxplored * all urban transport projects without exception along with sustained funding arrangements for the should be designed to explicitly address environ- maintenance and repair of such facilities. mental issues; In many crowded cities, improvements of pede- * in all cities subject to lending operations in the strian facilities can increase pedestrian travel speed urban transport sector, an environmental stock-tak- and safety, depressed because of sidewalk space. The ing is needed to assess the extent of adverse environ- benefits of pedestrian improvement programs ac- mental impacts resulting from the urban transport crue to all sections of urban society but especially to sector or prospective actions in it; low income groups. Pedestrian improvernents will * cost-effective environmental action plans and not alleviate poverty; but they will save lives and improvement programs specifically related to the reduce the risk of injury. They will also improve needs of the sector need to be drawn up and agreed walkingconditionsforthepoorand underprivileged with local authorities; and who are too often neglected and treated as second * theBankhastheopportunitytoprovideacata- class citizens in urban transport programs. lytic role for ensuring the availability of resources Pedestrian improvements are needed in large and from its own sourcesand thoseof otherdevelopnent small cities. In larger cities, such programs nced to agencies. address the deficiencics of the past as well as plan for the future. In smaller cities, there is greater scope for Within this general framework, actions are introducing the foundations for adequate attention needed with regard to specific environmental im- (and funding) to the needs of pedestrians now and pacts of the urban transport sector: in the future. * the nature and extent of vehicle emissions; Environment * safety and accidents; and • community severance, visual intrusionand the Urban transport has contributed significantly to the need for environmental management. deterioration of the urban environment in Asia in most countries throughout the region. Unless measures are Vdeick emissions taken in the 1990s toredress the degradation which has already occurred and to design urban transport infra- Amajor factor contributing to the quantity of vehicle structure and services to be environmentally friendly, emissions in urban areas is the fuel economy of vehi- the cities of Asia wil pay a heavy price in tenns of the cles. There is considerable scope for improved fuel health and well-being of their cidzens. economy in certain parts of the region. The typical Urban transport infrastructure divides communi- domestically manufactured car in India and China ties, is visually oppressive and a source of air and (17-20mpg) are half as fuel efficient as"bestpractice" noise pollution from vehicle emissions. Motor vehi- in OECD countries (42mpg). Fuel economy standards, des by their very nature are environmentally un- differential vehicle taxes and "bonuses" for scrap- friendly: they kill and maim and pollute. Measures ping less fuel effident vehicles are some of the meas- can be taken to avoid these negative effects of the ures which should be adopted to promote greater urban transport sector which is in all other respects fuel efficiency. of benefit to urban society. The techniques exist, the Unleaded petrol must be a key element of vehicle knowledge is available and the resources can be emission control programs throughout the region, found; what is lacking is a willingness on the part of both to reduce its direct health effects and to allow many governments to face the inevitable and deal for the introduction of advanced pollution control with it before it engulfs them. technologies. For an equivalent octane rating, the The World Bank, along with many development production cost of reducing the lead content of petrol agencies active in the region, has made the improve- from 1.1 to 0.1 grams per gallon is estimated to be ment of the environment a central theme in the de- between US$0.02-04 per gallon depending on the velopment process. A World Bank agenda for reformulation/blending process used. Differential 64 fuel taxation should be used to promote the use of unloaded fuel and loaded fuel should be progres- Box 3.14 An example of an effective vehicle sively but rapidly phased out. inspection and maintenance program The sulfur and aromatic content of diesel fuel must be decreased to achieve reductions in particu- A suitable test procedure, supplemented by inspec- late ernissions. The cost of a tenfold reduction in tion of emission control systems where necessary. sulfur content from 0.5 percent to 0.05 percent is Effective entfercement ofgvetration pr oess estimated to be US$0.04 per gallon. Fuel price sur- Adequate attention to repair procedures and charges based on the sulfur/heavy oil content of mechanic training (mechanics must be able to diag- diesel should be introduced to promote the availabil- nose and fix vehicle after it fails the inspection). ity and use of cleaner fuel in trucks and buses. Enforcement of program requirementsfor inspec- tors and mnechanics (by using undercover vehicles Alternative fuels such as compressed natuTal gas, with known defcrts). liquefied petroleum gas or alcohol fuels have the Periodic evaluation and review, to identify prob- potential to reduce urban carbon monoxide and lmareas and develop solutions. ozone levels, to solve the diesel particulate problem Vehicle model year coveragethat includes older in city buses and supplcment advanced emission vehicles. control technology. Alternative fuels are particularly Minimization of repair cost waivers and other appropriate for use in captive vehicle fleets such as taxis, buses, delivery vans and trucks. Incentives to Sourc: AulmativAir Pdllution CmtroL Stbute CpioIs switch to cleaner alternative fuels can be provided mm, May T991. through differential fuel taxation. The use of unleaded fuel allows for the introduc- tion of closed loop three-way catalysts which have demonstrated the potential to substantially reduce * air pollution monitoring; petrol car emissions in a cost effective manner. These * the adoption of necessary and feasible vehicle devices are estimated to cost between US$500 and emission standards; US$600 (in 1989 prices) per vehicle. Oxidation cata- * the widespread distribution of envirornen- lysts (estimated to cost US$400 per vehicle in 1989 tally friendly fuels; prices) would be similarly attractive to reduce mo- * the introduction of restrictions on the import torcyde emissions. The introduction of these tech- or assembly of vehicles which do not meet vehicle nologies can also improve vehicle performance and emission standards; driveability, reduce maintenance and lead to im- * the introduction of voluntary inspection and proved fuel economy. maintenance programs (which means every vehidEe Regular and effective vehicle inspection and must be inspected but repair and retest is not yet maintenance programs are essential to ensure that mandatory);and the anticipated benefitsof emission control strategies * the design and construction of necessary gov- are not lost through poor maintenance or tampering ermnent testing facilities for future programs. with emission control devices. Given that in many In the second phase, the vehicle emission require- low-income countries the standards of vehicle main- ments should be gradually tightened: tenance arc very low, such programs can signifi- * inspection and maintenance becomes manda- cantly reduce emissions from vehicles with no tory and becomes progressively more stringent; pollution controls, making this a very high priority * the importation or assembly of non-certified strategy throughout the region. An example of the cars is severely restricted; and ingredients of an effective inspection and mainte- * selective testing is used to verify vehide certi- nance program is presented in Box 3.14. fication and institute nece.xary recalls. Although the need for action on vehicle emissions is urgent, remedial measures cannot be inf-oduced Finally, as the fundamental administrative mnoni- all at once. A phased approach, supported by Bank toring and control structure becomes consolidated, lending, is necessary. standards can be gradually and routinely tightened: One such approach is to devote the early stages of the action program to laying a firm foundation for * standards can be made more stringent as tech- further action. Primary steps should include nology advances; 65 * recall liability and warranty protection can be What is now needed and what this report extended to the actual vehicle lifetime, and allowable admirably achieves is: maintenance requirements can be reduced; * the environmental friendlinLssof fuels can also * to bring safety to the forefront of the minds of continue to be improved; planners and engineers in developing countries and * the requirenent for on-board diagnostics can to bring to their attention important details of design be systematically introduced in all new cars; and affecting road safety that they might otherwise over- * inspection and maintenance programs can be look or consider insignificant; decentralized as technical competence increases and * to introduce policy-makers in developing expands. countries and aid agencies to the wide range of issues in highway planning and design that can affect road Safety and accidents accident rates and the mitigating actions which can be taken to reduce the number and severity of road Traffic accidents in urban areas