E N V I R O N M E N T ( >9 ~~~D E P A R T M E N T EPARTMENTS -- 5 pgTOWARD ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT _^ t F\XfNROlNIMENTAJL IANAGEFlENE Bi R rE The Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Janis Bernstein April 1995 , \ Environmentally Sustainable Development The World Bank Land, Water, and Natural Habitats Division The Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Janis Bemnstein April 1995 Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discus- sion. The use and citation of this paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Contents PREFACE iii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. INTRODUCTION 5 Study Methodology and Structure of Paper Urbanization and Environment National Environmental Action Plans 2. URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN NEAPS 11 Problem Identification Priority Actions and Instruments Implementation 3. ADDRESSING KEY URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 19 Inadequate Water Supply, Sanitation, and Drainage Inadequate Municipal Solid Waste Management Ambient Air Pollution Occupation of Hazard-Prone Areas Loss of Cultural Resources 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 31 REFERENCES 35 ENDNOTES 36 BOXES 1: Participation in Uganda's NEAP 10 2: Setting Priorities in Sierra Leone 12 3: Health Impacts of Urban Environmental Degradation 14 4: Incentives for Effective Urban Environmental Management in China 16 5: Institutional Improvements for Urban Environmental Management in Yemen 17 BOXES (continued) i Environmental Management Series BOXES (continued) 6: Improving Water Supply and Sanitation in China's Cities 20 7: Managing Municipal Solid Wastes in Egypt 23 8: Managing Solid Wastes in India 24 9: Instruments to Control Air Pollution in Egypt 26 10: Improving Air Quality in Poland 27 ANNEXES 1: List of Documents Reviewed 38 2: National Strategic Planning Approaches 41 3: Urban Growth Rates and Population 43 ii Preface Urban environmental problems impose high countries and transitional economies are ad- costs on health and productivity. The most dressing urban environmental problems at critical of these problems in developing coun- the national level. This paper presents the tries is urban pollution. In some countries, results of this review and offers preliminary individual cities also may face other issues, recommendations for addressing urban en- such as the depletion of water and forest re- vironmental problems in future national en- sources, a degradation of coastal and other vironmental strategies. The paper was ini- fragile areas, and the occupation of hazard- tially prepared for the 1994 Environmentally prone land. Although city-specific solutions Sustainable Development Seminar "The Hu- are needed to address the immediate prob- man Face of the Urban Environment." Other lems of any one city, there is an important role Environment Department papers addressing for national governments. Based on a review national environmental strategies and plans of more than 30 national environmental ac- are "National Environmental Strategies: tion plans (NEAPs), numerous developing Learning from Experience" and "Taking Stock of National Environmental Strategies." . . Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the following Subramanian. The findings, interpretations, for their useful comments on earlier drafts of and conclusions expressed in this paper are this paper: K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, John Red- entirely of the author and should not be at- wood, Carl Bartone, Sergio Margulis, and tributed in any manner to the World Bank, its Barbara Lausche. The paper also benefitted affiliated organizations, or the members of its from a review of national environmental ac- Board of Executive Directors or the countries tion plans by Julian Lampietti and Uma they represent. iv Acronyms and Abbreviations BOD Biological Oxygen Demand COD Carbon Oxygen Demand CEE Central and Eastern Europe CESP Country Environmental Strategy Paper EU European Union EPB Environmental Protection Bureau GDP Gross Domestic Product GLD Guided Land Development IBRD International Bank of Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management NGO Non-Governmental Organization NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NCS National Conservation Strategy NOx Nitrogen Oxide NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy S02 Sulfuric Oxide TFAP Tropical Forest Action Plan UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development v Executive Summary Urban environmental problems can be critical A review of more than 30 NEAPS revealed that impediments to sustainable development. The almost all addressed the urban environment or immediate and most critical of these problems some aspect of the urban environment to some facing developing countries are: lack of safe degree. The following are general conclusions water and sanitation, inadequate management regarding the manner in which the NEAPs' of solid and hazardous wastes; inadequate urban environmental problems are addressed: control of pollution from vehicles and industrial facilities; accidents linked to congestion and * Most of the NEAPs reviewed indicate there crowding; the occupation and degradation of is scope for more systematic analysis of environmentally sensitive lands; and a loss of urban environmental issues. Although cultural resources and open space. In some many identify urban environmental prob- countries, the cost of pollution problems alone lems as serious national environmental reaches the equivalent of five percent of na- problems, there usually is no indication that tional income. Although experience in both the preparation of the NEAP involved an in- industrial and developing countries demon- depth analysis of urbanization trends in the strates that an effective approach to confronting country or the nature, extent, causes, and urban environmental problems is to formulate a national significance of urban environmen- city-specific environmental strategy, there is an tal problems. Moreover, the NEAPs usually important role for national governments in do not indicate priorities among the various addressing urban environmental problems urban environmental issues identified. through national environmental strategies and action plans. * The urban environmental problems identi- fied most often are inadequate solid waste Since the mid-1980s, the World Bank has been management and inadequate water supply assisting its borrowers in preparing national and sanitation. A number of NEAPs also environmental strategies. These strategies often address air pollution from mobile and are based on environmental profiles, national industrial sources. Indoor air pollution conservation strategies, and sectoral and from the burning of coal is a severe problem economic analyses performed by the countries in China and Central and Eastern European themselves or with the assistance of interna- countries. Surface water pollution from tional and bilateral organizations. During the both municipal and industrial sources is IDA-9 and IDA-10 replenishment negotiations, another problem identified in the majority the donors urged that National Environmental of NEAPs. Poorly managed hazardous Action Plans (NEAPs) should be completed for waste is identified as a problem primarily in all countries receiving IDA credits. By the end the NEAPs prepared for Central and of FY94, most active IDA-eligible countries and Eastern European countries. Other prob- some higher income IBRD borrowers completed lems addressed are urban coastal resource NEAPs or similar documents. Several are now degradation, occupation of hazard-prone or entering their implementation phase. other sensitive areas, loss of cultural re- Environmental Management Series Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies sources and open space, and urban noise. building needs for managing the urban environment, although ensuring adequate * The costs of urban environmental problems institutional capacity is a critical prerequi- are key indicators of their importance to site to implementing environmental strate- national economies. But only a few NEAPs gies. provide estimates of these costs. For example: in Benin, the cost of urban and Given the differences in country size, range of industrial pollution is between US$27 environmental problems, economic complexity, million and US$45 million per year; in government capacity to respond, and phase of Poland, the health costs of air pollution are national environmental planning, there is no estimated to be at least 1 to 1.5 percent of "ideal" national environmental strategy, nor is GDP; estimates presented in the Egypt there an existing environmental strategy or NEAP show that the health costs (that is, action plan that exemplifies the best way urban medical expenses, lost working days, and environmental issues should be addressed. Best premature mortality) associated with air practice in identifying and responding to pollution in the country's two major indus- priority urban environmental problems in trial areas in Cairo (Helwan and Shoubra NEAPs is evolving. Based on an assessment of El-Kheima) are about US$40 million per the first generation of NEAPs, however, it is year. evident that future national environmental strategies can be improved if they take into - The health effects of urban environmental account the following: problems further demonstrate the national significance of urban environmental prob- * The screening of national environmental lems. They are documented primarily in issues should include a comprehensive the NEAPs that identify one or more aspects assessment of trends in urbanization; of urban environmental degradation as a collection of data on the number, popula- key problem. For example, the Pakistan tion, and rate of growth of cities within the NEAP reveals that 40 percent of urban country; and analyses of the economic deaths are caused by water-borne diseases. importance of cities and the nature, magni- The Egypt NEAP reports that about 20 tude, and costs of urban environmental percent of the population in Shoubra El- problems. The countries that should pay Kheima suffer from lung diseases because particular attention to urban environmental of high exposure to S02 and smoke; in areas problems are those experiencing rapid rates close to the cement industry in Helwan, 29 of urbanization and industrialization and percent of school children suffer from lung those whose urban populations account for diseases compared to 9 percent in rural a large percentage of the total. areas. * Countries need to be more rigorous in * Although an important basis for identifying setting priorities not only among national appropriate actions to address environmen- environmental issues, but among urban tal problems is a clear understanding of environmental problems. Although priority their causes, most NEAPs do not provide an setting is frequently based largely on analysis of the causes of urban environmen- political considerations, more emphasis tal degradation. Consequently, many of the should be placed on informing the priority NEAPs are not as clear as they might be in setting process. Carrying out economic identifying policies and instruments as well analysis can help ensure that the policies as the criteria used in selecting them. followed first will achieve the greatest Moreover, many NEAPs do not identify benefit relative to given objectives and institutional arrangements and capacity available resources. 2 Environment Department Papers Executive Summary * In formulating a NEAP it is important to important criteria are: cost-effectiveness; examine the causes of priority urban administrative and financial feasibility; environmental problems to facilitate the equity; and political, social, and market identification of key actions, specifically feasibility. Other considerations include: those needed to remove pricing distortions, transparency; flexibility; and consistency establish the necessary policy and legal with other government policies and instru- frameworks, and establish critical financial, ments. technical assistance, or other types of capacity building. * Cities with populations of over 500,000 should be encouraged to develop their own * In identifying priority actions to address urban environmental strategies focusing on urban environmental problems, the NEAP city-specific priorities. The urban environ- should specify the policies and instruments mental strategy prepared at the national that should be adopted, the criteria used in level should include a strategic framework their selection, and the specific institutional for smaller cities which do not have the arrangements and timing for implementing necessary capacity to carry out their own them. The NEAP also should specify sector- planning. In some cases, urban environ- specific goals, objectives, and targets for mental strategies and action plans can be improvement, including indicators for inputs to the national environmental monitoring progress. planning process. - In choosing instruments identify "win-win" The process of preparing national environmen- policies first. The scope for actions that tal strategies and action plans represents an promote income growth, poverty allevia- opportunity for countries with increasingly tion, and environmental improvement is scarce resources to identify priority environ- very large. Examples include: (1) removing mental problems and formulate cost-effective subsidies that encourage excessive use of solutions for reversing environmental degrada- natural resources, (2) clarifying land rights tion without slowing economic development. to promote better management of land and Given the importance of cities to economic investments in or provision of environmen- development, the high costs of urban environ- tal improvements, and (3) accelerating mental degradation, and the large and ever- provision of clean water, sanitation, and increasing numbers of people affected, confront- drainage, improvements in public transport, ing urban environmental problems should and the introduction of energy efficient emerge as a priority in a greater number of technology. countries. Notwithstanding the deficiencies of earlier NEAPs in addressing urban environmen- * Where win-win situations are not applicable tal problems, the experience gained in their or immediately obvious, the choice of preparation and implementation can provide instruments should take into account important lessons for improving the next practical, economic, and political realities. generation of national environmental strategies, Each country will need to establish criteria refinements or updates of earlier NEAPs, and upon which to base its selection. The most country economic strategies. Environmental Management Series 3 1. Introduction Urban environmental problems can be critical the World Bank, "National Environmental impediments to sustainable development. Strategies: Learning from Experience." This Faced with rapid urbanization and the often larger study covers a wider range of issues accompanying problems of uncontrolled waste focusing on methodologies used in establishing and pollution, lack of safe water, land degrada- priorities; identifying the causes of priority tion, and congestion, many developing coun- problems; determining appropriate policies, tries cite urban environmental degradation as a instruments, and actions; and recommending priority problem in their national environmental measures for improved institutional perfor- strategies and action plans. The purpose of this mance. It is intended to identify lessons from paper is to examine how urban environmental the preparation of existing national environ- problems are addressed in a selected group of mental strategies and action plans and suggest National Environmental Action Plans methodologies that can be used to formulate (NEAPs), 2' to highlight best practices, and to more effective ones in the future. Many of the provide additional guidance on how to tackle early findings of the larger NEAP study are urban environmental problems in the next relevant to the urban environment and are generation of national environmental strategies reflected in this paper. and action plans. The paper is directed prima- rily to environmental policy makers in develop- Only eight of the NEAPs examined have ing countries. entered the implementation phase at the time of this review. Consequently, the views presented Study Methodology and Structure of in this paper are based primarily on the content Paper of the documents themselves and discussions with task managers. Although a NEAP appears This paper is based on an analysis of 38 NEAPS to be well-conceived in its approach to the as well as interviews with the World Bank task urban environment, insufficient implementation managers involved. Although the process of experience precludes a more comprehensive preparing the NEAP is as important as the assessment. In some cases, however, the failure document itself, the analysis focused primarily of the country to properly implement a strategy on the substantive elements of the NEAPs so as or action plan reflects a lack of ownership and not to duplicate the findings of other papers and commitment often due to inadequate public publications that specifically address process participation during the NEAP preparation issues. 