PHREE Background Paper Series Document No. PHREE/90/31 FILE COPY Textbooks and Educational Development By Adriaan Verspoor and Kin Bing Wu (Consultant) Education and Employment Division Population and Human Resources Department The World Bank December 1990 This publication series serves as an outlet for background products from the ongoing work progam of policy research and analysis of the Education and Employment Division in the Population and Human Resources Department of the World Bank. The views expressed are those of the author(s), and should not be attributed to the World Bank. * The Intenational Bank for Reconstruction and Developnent/ The World Bank, 1990 Acknowledgemeatsl This paper was prepared for the Annual Exhibition of Books for Education and Development at the Institute of Education of the University of London, United Kingdom, December 9-10, 1990. A team of PHREE staff helped prepare the paper. Omporn Regel and Rosemary Rinaldi provided valuable research assistance. Cynthia Cristobal and Jegajothy Vythilingam provided quick and efficient word processing support. CONTENTS Page I. The Importance of Textbooks in Education . . . . . . . * a . . . * .1 II. The Availability of Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . * * * . 5 ITI. Public Expenditure on Education and Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . 8 IV. World Bank Lending for Textbook Provision . . . . . . . . . . . 16 V. The Quality of Textbooke . . . . . . . o. . . .. . 18 V. Using Textbooks to Improve Educational Quality . . . . . . . . . 22 Tables Table 1: Summary of Research Findings on the Effects of Textbook Availability on Student Achirvement in Developing Countries............o.........3 Table 2: Summary Table of Textbook Availability Derived from Reports..........7 Table 3: Expenditures on Teacher Salaries in Relation to Government Re- current Expenditures on Primary Education, in the 1980s............12 Table 4: Central Government Expenditures on Teaching Materials...............13 Table 5: Cost in Pupil Years of Producing One Fifth Grade Graduate...........14 Table 6: Benefit-cost ratios for selected educational investments in Brazil.......... to .... ............... * ** * ****** . ** * ** 15 Table 7: Distribution of Textbook Components in Education Projects, by Fiscal Year....... *................. ******** ....... *.* ... .16 Table 8: Distribution of Textbook Components in Education Projects, by Region, FY63-90.......... .................................. .17 Table 9: Stages of Improvement in Educational Quality........................25 Figures Figure 1: Median Public Expenditures on Education as a Percentage of GNP, by Country income Level, 1965-85...........*9 Figure 2: Median Public Recurrent Expenditures Per Primary Pupil, by Country Income Level, 1965-85.............. .............o9oo.10 Figure 3: Median Public Recurrent Expenditures Per Pupil as a Percentage of GNP, by Country Income Level, 1965-85................11 oozes Box 1: Examples of the Impact of Adjustment on Edunation.....................13 Box 2: Textbook Provisions Mexico, Lesotho, and Brazil....... ..............20 Box 3: Unit Costs of Textbook Provision........ References I. The Importance of Textbooks in Education Why Textbooks are Imoortant Teachere, school administrators, and parents have long recognized the critical importance of textbooks in providing good quality education. Textbook. define the scope of the curriculum through selection of subject material, and influence the pedagogy and classroom behavior through structuring the sequence for inatruction and providing questions and exercises. Id developing countries, particularly where teachers are poorly educated and inadequately trained, textbooks are crucial in implementing what gets taught and how it is taught in school. grirical Evidence The positive effects of the availability of textbooks on learning outcomes in developing countries have been well documented. As early as 1978, a World Bank review of research found that "the availability of books was the most consistent factor in predicting academic achievement." This finding has been confirmed by subsequent researchs o Nicaraguan puy Is who were given textbooks scored about 1C% higher on a mathematic. test than the control group which did not have textbooks.2 o In the Philippines, first- and second-grade pupils were provided textbooks according to two different ratios: (i) one textbook per pupil, and (ii) one textbook for two pupils. A comparison group was drawn from pupils in the previous year when ten pupils shared one textbook. Both experimental groups scored about 10% higher than the control group on tests of science, mathematics and the Philippine national language.3 o In Brazil, second- and fourth-grade pupils who were given textbooks scored higher in tests of mathematics and Portuguese Beyneman, Farrell and Sepulveda-Stuardo, "Textbooks and Achievement in Developing Countriess What We Know," Journal of Curriculum Studies, 13 (3), 1978. 