are increasing at accidents; alarming rates throughout low- and middle-income * to bring together developing country experi- Asian countries. There are several reasons for this: ence in road safety together with material from the standards, guidelines and design guides of devel- * urbanization brings with it many new urban oped countries and make this information available residents from rural areas who are unfamiliar with to professionals in developing countries; urban driving conditions and levels of traffic; * to provide a source of ideas for new designs a congestion causes impatience and a deteriora- and countermeasures so that hazardous locations in tion in driver discipline and driving conditions; developing countries can be made safer; and D road networks in many cities were never * to stimulate evaluation of and research into designed for the volumes and speeds of traffic in the road safety counterneasuresindevelopingcountries 1990s; and so that the most effective can be identified. * thedriveto providemorcroadspace for motor- The first step in an urban road safety agenda for ized vehicles has resulted in inadequate facilities for the World Bank in Asia is to subscribe to these aims, pedestrians and slow moving vehicles. endorse the TRRL report and make sure it is distrib- uted and available in all maijor cities throughout the In the competition for road space and getting region (it is freely available from the UK Transport through congestion, the life and limbs of the disad- and Road Research Laboratory). vantaged are being put increasingly at risk. The second step is to encourage member govern- In recent years, the World Bank and other aid ments to develop urban road safety and accident agencies have recognized the need to reduce road prevention programs which make use of the ideas accidents which are currently estimnated to claim the presented in the TRRL report and which have proven lives of 300,000 people every year and injure another to work in other situations. In preparing such pro- ten to 15 million throughout the world. They have grams, the Bank should also encourage member gov- assisted govemments in the development of compre- emments to adopt the institutional arrangements hensivenational road safety improvement programs recommended in the TRRL report and bring together which are beginning to address the problem. the "safety professionals' in each city: However, further efforts are now needed in Asian cities to prevent and reduce increases in traffic aci- * thepolice,toinfluencedriverbehaviorthrough dents bemning yet another environmentally damag- the enforcement of regulations; ingbyproductof increased urbanmobility in the 1990s. * the engineers, to design safer roads and coun- Solutions are possible. Between 1968 and 1985 the termeasures; and number of traffic accident related deaths increased in * the educationalists, to train and inforrn road developingcountriesinAsiaby 170pecent;during the users about dangers and how to avoid them. same period the number of deaths in developed coun- tmes declined by 25 percet. Many simple, straightfor- The third step is to recognizethe importance given ward and low-cost solutions are available and being in the TRRL report to the success of such programs as used inmanycountriesthroughouttheworldascanbe a result of the provision of adequate funds and of seenfromtherecentlypublishedTRRLreport"Towards ensuring the establishmcnt of organizational ar- Safer Roads in Developing Countries." rangements for carrying out and coordinating safety 66 Box 3.15 The components of an urban road Box 3.16 The environental area concept safety program "There must be armas of good environment, urban 1. Accident data colloction and analysis, roomswhere people can live, work, shop, look 2. Traffic engineering and control Improve- about, and move around on Foot In reasonable free- ments at accident locations. dom from the hazards of motor traffic. and there 3. Vehicle testing and inspection. must be a complementary network of roads - urban 4. Driver training and testing. corridors - for effecting the primary distribution of 5. Traffic education for children. traffictotheenvironmental areas. Theseareas arenot 6. Publicity and marketing. free of traffic - they cannot be if they are to function 7. Traffic police enforcement. - but the design would ensure that their traffic is 8. Road safety monitoring and research. related in character and volume to the environmen- 9. Traffic and urban road safety design stand- tal conditions being sought. It is a simple concpt, ards. but without it the whole subject of urban traffic 10. Emergency scrvices and first-aid. remains confused, vague, and without comprehen- 11. Road safety legislation and penalties. sive objectives" Souce: Towards Safer Roads in Dweloping Countris: A Souwc Traffc in Towm5. Colin Buchanan, 1963. Guidefor Planners ad Enginrs, Alan Ross et ai. Trans- port and Road Roeardh Laboratory, 1991. mental areas and protcdt them from extraneous traf- fic (see Box 3.16) activities. Here, the World Bank and other develop- Environmental areas are homogeneous areas ment agendes have an especially important role to within which considerations of environment pre- play in securing adequate funding and in promoting dominate over the use and scale of motorized vehi- institutional development. des. Such areas should not be disrupted or severed In the case of urban road safety in Asia, there are by extraneous traffic (Figure 3.4) which should be considerable challenges to be met in the 1990s But channeled around them and controlled within them. the basis for action exists; the TRRL report provides workingexamplesandblueprints(seeBox3.15);and _ several countries in the region (Australia, Hong Kong, Japan and Singapore) have hands-on experi- Figure 3.4 The environmental area principle ence and expertise in developing successful opera- tional programs. With the support of and __ :____ collaboration between member governments, the - World Bank and other development agencies, action plans can become reality, the chalienges can be met and less lives would be sacrificed to the cause of urban mobility. Environmental management Community severance, noise and visual intrusion are thebyproductsof subordinating thequalityof life in cities to the demands of traffic. This has occurred in many cities of the region and will continue un- abated unless new approaches are developed to pro- d ut tecting city environments. New approaches are Sdarydiutur needed in Asia; in developing them it is worth recall- d ing approaches to this problem which were devised samE P am u t si more than twenty five years ago in the United King- Eu..... Non'o"' w rpId g-sum amusm Nca-iotadze rnp dom and incorporated in the report Traffic in Towns E by Colin Buchanan. The essence of this approach is the need to respect the nature of city environments-termed envirorn- 67 Environmentally friendly public transport and which protect and enhance city enviromnents be they non-motorized modes would norma lly predominate termed environmental areas or neighborhoods). within these areas (Figure 34). The neighborhood An agenda which would provide an opportunity and traffic cell planning concepts and the Area Li- for the World Bank to address environmental man- censing demnand management concept are based on agemnent issues and reduce unnecessary cormnunity similar principles. severance and visual intrusion would involve. Within environnental areas, traffic management techniques are used to deter through traffic, reduce * targetinglendingoperationsinthesectortoward speeds and provide priorities for pedestrians, non- tle definition of environmental areas and the estab- notorized vehicles and public transporL lishment of environmental capacities and standards Adopting the principles embodied in the environ- * seekingthecullaborationofotherdevelopment mental concept enables cities to modulate transport agencies in the promotion of pilot projcts to assess Wfrastructure and services according to the environ- the costs and benefits of local improvement tech- mental capacity and scale of its component areas. En- niques and counter-measures, vironmental areas exist in all cities; they are not, * developing technical guidelines for cost-effec- however, usually recognized or treated as such. They tive urban transport related environmental manage- can beresidential neighborhoods, central businessdis- ment programs; and tricts, industrial or comnercial centers, port areas, * establishing procedures for financing such warehouse or wholesale districts, parks, historic or programs within lending operations in the sector. religious areas. They can also be corridors with mix- tues of these activities What distinguishesanddefines Financial viability each area is its inherent character, scale and function. Local low-cost improvements can be undertaken The magnitude of financial requirements for devel- within areas to protect communities (in the case of oping the urban transport sector in low- and middle predominantly residential areas) and activities (in income countries in Asia has not been estimated. It the case of commercial areas) from the effects of undoubtedly exceeds available resources and with exraneous traffic. Where traffic or infrastructure central and local govermnents already strapped for 'cuts through" or isout of scale with an environmen- revenues, the search for urban transport financing tal area, special counter-measures (landscaping, will not be easy in the 1990s. noise barriers, safe crossing points, etc) are necesary