2/ Moreover, the process of preparing a phase. national environmental strategy and plan does not apply only to urban environmental issues The paper is presented in four chapters. The and therefore extends beyond the scope of this remainder of chapter 1 discusses urban environ- paper. mental problems and their importance to economic growth in developing countries. The The analysis of urban environmental issues in chapter also presents a brief background on the NEAPs is part of a larger study carried out by origin, nature, and status of NEAPs as well as Environmental Management Series 5 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies some early lessons in preparing them. Chapter replaced migration as the principal source of 2 provides a general overview of how, and the growth in most continents except Sub-Sahara extent to which, urban environmental problems Africa. are addressed in NEAPs. Chapter 3 examines how some key urban environmental issues are As cities grow, productive activities tend to addressed in a small sample of NEAPs. Chap- concentrate in urban centers where 60 percent of ter 4 presents conclusions and recommendations gross domestic product (GDP) is generated for policy makers when addressing the urban (between now and the year 2000, about 80 environment in future strategies and action percent of Third World GDP growth is expected plans. to originate in cities and towns). Although cities are the main catalysts of economic growth, Urbanization and Environment urbanization has not eliminated the massive problems of urban poverty and environmental Developing country cities are growing at degradation. Where effective management unprecedented rates. Since 1950 the urban controls are not in place, rapid population population has increased from under 300 growth and industrialization are accompanied million to 1.3 billion people (World Bank 1991). by ever-increasing amounts of waste and By the year 2030, this population is expected to pollution as well as the occupation of hazard- grow by 160 percent. Another striking trend is prone or environmentally sensitive land by low- the steady increase in the number of large cities. income groups (including migrants), thus Presently half of the urban population in threatening health and seriously constraining developing countries is located in some 394 urban productivity and economic development. cities, each having populations of over half a million. By the year 2000, 21 cities in the world The immediate and most critical urban environ- will have more than 10 million inhabitants; 17 of mental problems facing developing countries these cities will be in developing countries encompass what are referred to as the "brown" (World Bank 1992b). problems, among them: lack of safe water and sanitation, inadequate management of munici- Unrestrained rural-to-urban migration and pal solid and hazardous wastes; pollution from natural increase have caused rapid urban vehicles and industrial facilities; accidents due growth throughout the developing world. to congestion and crowding; occupation of Rural migration has resulted from both "push" hazard-prone lands; degradation of environ- and "pull" factors. In the countryside, increas- mentally sensitive lands; and the loss of cultural ing agricultural productivity has reduced the resources and open space. In contrast to the growth in demand for rural labor; urban areas, "green" environmental problems (that is, those by contrast, offer better prospects for jobs and having to do with the use of natural resources), higher incomes. Migrants have tended to come the cost of the "brown" problems - in terms of from the bottom and top of the rural income poor health, lower productivity, and reduced distribution; the landless and rural poor often income and quality of life - falls most heavily have no choice but to seek non-farm employ- on current generations, particularly the poor. ment; successful farmers often use their sur- For many developing countries, these effects pluses to finance the move to nearby towns and can impose high costs. According to the Hun- later to large urban centers (World Bank 1991). gary NEAP, for example, the estimated cost of Even where national policies have attempted to pollution problems alone is as much as five curtail the growth of cities, no country has been percent of GDP. Other examples of the high effective in containing rural-urban migration. costs of urban pollution are: Although rural migration is a major cause of urban population growth in many developing in Bangkok, excessive exposure to lead countries, in large cities, natural increase has causes 200,000 to 500,000 cases of hyperten- 6 Environment Department Papers Introduction sion resulting in 400 deaths a year (World industrial output in the areas where future Bank 1992a and U.S. AID and U.S. Environ- growth is most likely to occur (World Bank mental Protection Agency 1991). In addi- 1994). tion, the city currently loses about one-third of its potential gross city product due to The challenge of rapid urbanization will be to congestion-induced travel delays- this sustain economic growth while solving the could rise to 60 percent if no actions are environmental problems accompanying that taken (WATorld Bank 1991 and Japan Interna- growth. In tackling these problems, however, tional Cooperation Agency 1990); there are no standard solutions. Experience in both industrial and developing countries * in Mexico City, abnormally high levels of demonstrates that an effective approach to suspended particulates have caused an confronting urban environmental problems is average of 2.4 lost work days per person for each city to formulate its own environmental and 6,400 deaths every year; lead exposure strategy and action plan that responds to the may contribute to as much as 20 percent of nature and severity of its problems. As dis- the incidence of hypertension in adults and cussed in Bartone et al. (1994), the factors that 29 percent of all children have unhealthy determine the nature and severity of environ- lead levels in their blood; annual health mental problems as well as the type of potential costs from air pollution are estimated to intervention strategies are: (1) the type of exceed US $1.5 billion (Eskeland 1992 and climate and regional ecosystem, (2) population Margulis 1992); size and rate of growth, (3) level of income and economic development, (4) the diverse spatial * in Jakarta, the estimated cost of the health dimensions of urban environmental problems effects of pollution in 1990 was more than that determine who is affected and how, the US$500 million (World Bank 1994) with severity of impact, and the appropriate level of more than US$50 million spent each year by responsibility and decision making needed to households to boil impure water - the solve problems, and (5) the roles and interac- equivalent of one percent of the city's gross tions of numerous public, private, and house- domestic product (World Bank 1992a); and hold actors who have an important effect on environmental problems and their solutions. * in Lima, the cholera epidemic of 1991, which was due to inadequate sanitation, Such a strategic approach also should address caused an estimated US$1 billion in losses the factors that perpetuate urban environmental from reduced agricultural and fisheries degradation (that is, institutional deficiencies, exports and tourism in just the first ten inadequate policies and actions by public and weeks (World Bank 1992a). private actors, and insufficient knowledge and information) and emphasize five key areas of In addition, growing congestion and pollution intervention: (1) mobilizing public support and in their main urban centers make it increasingly participation, (2) choosing effective policy difficult for some countries to compete for interventions, (3) building local capacity, (4) foreign investment, especially in the higher- strengthening urban service delivery, and (5) technology industries needed to enhance the increasing local knowledge about the urban productivity of the labor force. In Jakarta, for environment. 3/ Notwithstanding the impor- example, where the urban population is ex- tance of city-specific strategies and plans in pected to double over the next 25 years, with a managing the urban environment, there is an potential for a ten- fold increase in industrial important role for national governments in pollution in urban areas, growing community addressing urban environmental problems resistance to uncontrolled pollution will inevita- through national environmental strategies and bly lead to pressure to slow the expansion of action plans. Environmental Management Series 7 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies National Environmental Action Plans both a "process," (that is, how it was prepared and who participated), and a "product" (that is, The concept of national environmental planning what was determined), intended to identify the started to influence development activities major environmental concerns of a country and formally more than ten years ago. In 1980, the their principal causes, as well as to formulate World Conservation Strategy (WCS), conceived policies and concrete actions to deal with them. by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), The content and format of a NEAP are country- United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), specific and vary according to the country's and the World Wildlife Federation (WWF), size, range of environmental problems, eco- recommended that countries undertake national nomic complexity, and government capability to and sub-national conservation strategies respond to environmental issues. (NCSs). Since then, hundreds of countries and communities have developed and implemented Ideally NEAPs include at least four main such strategies. Apart from the WCS, inspira- interrelated elements to make them effective tion for these initiatives has come from a variety tools in helping to solve environmental prob- of sources, including: Our Common Future the lems: (1) screening of environmental problems report of the World Commission for Environ- and setting of priorities; (2) identifying causes of ment and Development (the Brundtland Com- major environmental problems; (3) identifying mission) in 1987; Caring for the Earth a global priority interventions, particularly policies and strategy for sustainable living prepared by instruments; and (4) determining institutional IUCN, UNEP, and WWF that builds on the improvements and other factors to ensure World Conservation Strategy; and Agenda 21,41 implementation of NEAP recommendations and the principal product emerging from the United the sustainability of long-term national environ- Nations Conference on Environment and mental planning. Many NEAPs culminate in a Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro package of environmentally-related investment in 1992 (Carew-Reid et al. 1994). projects intended for donor assistance. As new information emerges and priorities change, Origin and Status of NEAPs NEAPS are expected to be continuously refined Since the mid-1980s, the World Bank, together and updated. with other donors and non-governmental Although the responsibility for NEAP prepara- organizations (NGOs), has been assisting tion and implementation rests with the bor- countries in preparing national environmental ,,,~ ~ ~~bae on, , rower, the Bank has provided various types of strategies. These strategies often are aseassistance: policy dialogue; sector work, environmental profiles, national conservation including Bank-prepared country environmen- strategies, and sectoral and economic analyses tal strategy papers (CESPs), which frequently performed by the countries themselves or with . the~~ asitac of inentoa and.. biaea provide important analytical input for the torganistatince ofingthemaIDA-9 and IDAtera NEAP; technical assistance; and project lending. organizations. During the IDA-9 and IDA-10 Bank staff also have been involved in launching replenishment negotiations, the donors urged the NEAP process, monitoring progress, and that all low-income countries receiving IDA providing inputs for portions of the NEAP credits complete NEAPs. The process by which document. the Bank supports action plan preparation was formalized in July 1992, in "Operational Direc- Except for new IDA members, most active IDA tive 4.02, Environmental Action Plans" (cur- borrowers completed their plans or equivalent rently O.P 4.02), which provides guidance to documents during FY93 and FY94. By the end staff for assisting borrowers in preparing of FY94, 47 IDA-eligible countries completed NEAPs*11 NEAPs or their equivalents. In addition, new It is generally accepted that NEAPs represent IDA members are initiating NEAP processes 8 Environment Department Papers Introduction and IBRD borrowers continue to prepare and mental decisions. In Nicaragua, for ex- complete NEAPs as well. amiple, the involvement of the Ministry of Economics as the lead coordinating agency Early Lessons with technical support from other line The NEAP process has been particularly exten- ministries has raised the political status of sive in Africa which contains the majority of the document and thus increased its chance IDA-borrowers. The Bank's Regional Technical of effective implementation. Department for Africa has been at the forefront of technical assistance and poiicy dialogue * Building capacity is commonly required to about national environmental planning.6' Some strengthen institutions and information of the early Africa N7EAPs, however, have been systems to deal with complex, uncertain, criticized for being driven by external pressures and dynamically changing environmental to deliver projects to donor conferences. Al- problems; build mechanisms for cross- though the prospect of multi-million dollar sectoral integration; and increase the use of donor support is seen by some to have distorted concepts and tools for integrating economic, thie process, NEAPs generally have served a social, and environmental objectives. vital need by identifying major environmentally Defining priorities for action requires sound friendly investments. in addition, many NEAPs * simnd prticipation Te sond are largely country-driven and focus equally on analysis and participation. The stronger the establishing a national environmental planning analytical and support bases of the plan's process and identifying projects for financing. that the plan will be implemented success- Although there is limited experience in the fulen c implementation of NEAPs to date, experience fully. with NEAP preparation suggests that: Preparing a NEAP requires properly • Preparing a NEAP should be part of a integrating environmental policies with continuing process of national-level prob- broader policies for national economic lem identification, policy dialogue, and development. building support for environmental man- agement. The process of preparing national environmen- tal strategies and action plans is still evolving. X Intemalizing the process of preparing and Much remains to be learned about the most implementing NEAPs, and in particular, effective methodologies for preparing them; reaching agreement among concerned how to ensure country ownership, and commit- parties on the priority environmental issues ment to implement them and continually refine and appropriate strategies to address them, them; how to best integrate sector-specific are equally if not more important than the plans, and how to integrate NEAPs into na- NEAP document itself. This, however, tional economic development planning. Based takes time. As illustrated in Box 1, the on experience with the initial set of NEAPs, it systematic, highly participatory process that appears that many do not have the strategic, has occurred in Uganda, took over three dynamic, and participatory content they were years by the time the NEAP report was intended to have. Furthermore, because they are completed in 1994. relatively new and the problems they address are so complex, results in terms of objectives * Ensuring a successful environmental achieved, and improvements in human health strategy may require all key stakeholders to and environmental conditions are still uncer- be included in and committed to the plan- tain. Nonetheless, some of the non-quantifiable ning process, particularly those ministries benefits to date have included better organiza- responsible for economic as well as environ- tions, legislation, and procedures, and increased Environmental Management Series 9 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies awareness. For example, Madagascar's NEAP ment. Ghana's NEAP (completed in 1991) led (completed in 1989) led to the establishment of to an effort to strengthen the institutions the Office National de l'Environnement, a responsible for implementation, including coordinating body within the Ministry of sectoral ministries, research institutes, and Economy and Planning and the adoption of a universities. comprehensive national policy on the environ- Box 1 Participation in Uganda's NEAP Prior to initiating Uganda's NEAP in late 1990, the country had no forum to deal with environmental issues. Although a Ministry of Education had been established