2 Jamison, Searle, Galda and Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psvcholoom, 73 (4), 1981. 3 Heyneman, Jamison and Montenegro, "Textbooks in the Philippines: Evaluation of the Pedagogical Impact of a Nationwide Investment," Educationa.l Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 6 (2), 1984. 1 than those who did not have textbooks.4 o In Fiji, the "Book Flood" experiment for teaching English as a second language stood out as an impressive example. In 1980, fourth- and fifth-grade teachers in eight rural schools were provided 250 high-interest and illustrated story books in English. Their students' performance in English reading and comprehension tests showed significant and sustained improvement.5 o An analysis of a Thai national sample of eighth-grade mathematics classrooms (99 teachers and 4,030 students) found that textbooks affected achievement by substituting for additional post-secondary mathematics education of teachers, and by delivering a more comprehensive curriculum.6 Iz sum, textbooks are the educational input most consistently associated with gains in student !earning. (Also see Table 1 for the 1985 survey of research by Fuller). 4 Armitage et. al. "School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil," EDT Discussion Paper, no. 25, (Washington, D.C.s World Bank, 1986). 5 Elley, "Research and Language Policy in Educational Development," Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference of the ZAFA, Blantrye, Malawi, June 13- 17, 1983. 6 Lockheed, Vail and Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement," EDT Discussion Paper, no. 53, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987). 2 Table l: Sommay of Remteh radis on TI Efects of Tedbmoo Ava0abfilit Sulm Achivement i Dedeoplg Coutri Country Achievement Bffoot Seotg Study Outcome Measured Uganda Comprehensive exam + Actual count Heynemn (Primary) aion (Secondary) + (1980) Egypt Science + Studentheacher Hoynman El Salvador + report & LOxIoy (1983) Paragvy + Bolivia + Mexico + P4ru 0 Ikr-'t Comprehensive exam + Student owns text Wolff (1970) Co v Aing & math o Inu. :-ding & science + Science texts Comber & Keeves (1973) Chile La 4o& math + Schlefelbela & Fanrell (1973) Nicaragua Math + Jamisonet al. (1981) Philippmes Science + Heyneman at . (1983) Indonesia Arts & science o Sembiring & Secondary) Comprehensive exam (1981) (Primary) Cheatanvanlsh (1976) Malaysia + Rural schools lston (1977) o Urban schools Ghana Reading c -preheasor. + Sma (1978) (Secondary) Malaysia LaZPage o Beebout (1972) Source: Fuller (1985). How Textbooks Facilitate Teaching and Learnina These results come as no surprise to those who are deeply involved in the education enterprise. When textbooks are available, there is no need to waste valuable time on copying text on and off the chalkboard, thus allowing teachers to use the time-on-task to engage students in active learning. Therefore, sufficient availability of textbooks enables teachers to pursue a much wider range of instructional activities, including assigning reading to develnp pupils' skill of learning on their own; engaging them in discussion; ansigning homework to solidify learning; and organizing group work to encourage participation. Furthermore, in many rural areas where multi-grade classes are the pre-dominant mode of schooling, the most effective way to meet the diverse learning needs of children of different ages is often to organize group activities around a variety of topics in the textbooks. From the perspective of pupils, textbooks are essential vehicles for the development of reading and writing skills, for catching up on what they do not understand in class, and, at times, for learning what have not been taught by their teachers. In other words, textbooks help pupils become independent learners. 