Revenue mobilization is a national and local gov- to maintain the homogeneity and scale of the area. emnnent issue and is constrained by many factors, Environmental stmdards need to be established for including the following: each environmental area and with the cormnunitycon- cerng (a) the scale and type of infrastructure and * concentratedlowincomepopulationsinurban vehicles; and (b) the levels of air pollution, noise and areas and, as a result in manycases, a limited munici- speed which can be tolerated within each area or type pal tax base; of ara. For example, noise level tolerances in residen- a restricted public sector budgets with little tial areas would be lower than in commercial areas room to manoeuvre in the reallocation or expansion Non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians would be of resources from one sector to another; non-intrusive in low-income residential areas whereas * competing transport needs between inter- conm ial vehicles and trucks would be non-intru- urban and urban systems; sive in wholesale narket areas. * transport revenues being increasingly used for Environmental area management takes time and general fiscal purposes which implies that increases costs money. However, the World Bank and other inrevenuefrom thesector maynotresultinincreases development agencies concerned with the environ- in resources being allocated to the sector; and ment, have an important role to play in assisting * debtlimnitationswhichimplythatthecontract- govements to recognize the environmental costs ing of extemal debt in one sector may limit the avail- involved in not paying attention to city environ- ability of debt financing in another sector. mentsin urban transport planninw and managemenL And more importantly, the World Bank in collabo- These constraints on public sector financing have ration with other development agencies can assist gov- resul ted in innovative approaches to urban transport emments in developing and in albcating funding for, finance in several countries in the region. These will cost-effective envirnmental management techniques need to be developed further in the 1990s and will 68 involve makingmore efficient use of more traditional * wheninvestmentsare madeby theprivatesector; financing mechanisms such as fares, local taxation, * when funds are raised from the private sector; user charges. domestic borrowing and external bor- and rowing as well as exploring further the potential for * when facilities are provided and/or operated private investment. by the private sector. A brief summary of the potential for more efficient use of traditional financing mechanisms is provided Thus, value capture and the private provision of below and a more complete discussion is provided for transport services under concession arrangements the potential for private sector financing in the sector would both be considered as private financing mech- given its particular relevance in many Asian countries. anisms. General taxation and user charges would not. Within Asia, several mechanisms are used for re- FARES in bus operations. Measures should be taken cuperating the transport benefits or development with regard tofarestoensureaffordabilityforusersand gains associated with the introduction of new or to ensure that farebox revenues are adequate to cover improved urban transport facilities; these include; operating costs and finance capital expenditures; * special funds financed by earmarked taxes on LOCAL TAXATION for municipal road construction local corporations and businesses (in Japan); and maintenance. Local taxes on property are likely * bond issues financed from vehicle registration to remain the major source of finance, but attention fees (in Korea) or serviced from property develop- needs to be given to the use of earmarked betterment ment (in India); charges for access road improvements; * cost sharing schemes with the participation of developers, transport operators and government (in USER TAXES. Fuel taxes, vehicle registration and li- Japan); and censefeeswillalsoremainaprincipalsourceofrevenue * cross subsidy of capital investment from the finance in most countries, but efforts will need to be sale of propertydevelopment rights in Hong Kong). mf-ade to improve collection efficiency, to reflect the extenalities of vehicle use in urban areas (through Several Asian countries are exploring the private urban congestion and pollution charges) and to im- provision of urban transport infrastructure through prove accountability and institutional performance; the following mechanisms: DEBT FINANCIN. Local debt financing has tradi- * joint venture schemes with equity participa- tionally been limited to bus and other vehicle pur- tionfromntheprivateandpublicsectors(inJapanand chases; bond issues offer attractive possibilities for Hong Kong); and more substantial items (such as major highways) but * BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer) schemes for the require a well developed bond marketandassigning private sector design, construction, operation and tax revenues as guarantees; and eventual transfer to the public sector of urban trans- port infrastructure (in Indonesia, Hong Kong, Ma- EXTERNAL BORROWING will continue to be a major laysia and Thailand). source of financing for the substantial import re- quirements of urban transport investments. In the There are many variations of BOT schemes; these case of suppliers credits, the availability of financing are presented in Box 3.17. should not be allowed to distort investment choices. Special funds and bond issues can be successful in raising finance for urban transport infrastructure. Private sector financing Cost sharing and joint venture schemes can be inefficient due to lack of competition and due to Considerable experience exists in Asia in private exclusive franchising arrangements. To avoid this, sector financing of urban transport infrastructure the selection process should be competitive and and services. In discussing private sector financing, transparent and the time period of the concession however, it is sometimes understood very narrowly should be limited with any extensions subject to and sometimes very broadly. Within this report pri- competitive bidding. vate-sector financing is considered to occurunder the The cross subsidyofcapitl investmentoutlaysfrom following conditions the sale of property development rights can be an 69 Box 3.17 Variations of the BOT approach Boo: Build-Own-Operate: the investor retains ownership, operating in perpetuity via an open ended franchise; DBOT: Design-Bulld4Operate-Transfer: same as above plus design Boos: Build-Own-Operate-Sell: at the end of the franchise pe iod the state pays the investor a residual value; BooT: Build-Own-Operate-Transfer: as above, but there is no terminal payment to the investor; Bar: Build-Operoate-Transfcr: the facility is paid for by the investor but is owned by the concessionaire; the investor mnaintains the facil- ity and operates it during the concession period; BMMr: Build-Opcrath-Training-Transfer: before facilities are transferred, the investor is required to provide training; and Source Private Financing of Urban Transport Infrastructure In Asia, Shunso Tsukada and Roger Allport, AsM, 1991. efficient and attractive mechanism in the financing of occur from property development. For this reason, rail-based mass transit systems. It requires that: the two activities must be legally separate in inte- grated urban rail and land development schemes in * land ownership is vested with the system op- Japan. And in the case of Hong Kong, (see Box 2.19) erator, the operator ensures that the property developer * there is a viable property market and a com- carries the risk by the developer paying up-front for petitive pool of property developers; and the right to participate in any development; any sulb- * the operator has adequate equity to build, op- sequentdownturn in themarket should not therefore erate and maintain the system without recourse to have a direct impact on the finances of the operator property development profits. (see Box 3.18). Of aU theprivatefinancingoptionsavailableto the Property development activities must be sepa- sector, BOT has attracted the most interest and atten- rated from transport related activities to avoid the tion on the part of govenmments, investors, manufac- transport user from paying for any losses which may turers and suppliers, and the development Box 3.18 Property development and urban rail systems in Hong Kong "Both the mrm and KCR have used property development to help finance the capital eost of their rail systems. Rail associated developments in Hong Kong include: major office buildings in the central business districts, major residential developments built on podium structures over the rail depots with up to 5,000 apartments in each, and other miscellaneous buildings along each line. The mrR estimates that the property profits have provided about 15% of the capital cost of their system (US53.2 billion). The two rail corporations have been allowed to develop sites over and adjacent to their railways, primarily over stations and above maintenance depots. Land assembly is not an issue in Hong Kong since the government has compulsory purchase powers over lands required for rail construction. However, the two rail corporations were required to pay fuhll market price for the development rights to each site. The developments were undertaken in partnership with professional property developers who were chosen corlpetitively. The rail crporation provides the site. The developer finances and constructs the development. Once chosen, they wererequired to makea verysubstantial paymenttotherail corporation. Downstream profits are shared, as agreed during each project negotiations. Once agreements are signed, this arrangement substantially reduces the risks for both the rail corporation and the passengers. They are protected against down-turns in the property market. The development partner bears the construction and commercial risks." Soura: Financing Trasport InfrastrcureadSercEs, Rv CG.Scurfield 1991. 