in 1986 with several other government agencies responsible for particular environmental issues, each agency generally acted independently. There was no adequate mechanism for applying a consistent environmental framework to sectoral and economic policies. Institutions outside government, notably Makerere University, the Uganda Institute of Ecology, and the Uganda Museum and Wildlife Clubs of Uganda as well as nlmerous donors and international NGOs, also undertook environmental activities and studies, but these agencies rarely worked together. The Government decided that the formulation of its NEAP should be based on wide local participation involv- ing the central government, local government, civic groups, research and academic institutions, NGOs, and private sector agents. It was to cover all of the country's principal environmental issues. With IDA assistance, an organizational structure was established for NEAP preparation involving a Cabinet-level steering committee chaired by the Prime Minister and 12 Ministers having environmental responsibilities; a secretariat headed by the Secretary for Environmental Protection and advised by a committee of representatives of multilateral agencies and bilateral donors, international and local NGOs; and a series of task forces focusing on specific issues or groups of issues, each involving Government officials, academics, local NGOs, and the private sector. Drawing on contacts with local resource users and others, eight task forces carried out the work of analyzing and presenting issues. Together they identified a list of 57 issues that could be grouped into 12 priority areas, including: (i) lack of a national land use policy or relevant land tenure policy; (ii) gaps in basic information on the environment; (iii) urban and industrial pollution; (iv) limited public awareness of environmental issues or public participation; (v) applied research needs, institutional issues, and coordina- tion problems; and (vi) shared regional and international concerns, such as those concerning Lake Victoria, or biodiversity. The consultation process was extensive, leading to task force field trips and a series of regional workshops in 1992 involving wide participation by local government, NGOs, and private citizens. The feedback they provided was used to revise task force issues papers for presentation to a national symposium on the environment in December 1992. Even before reaching the implementation stage, Uganda's NEAP process was producing results that may have been more important than the end product. It brought government, local and international organizations, private citizens, and donors into a common forum to discuss issues and agree on priorities. Middle and lower level management and technical staff of govern- ment, through participation in task forces and seminars, became aware of NEAP objectives and issues and have benefitted from the teamwork involved. 10 Environment Department Papers 2. Urban Environmental Issues in NEAPS Among the NEAPS reviewed, almost all deal significance of urban environmental problems. with the urban environment or some aspect of Even when the NEAP stresses the importance of the urban environment to some degree. This is conducting a careful assessment of the environ- not surprising considering the high rates of mental situation in urban areas due to a rapidly urbanization in many of the countries involved growing urban population, the analysis pre- and the large proportion of urban population sented in the document is not always complete. within them. The purpose of this chapter is to Moreover, where urban environmental degrada- provide an overview of how, and the extent to tion is identified as a serious problem, there which, urban environmental problems are usually is no indication of priorities among the addressed in these NEAPs with respect to the issues. manner in which they identified problems, including their impacts and causes, and recom- The India NEAP, for example, provides a mended priority actions and instruments to comprehensive list of urban environmental address them. problems confronting the country and an examination of the key factors that cause and/ Problem Identification or perpetuate these problems. The NEAP would have been more useful, however, if it also In identifying national environmental problems, identified priorities among these problems and there are three basic ways in which urban clear strategies for addressing them. Further, environmental issues are addressed: (1) in a tackling urban environmental issues is only one separate section devoted specifically to one or of seven "top priority areas" identified in the more urban environmental problems; (2) by NEAP. Consequently, it is unlikely that all of integration, or inclusion of the urban dimension these problems can be adequately resolved. By within a larger section, addressing a problem contrast, the Egypt NEAP focuses on four types such as inadequate waste management, water of environmental problems (pollution and pollution, or water resources management; and degradation of natural resources, air pollution, as (3) an occasional reference to a specific city or solid waste management, cultural heritage), all "hot spot" within a discussion of national waste of which relate to urban areas. For each issue, and pollution problems. The latter was the case the NEAP examines the nature, extent, and in most of the NEAPs prepared for the Central causes of the problem; health and economic and Eastern European (CEE) countries. impacts; and legislative and institutional frameworks. Although the size and complexity. Most of the NEAPs reviewed reveal that there is of the two countries are not comparable, focus- scope for more systematic analysis of urban ing on a limited number of national environ- environmental issues. Where urban environ- mental priorities increases the chance of imple- mental issues were identified as a national mentation given available resources and public priority, they usually did not appear to be based commitment. on an in-depth analysis of urbanization trends in the country or the nature, extent, causes, and While the urban environmental problems Environmental Management Series 11 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies identified most often are inadequate solid waste Urban noise was identified as an issue in the management, water supply, and sanitation, NEAPs prepared for China, India, Cyprus, and several NEAPs also address air pollution from Tunisia. both point and non-point sources. Indoor air pollution from the burning of coal is a severe Urban environmental issues are identified as problem in China and Central and Eastern high priority problems in several NEAPs. For European countries. Surface water pollution example, the Sierra Leone NEAP cites urban from both municipal and industrial sources is water contamination, inadequate supply of safe another problem identified in the majority of water in urban areas, and poor urban living NEAPs. Poorly managed hazardous waste is conditions as high priority issues (Box 2). To identified as a problem primarily in the NEAPs address the high priority water supply, sanita- prepared for Central and Eastern European tion, and solid waste management problems, countries. In some cases, the NEAPs address the NEAP highlights the need for investment urban coastal resource degradation (the and recommends the gathering of wilhngness- Gambia, Pakistan, Yemen), occupation of to-pay information to determine which invest- hazard-prone or other sensitive areas (Ghana, ments should be marketed at full cost and Sao Tome and Principe, India, Nepal, Yemen, where public funds should be used to extend Dominicarn Republic), loss of cultural resources services to low-income groups. (Lesotho, Nepal, Egypt, Cyprus, Iran, Yemen, and Tunisia), and loss of open space (Tunisia). In stressing the importance of establishing Box 2 Setting Priorities in Sierra Leone Priority problems were identified on the basis of an analytical approach using expert judgement to score environmental problems according to a three point scale (high, moderate, and low, with each assigned a significance index of 1, 2, or 3, respectively) for three factors: environmental significance, potential intervention benefits, and potential intervention costs. Using these measures, an overall priority was computed by multiplying the economic significance ranking by the net benefit (benefits minus costs) for each problem. Environmental Intervention Intervention Overall Environmental Problem Significance Benefits Costs Priority Water Contaminants urban High High Moderate High rural High High Moderate High Water Availability urban High High Low High rural High High Low High Living Conditions urban High High Moderate High rural Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Land Degradation High High Moderate High Deforestation Moderate High Low High Forest Degradation Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Biodiversity Loss Low High Low Moderate Mangrove Loss Low High Low Moderate Pollution from Mining Low Low Low Low Land Degradation from High High Moderate High Mining Activities 12 Environment Department Papers Urban Environmental Issues in NEAPs priorities for national environmental manage- from energy-related and industrial activi- ment, the Poland NEAP outlines criteria for ties. establishing the country's environmental priorities, each of which highlights the "brown" The China NEAP explains that the country's environmental problems. In order of impor- priority environmental problems are (1) those tance, they include: that have wide ranges of impacts on and do great harm to economic and social development * Elimination of Serious Public Health Hazards. and human health; and (2) those that show a According to available data, the areas of trend of being more serious over the long-term. ecological disaster and ecological concern Included in the seven priorities are water are areas of health concern as well; these are pollution (rivers and lakes within and near mainly located in southern and southwest- cities and the city section of large rivers); urban ern Poland as well as in the vicinity of major air pollution (with key pollutants of TSP and cities in central and eastern Poland. The S02); and industrial toxic and hazardous solid NEAP stresses that priority attention should wastes and urban pollution. Unlike most of the be focussed on those areas and suggests that other NEAPs, however, the China NEAP sets a the order of priority might be defined by general goal of urban environmental protection health status rather than by emissions and to be achieved by the end of the century and ambient concentrations of certain toxic problem-specific targets. agents. The China NEAP further explains that due to its * Measurable Decrease in the Cost to the serious and complicated environmental prob- Economy. The most important element lems, limited economic and technical power, accounting for about one half of the total and shortage of trained management personnel, cost of environmental degradation in the the country has difficulty solving all of its country is the loss of productivity and environmental problems in a short period. It is working time associated with the damage to therefore necessary to focus on the main aspects human health caused by air pollution, of environmental protection work and concen- particularly high ambient concentrations of trate the limited financial and material re- suspended particulates resulting from the sources and manpower on essential problems. burning of coal for domestic heating in Through its many years of experience, China small boilers with minimal emission con- has gradually formulated a set of environmental trols. The second major element is the protection policies and determined that the darnage and additional production costs country's two main points of environmental caused by high level of water salinity and protection work at present and in the future are biological oxygen demand (BOD) in the pollution prevention and control and natural country's main rivers as a result of dis- resource conservation. In addressing pollution charges of saline water from mines and lack prevention and control, the NEAP points out of adequate treatment facilities for munici- that over 80 percent of pollutants are discharged pal sewage. by cities. Because there are 500 cities in China and limited available resources for national * Conservation of Living Natural Resources to environmental management, the NEAP targets Avoid Irreversible Damage. Conservation of 52 cities for environmental work, chosen on the living natural resources requires the same basis of their having the greatest impact on and kinds of measures as those called for to importance to the national economy and address the impact of environmental people's livelihoods. The types of cities that fall degradation on human health and on the within this group include: municipalities economy; particularly reduced pollution directly under the Central Government; provin- Environmental Management Series 13 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies cial cities; coastal cities; and cities that are of medical expenses, lost working days, and national scenic, historic, and cultural impor- premature mortality) associated with air pollu- tance. tion in the country's two major industrial areas in Cairo (Helwan and El Kheima) total about Costs of Urban Environmental Problems US$40 million per year. In addition, the Paki- The costs of urban environmental problems are stan NEAP reports that pollution of the River key indicators of their importance to national Ravi, into which Lahore discharges its untreated economies. Among the NEAPs reviewed, wastewater, has resulted in 5,000 fewer tons of however, very few estimate the costs of urban fish production per year. environmental problems. The Benin NEAP, for Health Effects example, reports that the cost of urban and industrial pollution is between US$27 million The health effects of urban environmental and US$45 million per year. The Poland NEAP problems are documented primarily in the presents figures on the health costs of air NEAPs that identify urban environmental pollution which are estimated to be at least 1 to degradation as a key environmental problem. 1.5 percent of GDP. In the Hungary NEAP, it is For example, the Pakistan NEAP reveals that 40 estimated that the health cost alone of air percent of urban deaths are caused by water- pollution during the period 1986 to 1988 was borne diseases. In addition, the NEAPs pre- US$750 million. Estimates presented in the pared for Egypt, Hungary, and Poland highlight Egypt NEAP show that the health costs (that is, the health costs of urban environmental degra- dation (Box 3). Box 3 Health Impacts of Urban Environmental Degradation EGYPT: The NEAP presents the following data on the health effects of air pollution from both vehicular and industrial sources: (1) about 20 percent of the population in Shoubra El-Kheima suffer from lung diseases because of high exposures to SO, and smoke (1980-84); (2) in areas close to the cement industry in Helwan, 29 percent of school children suffer from lung diseases compared to 9 percent in rural areas (1987); (3) a direct relationship between exposure to air pollution and a concentration of lead in blood has been found in Cairo traffic policemen and people living in urban residential areas. The levels are more than three times maximum safe levels established by WHO; and (4) the reported ozone concentrations in and around Cairo are expected to cause significant eye irritation, aggravation of respiratory diseases, and significant effects on plant growth (crop losses of 50 to 60 percent reported for clover in Shoubra El Kheima). HUNGARY: The NEAP cites air pollution as one of the contributing factors leading to the poor health status of its population. For example, in Dorog, a mining town near Budapest, air pollution from coal mines, a power plant, and numerous chemical and pharmaceutical plants has contributed to an increased incidence of respiratory diseases in children; from 1976 to 1985, chronic respiratory diseases among children from under 1 year to 14 years increased from 5.8 percent to 10.7 percent. POLAND: One aspect of the mortality pattern in Poland that suggests a link between life expectancy and environmental factors is the relationship between urban and rural mortality. In the West, life expectancy in urban areas is consistently higher than that in rural areas. In Poland, by contrast, age standardized life expectancy for both males and females is consistently lower in urban areas, where industry is concentrated, than in the rural areas. In Katowice, urban life expectancies for males and females lag behind the national average for urban areas by more than one year as a result of increased rates of cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and digestive track disease. The NEAP, therefore, stresses that there is a need to focus on compre- hensive strategies to upgrade urban areas, where a large portion of the Polish population is affected. 