3 From the perspective of parents, textbooks are concrete expression of the school curriculum. With the availability of textbooks, literate parents can monitor their children's academic progress much more effectively. Parental attention, in turn, often stimulates higher learning outcomes of children. 4 11. The Availability of Textbooks Although the importance of textbooks to the teaching and learning process has been widely recognized, shortage of textbooks persists in developing countries. Today, in many countries, the ratio is still below what is often taken to be the minimum standard of one textbook for two pupils: o In Northeast Brazil, 23% of all schools received only one first grade textbook before a World Bank-supported textbook project was launched in 1980.7 o In the Dominican Republic in the mid-1980s, fewer than 20% of eighth grade pupils in public schools had mathematics textbooks.8 o In Botswana in 1989, fewer than 20% of primary school students had access to science or social studies texts.9 o In Malawi iA 1988, fewer than 30% of primary pupils had textbooks.10 o In Guatemala, only 25% of pupils had textbooks in 1974; but since no books were produced for ten year., textbooks were virtually abjent 11 in classrooms. A z-ent review of surveys on the availability and quality of primary textbooks in reading/language arts, mathematics and science in 22 countries regarded as low-income economies13 found that, on average, one textbook was 7 Armitage et. al., "School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil." 8 Luna and Gonzales, "The Underdevelopment of Mathematics Achievement: Comparison 3f Public and Private Schools in the Dominican Republic." (Santiago: Centro De investigaciones UCMM, 1986). 9 Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, "Botswana Education and Human Resources Sector Assessment," (Washington, D.C.: 1984). 10 Mundangepfupfu, "School Qixr,ity and Efficiency in Malawi. Report of the Pilot of the Primary School Quality Survey," (Lilongwe: Ministry of Education and Culture, 1988). 11 World Bank data. 12 Paxman, Denning and Read, "Analysis of Research on Textbook Availability and Quality in Developing Countries," PHREE/89/20, (Washington, D.C.: 1989). 13 Low-income economies are those countries with a GNP per capita of US$545 or less in 1988. Lower middle-income economies had a GNP per capita of less than US$2,200, upper middle-income economies less than US$6,000, and high-income economies more than US$6,000. 5 available to three or four students. When urban/ruxal pug 1-to-book ratios were compared, the disparity was significant. In Nigeria, for example, three pupils shared two languap textbooks in the urban area, but fifty students shared one textbook in the rural area. In the case of mathematics textbooks, the pupil-to.-bcnks ratio was 2:1 in Nigerian cities, and 90:1 in the country side. (See Table 2). Many countries which have requirements for half a dozen or even a dozen textbooks per pupil provide books in only one or two subject areas, or in some grades but not in others. In Tanzania, for example, mathematics textbooks are available for grades 1, 2, 3, 6 and 7, but not for grades 4 and S. These discrepancies disrupt the curriculum and undermine the quality of education. 6 Table 2s SomnAy T~ef Tdxtbok Avana~nity D~dved fMum RØpoMla Couny - ¯ Grad"m Toal - ¯ nguag Math Sulene- Method of A2 7I:Bok Pul:ok &:Book :Book Suppfy & Yonir Rade Railo Reati Rat Bukina Faso 1-6 6:5 1:1 gban) - - Pasnt puha 5:4 (Krel) Ceotral 16 9:1 4:1 (Uban) Freestate African Rep. -e 1upply China 1-6 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 Fu state supply The Gambia 1-6 2:1 5:2 3:2 3:2 Fre state upply Ghana - 4:3(Urban) 4:3 2:1 (Rural) 2:1 Guinea 2:1 2:1 2-PrnhCo-o Agenøy eupply Madagascar - 5:2 (Rural) 5:2 - - Pre CO-o Malawi 1-8 7:4 2:1 2:1 - Fr st= 3:2 Oupply Morabique 1/3/5 2:1 5:3 3:1 5:3 Parent purbase Niger 14 3:1 3:1 - - Frme stats upply Pakistan 1-6 10:7 (Rural) 10:7 Very Very Fd state =Yw su mpply Rwanda 8:1 6:1 9:1 - Paent pu~hane 9:1 Sierra Leon 1-6 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 FreOstate (Grade 1) (Grade 1) (Grad 3) supply Tanzania 1-7 22:1 3:1 5:1 76:1 Frm, state Uganda 1-7 2:1 (Rural) 2:1 2:1 2:1 stato supply Zaire 1-6 3:1 (Rural) 3:1 - - School purchaze (Grades 3-6) Liberia 1-6 2:1 (Urban) 5:4 (Urban) 2:1 4:1 World Bank 10:1 (Rural) 1:5 (Rural) 8:1 22:1 project supply Nigeria 1-6 3:2 (Urban) 4:3 (Urban 2:1 - FrM. In north. 