70 community at large, including the World Bank. In Although the Bank group has not yet participated spite of initial enthusiasm for w:ra, a more cautious in Bor schemes in the sector, it does have several key atitudeisnowbeingtakenasnuny arproposalshave roles to play in providing professional and objetive failed tomaterializcorhavefailedtomwete xpecWtions. advice, in equity participation (through IFC) and in The reasons for failure can be summarized as lending operations. follows The Bank has accumulated sufficient experience within its central policy complex in BOT operations * protracted negotiations concening risk alloca- to be able to advise governments on the procedures tion and guarantees; to adopt with regard to sar schemes. These need to * aggressive marketing, lack of competition and be published and made available to member govern- transparency in the award process; ments. They are summarized in Box 3.19. * inadequate preparation on the part of govern- World Bank lending operations can be designed ments; to assist govemments with technical advisory serv- * dilutionandconfusionofthemarketbycompet- ices and/or in the provision of public sector infra- ing schems and competing govemment agencies; structure aspects of the scheme. For example, in * unexpected additional costs to government; and certain circumstances the public sector may choose * accus. ions of corruption (which toppled at to provide the infrastructure and lease it to the pri- least one government in the region from office). vate operator (in the case of mass transit services this procedure is often used in Japan). Thue decade of the 1980s was very much a leam- But perhaps the most valuable role that the Bank ing-by-doing period in Asia with regard to BOT. canperform withregardto BcYroperationsisto assist Given the restraints on public sector budgets for govemnments in ensuring the economic viability of urban transportinvestments, the l990s will undoubt- such schemes within the overall urban transport sys- edly see fresh appmaches being made with regard to tem and the complimentary roles that the publ ic and BoTasbeingthemostlikelywaytoattractinvestment private sectors can most usefully play in the devel- into the sector. opment and operation of the system as a whole. Box 3.19 Procedures to adopt with regard to BOT schemes Realism: government and the private sector need to be realistic about each others objectives and constraints: 1. govemments need to undemrsand that private investors expect to make a profit and will not take risks witho t adeqcate returns; and 2. private investors need to understand that gover ments must follow procedures which are designed to protect the public interest; Rigor. governments must prepare themselves thoroughly for negotiations; the project brief should clearly establish: 1. the scope of the project; 2 its regulatory environment; and 3. the sdelction rules and procedures. Competition: it is unlikely that the best deal can be obtained using the "sole tender" approach; without competition the social value of using the private sector will be reduced; Technology: specifcations need to ensure that the technologyused in the scherne does not lock-in the government to a specific supplier or manufacturer for all time; and Transparency the award process should be transparent and open; the negotiated cekments in a projet should be kept to a minimum. Sme: Fibancig Trmsport lnfns*nuctuir ad Sfvku, R G. Soufied ED; 1991. 71 Part Four: Conclusion Introduction * curative strategies: to relieve high levels of con- gestion and avoid it increasing; and The urban transport challenges in Asia are unique in * preventive strategies: to avoid congestion be- their scope, scale and pace of change. They require a gining. response which is tailor made to the distinctiveness of the region and which recognizes its inherent di- MASS TRANSIT With regard to mass transit the versity. This is in itself is a major challenge. following approaches are needed: There are three main groups of recommendations which emerge from this analysis which provide a * incremental development which takes ac- basis for the development of a strategic response to count of present needs and constraints but allows these challenges in the 1990s. for physical, operational, and technical evolution (such as transitways); the first concerns new approaches which need * reductions in capital and operating costs: to be taken in the sector, (through LRT and exclusive bus ways as an altema- * the second concerns the implicatons of these tive to MRT, for example) and cost recovery mecha- actions for World Bank operations; and nisms which reflect their benefits to users, a the third concerns the role of the World Bank developers and society at large; and other development agencies in ensuing the * a deafre-unders-dingoftheroleofmastransit availability of adequate and timely external aid for within the urban transport system in terms of demand the development of the sector. man Mentandrelativetoohermodesofpublictras- part (icluding non-nolorizedvelicles} and The principal new approaches which are needed * an assessment of the potential inter-relation- in the sector can be summarized as follows: ships between mass transit and urban development in managing more effectively urban growth and Enhancing conomic productiuity productivity. MOTORUATION: As vehicle ownership is the driv- URBAN FREIGHT: In improving goods movements ing force in urban areas for stimulating denand and in Asian cities, a comprehensive approach is neces- causing congestion, a clarification of trends, possble sary which recognizes that control measres, and their impact is essentiaL a urban freight handling is first and foremost an CoNGESTON: Strategies and action plans need to inherently private sector activity which is flexible be prepared for each major city to deal with conges- and responsive to demand; tion and differentiated according to current and po- * the freight handling system is composed of tential levels of congestion: many closely inter-related elements; and 73 * freight movements are important to city pro- * inspection and minteunce progrs are omen- ductivity and therefore deserve more attention and tial to ensmue that the antidpated benefits of emision resources than in the past. control strategiesare notlst thomugh poormaintenamce or tampering with emssion control devices ncrwasing pesonal mobility ROAD SAFY: With regard to road safety and ac- NON MOrORIZED VEHICLES: (NMvs) are an attrac- cidents, several approaches are warranted: tive fonn of personal mobility in an increasingly environmnentally conscious world and they play a * uafetyhastobebroughttotheforintofthe minds unique and vital role in urban transport in much of of planers and engineersand along with the important Asia; their future is dependent on their being treated detils of design affecig road safety that might other- asan integral part of urban transport systems and on wise be ovelooked orconsidered fnsignificant; understanding the conditions under which they can * mitigating actions should be incorporated In be cost-effective relative to (and complimentary to) the network to reduce the number and severity of other modes of transport; road accidents; * developing country experience in road safety WALKING: is an important nodeof transport inall should be brought together with material from the cities and the benefits of pedestrian improvemnent standards, guidelines and design guides of devel- programs accrue to all sections of urban society but oped countries and this information should be avail- especially to low income groups who are too often able to professionals in developing countries; and neglected and treated as second class citizens in - evaluations of road safety oDuntermeasures in urban transport programs; pedestrian improve- developing countries should be undertaken so that ments will not alleviate poverty, but they will save the nost effective can be identified. and improve lives and reduce the risk of injury. OTEr. ENMONMENTAL IMPACM- With regard to Improving the urban enviromnent other environmental impacts of notorized traffic, environmental standards need to be established VEHICLE EMBMSSIONS: With regard to vehide emis- within cities conceming the scale and type of infra- sions, new approaches are warranted with regard to: structure and vehiclesand the associated levels of air pollution, noise and speed which can be tolerated f fuel economy: fuel economy standards, differ- within each neighborhood. Equally important, but ential vehicle taxes and 'bonuses' for scrapping less often overlooked, is the need to assess the impact on fuel efficient vehicles are some of the measures which the use of urban land and development patterns. should be adopted to promote greaterfuel efficiency; * unleaded petrol: differential fuel taxation Ensuringfinancia viaWy should be used to promote the use of unleaded fuel and leaded fuel should be progressively but rapidly * TRADrcNAL ENaNG ECHANISm more ef- phased out; ficient use will be necessay of traditional financing * diesel fuel: fuel price surcharges based on the rechanisms such as fares, local taxation, user charges, sulfur/heavy oil content of diesel should be intro- domesticborrowingandexternalborrowing;and duced to promote the availability and use of cleaner fuel in trucks and buses; PRIvATE sEcroR FINNCING: mechanisms need to * Itenative fuels: incentives to switch tocleaner be designed to attract private sector finance to the altemativefuelscanbeprovidedthrough differential sector induding the use of: fuel taxation or direct subsidy where environmetal benefits would justify it; * bond issues; * closed loop three-way catalysts the introduc- a cost sharing schemes; tion of these technologies can reduce emissions and * cross subsidy of capital investment from the also improve vehicle performance and driveabiity, sale of property development rights; reduce maintenance and lead to improved fuel econ- * joint venture schemes; and omy; and * build-operate-transfer (BwT) schemes. 