14 Environment Department Papers Urban Environmental Issues in NEAPs Priority Actions and Instruments examples of how NEAPs address specific urban environmental problems are discussed in the Once priority problems are identified, selecting next chapter. the right policies and instruments is critical for achieving environmental improvement because Key Improvements in Institutional Struc- each instrument, or group of instruments, will ture and Capacity guide and motivate the behavior and invest- Ensuring adequate institutional capacity is a ments of both public and private sector actors. critical pre-requisite to implementing the An important basis for identifying appropriate strategies and priorities presented in the NEAP. policies and instruments is a clear understand- Although many of the NEAPs demonstrate ing of the causes of the problems as well as the weak institutional analysis and fail to address concerns of a wide range of actors. Unfortu- capacity building needs, the NEAPs prepared nately, the majority of NEAPs do not provide for Sri Lanka, China, and Yemen are notable for such a clear analysis of the causes of urban their attention to institutional issues as they environmental degradation or the factors that relate to managing the urban environment. For perpetuate them. Consequently many of the example, the Sri Lanka NEAP cites inadequate NEAPs fall short in identifying policies and planning capacity in the Urban Development instruments as well as the criteria used for Authority (UDA) as a key factor perpetuating selecting them." urban environmental problems. According to For recommending the formulation the NEAP, the plans produced by UDA empha- e ple, in . size infrastructure to support urban growth, but ofdolltionhattypeo stand s NEousd no do not take into account the limits to growth indiated, hwh typeyofostandardsteshould ber (for example, industrial waste disposal capac- adopted, how they should be determined (for ity) or the elements of sustainable urban example, developed within the country or adoption of EU standards), or how they should growth. The NEAP, therefore, highlights the be phased in over time. Similarly, many NEAPs need to familiarize urban planners with envi- be ~~~~~~~~~~~ronmental planning and best practice in manag- recommend the use of economic instruments, but do not indicate the specific instruments to ing growth. be applied to particular urban environmental According to the China NEAP, urban environ- problems. By contrast, the Poland NEAP mental protection is based on "the Environmen- delineates specific policies and instruments for tal Protection Law of the People's Republic of addressing key problems. In discussing stan- China," which assigns responsibility for urban dard setting to improve air quality, for example, environmental quality to the municipal govern- the NEAP recommends that the Polish govern- ment with the mayor being personally respon- ment should immediately abolish the existing sible. The municipal govenment will organize set of standards and adopt EU standards, with the relevant agencies at the municipal level to the exception that the dates for complying with deal with environmental protection. The NEAP certain specific EU directives be extended. also recommends creating a powerful environ- According to the NEAP, one of the principal mental administrative body to ensure benefits of the EU approach, which involves not that the various departments of the municipal only a set of specifications or ambient and government share responsibility for improving emission limits, but targets that need to be urban environmental quality as well as pollu- converted to workable objectives to be imple- tion prevention and treatment. In addition, the mented over specified periods, is the opportu- NEAP describes incentives for ensuring effec- nity it provides to abolish the present unwork- tive institutional performance in urban environ- able ambient standards which may perpetuate a mental management (Box 4). disregard for the law because they are mostly too strict and not enforceable. Additional The Yemen NEAP characterizes the nature, Environmental Management Series 15 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Box 4 Incentives for Effective Urban Environmental Management in China Every year environmental protection organs conduct inspections on the environmental quality of each urban district. The National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) is responsible for 37 major cities, other cities are examined by the provincial EPBs. The results of the quantitative NEPA examinations are compared between cities. The top ten cities, and bottom 10, are published in the newspaper. The mayors of the top ten cities each receive an award. The mayors of the environmentally worst ten cities will be criticized in newspapers. Progress towards environmental goals is monitored by the EPBs. extent, and underlying causes of Yemen's most adequate housing. Consequently, they often are pressing environmental problems and presents forced to occupy illegal settlements on hazard- options for addressing these problems, focus- prone or other environmentally sensitive land, sing primarily on establishing the necessary often resulting in substantial losses. institutional framework for accomplishing environmental improvements. According to the Among the NEAPs addressing urban poverty NEAP, urban environmental degradation is a are those prepared for Mauritius, Sierra Leone, priority problem caused in large part by an Yemen, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Domini- ineffective and inefficient centralized institu- can Republic. For example, in its strategy for tional structure and insufficient capacity on the improving urban settlements, the Pakistan part of existing institutions to formulate and NEAP recommends a policy to facilitate the implement sound urban environmental policies provision of housing and urban services for the and effectively manage urban services. To poor. Recommended measures to implement address urban environmental degradation, the this policy include: providing legal tenure to NEAP maintains that achieving substantial those living in "katchi abadis," (urban settle- improvements in urban environmental condi- ments) with secure titles and basic services; tions will depend on clarifying the responsibili- encouraging planning, building, and health ties of all levels of government in formulating professionals to set up voluntary technical and implementing urban environmental poli- assistance groups in low-income neighbor- cies; upgrading their managerial, financial, and hoods; increasing the share of loans directed to operational capacities; and expanding opportu- lower-income and community groups with nities for public participation in urban environ- collateral criteria amended and outreach mental management (Box 5). The NEAP further mandated to suit illiterate groups; and under- delineates actions to be taken during the first taking more research and dissemination of low- and second phases of the continuing NEAP cost construction technologies. The Sierra process. Leone NEAP addresses the special needs of low-income groups in providing urban Urban Poverty services. As discussed earlier, the urban poor are hit the hardest by urban environmental degradation. Implementation Foremost among the environmental concerns of this group are the health problems resulting The Bank's early experience with NEAPs has from substandard living conditions character- been mixed. Whereas NEAP implementation in ized by poorly managed waste, indoor air several countries has been undermined by pollution, and/or natural hazards. Poverty also inadequate ownership and financial resources, contributes to congestion and environmental the NEAPs for other countries have been degradation. For example, when the rural poor completed and are moving to implementation migrate to cities, they lack the financial re- through new environmental investments sources to compete for serviced land and financed by the Bank and other donors. Not- 16 Environment Department Papers Urban Environmental Issues in NEAPs Box 5 Institutional Improvements for Urban Environmental Management in Yemen Weak institutions and inadequate capacity are key factors accounting for urban environmental degra- dation in Yemen. With respect to the existing institutional structure for urban environmental management in Yemen, there is a duplication of functions among several government branches, absence of a clear urban envi- ronmental management strategy, and uncoordinated management activities leading to a chaotic development and inefficient resource allocation. In addition, excessive centralization of power and responsibilities for man- aging the urban environment has hampered most attempts at improving urban environmental conditions. Central institutions have been created with the mandate to provide modern infrastructure in all cities of the country. Nonetheless, the institutional capacity to address environmental issues associated with rapid urban growth is insufficient. Further, central ministries have been unable to establish priorities for urban invest- ments partly because of the lack of funding and partly because of institutional deficiencies. In all matters, therefore, local administrations have been subject to the control of the central government and have not had the legal capacity to raise revenue and allocate expenditures. To address the underlying deficiencies inYemen's institutional framework and available capacity for urban environmental management, the NEAP recommends the following priority actions: Define Institutional Responsibilities. Clarifying the responsibilities of the central government and the local administrations in formulating and implementing the relevant laws, ordinances, and regulations as well as in delivering urban services will help to ensure transparency and efficiency in the planning and supervision of urban environmental programs and projects. Involve Public Participation. The Government should involve both public and community participa- tion in developing and implementing plans and policies for improving the urban environment. Encouraging and enabling the cooperation of the most vulnerable urban groups (particularly impoverished women, chil- dren, and the elderly) in planning and implementing environmental infrastructure and services as well as resource protection will be crucial to the success of urban environmental management. Develop Capacity Building Programs. Carrying out environmental management policies and programs require competent institutions with the necessary skills and capabilities to develop, implement, and enforce effective environmental laws, regulations and standards; mobilize revenue; and develop and manage urban infrastructure and services that incorporate locally appropriate technologies and standards. Strengthening capacity, therefore, is a critical pre-requisite for improving urban environmental conditions. Capacity building programs should be extended to two groups of actors: (i) the public sector, which includes all relevant authori- ties at the national and local levels, and (ii) the private sector, which includes formal industries, informal enterprises and services, and local communities. The principal means by which these actors can build capacity include training, technical assistance, private sector participation, and public information and outreach pro- grams. Expand Information. To improve environmental policy making and the management of urban environ- mental services, the relevant authorities and private actors involved in environmental planning and manage- ment need informed analysis based on adequate data. The necessary data to support urban environmental planning and decision making in Yemen include characteristics of media-specific environmental problems, the magnitude and distribution of impacts, and the dynamics of urban degradation. Continue Public Awareness Programs. Programs to bring information about risks and alternatives to those most affected by environmental problems can motivate affected groups to participate in the process of environmental management. The mechanisms for building awareness can be formal (for example, courses in the school curriculum) or informal (for example, media campaigns, brochures, targeted environmental educa- tion for community leaders, politicians, city officials). In addition to these institutional strengthening and capacity building actions, the NEAP includes stud- ies on such topics as the urban land market, hazardous waste management practices, and demand for urban infrastructure and services to expand the information on key issues in urban environmental management. The NEAP also recommends developing an urban environmental strategy consistent with the Environmental Pro- tection Law to allow the government of Yemen to identify priority actions and investments to resolve the most critical urban environmental problems and developing, implementing, and enforcing locally appropriate laws, regulations, and standards. Environmental Management Series 17 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies withstanding the very limited implementation as a key issue, the World Bank is supporting experience, there has been some follow-up on the Third Urban Project (le Projet the urban environment recommendations in the d'Amelioration des Conditions de Vie) NEAPs prepared to date. For example: which will address urban environmental problems. * In Benin, the Government has initiated with donor support a number of projects which * The Gambia NEAP (completed in July fall within the NEAP and already contribute 1992), which resulted from a process that to its implementation. The Urban Rehabili- achieved broad government ownership and tation and Management Project aims at commitment, is now being implemented. improving the urban infrastructure of As part of this process, the World Bank is Cotonou and Porto Novo through labor providing support to an urban environmen- intensive works and better planning and tal project, the objectives of which are to management of urban growth. More consolidate Greater Banjul's urban form and recently, the Government has proposed the improve living conditions through exten- Environmental Support Program which has sion of infrastructure networks and im- been conceived as the follow-up of the proved sanitation, strengthen principal NEAP preparation process and envisages urban institutions and implement new implementation of a first phase of the enabling legislation and regulations to priority program identified in the NEAR facilitate land administration and housing One of the program's objectives is to development, and strengthen key tourism improve the urban standard of living. institutions to enhance their operational and Among other environmental improvements, management efficiency in preserving areas the program is intended to support urban of natural scenic beauty. rehabilitation and management through the preparation and implementation of sanita- * The Sri Lanka NEAP (completed in 1991) tion plans. has been followed up by two World Bank projects. The Colombo Environment Project * As a follow-up to the Burkina Faso NEAP, addresses many of the urban environmental which was completed in July 1991 and issues raised in the NEAR identifies urban environmental degradation 18 Environment Department Papers 3. Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems Although the specific environmental concerns of ing to the NEAP, in the 1980s more than 300 each urban area will differ according to such cities were facing water shortages, with 100 factors as economic status, prevalence of urban suffering severe shortages. About 25.4 percent poverty, and relative access to urban services, of the entire population's drinking water was some widely shared urban environmental unsanitary. To address this problem, the NEAP problems are nationally significant and require delineates targets for water supply and sewer- priority attention. This chapter examines how age for the year 2000, strategic elements, individual NEAPs address five key urban priority programs, general arrangements for environmental issues: inadequate water supply, implementation and monitoring, and priority sanitation, and drainage; inadequate municipal areas for investment (Box 6). Although the solid waste management (MSWM); air pollu- NEAP includes these elements, it provides little tion; occupation of hazard-prone areas; and loss guidance as to what specific types of mecha- of cultural resources. nisms can be used to recover costs and what types of institutional strengthening and other Inadequate Water Supply, Sanitation, and types of capacity building will be needed to Drainage meet the targets established for these services. In many cities unsafe water and sanitation is the Egypt most important cause of mortality and morbid- In addressing urban water and sanitation, the ity among urban residents. The World Health Egypt NEAP indicates that municipal wastewa- Organization reports that 3.2 million children ter problems are linked to uncontrolled and under the age of five die each year from unmetered water consumption, high ground- diarrheal diseases, largely as a result of poor water infiltration, and the small number of sanitation, contaminated drinking water, and functioning wastewater treatment plants. In associated problems of food and hygiene. addition, water distribution and sewerage Inadequate drainage poses additional health systems suffer from serious leakages, which risks and may cause property damage, road increase the demand on the treatment facilities. congestion, and disruption to other public Drains are mainly used as receptacles for services as well as water pollution. Among the untreated, partially treated, and treated munici- NEAPs reviewed, about half address inad- pal and industrial wastewater, in addition to equate urban water supply and sanitation; half drainage water from agricultural areas. Con- of those deal with drainage. The NEAPs taining high concentrations of contaminants (for prepared for China, Egypt, and Pakistan are example, BOD, COD, nutrients, fecal bacteria, illustrative. heavy metals, pesticides), the wastewater is used for local irrigation and for blending with China Nile River water for other purposes. People In China inadequate water supply and sanita- living along the banks of the drains are exposed tion is a major environmental problem. Accord- to high concentrations of bacterial and chemical Environmental Management Series 19 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Box6 Improving Water Supply and Sanitation in China's Cities Within the context of improving the urban environment, key elements of China's NEAP address urban water supply, sanitation, and drainage. They include: Target By the year 2000, the quality of drinking water in all the cities should meet the national standards. The tap water coverage in Chinese cities should reach 95 percent with a daily water supply of 200 liters per capita, the recycling rate of industrial water should be 60 to 65 percent. The total discharge volume of urban sewage should be controlled below 40 billion tons a year, of which industrial wastewater must account for less than 24 billion tons; the central treatment ratio of urban sewage should reach about 20 percent; the displacement of COD in the urban sewage should be less than 10 million tons, of which COD from dis- charged industrial wastewater must be less than 6 million tons. Strategy Strengthen the construction of urban water supply facilities. Through technical renovation and increasing the water supply capacity, efficient water consumption and water saving measures will be strengthened. Accelerate the construction of the urban drainage and sewage treatment networks, and flood control facilities. By 1995, 7,000 kilometers of drainage pipes will be laid; a batch of wastewater treatment plants will be built; the daily treatment capacity will be raised to 5.5 million tons per day In addition, efforts will be strengthened to conduct research on techniques of wastewater recovery and treatment (for example, discharge into rivers and seas); and develop pilot projects; and accelerate the construction of urban infra- structure and establish a pricing system for the use of public utilities. Because the present tariffs of public utilities and services are completely out of proportion with their costs, the principle of "using self-generated revenue to support their own development in water supply and road construction" will be applied. Priority Programs In the 1990s, the treatment capacity of polluted water in urban areas should increase by six to eight million tons per day, underground sewerage should be extended by 240,000 kilometers so that the annual discharge of organic pollutants will be reduced by 350,000 tons; and urban wastewater treatment plants with the daily capacity of 200,000 tons should be built in 13 cities. Implementation and Monitoring The NEAP explains that the municipal government is responsible for environmental quality in the city, in particular, the mayor is personally responsible. The municipal government will organize relevant agencies at the municipal level to deal with environmental protection issues. For example, the urban construction bureau is responsible for water supply, sewerage, and drainage. Investments Among other priority investments, the NEAP recommends construction of urban drainage and sewage treatment facilities. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan period, construction into separate rain and sewage drainage systems will be speeded up. More than 8-10 thousand kilometers of urban drainage pipes and a number of sewage treatment plants with daily capacity of 2.5-4.0 million tons) and oxidation ponds (with daily capacity of 2.0 mnillion tons) will be constructed. A total of 12 billion yuan is required. pollutants. With respect to sanitation coverage, To improve the management of urban water and 80 percent of the urban population is reported sanitation, the NEAP reports that the Govern- to have acceptable sanitation and 77 percent of ment intends to operate water supply and the urban population is connected to public wastewater treatment plants on a commercial sewers. Nonetheless, the actual situation may basis with the ability to raise revenues to be less satisfactory because in parts of the cities gradually recover efficient operation and it is common to see open sewers clogged with maintenance costs as well as units to help with waste and at night latrine pits are emptied in leakage detection and correction.8" Increased the street ditches. metering and staff incentives for accurate 20 Environment Department Papers Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems reading of water meters also would be elements Inadequate Municipal Solid Waste of institutional strengthening. In addition, a Management study on altematives to more conventional wastewater technologies would be carried out, Inadequate collection and disposal of municipal focusing on the possible use of natural and household solid waste is another persistent climatological conditions in Egypt, such as problem in developing country cities. In most infiltration, sub-surface infiltration to recycle cases, uncollected wastes end up in neighbor- wastewater for irrigation purposes, and evapo- hood dumps, where disease-carrying insects ration ponds. The result of the study will be an and rodents proliferate, or in street drains important factor influencing decisions on future where they cause flooding and subsequent road treatment technology with regard to efficiency damage, traffic obstruction, and breeding of and cost aspects. Although the NEAP includes disease vectors. Even where solid wastes are an investment program covering two phases of collected, environmentally safe disposal facili- investment in urban water supply and sanita- ties rarely exist. Wastes disposed of in open tion, it does not specify the types of policy dumps are major sources of surface and ground- instruments that would be used. water contamination as well as air pollution. Moreover, in cities that have inadequate solid Pakistan waste and water pollution control capacity, it is Human excreta and household sullage gener- difficult to monitor industrial discharges and ated in urban settlements are the main sources ensure that hazardous wastes do not end up in of water pollution in Pakistan and the cause of surface water used for drinking, municipal widespread water-borne diseases. Major cities sewers, or landfills. Among the NEAPs re- dispose of their untreated sewage into irrigation viewed that highlight urban environmental systems, where the wastewater is reused, and issues, the majority identify municipal solid into streams and rivers, without any consider- waste management (MSWM) as a key problem. ation of the rivers' assimilative capacity. In its action agenda and implementation strategy, the China NEAP's long-term goal is biological treatment With respect to municipal solid waste, the China of municipal effluent in all cities and towns with NEAP provides the same level of specificity in suitable conditions by 2030. By 2001, the documenting the problem, establishing targets, expected outputs would be: four cities with and delineating strategic, programmatic and Werribee type sewage farms;9' 13 towns with other elements as it does for water supply and oxidation ponds, and about 40 percent of the sanitation. In the case of municipal solid waste urban population served by some form of management, however, the NEAP does not sanitation. To meet these expectations, the address all aspects of the problem adequately. NEAP recommends investing in the design, For example, the NEAP points out that the construction, and operation of sewage farms generation of urban garbage increases by 10 and oxidation ponds as well as improved percent per year. Due to the lack of collection handling of sewage at other locations. It also and transportation facilities, 25 percent of the delineates the action period, identifies the lead solid wastes in Chinese cities cannot be dis- agency and interacting players, and specifies posed of in a timely way. Ninety-seven percent that sewage treatment and re-use would affect of the household wastes and night soil are either all primary and secondary cities. Unlike most piled up in residential areas, or improperly of the other NEAPs reviewed, the Pakistan buried or simply discharged into rivers, lakes, NEAP also highlights a suggested technical and seas without treatment. Nonetheless, the approach to reusing wastewater. NEAP does not provide targets for collection in Chinese cities nor does it provide a strategy for MSWM. Among the priority programs for improving the urban environment, the NEAP Environmental Management Series 21 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies focuses primarily on solid waste disposal and Poland ignores the collection problem. With respect to According to the Poland NEAP, the country has investments, therefore, the NEAP mentions that an immense solid waste problem with sold only 23 billion yuan will be invested in the wastes ranging from hard coal mining wastes, treatment of urban refuse; use, storage, and tailings from coal preparation plants and copper disposal of industrial wastes; and noise control. and silver ore beneficiation, to municipal refuse Although the NEAP clearly indicates that solid and potentially hazardous wastes on aban- waste collection is a problem, there is no expla- doned soviet military bases. Further, there are nation as to why this aspect of MSWM is left out 630 municipal refuse disposal sites scattered of the plan's recommendations. throughout the country, most of which are open Egypt dumps without site preparation or treatment of EgYPt wastes prior to disposal. In many cases, the The Egypt NEAP, by contrast, deals more accumulating industrial and municipal waste comprehensively with solid waste conditions. contains toxic chemicals which could be affect- Recognizing that migration to urban areas will ing ground-water quality. Although about half increase, the NEAP emphasizes that the prob- of the yearly production of mining waste is lem of managing solid waste calls for immediate used, the dumps continue to grow at a rate of 40 attention. In recommending MSWM improve- million cubic meters a year; the current inven- ments, the NEAP focuses on five types of waste: tory of active and abandoned dumps is about municipal waste from urban, peri-urban, and 1.5 billion tons. Further, space constraints both rural areas; hazardous waste from hospitals; for industrial and municipal wastes have industrial non-hazardous waste; industrial become overwhelming. Taking into account hazardous waste; and agricultural waste. It cross-media considerations, the Poland NEAP covers sources of waste generation; health risks; also notes that air and water pollution control environmental effects related to scattered measures will generate additional solid waste. disposal and dumping; the adequacy of existing legislation and institutional arrangements; and According to the Poland NEAP, the highest special management issues such as solid waste priority in tackling the solid waste issue should collection for the urban poor, fees and fee be to invest in additional compaction equipment collection system, collection of pathogenic and to mitigate the space problem and to facilitate infectious hospital wastes, reuse of municipal sound landfill practices. It further points out waste (soil conditioner, fertilizer, energy), and that the solution to the massive industrial solid the need for information about industrial waste problem will require further analysis, but hazardous wastes and a comprehensive inven- any additional permits to enterprises should be tory and strategy to facilitate future MSWM made contingent on the preparation of detailed decision making. In addressing these issues, the solid waste management plans. The NEAP also Egypt NEAP delineates clear recommendations stresses the need for additional attention to for applying both regulatory and economic integrated pollution control to find sound instruments to the appropriate aspects of solid solutions to dealing with solid wastes generated waste management as well as institutional from air and water pollution control and to actions to increase the effectiveness and effi- make beneficial uses of them. Although the ciency of solid waste management. The NEAP NEAP may not be conclusive in dealing with all also includes a solid waste investment program aspects of this complex problem, it presents in two five-year phases. The investments of the policy and technical options and identifies first five years will focus mainly on pre-investi- ongoing programs and planned investments gations, pilot studies, and the development of that address key aspects of the country's solid solid waste management systems (Box 7). waste problem. 22 Environment Department Papers Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems Box 7 Managing Municipal Solid Wastes in Egypt In addressing municipal solid wastes, the Egypt NEAP recommends the following policy and institutional actions as well as investments: Policy Actions Introduce a fee covering full costs of managing municipal waste, including collection, transportation, and final environmentally sound treatment. The fee should be based on real cost, which will differ between the cities and municipalities, depending on chosen treatment technology. It will be collected together with the electricity bill and be proportional to energy consumption. Introduce earmarked surcharges or taxes on hazardous products (for example, alkaline and Ni-Cd batteries, products containing cadmium, mercury, motor oils) which would be collected on a specific account and used exclusively for collection and treatment or destruction. This action will provide an incentive for the general population to switch to less harmful products and influence industry to provide substitutes. Reducing the use of hazardous products also will improve the quality of municipal wastes, allowing them to be more easily used as compost or soil conditioner and contribute to a reduction in waste volume. Introduce full cost coverage for treatment of industrial hazardous waste and infectious hospital waste involving the use of available facilities for destruction and treatment. Institutional Actions Establish licensed companies for waste management so as to guarantee that all areas of waste management are covered. Create guidelines and strategies for waste management to address the serious need for more planning to optimize management and create more facilities to treat and handle the waste generated. The strategies will depend on the capabilities of the environmental authorities to enforce regulations and guidelines as well as the existence of treatment facilities. Investments Develop management systems for urban, peri-urban, and rural areas. Collect information on industrial hazardous waste and execute pilot tests. Develop municipal solid waste management plans to ensure that waste from various areas can be collected and transported to acceptable disposal sites or treatment plants and identify necessary transfer stations, collection organization, necessity for further treatment facilities, as well as fees and a system to collect fees based on full coverage for services provided. Establish collection systems based on the results of the previous action. Provide the foundation for producing equipment to supply construction of composting plants. Provide technical assistance to evaluate and test existing incinerators for infectious hospital waste, and based on the findings, provide funds for their operation as hospital waste incinerators. In a medium-term perspective, all existing small incinerators could be upgraded or modified to serve this purpose by the year 2002. Introduce pilot scale combined decomposition of municipal and agricultural water to obtain methane which can be used a fuel for electricity generation. In the next step, after decomposition, the waste which has been converted to compost can be used as a fertilizing or soil conditioning agent. Environmental Management Series 23 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies India priority urban areas for intervention. For such a According to the India NEAP, environmental large country as India, however, it may be more degradation in the metropolitan cities is partly a appropriate for the state level environmental consequence of inadequate urban services such action plans to delineate specific investment as wastewater collection and treatment, sanita- priorities. tion, transportation, and solid waste collection and disposal. With respect to the latter, the Ambient Air Pollution NEAP focuses on three major categories of solid waste: (1) domestic