70:1 (Rural) 50:1 (Rural) 90:1 Parent Papua New Guinea 1-6 2:1 (Urban) 1:1 (Urban) 3:1 (rea -Pke ksto 3:1 (Rural) 2:1 (Rural) stata schoola Tunisia 1-8 1:1 (Urban) 1:1 1:1 1:1 Parent 1:1 (Urba ~ (Grad.s 3-4) pumehas Turkey 1-6 1:1 (Urban) 1:1 (Urban) 1:1 (Urban) Pantpunhase Source: Paxman, Denning & Read (1989). 7 1II. Public Expenditure on Education and Textbooks One of the principal causes of non-availability and poor quality of textbooks in many low- and lower middle-income countries is public budget constraints, which limit the capac..y of the Ministry of Education to publish and distribute textbooks. Falling real incomes constrain the capacity of parents to purchase them. This section will review some general trends of educational spending and examine how the education budget process affects investments in textbooks.14 General Trends of Educational Expenditure Developing countries typically invest less of their gross national product (GNP) in education and training than developed countries. The median public expenditures on education as a percentage of the GNP from 1965 to 1985 were about 3% for low-income countries and nearly 4% in middle-income countries, as compared with 6% for industrial countries; although the school- age population in low-income countr'.es is 75% larger. (See Figure 1.) The global economic crises in the 1970s and 1980s, which were caused by oil shocks, deteriorating terms of trade, rising demand for public services, and natural disasters that hit agriculture particularly hard, have severely affected developing countries' budgets and the availability of foreign aid. Many developing countries tried to sustain public expenditure levels through external borrowing, but were aventually forced to implement economic policy reforms and curtail public spending. The social sectors, including education, did not escape the effects of these adjustment policies. Averago trends in per-pupil expenditure varied considerably between countries at different income levels. R,aurrent education expenditures per primary pupil declined by 25% from $41 in 1975 to $31 in 1985. Ovel the same period, however, middle- and high-income nations stepped up spending levels. Between 1965 and 1985, per pupil expenditures increased from $73 to $102 in lower middle-income countries, from $194 to $297 in upper middle-income countries, and from $825 to $1,551 in high income countries. The education investment gap is widening between developed and developing countries. In 1965, industrial countries spent 14 times more on each primary pupil than did low-income countries; in 1985, they spent fifty times more. (See Figure 2). In low-income countries, recurrent per-pupil expenditures as a percentage 14 The discussion in this section is drawn from Lockheed and Verspoor, "Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options," Draft prepared for the World Conference on Education for All, Bangkok, March, 1990, (Washington, D.C.:World Bank, 1990); Schwartz and Stevenson, "Public Expenditure Reviews for Education: The Bank's Experience," PRE Working Paper, no. 510, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); "The Dividends of Learning," (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990a); and "Primary Education: A World Bank Policy Paper," (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990b). 8 of GNP per capita also fell from 20% in 1965 to under 12% in 1980. Over the same period, this indicator remained fairly stable in lower middle-income countries, rose from 10.6% to 12.5% in upper-middle income countries, and increased from 11.7% to 17.6% in high-income countries. (See Figure 3). Figure 1 Median Public Expenditures on Education as a Percentage of GNP, by Country Income Level, 1965-85 Percentage 7 6- 5 - 4- 3- 2 0 1965 1970 1976 1980 1986 Low Lower Middle 0 Upper Middle High Source: Lockheed & Verspoor (1990) 9 Figure 2 Median Public Recurrent Expenditures Per Primary Pupil by Country Income Level, 1965-85 1985 US$ 1600 1400k 1200k 1000- 800- 600- 400- 200 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Low Lower middle Zh Upper middle High Source: Lockheed & Verepoor (1990). 10 Figure 3 Median - %blic Recurrent Expenditures Per Pupil as a Percentage of GNP, by Country Income Level, 1965-85 US$ 25 20- 10 5 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Low Lower Middle 0 Upper Middle High Source: Lockheed & Verspoor (1990). 