74 An Integrated approach * through arranging for the financing of urban transport services and infrastructure which are af- The integration of thcse approaches into comprehen- fordable to local governmcnts and to all users of the sive programs requircs considerable institutional skill. urban transport system, urban transport investments The success of programs in countries such as Hong can contribute to ensuring financial viability. Kong and Singapore has been possible due to a strong institutionalbasecoupledwithapoliticulcomnittment SytMw PERFORMANCE: Third, although lending which has recognized the linkage and importance of operations may not finance investments throughout efficient urban transport to economic developnenL theurban transport system, they need to take account While the translation of these approaches into of the performance of the system as a whole in the reality will vary from country to country and city to assessment of costs and benefits. Actions in one part city, therecanbe no doubt thatif the role of theurban of the urban transport system effect all parts of the transport sector in the socio-conomic development system to some extent. A comprehensive view is of the city and the country is not understood and therefore needed. given importance at the highest levels of govern- ment, the development of the sector and of its per- A HOUSllCAPPROACH: Fourth, a holistic approach formance within the economy will suffer. is needed in lending operations. Given the issues The World Bank has an important role to play in confronting the urban transport sector in Asia in the ensuring that the urban transport sector ispart of the 1990s, two approaches are possible. One would cen- country dialogue, especially in countries which are ter lending operations around the theme of demand confronting urban traffic congestion. management; the other would center lending opera- The recomnmendations concerning actions which tions around the theme of environmental manage- need to be taken for the sector to adjust and respond to ment. Both approaches are interrclated and the thechallengesofdevelopiientandgrowthinthel990s emphasis toward one or the other or both would haveseveralimportantimplicationsfur thenatmeand depend on the situation in a given city or country. composition of the World Bank's lending operations. * the theme of demand management brings into URBAN DEVELOPMENTcoNTEr. First, urban trans- focus the role of congestion pricing, public transport portlendingshouldsubscnbetooveralurbandevel- and environmental management in relieving conges- opment objectives and fit with urban development tion, curbing the unrestrained use of motor vehicles policies within the region and menber countries. and improving personal mobility for the urban poor, and ROLE OF UR8AN TRANSPORT: Second, the role of * the theme of environmental management urban transport in mneting urban development ob- brings into focus the role of all elements o f the urban jectives needs to be clearly articulated. An approach transport system in respecting the urban environ- to this has been made in this report as follows: ment in its human, ecological and physical dimen- sions and in promoting more environmentally through serving the transport needs of urban appropriate forms of urban growth. business and industry by relieving congestion and increasing the capacity to move people and goods, TIMING: Fifth, urban transport lending must be urban transport investments can be directed toward more responsivc in terms of timing. The pace of enhancing economic productivity, change in Asia is speeding up and delays in decision * through improving access by all elemnents of makingand project execution are proving to be more the population, but especially the poor, to urban and more costly in terms of system performance and services and jobs through provision of affordable in tenrs of the measures needed to rectify problems trsport services, urban transport investments can not dealt with in a timely fashion. be directed toward increasing personal mobility and thereby the alleviation of urban poverty; LENDING INSTRUMENM;: Finally, new urban trans- * through the provision of environmentally port lending instruments will need to be explored to friendly urban transport services and infrastructure achieve faster response times and sustainability in which are benefial to the nature and form ot urban the sector. In the past, the World Bank has relied growth, urban transport investments can contribute exclusively on proect lending to finance investments dramatically toward improving the urban environ- in the sector. Policy based lending making use of ment and proceduresused successfully in sectorloans needs to 75 be explored and adapted to the needs for investment * undertaking research and sector work more In the sector and to the requirements of individual appropriately. menber countries in the regions. A progmnatic approach w llalso need to be developed with regard A RAUONALE FR to lending operations to ensure their sustainability over time in a sector where the real developmental * directdngexternalaidtothedevelopmentofthe Inpacts are measured in decades rather than in sector, years This implies making a long tern commitment * investment decisions in the sector by extemal to the sector and long range programndng of staff aid agencies, suppliers credit agencies and the pri- and resources with expertise in the sector. vate sector; and Although the World Bank has an important role * theuseanddevelopmentof low-techandhigh- to play in the sector In the 1990s, it can no longer tech technology within the sector operate alone. Nor should it. The World Bank is in Already the World Bank has taken part in several no position to nonopolize the development of urban regional initiatives involving collaboration with ex- transport in Asia. Its staff resources in the sector are ternal aid agendes; Umited in quantity and its range of operations are alD linmited by the nature of its lending instraroents JAPAN:The World Bank and the Ministry of Trans- andby competing priorities from other sectors port in Japan have held joint seminars in 1989 and Other multilateral agencies such as the ADB, UNDP 1990 to discuss approaches to the development of the and5cAPcanbemoreresponsiveandmoreeffective sector in Asia and the emerging issues confronting in addressing technical assistance, training, institu- the sector in the 1990s; tora.l development and demonstrtion projects in the sector than the World Bank. Bi-lateral agencies AD: TheWorld Bankand the Asian Development can often mobilize resources more rapidly and ar- have collaborated in the formulation of background range for technology tr-;nsfer mnore efficiently than papers on urban transport data, environmental is- multilateral agencies indluding the World Bank. sues, urba. transport and urban development and 1he Wod Bank undertkes in-depth and compre- the role of private sector financing which have hensive analyses of the sector's pefonnae and its provided useful inputs into this report; and potential contnrbution to develpment. This provides theWorld DBank withan opportunity to playa caalWytic UN AGENCI: The World Bank and ESCAP have IAe in the develpmen of the sector and in the role of submitted a joint proposal for UNDP technical coop- the sectr inthedevelopmentprocessbyprovkling; eration funding for a regional training program in urban transport and for undertaking demonstration A FoRUM RR: projects to assess the viability of technical solutions in the urban transport to promote the use of non-mo- * coiiaboration between external aid agencies; tonzed vehicles, improve the environment and alle- * co-financing among extenal aid agencies and viate urban poverty in selected cities in the region. the private sector, and These initiatives now need to be expanded and * exchange of information and knowledge be- developed furither. The challenge before us is to en- tween cities. sure that thecombined resources of the development communrity and the private sector can, with the as- A FRA mwoRx FoRV sistance of the World Bank, respond appropriately to the needs of individual cities and governments in * targeting external aid within the sector more such a way that by the year 2000 Asia's urban trans- efficiently; port systems are not unique due to congestion but * using technical assistance and training more are unique due to their efficiency in mecting the efflciently; and travel demands of all sections of urban society. 