solid wastes from house- Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is a growing holds, restaurants, etc.; (2) commercial and problem in large cities that have poor natural industrial solid wastes that are bulky but not ventilation and high rates of motorization, hazardous; and (3) hazardous wastes from industrialization, or coal use. In many cities, industries, hospitals, research laboratories that conditions are worsening as emissions from fuel need special handling. In addressing these use and industry increase. In many developing wastes, however, the NEAP highlights general countries, vehicle emissions are the largest and strategies (Box 8), but does not recommend most rapidly growing source of urban air specific policy instruments, delineate specific pollution with the greatest damage caused by investments or investment plan, or identify the health effects of particulates and lead. Box 8 Managing Solid Wastes in India The India NEAP lists the following priority action programs that address municipal and industrial solid and hazardous wastes: strategies for reducing solid waste generation in cities with a focus on those that are difficult to dispose of (for example, tube lights, used battery cells); fiscal instruments for waste minimalization with respect to non-biodegradable and non-recyclable packaging material used for such things as packing food products, medicines, soft drinks, machine parts, oils, and breakables; projects for developing biodegradable packaging materials through the Eco-Mark scheme and through fiscal incentives; innovations for improving refuse vehicles; plans for assessing space requirements for solid waste treatment; rehabilitation of rag pickers; modemization of cleaner production of leather, textiles, and paper and pulp industries; techniques for quantifying pollutants from non-point sources such as waste disposal sites; and projects for least-hazardous methods of mining, control of erosion in mining areas, proper storage of minerals, proper disposal of mineral wastes in mined areas, prevention and control of pollution from roads in mining areas, prevention and control of pollution in post-mining period, water diversion to prevent contamination of water, and rehabilitation of mined areas. Additional actions that encompass municipal solid wastes include: formulating city level environ- mental management plans; organization strengthening for NGO participation in urban environment, and organization strengthening for human resource development and capacity building for pollution control, waste management, natural resource accounting, risk assessment, and environmental impact assessment in urban areas. 24 Environment Department Papers Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems According to the World Bank (1992), between industrial air pollution that would be phased in 300,000 and 700,000 premature deaths a year taking into account factors such as market could be avoided if unhealthy levels of particu- conditions and political feasibility (Box 9). lates were reduced to the levels considered safe Although the NEAP delineates the policy by the World Health Organization. Uncon- measures that would provide the necessary trolled discharges of air pollutants by industrial incentives to invest in cleaner and more efficient facilities are responsible for breathing difficul- technologies as well as the investment costs ties, hampered lung function, cancer, and even needed to make the transition, it does not death, particularly for the elderly and those indicate the time period during which these with pre-existing lung or heart disease who are instruments will be introduced. most vulnerable. Among the NEAPs reviewed, these problems were addressed primarily in Poland those prepared for Asian countries, all of the According to the Poland NEAP, measures to Central and Eastern European countries, and address pollution in general need to focus on countries in the Middle East and North Africa comprehensive strategies to upgrade urban region. areas. In identifying short-to-medium term Egypt investment priorities, the report recommends EgYPt focusing investment first on air quality im- In addressing urban air pollution, the Egypt provements, especially as they apply to low NEAP identifies the main sources of urban air stacks in urban areas (Box 10). Here the least pollution as high sulfur fuel used in power cost solution would be to convert households generation and in some industrial processes, and small-scale enterprises to natural gas, incomplete combustion and emissions of heavy taking into consideration that Poland has metals such as lead from an inefficient transport relatively abundant supplies of natural gas and sector, and specific industrial processes. In coal-bed methane. In the residential markets identifying the causes of air pollution in the the savings in the costs of environmental country, the NEAP reveals that taxes on new car damage as a result of switching to natural gas components and imports are a disincentive to are sufficient to offset the higher cost of a gas replacing inefficient old automobiles, resulting distribution system to residential customers and in high fuel consumption and pollution from justify high priority investments for distribution vehicular emissions. The large concentrations at the household level. of polluting industries in and around the major urban centers of Cairo and Alexandria, espe- Occupation of Hazard-Prone Areas cially the steel, cement, fertilizer, and chemical industries, contribute to high levels of dust and As cities grow and the demand for limited S02. The use of high sulfur fuel oil in industry supplies of urban land rises, increasing numbers and for power generation has also added to of low-income populations are forced to occupy high S02 levels in the atmosphere. land vulnerable to both natural and man-made hazards. Despite the prevalence and high costs In addressing air pollution, the Egypt NEAP associated with this problem, which in large provides an excellent example of how air part is caused by distorted land markets and pollution can be addressed through a carefully poorly managed land use, very few NEAPs selected mix of regulatory and economic address the land management dimensions of instruments. Unlike many of the other NEAPs, this problem. The few exceptions include the which may discuss the advantages of economic NEAPs prepared for Yemen and Nepal. instruments, the Egypt NEAP incorporates them into its plan of action. The document recom- Yemen mends a mix of regulatory and market-based In addressing urban environmental problems, instruments for controlling vehicular and the Yemen NEAP cites the occupation of areas Environmental Management Series 25 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Box9 Instruments to Control Air Pollution In Egypt The Egypt NEAP recognizes that atmospheric pollution is the consequence of millions of people driving cars, and of electricity plants and industries. The use of a command and control approach may only have limited success affecting the actions of so many particpants. So greater reliance should be put on market-related incentives to encourage people to use more environmentally-benign vehicles, and to per- suade industrialists to use cleaner technologies and fuels. To overcome the problem of urban air pollution caused by vehicles, the Egyptian NEAP's specific reccomendations include: (1) phasing out of energy subsidies by 1995; (2) introducing a gasoline tax after 1995; (3) reducing lead in gasoline by making refineries produce gasoline with maximum lead concentra- tions, as well as unleaded gasoline; (4) establishing price differentials for unleaded and leaded gasoline among gasoline distributors in Cairo and Alexandria; (5) improving traffic management; (6) improving mass transit traffic in the long term; and (7) setting lower import duties on vehicles with low emissions, fuel efficient vehicles, and vehicles with catalytic converters. To reduce air pollution from industrial sources, the Egupt NEAP reccomends: (1) reducing the use of high sulphur fuel by requiring new plants in urban areas to use heavy fuel with sulphur content below one percent and by levying a tax on the amount of suplphur in fuel oil to encourage desulfurization of heavy fuels; (2) by developing air emission policies by refining and developing emission standards and means of enforcing them and improving zoning of pollution industries; and (3) developing public awareness of air pollution costs. vulnerable to both natural and man-made the land market and should be reformed; and hazards as a serious problem for Yemen's urban developing a plan for upgrading basic infra- population, particularly the urban poor. In structure and services by assessing demand and several cities (for example, Sana'a, Aden), identifying priority investments. unauthorized settlements are spreading rapidly on wadi beds and unstable slopes where Nepal periodic floods and landslides result in the loss The Nepal NEAP focuses on inappropriate of lives and extensive damage to buildings and siting of industrial operations that exposes urban infrastructure. The NEAP further de- populations in some urban areas to high levels scribes the losses and costs associated with the of polution. To respond, the NEAP examines flooding in key cities and the factors that how the nature of urban land use planning, land perpetuate continued occupation of hazardous development, and urban land regulation areas, which also include abandoned quarries contribute to the problem and recommends: and land surrounding municipal landfills. Because the Yemen NEAP represents an early * ivolving more direct input from local stage of national environmental planning, the communities in the urban planning process. NEAP addresses this problem by focusing on necessary institutional reforms and capacity * Delineating broad land use zones through building for urban environmental management. consultation with existing and potential Among other measures that will build capacity users of urban areas to mitigate the poten- for managing hazard-prone land, the NEAP tially harmful environmental impacts includes: preparing flexible land use and zoning associated with multi-use sites in close schemes that incorporate environmental consid- proximity. erations; studies to determine appropriate land titling and land registration systems as well as Removing regulations that adversely affect to assess how existing land regulations affect 26 Environment Department Papers Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems Box 10 Improving Air Quality In Poland The Poland NEAP recommends the following air quality improvements which focus primarily on conditions in urban areas. Coal Cleaning. To address Poland's most serious air pollution problems, which are in such areas as the wojewodships of Katowice, Krakow, and Rybnik (where hundreds of small coal-fired industrial and building heating, traveling grates, or hand-fired boilers have very poor emission control systems and many chimneys show evidence of unburned car- bon and coal pyrolysis fumes), some emissions can be mitigated by improving the quality of coal supplied to these users. The government, therefore, should meet its commitment to support a large coal cleaning program over the next ten or more years to reduce the ash and sulfur content of coal. Because a wider spread of coal prices will encourage mines to produce higher quality coal, progress on the coal cleaning program depends critically on completing the deregulation of the coal market. To reinforce the benefits of the program, additional pricing policies will be needed (for example, introduction of tax on coal, differentiated by quality of coal, which would be rebated to enterprises having pollution control equipment). Natural Gas. For most existing small-to-medium sized energy users, where emissions are close to the ground and the costs of pollution control technology for coal are high, the lowest cost solution is to convert to natural gas, and in a few cases, to low-sulfur oil. While coal cleaning offers immediate relief at low cost to the smaller energy user, the extent of emission reduction by that means alone is limited. Achieving acceptable air quality standards in urban areas will require switching from coal to natural gas, of which recernt reports confirm that Poland has relatively abundant re- sources of its own and access to gas imnports. Least Cost Approaches. Ambient air quality standards, emissions standards, and the monitoring network should be part of an integrated system to attain and ensure the compliance with realistic and enforceable ambient air quality standards. The German Luftreinhalteplan (Clean Air Plan) could serve as a model. This plan requires the regional administration of areas in which ambient air standards are exceeded to set up an action plan showing how, in which time frame, and at what cost the regional administration will ensure compliance with the ambient air quality stan- dards. A major part of the plan consists of ambient air quality and emission inventories and corresponding air quality models. Standards should be designed flexibly and tightened progressively over a 10 to 15 year period. Particulate Reduction. Due to economies of scale, large energy consumers can benefit from the lower price of coal relative to gas or fuel oil and install efficient emission control systems for coal buming. The priority (and least cost option) in the medium term should be to install and/or properly maintain and operate electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) to remove particulates. Most large boilers have ESPs; so do some medium size boilers, although they are more likely to have cyclones or some other less efficient form of particulate removal. Small boilers generally have no particulate controls. For district heating, there should be a shift to increased reliance on combined heat and power plants, together with the installation of pollution control equipment in medium to small plants. High Sta_ks. Given the very high cost of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and the somewhat lower priority of SO2 in health terms relative to particulates, it is recommended that the technology be installed only in new power plants and in a very small number of existing power and heating plants at locations with the greatest impact on ambient air quality can be demonstrated by monitoring results and/or where FGD can be shown to be less expensive than other options because of economics of scale. Iron and Steel Industry. After power or combined power/heat plants, steel works are the next worst polluters. The Polish Government, jointly with a Canadian Consortium, is carrying out a major year long study on the restructuring of the Polish iron and steel industry In parallel, a French Consortium will assist the government in performing an environmental audit for the entire Katowice and Krakow areas, focussing specially on the iron and steel industry. For these industries, the environmental audits will provide detailed environmental recommendations to be included in the restructuring proposals. Transportation. Although of minor importance compared to pollution from coal burning and industrial emissions, air pollution from vehicles contribute up to 40 percent of emissions of CO, HC, NOx, and lead, respectively. Over the next ten years, there is likely to be substantial growth in the number and use of vehicles, particularly private cars, which may be aggravated by the economic difficulties associated with operating the existing public transportation network with reduced government subsidies. Continued investments in public transportation is warranted both on economic and environmental grounds. It will be critical to establish clear priorities and least-cost strategies. The first priority should be to analyze public transport use characteristics and maintain services that are in high demand. Better opera- tion and maintenance should help reduce emissions, but conversion to modern fleets will be very expensive and can probably only be planned over the longer term. Steps also should be taken to improve the availability and desirability of low-lead and unleaded petrol and low-sulfur fuel. Environmental Management Series 27 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies efficient land development by the private cultural resources. Although the nature of these sector. resources will differ according to local condi- tions, the cultural resources in a city or urban * Developing building regulations that area serve a variety of public purposes and are specify basic parameters governing prop- important constituents of a city's environment erty construction in consultation with the as well as the national heritage. In some cases, private sector, and dramatically improving they are important generators of tourism-related the capacity of municipalities to enforce revenues. Among the NEAPs reviewed, five such regulations. address the loss of cultural resources. Most of the documents, however, do not describe the * Developing further the use of Guided Land economic importance of the cultural resources Development (GLD) to encourage more or highlight the critical role of urban land efficient siting of industries while protecting management in their protection. The NEAPs