11 The Conpeauences of Public Budqet Constraints The impact of public expenditure reduction on educational spending has been exacerbated by two features of the educational expenditure. First, because education is a labor-intensive enterprise, the component of capital investment in the education budget is usually low, but that of recurrent spending is very high. Much of the recurrent spending goes for teachers' salaries, and, usually, only a small portion of the budget is allocated for the provision of books, educational supplies and teacher training. For example, in the 1980s, the median percentage of the education budget spent on teachers' salaries ranged from 95.3% for low-income countries, 91% for lower middle-income countries, to 76.1% for high-income countries. (See Table 3). Therefore, a reduction in spending means in education more than cutting the investment budget and postponing new construction; it immediately affects the day-to-day operation of the entire system. Table 3 Expenditures on Teacher Salaries in Relation to Government Recurrent Expenditures on Primary Education, in the 1980s Country Income Level Median Percentage Spent on Teachers' Salaries Low 95.3 Lower Middle 91.0 Upper Middle 87.9 High 76.1 Source: Lockheed & Verspoor (1990). Second, because of the rigidity in the structure of salaries, the initial cut in recurrent expenditure usually targets the non-salary recurrent expenditure for textbooks, instructional materials and in-service teacher training. (See Box 1.) The effects of public budget constraints on the availability of educational materials have been severe. The average central government expenditure for educational materials per student in 1985 was about 80 cents in low-income countries, $1.8 in lower middle-income countries, and $5.5 in upper middle-income countries, as compared with $52.4 in high-income countries. (See Table 4.) 12 BOX.. s The XupactofMute o84ain E stuy ok countries undertäking sti-4 turÄ ädutment in 1979-83 föund hat 8% f then educed edu6ational xpenditure, hile defense sending was the most protete budget b'n Centra frican Republic ta R aJa Kenya w1. a Maurlt.di pubic pending on dutn a etage f .NP deålned b 0.8% almost twice the edu n expe»riféco. by löver,middle in~òe countrieS n general. ountriee tyicli, kesponded :to the finanial· årisi b cutting expienditure on items east likely to aronse oppoi tionby their abaende, and "by :iing othe nominal reductioa of teachers' salaries and ëtrenc±ment of staff that can cause a politiålä upror tnstructional material, school supplle, and travel 1e4e the firät to be cut with advårse impact on teaching, superviäion, and* administration. In Zambia, for eamiple,. teachers' salaries continued to nrease from 81% of primary education expenditure in 1974 to 91% in 1983, an increase achieved at the expense of inetructional materials and administrative support. Over the same period, per primary pupil expenditure declined Iby 37% in real terme, as the expansion in enrollment was not matchecl by a proportionate i.ncrease in the tching service. 8ourcest Pinstrup-Anderson, .amarillo, & Stewart (1987); Auerhan st. al. (1985); and Lockheed D veropoor (1990). Table 4 Central Governwent Expenditures on Teaching Materiala Country Income Average Expenditure per Number of Level primary pupil (1985 S) Countries Low 0.8 18 Lower Hiddle 1.8 18 Upper Hiddle 5.5 15 High 52.4 9 Average is weighted by country-level primery student enrollments. Source: Lockheed & Verspoor (1990). 13 Finally, currency devaluations, which often form part of the adjustment package to curb inflation and stimulate exports, have had the effect of raising the prices of all imported educational supplies, including paper for textbooks and other educational materials. This certainly has affected a countryls capacity to provide textbooks for its children. Reductions in public expenditures thus severely affect the quality of education. Spreading resources more and more thinly has a high cost in terms of education effectiveness. Dropout and repetition from primary schools are so high in low-income countries that they have to pay for as many as nine years of education simply to produce one fifth-grade graduate. (See Table 5.) This inefficiency accounts for as much as 30% of the primary education budget in many countries, a huge percentage at any time but especially in times of austerity. Investments in textbooks and instructional materials can shorten the time for a pupil to progress through primary school, resulting in significant savings amounting in the case of Northeast Brazil to as much as four dollars for each dollar invested. (See Table 6.) Table 5t Cost in Years of