76 References Allport R. (19901. Transport and Developmet in Asia, (un- Colin Buchanan and Partners [19901 Mass Transit System published) World Bank, Washington, D.C. (April). Optionsfor fabotabekJakarta. Allport R.J and ThomsonJ.M [19901 Studyof maSS transit in Cracknel J. 119901. Rqbic of Korw Urban Tansport Strat- developing countries, TRW, Crowthorne. egy: Urban Tranort Sector Issmus. 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Urban Transport in Developing Countries (coDATL v), Sao Paulo (Septemnber). 78 Annex tables Annex Table I Asia regionpopulation and urbanization data (1980-2000) GNP Der Total population (million)b Urban population (million' Proportion urband Country capi(t 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 Low Income 2,150.7 2,583.2 3,0373 454.6 1,018.1 1,403.1 21 39 46 Afghanistan .. 16.0 20A 26.7 2.5 3.7 5.9 16 18 22 Bangladesh 170 875 113.1 138.7 9.9 18.6 31.8 11 16 23 Bhutan 180 1.2 1.4 1.8 0.0 0.1 0.1 4 5 8 China' 330 981.2 1,122.0 1,2755 192.3 628.3 832.2 20 56 65 India 340 687.3 849.7 1,007.1 158.8 229A 3253 23 27 32 Indonesia 440 148.3 181.6 2135 32.9 55.4 84.3 22 31 40 Kampuchea .. 6A 8.2 99 0.7 1.0 1A 10 12 15 Korea (DwM .. 18.3 21.4 24.8 10A 12.8 15.7 57 60 63 lao PDR 180 32 42 55 0.4 0.8 1.4 13 19 25 Maldives 410 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 22 29 38 Mongolia .. 1.7 2.2 2.8 0.9 1.1 1.6 51 52 55 Myanmar .. 33.8 41.6 50A 8.1 10.3 14.3 24 25 28 Nepal 180 14.6 19.1 24.1 0.9 1.8 3A 6 10 14 Pakistan 350 82.6 113.7 1543 23.2 36A 585 28 32 38 Sri Lanka 420 14.7 17.0 189 32 3.6 4.6 22 21 24 Vietnam .. 53.7 67.4 83.0 10A 14.8 22.5 19 22 27 Middle income 170.2 205.9 237.5 65.7 93A 122.5 39 45 52 Fiji 1,520 0.6 0.8 0.8 02 0.3 OA 38 39 43 Klribati 650 0.1 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.3 0.4 32 36 43 Korea 3,600 38.1 42.8 46.7 21.7 30.8 38.0 57 72 81 Macao .. 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 05 0.5 98 99 99 Malaysia 1,940 13.8 17.8 22.0 4.8 7.6 11.2 35 43 51 Papua New Guinea 810 3.1 3.9 4.9 0.4 0.6 1.0 13 16 20 Philippines 630 49.3 62.6 74.9 18.4 26.7 36.5 37 43 49 Solomon Islands 630 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 9 11 14 Taiwan, China 5,640 17.6 20.3 22.1 11.6 13.8 15.4 66 68 70 Thailand 1,000 46.7 55.8 63.8 8.1 12.7 18.8 17 23 29 Tonga 830 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 20 21 25 Vanuatu 840 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 19 26 34 Western Samoa 640 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 21 22 26 Annex Table 1 (continued, GNP per Total mvulation (milion)b Urban population (millionf' Proporlion ur&nd Country _ #V 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 High income 142.5 153.0 161B lilA 120.9 129A 78 79 80 Australia 12,340 14.7 17.0 19.5 12.6 145 169 86 86 86 Brunei .. 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 60 58 59 Guam .. 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 40 53 63 Hong Kong 9.220 5.0 5.8 63 4.6 5A 6.0 92 94 96 Japan 21,020 116.8 1235 128.7 89.0 95.1 100.0 76 77 78 New Cadedonfa .. 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 49 36 36 New Zealand 10,000 3.1 3A 3.6 2.6 2.9 3.1 83 84 85 Singapore 9.070 2.4 2.7 3.0 2.4 2.7 3.0 100 100 100 Tolal 2A63.3 2,942.0 3A36.6 631.7 1.232.5 1.654.9 26 42 48 a. Worl Dewlopmant Report 1990. b. Asia and MEAMA Population Projections. c, Derived from applying percentage urban to total population. d. World Urbanization Prospects 1990 UN (Except for China 1990 and 2000). e. The definition of urban areas changed 1980-90 resulting in sharp urban increases in 1990 in China and in the Totals. Annex Table 2 Asia region population and urbanization growth (1980-2000) Total population Urban population Annual sfrowth rate (urban population) Country GNPpercapitaa 1980-90 1990-2000 2950-90 1990-2000 2980485 1985-90 1990-9.5 1995-2000 Low Income 432.5 454.1 563.6 384.9 4.1 4.5 4.7 4.4 Afghanistan .. 4A 6.3 1.2 2.2 -0.5 4.2 8.5 4.8 Bangladesh 170 25.6 25.6 8.7 13.2 6.6 63 6.1 5.8 Bhutan 180 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.1 4.7 5A 59 6.3 China 330 140.7 153.5 436.0 203.9 6.7 6.6 5.4 4.2 India 340 162.3 157.5 70.6 95.9 3.8 3.6 3.8 3.8 Indonesia 440 33.3 31.9 22.5 28.9 5A 5.0 4.6 4.1 Kampuchea .. 1.8 1.7 0.3 0.5 3.5 4.0 4.2 4.2 Korea (Drit) .. 3.2 3.4 2.4 2.8 2.4 2.2 2A 2.3 Lao rDR 180 1.0 1.3 0.3 0.6 5.6 6.0 6.0 5.6 Maldives 410 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 6.2 5.9 5A 4.9 Mongolia .. 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.2 Myanmar .. 7.8 8.8 2.2 4.0 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.6 Nepal 180 45 5.0 0.9 1.6 7.2 6.9 6.5 6.1 Pakistan 350 31.1 40.6 13.2 22.1 5.0 4.9 4.5 4.5 Sri Lanka 420 2.2 1.9 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.7 Vietnam .. 13.7 15.6 4.1 7.7 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.4 Middle income 35.7 31.6 27.7 29.0 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 Fiji 1,520 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.4 Kiribati 650 0.6 0.1 0.2 oA 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 Korea 3,600 4.7 3.9 9.1 7.2 4.0 3.1 2.3 1.8 Macao .. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 4.0 4.1 3.5 2.8 Malaysia 1,940 4.0 4.2 2.9 3.6 49 4.7 4.1 3.5 Papua New Guinea 810 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 4.1 4.3 4.6 4.8 Philippines 630 13.4 12.3 8.3 9.9 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.4 Solomon Islands 630 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 4.8 5.0 5.4 5.7 Taiwan, China 5,640 2.7 1.8 2.2 1.6 4.8 5.0 5.4 5.7 Thailand 1,000 9.1 8.0 4.6 6.0 4.8 5.0 5.4 5.7 Tonga 830 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.8 5.0 5.4 :5.7 Vanuatu 840 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 4.8 5.0 aA 5.7 Western Samoa 640 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.8 5.0 5A 5.7 Annex Table 2 (continued) Total ovulation Urban mouLation Annua agwth rte (urba vaovtlien) Country CNPpercapitaa 1980-90 1990-2000 1980-90 1990-2000 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-2000 High income 10.5 8.9 9.5 0A 48 5.0 54 5.7 Australia 12,340 2.3 2.5 1.9 2.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 Brunei .. 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 3.1 3.4 25 2.4 Cuam .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 45 35 2.7 2.1 Hong Kong 9,220 0.7 05 0.8 0.6 1.9 1.7 1.1 09 Japan 21,020 6.7 5.2 6.1 4.9 0.8 0.5 OS 05 New Caledonla .. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -4.7 19 1.7 1.4 New Zealand 10,000 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.9 09 0.9 Singapore 9,070 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 12 1.3 1.1 0.8 Total 478.7 494.6 600.8 422.4 3.6 3.9 4.0 32 Annex Table3 Population 190,190, and 2000of cities withl1million or more inhabitants in 1990 (millions)b GNP ft.~~~~y l-.5 million Powr 5-10 million fto,:> 10 million Total dfv opulation Couny cpfa cities 1960 19%4 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 Low Income 91.1 135.2 162.0 44.9 56.9 38.8 11.7 36.0 125.7 147.8 2282 323A Afghanistan ..Kabul 1.0 1.6 2.6 0.0 . . 0.0 ... 1.0 lb 2.6 Bangladesh 170.0 Chittagong 1.3 2.3 3.9 ... .. *. 1.3 2.3 3.9 Dacca 3.3 .. . . 6.6 ... . 12.2 3.3 6.6 12.2 China 330.0 Anshan 1.2 1.5 2.0 . .. ... 1.2 1.5 2.0 Baotou 1.0 1.3 1.7 . .. .. 1.0 1.3 1.7 Beijng . .. . 9.0 ... . 10.8 14.0 9.0 10.8 14.0 Changchun 1.7 2.2 3.1 . .. ... 1.7 2.2 3.1 Changsha 1.0 1.4 1.9 ....... .. 1.0 IA 1.9 Chengdu 2.3 3.0 4.1 . .. .. 2.3 3.0 4.1 Chongqing 2.6 3.2 4.2 . .. ... 2.6 3.2 4.2 Dalian 1.5 2.5 4.1 is. . .. . . 2.5 4.1 Datong .. 1.1 1.5 . .. .. 0.0 1. 1.5 Fushun 1.2 IA 1.9 .. . .. .. 1.2 IA 1.9 Fuzhou 1.1 1.4 1. A. . . . . 1.1 1.4 1.8 Guangzhou 3.1 3.7 4.8 . ... - - 3.1 3.7 438 CuIyang 1.3 1.6 2.2 .. . .-. - 1.3 I.6 2.2 Hbagzhou 1.2 1.4 1.9 .. . . . . 1.2 IA 19 Handan . 1.2 1.I. . . .-. 0.0 1.2 lb6 Harbin 2.5 3.0 3.9 . .. .. 235 3.0 3.9 Kaohsiung 1.2 is 2.1 . .... 1.2 1is 2.1 Kummning 1.4 1.7 2.3 . ...... I A 1.7 2.3 Lanzhou 1. 1.6 2.1 . ..... 1.3 1.6 2.1 Luoyang .. 1.2 1.7 . .. ... 0.0 1.2 1.7 Nanchang 1.0 1.4 2.0 . .. ... 1.0 lA 2.0 Nan jng 2.1 2.6 3.6 . ...... 2.i 2.6 3.6 Nanning .. 1.3 1.9 . .. ... 0.0 1.3 1.9 Qingdao 1.2 1.4 1.9 . .. .. 1.2 1.4 1.9 Qiqihar 1.2 1.5 2.0 . .. ... 1.2 1.5 2.0 Shanghai . ... . .. 11.7 13.4 17.0 11.7 13.4A 17.0 Shenyang 3.9 4.8 . . 6.3 .... 3.9 4.8 6.3 Shljlazhuang 1.0 1.4 1.9 ... .. .- 1.0 IA 1.9 To"ve . 2.2 3.0 .4.2 ~ .. .. . 2.2 3.0 4.2 Annex Table 3 (continued) GNP prPop: 1-5 m1Uion POP: 5-10 million Pop:, > 10 million Total di V populaion Country cpta cities 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 Taiyuan 1.7 2.2 3.0 * *.. .. 1.7 2.2 3.0 Tangshan 1.3 1.6 2.1 .. ...... 1.3 1.6 2.1 Tianjin ... . 7.3 9A ... . 12.7 7.3 9A 12.7 Urumqi I. 1. 2.1 .... .... 0.0 IA 2.1 Wuhan 3.2 3.9 ... 5.3 ... .3.2 3.9 5.3 Xian 2.1 2.9 4.0 . .. ... 2.1 2.9 4.0 Zhengzhou 1.4 1.8 2.4 1.. .. .. A 1.8 2.4 India 340.0 Ahmedabad 2.5 3.6 ... . 5.3 ... .2.5 3.6 5.3 Bangalore 2.8 5.0 ... . 8.2 ... . 2.8 5.0 8.2 Bhopal .. 1.1 1.9 .. .. ... 0.3 1.1 19 Bombay ... . 8.1 9.5 .... 15.4 8.1 9.5 ISA Calcutta ... . 9.0 . 11.8 15.7 9.0 1189 15.7 Cochin .. 1.0 1.6 .. 0.0 1.0 1.6 Coimbatore .. 1.1 1.5 . 0.0 1.1 1.5 Delhi .5.6 8.8 . 13.2 5.6 8.8 13.2 Dhanbad .. 1.0 1.6 . ... ... 0.0 1.0 1.6 Hyderabad 2.5 35 5.0 . .. .. 2.5 3.5 5.0 Indore .. 1.2 1.8 . ..... 0.0 1.2 1.8 Jabalpur .. 1.1 1.5 .... .... 0.0 1.1 1.5 Jaipur .. 1.6 2.4. .... .. 0.0 1 e 2.4 Kanpur 1.6 2.1 2.7 . .. .. 1.6 2.1 277 Lucknow .. 12 1.6 . ....... 0.0 1.2 1.6 Madras 4.2 . .5.7 7.5 .... 4.2 5.7 7.8 Madural .. 1.1 1.5 .... .... 