residential areas from undue exposure to prepared for Nepal, Iran and Egypt illustrate pollution. how this problem is handled within the context of the urban environment. * Providing incentives to existing industries to relocate away from population centers Nepal (for example, cost-sharing between private According to the Nepal NEAP, one of the most and public sectors, subsidies, provision of serious threats to cultural heritage sites in urban infrastructure, threat of closure). areas is uncoordinated development that results in unsuitable buildings being erected close to In its action plan section, the NEAP recoli- temples, shrines, and other important monu- rends that the government adopt a policy to ments. In addition, sites are suffering from transform the present informal system of urban encroachment and deteriorating sanitary land development into a more formal one. In conditions. To address this problem, the NEAP addition to the actions discussed above, the stresses the need to adopt a holistic approach NEAP recommends implementing this policy by and develop plans, with the involvement of reviewing the system of urban land regulations local people, that address the need for new to remove constraints to efficient land develop- construction while recognizing the importance ment while formulating enforceable building of preserving the aesthetic qualities of historic standards. The action plan also identifies sites. Accordingly, the NEAP recommends institutional responsibilities and time frames for developing local institutions to support heritage carrying out the recommended measures. sites that local populations value, and encourag- Although the Nepal NEAP presents a good ing international institutions to support sites assessment of the problem and appropriate whose importance extends beyond national recommendations for resolving them, it does concerns and for which local resources may not not indicate what kind of institutional strength- be sufficient for adequate preservation. The ening might be needed to deal with complex NEAP also delineates means for raising rev- urban land issues or clearly indicate specific enue, institutional arrangements, and an action actions to be implemented, particularly in the plan highlighting key policies and recom- case of industrial location. The NEAP also does mended actions specifying agency responsibili- not specify how the use of GLD should be ties and time frames. Although there is no further developed. indication in the NEAP that protecting cultural resources is a priority national environmental Loss of Cultural Resources problem, the manner in which the issue is addressed indicates a good understanding of An often overlooked issue in urban environ- the issues and possible solutions. Nonetheless, mental management is the degradation of the NEAP should have incorporated needed 28 Environment Department Papers Addressing Key Urban Environmental Problems improvements in urban land management. urban settlements near monuments is accelerat- ing their deterioration. And Islamic Cairo, Egypt listed by Unesco as a World Heritage Site, has Similarly, the Egypt NEAP does not give been recognized by the international commu- sufficient attention to urban land management nity to be under threat for more than two practices that affect cultural resources, although decades. To respond, the NEAP recommends urban expansion is taking a severe toll on such measures as inventorying sites, training cultural property, particularly in Cairo and its staff in site management, and developing ties environs (Giza, Saqqara), Luxor, Abydos, with NGOs and the private sector to support Dendera, and Edfu. According to the NEAP, the cultural resource protection. Although the concentration of S02 in urban areas is well NEAP refers to improve land use planning, above acceptable safety thresholds and is reduce urban pollution, and strengthen institu- damaging historic limestone structures. In tional efficiency - all of which are addressed addition, the rise of the water table due to elsewhere in the NEAP - the document does inadequate sewerage and drainage in new not specify land management recommendations relating specifically to cultural resources. Environmental Management Series 29 4. Conclusions and Recommendations Due to the variability of country size, range of cities); the economic importance of cities; environmental problems, economic complexity, and the nature, magnitude, and costs of government capacity to respond, and phase of urban environmental problems; and the national environmental planning, there is no inter-relationships between urban poverty "ideal" national environmental strategy, nor is and environmental degradation, and there an existing environmental strategy or between urban environmental problems action plan that exemplifies the best way urban and other resource management issues (for environmental issues should be addressed. Best example, marine resources, energy conser- practice in identifying and responding to vation). The countries that should pay priority urban environmental problems in particular attention to urban environmental NEAPs is still evolving. Based on an assess- problems are those experiencing rapid rates ment of the first generation of NEAPs, however, of urbanization and industrialization and it is evident that future national environmental those whose urban populations account for strategies can be improved if they (1) incorpo- a large percentage of the total (annex 3). rate a more rigorous analysis of urban environ- The countries experiencing rapid urbaniza- mental problems, (2) identify the most serious tion are those likely to be confronting urban environmental problems where urban primarily the traditional problems of environmental degradation is considered a inadequate solid waste management and priority national environmental problem, (3) lack of safe water supply and sanitation. specify policies and instruments for achieving The more highly urbanized countries with environmental objectives, including the criteria slower rates of urban growth usually are applied in choosing them, and (4) ascertain the faced with more complex environmental necessary capacity building in urban environ- problems (for example, vehicular air mental management that would be needed to pollution, managing hazardous wastes). implement them. In preparing future national environmental strategies or revisions to earlier * Set Priorities. Countries need to be more NEAPs, therefore, the following recommenda- rigorous in setting priorities among urban tions should be taken into account when ad- environmental problems. Urban environ- dressing urban environmental issues:101 mental degradation is not a single problem. Among the various inter-related environ- Improve Environmental Screening. To mental issues confronting cities, those help identify priority problems in the NEAP, involved in the NEAP process should the screening of national environmental identify the one or more problems that issues should include a comprehensive should receive priority attention. Criteria to assessment of urban environmental condi- be considered in priority setting include: (1) tions in the country. The screening should magnitude of health impacts associated cover such issues as: trends in urbanization with the problem, (2) economic losses (that is, number, population, and rate of caused by the problem, (3) number of growth of large, medium-size and small people and income groups affected by the Environmental Management Series 31 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies problem, (4) degree to which unsustainable try to identify the "win-win" policies first. use of resources causes the problem, and (5) The scope for actions that promote income whether the problem leads to irreversible growth, poverty alleviation, and environ- outcomes. Although most priority setting is mental improvement is very large. Ex- based on political considerations, more amples include: (1) removing subsidies that emphasis should be placed on informing the encourage excessive use of nature resources, priority setting process. Carrying out (2) clarifying land rights to promote better economic analysis can help ensure that the management of land and investments in or policies followed first will achieve the provision of environmental improvements, greatest benefit relative to given objectives and (3) accelerating provision of clean and available resources. water, sanitation, and drainage, improve- ments in public transport, and/or the * Identify Causes. Reversing urban environ- introduction of energy efficient technology. mental degradation requires a good under- standing of the factors that perpetuate it. In * Define Criteria for Choosing Instruments. formulating a national environmental Where "win-win" situations are not appli- strategy, it will be necessary to examine the cable or immediately obvious, the choice of causes of priority urban environmental instruments should take into account problems to facilitate the identification of practical, economic, and political realities. key actions, specifically those that may be Each country will need to establish its own needed to remove pricing distortions, criteria upon which to base its selection. establish the necessary policy and legal Nonetheless, the following criteria cover frameworks, and establish critical financial, what should be most important consider- technical assistance, or other types of ations: capacity building programs. cost-effectiveness - the policies and instru- * Pick the Right Instruments. The NEAP ments selected should be those that achieve should specify the particular policies and the desired outcome at the least possible instruments that should be adopted to cost and with a total cost that does not resolve urban environmental problems and exceed the expected benefits. The instru- indicate the criteria used for selecting these ment also should be tailored to local ambi- instruments as well as the specific institu- ent conditions and the size of affected tional arrangements for implementing and populations;1' enforcing them. No single instrument will be effective in achieving all urban environ- administrative feasibility - the policies and mental management objectives; there is a instruments that are selected should be need to select an appropriate mix of instru- consistent with existing capacity to imple- ments matched to the special characteristics ment them. This covers legal authorities, of each problem and locality, the specific institutional capacities, available informa- actor whose behavior needs changing, and tion, and ease of monitoring and enforce- the desired response. In addition, the ment. Instruments that require strong NEAP should specify sector-specific goals, enforcement capacity or a high rate of objectives, and targets for improvement, voluntary compliance are difficult to including indicators for monitoring implement; progress. equity - this requires appropriate burden- * Identify "Win-Win" Policies. In selecting sharing in the costs and benefits of environ- the most appropriate instruments for mental protection with particular attention addressing urban environmental problems, to the poor. In some cases, however, an 32 Environment Department Papers instrument may be equitable, but result in inefficient resource utilization increases. increased levels of pollution. In Mexico, for The NEAP, therefore, should clearly delin- example, a special tax applied only to new eate the institutional structure and responsi- automobiles has encouraged the purchase bilities for implementing the recommended or continued use of old polluting automo- actions to improve urban environmental biles. In this instance, the policy favors conditions as well as for guiding and lower income groups who cannot afford to coordinating the actions of the various purchase new automobiles, but perpetuates government agencies, municipalities, pollution from old vehicles; NGOs, private sector, and donors. Simi- larly, urban environmental management political/social/market feasibility - no requires substantial capacity building at the system of pollution charges or other eco- national as well as local level (or metropoli- nomic instruments can change the political tan) levels. The NEAP, therefore, should climate. If a government assigns priority to specify the capacity building needs of key maintaining production and employment, actors to implement its recommendations. any environmental policy that threatens For example, in addressing urban environ- these goals will be ignored. Adopting mental problems, national governments will policies that are not enforced will only need to build capacity in: undermine the credibility of environmental authorities and the government in general. selecting appropriate policy instruments to Similarly, the instrument(s) selected should meet pollution control, waste management, conform to the social and cultural values of and urban land management objectives; the affected population as well as prevailing market conditions; and establishing environmental standards and effective monitoring and enforcement other criteria - other factors that should be programs; taken into account include: (1) the transpar- ency of the process of adopting and imple- establishing and administering programs of menting standards, which influences the technical and financial assistance to support willingness and ability of enterprises to environmental agencies at lower levels of adapt to the changing regulatory conditions; government; (2) consistency of the instrument with other policies and instruments within or external empowering local governments to carry out to the sector, as well as other relevant local environmental management, establish international agreements, treaties, prin- standards for local performance, and adopt ciples, and that the application of the measures to ensure accountability; and instrument does not lead to cross-media pollution; and (3) the adaptability of the revising or developing new legislation that instrument to changing environmental promotes investments in urban environ- conditions (for example, factories can be mental improvement, permits the use of closed under a smog alert, standards can be low-cost technologies, and encourages made less stringent in times of economic private sector participation in urban service. crises). delivery and other aspects of urban envi- ronmental management. Clarify Institutional Responsibilities and Capacity Building Needs. As the level of * Promote City-Specific Environmental attention and involvement in urban envi- Strategies and Action Plans. The NEAP ronmental management intensifies, the should stress the need for city-specific possibility for duplication of effort and urban environmental strategies. Cities with Environmental Management Series 33 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies populations over 500,000 should be encour- formulate solutions for reversing environmental aged to develop their own urban environ- degradation without slowing economic devel- mental strategies that focus on city-specific opment. Given the importance of cities to priorities. The urban environmental strat- economic development, the high costs of urban egy prepared at the national level should environmental degradation, the large and ever- include a strategic framework for smaller increasing numbers of people affected, confront- cities which do not have the necessary ing urban environmental problems should capacity to carry out their own planning. In emerge as a priority in a greater number of some cases, urban environmental strategies countries. Notwithstanding the deficiencies of and action plans can be inputs to the earlier NEAPs in addressing urban environmen- national environmental planning process. tal problems, the experience gained in their preparation and implementation can provide Preparing national environmental strategies and important lessons for improving the next action plans represents an opportunity for generation of national environmental strategies, countries with increasingly scarce resources to refinements or updates of earlier NEAPs, and identify priority environmental problems and country economic strategies. 34 Environment Department Papers REFERENCES Bartone, Carl, Janis Bernstein, Josef Leitmann, Mexico." World Bank Policy Research Working Jochen Eigen, 1994. Toward Environmental Paper 824, Washington, D.C. Strategies for Cities: Policy Considerations for Urban Environmental Management in Develop- Margulis, Sergio and Janis Bernstein, 1995. ing Countries. Urban Management Programme "National Environmental Strategies: Learning Policy Paper Number 18. Washington, D.C.: from Experience." Washington, D.C.: The The World Bank. World Bank. Carew-Reid, Jeremy, Robert Prescott Allen, U.S. Agency for International Development and Stephen Bass, Barry Dalal Clayton, 1994. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990. Strategies for National Sustainable Develop- "Ranking Environmental Health Risks in ment: A Handbook for Their Planning and Bangkok, Thailand." Implementation. Sponsored by International Institute for Environment and Development World Bank, 1992. "Hungary Environmental (IIED) and the World Conservation Union Strategy Study." (IUCN). World Bank, 1994. Indonesia Environment and Eskeland, Gunnar S. 1992. "The Objective: Development: Challenges for the Future. Reduce Pollution at Low Cost." Outreach #2. World Bank Country Economics Department. World Bank, 1992a. Mexico Transport Air Ouality Management in the Mexico City Metro- Falloux, Francois and Lee Talbot, 1993. Crisis politan Area Sector Study. and Opportunity: Environment and Develop- ment in Africa. London: Earthscan Publications World Bank, 1992b. World Development Report Ltd. 1992: Development and Environment. New York: Oxford University Press. Government of Switzerland, Commission of the European Communities, Organization for World Bank, 1994. World Development Report Economic Cooperation and Development, 1994: Infrastructure for Development. New World Bank, 1994. Environmental Action York: Oxford University Press. Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. World Bank, 1993. World Development Report Japan International Cooperation Agency, 1990. 1993: Investing in Health. New York: Oxford "Seminar on Medium to Long-Term Improve- University Press. ment/Management Plan of Road and Road Transport in Bangkok." World Bank. 1991. "Urban Policy and Economic Development: An Agenda for the 1990s." Margulis, Sergio, 1992. "Back of the Envelope Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Estimates of Environmental Damage Costs in Environmental Management Series 35 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Endnotes 1. Throughout this paper, the term "NEAP" agencies and the World Bank, also committed refers to a specific document that fulfills IDA themselves to the principles of Agenda 21. requirements. In some cases, the NEAP is a document prepared by the country to formally 5. Although it provides general guidance for fulfill its IDA obligation. In other cases, the preparing NEAPs, it does not address sector term "NEAP" refers to an equivalent document specific issues. In some cases, urban issues are such as a country environmental strategy paper mentioned only to the extent that they illustrate (CESP) prepared by the World Bank to help a issues that should be addressed in key sections country integrate environmental concerns into of the NEAP. For example, in the section on govemment activities, a National Conservation preparing and releasing the action plan, the Strategy, or national reports prepared for the directive states that the country's NEAP should United Nations Conference on Environment and be prepared by a multi-disciplinary team Development (annex 2). comprising specialists in a wide range of areas, including urban management. With respect to 2. See IUCN and IIED (1994), Falloux and Talbot the range of topics that should be included in (1993), and Margulis and Bernstein (1995 draft). the NEAP, urban issues appear in several suggested areas. 3. See Bartone et al. (1994), "Toward Environ- mental Strategies for Cites: Policy Consider- 6. See Francois Falloux and Lee M. Talbot, Crisis ations for Urban Environmental Management in and Opportunity: Environment and Develop- Developing Countries" (UNDP/UNCHS/World ment in Africa (London: Earthscan Publications Bank Urban Management Programme Policy Limited, 1993) for a discussion of the early Paper, Number 18), for a discussion of the urban NEAPs in Africa. environmental problems confronting most developing countries, including their effects, 7. This shortcoming applied not only to urban contributing causes, relevant interventions, and environmental problems but to other environ- the process of formulating city-specific environ- mental issues as well. mental strategies and action plans. 8. Currently all 33 existing sewage treatment 4. Agenda 21 is an action plan calling for states plants for urban sewage water need improve- to adopt "country driven" sustainable develop- ments; 16 plants are not even in operation. It ment strategies that: identify priority environ- has been shown that the plants receive dispro- mental problems and their direct and underly- portionately large amounts of wastewater due ing causes; determine investment needs, includ- to both heavy household consumption and ing the need for external financing; and outline leakage from the water distribution systems. appropriate policy and capacity building The leakage in Cairo is estimated to be as high interventions. These strategies are intended to as 70 percent. be national focal points for integrating environ- ment and development in decision-making and 9. The Werribee farm handles 70 percent of the for defining and implementing sustainable sewage from Melbourne, Australia using development priorities. Although Agenda 21 is untreated municipal sewage to irrigate grass not legally binding, all countries have commit- that supports 22,000 head of cattle and 100,000 ted themselves to preparing a sustainable sheep. development report and plan involving key sectors and actors within their jurisdiction. 10. Further guidance for setting priorities and International organizations, including U.N. preparing key elements of national environmen- 36 Environment Department Papers tal strategies and action plans is provided in: in the order of US$7 billion (Government of "National Environmental Strategies: Learning Switzerland, Commission of the European from Experience." Union, World Bank, 1994); and by comparing the cost per kilogram of toxicity-weighted 11. For example, in Poland, a study of instru- emissions eliminated through options ranging ments to control air pollution was carried out in from vapor recovery to fuel improvements, preparing the action program. The study Bank researchers were able to rank the cost- involved comparing the costs of relying on effectiveness of several altemative measures for altemative instruments to meet emission managing air quality in Mexico City where the reduction targets for particulate, sulfur dioxide economic damages due to the health effects of and nitrogen oxides. According to the findings air pollution are estimated to be US$1.5 billion a of this study, relying on pollution charges rather year. They subsequently found that substantial than command and control instruments would reductions in transport-related emissions are reduce the present value of control costs by 54 possible at moderate cost by using a combina- percent over a period of 24 years. The approxi- tion of regulations, incentives, and fuel taxes mate cost savings during this period would be (World Bank 1992). Environmental Management Series 37 ANNEX 1 List of Documents Reviewed Albania, National Environmental Action Plan, Hungary, Environmental Strategy Study, 1992 July 1993 India, Environmental Action Programme, 1993 Arab Republic of Egypt, Environmental Action Plan, May 1992 Lesotho, National Environmental Action Plan, June 1989 Benin, Plan D'Action Environnemental, May 1993 Madagascar, Plan D'Action Environnemental, July 1988 Bhutan, Seventh Five Year Plan (1992-1997) Vol. I Main Plan Document Maldives, UNCED and 1989 EAP Bolivia, NEAP Planificacion y Gestion del Mauritius, Economic Development with Envi- Medio Ambiente, 1993 ronmental Management Strategies for Mauritius, November 1988 Botswana, National Conservation Strategy, December 1990 Nepal, Environmental Policy and Action Plan, June 1993 Bulgaria, Environmental Strategy Study, 1992 Nicaragua, Plan de Accion Ambiental, June 1993 Burkina Faso, National Environmental Action Plan, August 1991 Nigeria, Towards the Development of an EAP for Nigeria, December 1990 China, Environmental Action Plan of China 1991-2000, August 1993 Pakistan, The Pakistan National Conservation Strategy with attachments, July 1993 Cyprus, Environmental Review and Action Plan, March, 1993 Philippines, Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development: A Conceptual Framework, Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, Joint January 1990 Environmental Study, January 1992 Poland, Environmental Strategy, 1992 Domninican Republic, Environmental Issues Paper, July 1993 Romania, Environmental Strategy Paper, 1992 Fiji, The National State of the Environment Rwanda, Strategie Nationale de Report, 1992 L'Environnement au Rwanda, October 1991 Ghana, National Enviromnental Action Plan, Sao Tome and Principe, Country Economic Vol. I, 1992 Memorandum and Key Elements of an Environ- mental Strategy, June 1993 Guinea-Bissau, Towards a Strategic Agenda for Environmental Management, 1993 Seychelles, Environmental Management Plan of the Seychelles, 1990-2000, Vols. I and II Honduras, Plan de Accion Ambiente y Desarrollo, 1993 Environmental Management Series 39 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies Sierra Leone, Initial Assessment of Environmen- Tunisia, Country Environmental Study and tal Problems, February 1994 National Action Plan, 1989 Sri Lanka, National Environmental Action Plan Yemen, Toward a National Environmental (1992-1996), October 1991 Action Plan: Strategy Paper, 1994 The Gambia, The Gambia Environmental Action Plan 1992-2001, May 1992 40 Environment Department Papers Annex 2 National Strategic Planning Approaches In addition to NEAPs, numerous strategic National Environmental Management Plans. approaches have been advocated by govern- These are currently being developed by many ments and international agencies. While some island countries of the South Pacific, coordi- focus mainly on environmental concerns and nated by the South Pacific Regional Environ- their integration into the development process, ment Programme (SPREP) with support from others deal with social and economic issues. the Asian Development Bank, UNDP, and These national strategies fall into two catego- IUCN. The planning process involves round ries: multi-sectoral and sectoral or thematic. table discussions and consultations with key decision makers and organizations, leading to a COMPREHENSIVE NATIONAL STRATE- definition of a policy framework and a portfolio GIES of programs and projects for donor support. Conventional National Development Plans. National Sustainable Development Strategies These plans are produced by national govern- (NSDS). Called for by Agenda 21, NSDS is a ments (often by the central Ministry of Finance generic name for a participatory and cyclical and/or Development Planning). They are process to achieve economic, ecological, and usually time-bound (for example, rolling 5-year social objectives in a balanced and integrated plans) and focus on such issues as fiscal targets manner. The process encompasses the defini- and major infrastructure development. tion of policies and action plans, their imple- mentation, monitoring, and regular review. National Conservation Strategies (NCSs). NSDSs may take many forms, and incorporate Promoted by IUCN, NCSs are intended to or build on many of the approaches discussed provide a comprehensive, cross-sectoral analy- above. sis of conservation and resource management issues to help integrate environmental concerns Provincial Conservation and Sustainable into the development process. They are in- Development Strategies. In federal countries, tended to identify a country's most urgent provincial (or State) strategies are the equivalent environmental problems, stimulate national of NCSs and NSDSs in countries with unitary debate, and raise public consciousness; assist systems. Federal governments may also under- decision makers in setting priorities and allocat- take national strategies as well. ing human and financial resources; and build institutional capacity to handle complex envi- SECTORAL AND THEMATIC STRATEGIES ronmental issues. NCSs have been strongly process-oriented in that information has been Conventional Sectoral Master Plans. These obtained and analyzed by cross-sectoral groups. plans are often prepared as part of the Five Year NCSs also seek to develop political consensus Development Plan and as a means to coordinate through group interaction. donor involvement in a sector. They have been widely prepared in Asia, sponsored by the Green Plans. These plans, produced to date by Asian Development Bank, for such sectors as Canada and the Netherlands, consist of an forestry, agriculture, and tourism. Although not evolving process of comprehensive national normally involving a participatory process, programs for environmental improvement and sector plans have resulted from massive re- resource stewardship, with government-wide search and policy development efforts over objectives and commitments. many years, and attempt to address inter- sectoral issues. Although the plans are a source Environmental Management Series 41 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies of comprehensive information, some bear little ments planned by the World Bank. relation to the institutional capacity of the sector to implement them. DOCUMENTS CONTRIBUTING TO STRAT- EGY PROCESS National Tropical Forestry Action Plans. Sponsored by FAO and promoted under the Various Country Environmental Profiles and Tropical Forestry Action Programme (TFAP), State of the Environment Reports are prepared national TFAP exercises start with a multi- by governments, bilateral aid donors, and sectoral review of forest-related issues that leads NGOs. Generally they present information on to policy and strategy plans which are then conditions and trends; identify and analyze followed by an implementation phase. The plan causes, linkages, and constraints; and indicate seeks to produce informed decisions and action emerging issues. programs with explicit national targets on policies and practices related to afforestation UNCED National Reports (1991-92) are descrip- and forest management, forest conservation and tive and analytical documents prepared by restoration, and integration with other sectors. national governments, sometimes with NGO Round tables involving governmental bodies, involvement. Although in practice they varied NGOs, donor agencies, and international enormously, UNCED Secretariat guidelines organizations are held at different stages of proposed that each report should address: planning and implementation. development trends, environmental impacts, and responses to environment and development National Plans to Combat Desertification. issues such as principles and goals, policies, Sponsored by the Permanent Committee for legislation, institutions, programs, and projects Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), these as well as international cooperation. Many plans analyze the socioeconomic and ecological countries consulted local, regional, and interna- situation, review current activities, and discuss tional NGOs, and industry The reports identify policies and actions required to combat drought. how national economic and other activities can They represent national anti-desertification be consistent with the need to conserve re- plans for a number of Sahelian countries. sources. Some consider issues of equity and justice; others are intended as the basis for In addition, national plans are emerging from future NSDSs. the International Climate Change Convention, Biodiversity Convention, and poverty assess- Source: Carew-Reid et al. (1994) 42 Environment Department Papers Annex 3 Urban Growth Rates and Population URBAN GROWTH URBAN POP. AS RATE(%) % OFTOTAL COUNTRY' (1980-1992) (1992) AFRICA Benin 5.2 40 Botswana 10.0 29 Burkina Faso 8.7 17 Burundi 5.1 6 Cameroon 5.4 42 Central African Rep. 4.7 48 Chad 6.8 34 Congo 4.5 42 Cote d'lvoire 4.7 42 Ethiopia 4.8 13 Gabon 5.8 47 Ghana 4.3 35 Guinea 5.8 27 Guinea-Bissau 3.8 21 Kenya 7.7 25 Lesotho 6.7 21 Madagascar 5.7 25 Malawi 6.1 12 Mali 5.2 25 Mauritania 7.2 50 Mauritius .6 41 Mozambique 9.9 28 Environmental Management Series 43 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies URBAN GROWTH URBAN POP. AS RATE(%) % OFTOTAL COUNTRYa' (1980-1992) (1992) Namibia 5.1 29 Niger 7.3 21 Nigeria 5.7 37 Rwanda 3.8 6 Senegal 4.0 41 Seychelles 1.3 62 Sierra Leone 5.2 34 Sudan 4.1 23 Tanzania 6.6 22 Togo 5.5 29 Uganda 5.0 12 Zambia 3.8 42 Zimbabwe 5.9 30 ASIA Bangladesh 6.2 18 Bhutan 5.4 6 China 4.3 27 India 3.1 26 Indonesia 5.1 32 Lao PDR 6.1 20 Malaysia 4.8 44 Nepal 7.9 12 Pakistan 4.5 33 44 Environment Department Papers URBAN GROWTH URBAN POP. AS RATE (%) % OF TOTAL COUNTRY0/ (1980-1992) (1992) Papua New Guinea 4.3 16 Philippines 3.8 44 Sri Lanka 1.5 22 Thailand 4.5 23 EUROPE & CENTRAL ASIA Albania 2.6 36 Azerbaijan 54 Bulgaria .7 69 Georgia 56 Hungary .9 66 Kazakhstan 57 Kyrgyz Republic 38 Moldova 47 Poland 1.3 63 Romania 1.2 55 Russian Federation 74 Ukraine 67 Uzebkistan 41 MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA Algeria 4.9 54 Egypt 2.5 44 Jordan 6.0 69 Oman 8.2 12 Environmental Management Series 45 Urban Challenge in National Environmental Strategies 1 URBAN GROWTH URBAN POP. AS RATE (%) % OF TOTAL COUNTRY'1 (1980-1992) (1992) Saudi Arabia 6.5 78 Tunisia 3.4 57 Turkey 5.6 64 Yemen 7.3 31 LAC Argentina 1.7 87 Bolivia 4.0 52 Brazil 3.3 77 Chile 2.1 85 Colombia 2.9 71 Costa Rica 3.8 48 Dominican Republic 3.9 62 Guatemala 3.5 40 Honduras 5.3 45 Jamaica 2.1 54 Mexico 2.9 74 Paraguay 4.4 49 a/ NEAPs for many of these countries are already completed or underway. Source:World Development Report (1994, 1993, 1992); figures for countries in italics are for years other than those specified. 46 Environment Department Papers Environment Department The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W.' Washington, D.C. 20433 202 473 3641 202 477 0565 fAX x :~) @ Printed on 1 00% post-consumer recycled paper