Producing One Fifth Grade Graduate in Developing Countries Country Income Level 1975 1980 1984 Low 8.8 8.6 9.0 Lower middle 7.6 7.4 7.2 Upper middle 6.5 6.4 6.3 High 6.0 5.6 5.4 Source: UNESCO 14 Table 6s Benefit-cost Ratios for Selected Educational Investments in Brazil (fourth grade) * Dollars saved per dollar invested in: Rural Northeast Brazil Software (textbooks, school supplies) 4.03 Hardware (furniture, electricity, running water) 2.39 In-service teacher training by distance education 1.88 * The estimated cost of years saved valued at $30 per student year. Source: Lockheed & Verspoor (1990) To raise low and lower middle-income countries to the material input level of upper middle-income countries would require spending an additional four to five dollars per pupil, costing as much as one billion dollar a year in the next ten years. For low-income countries, this five-dollar increase would raise the primary education budget by 20% and the total education budget by 10%, a significant investment that few countries can afford without adjustment in national or sectoral budget priorities. For lower middle-income countries, this budget increase would be less dramatic, representing only a 4% increase in the primary education budget and a 2% increase in the total education budget. The severe impact of reduction in education expenditure on the quality of education in times of economic uncertainty thus warrants urgent attention. It is absolutely critical that resources be found to assist the low- and lower middle-income countries in establishing reasonable standards of quality in their education system. The World Conference on Education For All has resulted in an impressive recommitment of the international community to educational development. Ensuring the availability of textbooks is the obvious first step. The return on these investment is very high especially in the poorest countries. 15 IV. World Bank Leading for Textbook Provision Today, financing for textbook provision is central to the World Bank's lending for education. In the 1960s and early 1970s, however, the contribution of textbooks and educational materials to education was not fully appreciated, with the result that support for these inputs was rarely integrated to broader programs for improving instructional quality. The provision of textbooks was often an isolated, unsupported input. With the gradual realization of the importance of textbooks in educational quality, the Bank has paid increasing attention in its lending to the provision of textbooks. At present, textbooks are almost always provided in conjunction with other elements of educati-nal change such as curriculum modification, teacher training, and development of institutional capacity to provide textbooks. From FY63 to FY90, the World Bank financed a total of 396 educational projects, of which 124 projects had textbook components. These ranged from textbook feasibility studies, buildings textbook offices, technical assistance, and the production of supplementary educational materials to the preparation, provision, and distribution of textbooks. The proportion of textbook projects in Bank lending has been increasing steadily, from less than 10% before 1978 to 32% in FY79-83. In FY84-44, 52% of the education projects included a textbook component. In FY89-90, 71% of the projects of that fiscal year had textbook components. (See Tables 7 and 8.) Table 7: Distribution of Textbook Components in Education Projects by Fiscal Year Fiscal Year No. of Projects Projects with Textbook Components No. % Before 74 89 5 6 74-78 85 14 16 79-83 90 29 32 84-88 91 47 52 89-90 41 29 71 Total 396 124 31 .urcet World Bank data. 16 Table 8s Distribution of Textbook Components in Education Projects, by Region, PY63-90 Region Total Projects Projects with Textbook Component. No. % Africa 139 48 35 Asia 108 43 40 EMENA 81 14 17 LAC 68 19 28 Total 396 124 31 Source: World Bank data. Nonetheless, with the exception of three textbook projects in the Philippines and Indonesia, textbook components have been only one ame several in Bank educational projects. Textbook components accounted for . a than 10% of the project cost in half of the projects, and between 10% and 40% in the other half. Almost all textbook components represent less than 25% of project costs. The Bank's broad support for textbook projects has generally improved the situation of textbook availability. More recent textbook projects have tended to look not only at book authorship, publication, and production but also at distribution, affordability and system maintenance, with the aim of developing sustainable systems. 