0.0 1.1 1.5 Nagpur 1.3 1.8 2.5 . .. .. 1.3 1.8 2.5 Patna .. 1.7 2.9 . ...... 0.0 1.7 2.9 Poona 1.6 2.4 3.6 .... ...1.6 2.4 3.6 Surat .. 1.6 2.8 . ...... 0.0 1.6 2.8 Ulihasnagar .. 1.0 1.6 . ..... 0.0 1.0 1.6 Vadodara .. 1.2 1.8 . ....... 0.0 1.2 1.8 Varanasi .. 1.0 1.4 . .. ... 0.0 1.0 I.4 Indonesia 440.0 Banduns 1.8 2.5 3.6 ... .. .- 1.8 2.5 3.6 Jakarta ... . 6.0 9.3 ... . 13.7 6.0 9.3 13.7 Medan 1.2 1.9 2.7 . .. .. 1.2 1.9 2.7 Palembang -..- - 1.2 1.8 . .. ... 0.0 1.2 1.8 Annex Table 3 (continued) GNP perT POE: 1-5 million Pop, 5-1O million Pop: > 1O million Total dlv popukationr Country crapitaa citieas 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2W) 1980 1990 2000O Semarang .. 1.2 1.8 ....... .. 0.0 1.2 1.s Sumabaya 1.7 2.4 3.4 ... .. .. 1.7 2.4 3.4 Korea (DPR) ..Pyongyalng 1.8 2.2 2.7 ....... .1.8 2.2 2.7 Myanmar ..Yangon 2.2 3.3 4.7 ....... . 2.2 3.3 4.7 Pakistan 350.0 Faisalabad 1 1.5 2.2 ......... 1.1 1s 2.2 Hyderabad 1.0 1.5 0.. .. .. .0 1.0 1.5 Karachi 4.9 .. . . 7.7 II... 1. 7 4.9 7.7 11.7 Lahore 2.9 4.1 .. 6.0 ... . 2.9 4.1 6.0 Multan .. 1.0 1is. ... . .* 0.0 1.0o. Rawalpindi .. 1.1 1.6 .... .... 0.0 Li1 1.6 Vietnam ..Hantoi 1.1 1.is... . .. 0.0 1.1 1s Ho Chi Minh 2.7 3.2 4.1 ... ..2.7 3.2 4.1 Middle Income *0.5 12.1 15.7 14.2 15.6 0.0 0.0 11.0 34.7 24.8 36.7 BOA Korea 3,600.0 Inchon 1.1 1.7 2.3 ....... 1.1 1.7 2.3 Kwangchu .. 1.1 1.4 . . ...-- 0.0 '1.1 lA Pusan 3.1 3.9 4.3 .. . .. .- 3.1 3.9 4.3 Seoul ..8.3 ... . 11.0 12.7 8.3 11.0 12.7 Taegu 1.6 2.5 3.3 .. ... .... 16 2.5 3.3 Taejon .. 1.1 1.6 . ...... 0.0 1. 1.6 Malaysia 1,940.0 Kuala 1.7 2.6 ... . .. 0.0 1.7 2.6 Lumpur Philippines 630.0 Manila ... . 6.0 8.5 ..... 11.8 6.0 8.5 11.8 Thailand 1,000.0 Bangkok 4.7 . 7.2 .... 10.3 4.7 7.2 10.3 High Income 20.5 18.5 19.9 8.3 14.0 14.7 16.9 18.1 19.0 45.7 50.6 53A6 Australia 12,340.0 Brisbane 1.0 1.2 1.4 . .. ...1.0 1.2 1.4 Melboumne 2.7 2.8 3.0 . .. ... 2.7 2.8 3.0 Perth 1.1 1.2 . ... ... 0.0 1.1 1.2 Sydney 3.1 3.4 3.7 . .. .. 3.i 3.4 3.7 Hong Kong 9,220.0 Honat Kongt 4.5 . .. 5.4 6.1 . .. 4.5 5.4 6.1- Aniex Table 3 (contin. ted) GNP per Pop: 1-5 million Pop, O10 million Pop: > 10 millon Total div rpoulaiion Coutiry capitua Cities 1980 1990 2000 1960 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2X Japan 21,020.0 Kitakyushu 2.1 2.3 2.3 .. .. .. .. .. 2.1 2.3 23 Kyoto 1.4 1.4 1.4 .. .. .. .. .. .. IA 14A IA Nagoya 2.0 2.1 2.1 .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.0 2,1 2.1 Osaka .. .. .. 8.3 85 8.6 8.3 85 8.6 Sapporo 1.3 1.5 1.8 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.3 1.5 1.8 Tokyo .. .. .. .. .. .. 16.9 18.1 19.0 16.9 18.1 19.0 Singapore 9,070.0 Singapore 2.4 2.7 3.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.4 2.7 3.0 Tolat 122.2 165.8 1966 67.5 86.5 53.5 28.7 65.1 179A 218.3 317.5 429.4 a. VVorld Detdeoprnent Report 1990. b. Wor/l Llrbanizationi Prospects 1990 (unpublished draft). Annex Table 4 Growth In number of cities 1980-1990 GNPgr Number of cities n Country c?4ptt 1980 (%J 1990 (%) 1980-90 Low income 55 76A 80 79.2 25 Afghanistan .. 1 1A 1 1.0 0 Bangladesh 170 2 2.8 2 2.0 0 China 330 32 44.4 37 36.6 5 India 340 10 13.9 24 23.8 14 Indonesia 440 4 5.6 6 5.9 2 Korea (DPR) .. 1 1.4 1 1.0 0 Myanmar .. 1 1A 1 1.0 0 Pakistan 350 3 4.2 6 5.9 3 Vietnam .. 1 1A 2 2.0 1 Middle Income 6 8.3 9 8.9 3 Korea 3,600 4 5.6 6 5.9 2 Malaysia 1,940 0 0.0 1 1.0 1 Philippines 630 1 1A 1 1.0 0 Tlhailand 1,000 1 1A 1 1.0 0 High income 11 153 12 11.9 1 Australia 12,340 3 4.2 4 4.0 1 Hong Kong 9,220 1 1.4 1 1.0 0 Japan 21,020 6 83 6 5.9 0 Singapore 9,070 1 1A 1 1.0 0 Total 72 100.0 101 100.0 29 a. World Development Report 1990. b. World Urbanization Prospects 1990 (unpublished draft). Annex Table 5 Urban transport infrastructure in selected Asian cities EXPresswy Primarv Secondary Loal/access Mass transit Total Country City Year (kmS.) (%) (kmS.) (%) (kms.) (%J (kms.) (%) (kms.) (%) (kms.) (%) Low income Indonesia Bandung 1987 0 0.0 38 6.8 160 285 364 64.8 0 0.0 562 100.0 Jakarta 1988 0 0.0 1,084 30.3 1,709 47.7 790 22.0 0 0.0 3,583 100.0 Medan 1988 0 0.0 63 10.1 252 40.0 315 50.0 0 0.0 630 100.0 Surabaya 1988 0 0.0 112 17.0 418 63.5 128 19.5 0 0.0 658 100.0 Middle income Korea Pusan 1987 145 8.0 994 54.5 663 36.4 0.0 21 1.2 1,823 100.0 Seoul 1987 731 10.2 1,475 20.5 4,861 67.7 0.0 117 1.6 7,184 100.0 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 1985 89 12.6 269 38.1 203 28.8 145 20.5 0 0.0 706 100.0 Philippines Manila 1988 0 0.0 859 29.1 945 32.0 1,134 38.4 15 0.5 2,953 100.0 Thailand Bangkok 1988 27 1.0 390 13.9 525 18.7 1,870 665 0 0.0 2,812 100.0 High income Singapore Singapore 1987 100 3.5 507 17.6 236 8.2 2,001 69.6 33 1.1 2,877 100.0 Annex Table 6 Asia urban public transport data: bus companies low-income countries Population Passengers Passengers Daily No. Arerage 1990 Data Bus Publicl Bus per perday vehicle Route of Rte. length Country Cities (million) Year companv Private plet day per bus kilometers kiometers routes (km) B3angladesh Dhaka 6.6 11988?1 BRTC Public 450 465,753 1,035 . 1,116 China Anshan 1.5 11988?1 ACDC Public 600 .. .. .. .. 19 Beijing 10.8 11988?J csc 'Public 3,000 5,479,452 1,826 .. .. 129 Changchun 2.2 (1988?1 ccsc Public 400 .. .. .. .. 20 Chongqing 3.2 1986 ccTD Public 866 1,556,164 1,797 147,945 514 54 9.5 Dalian 2.5 11988?1 DcrC Public 500 1,000,000 2,000 * 140 18 7.8 Fushun 1.4 11988?1 FCBC Public 400 .. .. .. .. 30 Cuangzhou 3.7 1986 1&2 ic Public 1,800 2,164,384 1,202 .. .. 269 Harbin 3.0 11988?1 iicec Public 600 .. .. .. .. 19 Jilin 1.3 11988?7 ICTC Public 250 .. .. .. .. 20 Nanjlng 2.6 11988?1 NCTC Public 500 821,918 1,644 .. .. 20 Shanghai 13.4 1985 STC Public 4,579 10,980,822 2,398 933,973 9,953 276 36.1 Shenyang 4.8 1987 SCBC Public 620 1,084,658 1,749 72,603 932 54 17.3 Taipei 3.0 1987 TcB Public 1,666 964,110 579 240,822 3,490 266 13.1 1986 ucs (9) Private 1,709 1,538,904 900 353,973 1,557 96 1621 Taiyuan 2.2 11988?1 TCTC Public 250 .. .. .. .. 30 Tangshan 1.6 11988?1 TCDC Public 250 .. .. .. .. 1S Tinjin 9.4 1984 Tcrc Public 1,439 1,627,397 1,131 243,836 .. 59 India Ahmedabad 3.6 1987 AMTs Public 669 667,397 998 102,712 2,368 226 103 Bangalore 5.0 1982 B1S Publkc 937 909,589 971 146,849 .. 364 Bombay 9.5 1988 BESr Publlc" 2,379 4,309,589 1,812 457,534 2,885 224 12.9 Calcutta 11.8 11988?1 csrc Publicd 1,172 2,465,753 Z104 136,986 482 62 7.8 (1988?1 BOUB Private 2,200 2,739,726 1,245 342,466 1,500 101 149 Delhi 8.8 1984 oTc Public 4,135 3,772,603 912 903,562 .. 689 Hyderabad 3.5 1987 APSRTC Public 1,159 1,021,918 882 233,425 5,583 389 14A Kanpur 2.1 11988?1 UPSR=C Public 200 68,493 342 .. Lucknow 1.2 11988?1 UVSRTC Public 300 68,493 228 .. Madras 5.7 1987 Frc Public 2,089 3,024,658 1,448 406,027 881 329 2.7 NagRur 1.8 1986 MSKr Public 100 109,589 1,096 18,630 1,107 111 10.0 Annex Table 6 (continued) Population Passengers Passengers Daily No. AiTge 1990 Data Bus Publicl Bus per perday vehicle Route of Rte. kength Countrv Cities (million) Year company Privae feet day perf bus kilometers kilometers routes (kn) Indonesia Jakarta 9.3 [1988?1 rrD Public 2,294 1,780,822 776 328,767 2,208 164 13.5 Surabaya 2.4 (1988?1 DAMRt Public 160 41,096 257 .. .. 30 11988?1 URTB Privatep 3,200 547,945 171 .. Korea (OrR) Pyongyang 2.2 11988?1 PPATC Public 500 410,959 822 .. .. 50 Myanmar Yangon 3.3 11988?1 RTC Public 350 273,973 783 27,397 250 11 22.7 [1988?1 RRrPcc Private 350 191,781 548 27,397 92 6 153 Pakitan Karachi 7.7 11988?) icrc Public 400 273,973 685 54,795 .. 30 11988?) KBOA Private 1,000 547,945 548 82,192 .. 30 11988?) KMOA Private 3,000 547,945 183 136,986 .. 50 Lahore 4.1 1988 irrc PublicI 884 258,082 292 73,973 1,891 84 225 Low Income total 155.1 39 (Public: 36 / 47,357 51,715,890 1,092 5,472,849 36,949 4,344 Privatc: 6) a. no subsidy provided b. fares cover operating costs c. cross subsidy from electricity supply services d. fares cover 70% of operating costs e. paratransit operation . fares cover 40% of operating costs '- i.i Annex Table 7 Asia urban public transport data: bus companies middle- and high-income countries Population Passengers Passengers Daily Average 1990 Data Bus Pubilci Bus per per day rehick Route No. of Rte. lkngth Country Cities (million) Year company Private fleet day per bus kilmeters kilonmters routes (An) Korea Seoul 11.0 1985 ssrc Private 8,295 7,673,973 925 .. 3,620 347 IOA Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 1.7 1983 8 Private 969 454,795 469 159,134 3,806 174 21.9 1983 Bas Mini Private 490 160,000 327 112,603 .. 38 Philippines Metro Manila 8.5 1984 MMT Public 560 82,192 147 .. 767 16 47.9 11988?l Minibuses Private 2,500 2,054,795 822 684,932 3,000 150 20 11988?1 Jcepneys Private 28,000 2,054,795 73 .. Thailand Bangkob 7.2 1988 bMTA Public 6,031 4,973,000 825 .. 5,163 223 23.2 1989 Minibus Private 2,151 1,120,000 521 .. a Middle Income total 28.3 8 (Public: 2 48,996 18,573,548 379 956,668 16,356 948 18.0 /Prlvate: 6) Australia Brisbane 1.2 1988 Bcc Public 589 126,027 214 74,247 734 94 7.8 Melbourne 2.8 1988 The Met Public 335 71,233 213 47,397 390 53 7.1 Perth 1.1 1988 Transperth Public 899 142,466 158 126,575 1,784 328 ;A Sydney 3.4 1988 srA Public 1,461 517,808 354 162,192 978 264 3.7 Hong Kong Hong Kong 5.4 1987 KmB Private 2,823 2,980,822 1,056 572,603 1,500 227 6.6 1986 CMB Private 1,024 878,630 858 149,589 1,324 116 11A 1987 PLu Privateb 4,340 960,000 221 .. .. 