17 V. The Quality of Textbooks Besides availability, an equally important problem that has long been neglected but requires urgent attention is the quality of textbooks, in terms of both content and pedagogy, as well as production standards. The review of surveys on textbook availability and qualityl5 has found that many textbooks in developing countries are full of factual and grammatical inaccuracies. They are poorly illustrated, and the text language is often too difficult for children of the targeted age-group. A recent Bank-commissioned study examined mathematics and reading/language books for pupils for grades one, three, and five in fifteen developing countries with the objective of identifying the cognitive skills taught at each grade level.16 Using refined versions of Dossey's (1988) levels of mathematics proficiency and Chall*s (1983) reading stages to identify the skills and their developmental order, the study has the following conclusions "The results of the analysis of mathematics textbooks revealed that "number skills" were emphasized apparently at the cost of other mathematics skills (measurement, pictorial representation, shape, and money) and this was particularly marked in grade 1 textbooks which also neglected early work in mathematics. In general, the mathematics books required pupils to undertake work which was above expectations for the grade....The analysis of the reading/language arts books revealed some unrealistically high expectations of the level of work pupils were able to tackle, particuiarly in view of the paucity of "pre-reading" activities and of the later "immersion in books" in developing countries. The grade 1 textbooks used in lower middle-income countries emphasized pre-reading skills more than the other countries...."17 In short, poorly prepared pupils taught by poorly trained teachers are confronted with textbooks that are often more difficult than those used in economically more endowed countries. This often results in failure and frustration from which many never recover. - addition, textbooks in developing countries have a wide variety of phys A production standards, from very poor ones in Pakistan and Turkey to very high ones in Sierra Leone after !iplementation of a World Bank-supported textbook project. In the former cases, textbooks do not last for one school 15 Paxman, Denning and Read, "Analysis of Research on Textbook Availability and Quality in Developing Countries." 16 Cope, Denning and Ribeiro, "Content Analysis of Reading and Mathematics Textbooks in Fifteen Developing Countries." processed. (London: Book Development Council, 1989). 17Ibid, p. i. 18 Paxman, Denning and Read, "Analysis of Research on Textbook Availability and Quality in Developing Countries." 18 year, and parents have to buy them several times during a year, or pupils have to go without them. Furthermore, the quality of editorial, design, and layout also exhibits a great variation, ranging from black-and-white textbooks prepared by untrained and inexperienced units to four-colored professionally designed textbooks published by commercial publishers. Experience suggests that poor physically quality are not attractive to children, and that poor sequencing of material and inappropriate levels of difficulty discourage learning. In sum, the mere emphasis on provision can no longer be sufficient, and investments will be necessary to enhance the effectiveness of textbooks. The quality of a textbook will be determined first and foremost by its content and pedagogy. For textbooks to make an impact on teaching and learning, urgent attention must be paid to the sequencing of material, introduction of progressively complex cognitive skills, and improvement of readability of texts. No less important is the need to ensure the minimum physical production standards. There is a range of options in textbook design affecting the choices for the quality of cover, paper, and the number of colors. Provided a country selects a strategy that fits its particular socio- economic and educational situation, it is possible for all countries to provide basic textbooks to their children. (See Boxes 2 and 3). 