123 Japan Kitakyushu 2.3 11988?1 KKK Public 144 68,493 476 27,397 11988?1 NNT Private 700 273,973 391 82,192 Kyoto 1.4 1984 KKK Public 989 520,548 526 108,767 440 89 4.9 Nagoya 2.1 1986 NKK Public 1,377 605,479 440 125,479 631 111 5.7 Osaka 8.5 1988 OKK Public 966 317,808 329 83,836 440 105 4.2 Sappom 1,5 1987 SKK Public 690 268,493 389 54,247 1,036 73 14.3 Tokyo 18.1 1988 TKK Public 1,867 879,452 471 186,849 1,020 113 9.0 Singapore Singapore 2.7 1988 sus Private 2,921 2,473,973 847 610,959 2,924 215 13.6 1986 llUS Private 369 194,521 527 94,795 .. 23 Hligh income total 50.6 16 (Public: 10/ 21,494 11,279,726 525 13,221 1,936 7.4 Private: 6) Asia total 234.0 63 (Public- 48/ 117,847 81,569,164 692 66,526 5,335 12.5 Privaye 18) a. Included in BMTA data Antex Table 8 Asia urban public transport data: tram/itt companies Population Tarnl Passengers Passngers Daily NO. Average 1990 Data LRT Tram/ Fleet per per unit Route of rne. kngth Couitrv Cities (million) year cornrg'nv LRT (Units) dAy davlunit kilometers kilometers route (km) China Anshan 1.5 11988?1 ACEr Tram 70 270,000 3,857 .. 13 1 129 Changchun 2.2 11988?1 cctlrc Tram 79 350,000 4,430 ,, 20 3 6.7 Dalian 2.5 11988?1 IxCrc Tram 100 600,000 6,000 .. 15 3 5.0 India Calcutta 11.8 1987 crc Tram 402 473,973 1,179 25,205 71 29 2.4 Low income total 18.0 4 (Tram: 4/ LRT: 0) 651 1,693,973 2,602 119 36 33 I'hilipptnes Metro Manila 8.5 1987 LRTA LKrT 64 278,082 4,345 .. 15 1 15.0 Mi ddle licome total 8.5 1 (Tram: 01 LRT: 1) 64 278,082 4,345 15 1 15.0 Australia Adelaide 1.0 1988 STA Tram 21 6,301 300 2,247 11 1 11.4 Melbourne 2.8 1988 The Met Tram 620 309,589 499 .. 342 36 95 ifong Kong Flung Kong 5.4 1987 irrL Tram 162 353,425 2,182 20,274 17 6 2.8 1988 NWR l.RT' 70 270,000 3,857 .. 23 5 4.6 Japan Kitakyushu 2.3 1982 NNr Tram 82 139,726 1,704 .. 19 1 19.0 1982 clyr :.kr 23 46,575 2,025 .. 15 1 15.0 Kyoto 1.4 1987 Kwr l.RT 60 98,630 1,644 .. 25 2 12.5 1982 KyFr i.r 28 27,671 988 .. 11 2 5.5 Sapporo 1.5 1987 SKK Tram 32 27,397 856 2,740 8 1 8.0 Tokyo 18.1 1988 TKK Tram 45 65,753 1,461 4,932 12 1 12.0 1986 Tokyu Tram 9 51,233 5,693 .. 5 1 5.0 11igh inco:iie total 32.6 11 (Tram: 71 LRT: 4) 1,152 1,396,301 21,209 30,192 485 57 8.6 Asia total 59.1 16 (Tram: 11/ LRTt 5) 1,867 3,368,356 28,156 30,192 622 94 6.6 to Annex Table 9 AsiA urban public transport data: metro/MRT companies Poplulation Medro/ Passengers Passengers Daily Average rte. 1990 Data MRT Fleet per per unit Route No. of length Country Cities (million) year company (Units) day dayLunit kilometers kilowters routes (km) ChiIna eijing 10.8 1987 UUC 200 500,000 2,500 .. 40 2 20.0 TiaInjin 9.4 1986 TMIA 12 30,000 2,500 .. 8 1 8.0 India Calcutta 11.8 1987 M,RI 144 60,000 417 25,205 10 1 10.0 Korea (INrR) Pyongyanls 2.2 1983 CUU 48 115,068 2,397 .. 23 2 11.5 Low income total 34.2 404 705,068 1,745 81 6 13.5 Korea Pusan 3.9 1986 rcc 186 334,000 1,796 .. 21 1 21.0 Seotl 11.0 1986 smsc 788 2,219,178 2,816 30,137 117 4 29.3 Middle income total 14.9 974 2,553,178 2,621 30,137 138 5 27.6 Hlong Kong 1-long Kong 5.4 1987 6WKC 622 1,624,658 2,612 178,082 39 3 13.0 Japan Kyoto 1.4 1985 KKK 36 130,000 3,611 .. 7 1 7.0 Nagoya 2.1 1986 NKK 523 926,575 1,772 132,877 60 4 15.0 Osaka 8.5 1988 OKK 936 2,525,753 2,698 245,205 99 6 16.5 Sapi)n) 1.5 1987 SKK 410 550,411 1,342 77,534 41 3 13.7 Tokyo 18.1 1988 IXK 478 1,312,329 2,745 145,753 62 3 70.7 1986 1RTA 1,970 5,279,452 2,680 515,068 142 7 203 Singapore Singapore 2.7 1988 .MRTC 138 220,000 1,594 .. 33 2 16.5 1118h income total 39.8 5,113 12,569,178 19,055 1,294,521 483 29 16.7 Asia total 88.9 6,491 15_827,425 23,422 1,324,658 702 40 17.6 Annex Table 10 Asia urban public transport data: CRT systems Population Passengers Passengers Daily No. Averg 1990 Data CRT GRT Fleet Fer per day unit Route q rte. kngth Counntr4 Cities (million}) Mar conpny _ type (Units) da ki unit khlometers kilomeers routes (bin) Australia Adelaido 1.0 1990 STA C/Bus 92 22,800 248 .. 12 1 12.0 Sydney 3.4 11988?1 T,MT Monorail .. .. .. .. 4 1 3.6 Japan Chiba .. .. Monorail 70 .. .. .. 15 1 15.3 Ina .. .. .. AGT .. 19,500 .. 13 Kitakyushu 2.3 1988 KKT Monorail 9 26,301 2,922 6,849 8 1 8A Kobe 1.4 1986 KSKK ACT 72 41,370 575 .. 6 1 6.4 Osaka 8.5 1988 icrs ACT 64 55,068 860 10,137 7 1 6.6 Tokyo 18.1 11988?1 TM Monorail 54 85,700 1,587 .. 13 1 13.2 Yokohama 3.2 11988?1 ICIs ACT .. .. .. .. 11 1 11.0 Yukarigaoka .. .. .. Monorail .. 900 .. .. 4 1 3.6 Total 37.9 10 (ACT; 4 Mfrail: 5) 361 251,640 6,192 16,986 93 9 10.3 %0 Annex Tablelli Asia urban travel data (non-motorized and motorized trips) Counitry Cityl Year Walk Nmv P/transit Bug Rail' Car Mkcvde Other6 Total (%) Motorized Transpot Caritaxi Sourms Low income Bangladesh Dhaka 1980 21.0 35.0 4.0 34.0 .. 6.0 . .. 100.0 56.0 38.0 6.0 1 China Anshan 1987c 26.9 55.83 15.9 IA*. 1. 100.0 82.7 15.9 IA 2 Changzhou 1985 38.2 52.5 . 6.3 .. . . 3.0 100.0 90.7 6.3 3.0 2 Fushun 1987c 34.0 26.1 .. 27.7 11.7 0.3 .. 0.2 100.0 60.1 39A4 0.5 2 Guangzhou 1986 38.0 30.0 .. 27.4A 1.8 .. 2.8 100.0 68.0 27.4 4.6 2 Louyang 1986 41.0 51.8 .. 6.5 .. . . 0.7 100.0 92.8 6.5 0.7 2 Shanghai 1986 38.0 33.0 .. 26.0 .. . . 3.0 100.0 71.0 26.0 3.0 3 Shcnyan 1987c 29.7 55.9 .. 11.7 .. . . 2.7 100.0 85.6 11.7 2.7 2 Tianjin 1987 50.0 41.0 .. 9.0 . . . . 100.0 91.0 9.0 0.0 4 India Ahmedabad 1981 43.0 20.0 .. 29.0 d 1.0 6.0 1.0 100.0 63.0 29.0 8.0 5 Bangalore 1984 44.0 12.0 .. 36.0 d 2.0 6.0 0.0 100.0 56.0 36.0 8.0 5 Bombay 1981 15.0 11.0 .. 58.0 d 8.0 1.0 7.0 100.0 26.0 58.0 16.0 5 Delhi 1981 29.0 18.0 .. 40.0 di 0.0 10.0 3.0 100.0 47.0 40.0 13.0 5 Kanpur 1977 72.0 24.0 ... . 1.0 3.0 0.0 100.0 96.0 0.0 4.0 5 Madras 1980 21.0 20.0 .. 53.0 d 1.0 4.0 1.0 100.0 41.0 53.0 6.0 5 Indonesfa Jakarta 1984 23.0 17.0 . 25.0 . 8.0 13.0 14.0 100.0 40.0 25.0 35.0 5 Surabaya 1984 20.0 25.0 .. 13.0 .. 9.0 26.0 7.0 100.0 45.0 13.0 42.0 5 Middle income Korea Pusan 1982 17.9 . . 58.4 .. 5.2 .. 8. 100.0 17.9 58.4 23.7 6 Seoul 1982 12.0 . .. 58.6 6.5 7.9 .. 15.0 100.0 12.0 65.1 22.9 6 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 1984 10.0 2.0 .. 34.0 .. 34.0 12.0 8.0 100.0 12.0 34.0 54.0 7 Philippines Manila 1984 8.0 .. 55.0 14.0 .. 23.0 .. 100.0 8.0 69.0 23.0 8 Thailand Bangkok 1984 16.0 . .. 58.0 .. 19.0 5.0 2.0 100.0 16.0 58.0 26.0 9 tilgh Income f100 2. I 47 1 Japan Central Tokyo 1988 13.2 10.7 .. 8.0 43.4 24.7 . 0. 39 5. 47 1 CTeater Tokyo 19i8 6.3 15.7 .. 8.2 15.4 53.9 £100.0 22.5 23.6 53.9 10 a. including mass rapid transit b. including taxi c. momning peak hour only d. included in bus trips e. taxi, etc included in paratransit f. inclut:,i in NWV Annex Table 12 Asia urban travel data (motorized trips) CounlrV Citv Yar P/transit BDi Raie Car Mlcvck Otheb Total (%) Bus Rai Carltaxi Sources Low Income Bangladesh Dhaka 1980 9.1 77.3 .. 13.6 .. .. 100.0 86A .. 13.6 1 China Anshan 1987c .. 919 .. .. ,. 8.1 100.0 91.9 .. 8.1 2 Changzhou 1985 .. 67.7 .. .. .. 32.3 100.0 67.7 .. 32.3 2 Fushun 1987c .. 69.4 29.3 0.8 .. 05 100.0 69A 29.3 1.3 2 Cuangzhou 1986 .. 85.6 .. 5.6 .. 8.8 100.0 85.6 .. 14A 2 Louyang 1986 .. 90.3 .. .. .. 9.7 100.0 90.3 .. 9.7 2 Shanghai 1986 .. 89.7 .. .. .. 10.3 100.0 89.7 .. 10.3 3 Shenyan 1987' .. 81.3 .. .. .. 18.8 100.0 81.3 .. 18.8 2 Tianjin 1987 .. 100.0 .. .. .. .. 100.0 100.0 .. .. 4 India Ahmedabad 1981 .. 78.4 d 2.7 16.2 2.7 100.0 78.4 d 21.6 5 Bangalore 1984 .. 81.8 d 45 13.6 0.0 100.0 81.8 d 18.2 5 Bombay 1981 .. d 10.7 2.7 93 100.0 77.3 d 22.7 5 Delhi 1981 .. 755 d 0.0 18.9 5.7 100.0 7;5 d 245 5 Kanpur 1981 .. 11.1 d 55.6 0.0 33.3 100.0 11.1 d 88.9 5 Madras 1980 .. 89.8 d 1.7 6.8 1.7 100.0 89.8 d 10.2 5 Indonesia Jakarta 1984 .. 41.7 .. 13.3 21.7 23.3 100.0 41.7 .. 58.3 5 Surabaya 1984 .. 23.6 .. 16.4 45.5 145 100.0 23.6 .. 76.4 5 Pakistan Karachi 1987 7.0 55.0 .. 23.0 15.0 .. 100.0 62.0 .. 38.0 11 Middle income Korea Pusan 1982 .. 71.1 .. 6.3 .. 225 100.0 71.1 .. 28.9 6 Seoul 1982 .. 66.6 7.4 9.0 .. 17.0 100.0 66.6 7.4 26.0 7 Malaysia Kuala 1984 .. 37.9 .. 39.1 13.8 9.2 100.0 37.9 .. 62.1 5 Lumpur Philippines Manila 1984 59.8 15.2 .. 25.0 e 100.0 75.0 .. 25.0 8 Thailand Bangkok 1984 .. 69.0 .. 22.6 6.0 2A 100.0 69.0 .. 31.0 9 g3 Annex Table 12 (continued) Country City Year P/transit Bus Rail Car Mlcycle Otherb Total (%) Bus Rail Car/tari Sources High Income Hong Kong Hong Kong 1986 14.2 42.3 20.8 10.2 .. 125 100.0 565 20.8 22.7 12 Japan Nagoya 1985 .. 8A 28.3 59.2 .. 4.1 100.0 8A 28.3 63.3 13 Osaka 1985 .. 3.6 65.0 26.7 .. 4.7 100.0 3.6 65.0 31A 13 Tokyo 1985 .. 6.4 73.1 14.9 .. 5.6 100.0 6A 73.1 20.5 13 Central Tokyo 1988 .. 10.5 57.0 32.5 .. 100.0 10.5 57.0 32.5 10 Greater Tokvo 1988 .. 10.6 19.9 69.5 .. 100.0 10.6 199 69.5 10 a. including mass rapid transit b. including taxi c. morning peak hour only d. included in bus trips e. taxi, etc Included In paratransit f. included in NMV Sources: 1. Hoque H.M. [19901. Traffic and Safety Problems in Metropolitan DhakA, coDATu v 2. Barrett R. 11988J. Urban Transport in China: Current Status of Knowledge (unpublished). 3. Powills M.A. and Vance J. 119911. Transportantion Planningfor Bicycles in Shanghai, TRB paper. 4. Thomhill W. 119911. Non-motorized Transport in Tianjin, TRO paper. 5. Replogle M. 119911. Non-motorized Vehicles in Asia: Issues and Strategies. 6. Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology 119841. Dusan Transportation Improvement Project. 7. Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technoloxy 119831. Seoul Transportation Improvement Project. 8. Coloma S. (19901. Integration of Urban Transport, Tokyo Symposium paper. 9. JICA 119901. Seminar on medium to long-term improvemont/management plan of road and road transport in Bangkok. 10. Morichi S. 119891. Investment Policies for Urban Transport, Tokyo seminar paper. Distributors of World Bank Publications AR7ETNA M ITALY PORTUGAL Cutre Hums. EEL 4L k.' 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