19 Box 21 Textbook Provisions Mexico, Lesotho, and Brasil There are cases of successful provision of textbooks. The Nexican government, which viewed education as an investment rather than an expense, nationalised the publication of textbooks for primary schools in 19$9. Since then, it has been providing free textbooks for primary achools. Distributed through a system of railroads, trucks, and even mules, textbooks have been made available to remote rural areas. in terms of oost, the production and distribution of free primary school textbooks in 1980 accounted for less than 0.5% of the total budget for education, a .elat,i4aly insignificant investment that has yielded significant learning outcomes. Today, most of the textbooks are well illustrated and in.four colors, although they are printed on newsprint and are dasigned to last for only a year. Nexico's free textbook program has been considered "a unique accomplishment for a developing country with limited resources." . The textbook project in Lesotho is another example of how textbooks can be made available with the support of external donors and using a revolving fund. In 1987, it was estimated that about 70%-of the primary students in Lesotho could not afford to buy textbooks. Supported by USAID and World ank funds, the textbook project was set up to provide for.the p4tchase and distribution of textbooks and workbooks in.core subjects to all prUnay school children. A revolving fund was established for pupils to rent their books and pay only a fraction of the full .cost of buying them. Pupils from very poor families could apply for exemption from book rental fees. The revolving fund has been used to provide for the replacement of books after the credit period has expired. This financing method, among other institutional building and distributional arrangements, enabled the objective of providing tetbooks in core subjects to be met. The World Bank-aesisted project in. Northeast Brasil, the poorest region An the country, is another success story. In 1980, targeted schools were provided a package of inputs, including software (te, writing materiale, and school aUPPles), hardware (furniture, new or repaired facilities, electricity, and running water), and teacher trainin. Evaluations show that iVestments in these cost-ef fect.ve input. boo t student learning, and Reduce etition and dropout. An investment of $1 to textbooks and writingmaterials shortens the average length of time for a htudent to progress ftom& Whe second-.rade to the fourth by almost.two months, thereby reducing the total costs of producing a fourth grade student. Savings from investments in software are four times the original cost of the investment, those from investments in hardware are .39 times, and those from investments in distance in-Rervice teacher training are , O88 times. Spending $5 per pupil ($1.5 on textbooke, $1.5 on writing materials, and another $2 for teacher training) could result in 27% tmprovement over the average achievement score of pupils not provded these inputs. Sources Farrell & Neyneman (eds.) 1989; and Lockheed & Verspoor (1990) 20 Box 3: Coéts of Textbook Proviin Tectbook provision is within the affordable rånq for olany low-incoie c)untrie. This is illustratéd by. recent projéølts in two.widoly disparate countrieø (ne, a U.-ge Country in sub-Saharan Africa, the seondý a ømall Pacifia island country): Aiverage Country Quantity Pupil:Book Cost Per User Ratio Per Year (US$) Tanzania 11,190,000 3:1 0.11 Varuatu 130-000 2:1 0.32 secondary Tanzania 480,000 2:1 0.83 Vanuati 49,000 :1 0.79 Source: Cost estimateo in World Dank Education Project Appraisal Reports.~ 21 VI. Using Textbooks to Improve Educational Quality Framework for Publishina for Developing Countries No country can escape the need to ensurs the availability of an adequate supply of textbooks. In publishing for the developing world, it is imperative to take into consideration the levels of educational development of a countr What is appropriate content in one country may not be so in another country. There is a range of options that every country must consider. More than 20 years ago, Beeby conceptualized educational development as a four-staged growth process, moving from pre-professional to formal, transitional and professional phases.20 His model can be linked it with Hall's notion of in-service teacher training that proceeds from non-use, mechanical use, routine use to refinement and integration of instructional materials.21 These two models can be quite useful in providing the framework for developing appropriate textbooks for developing countries. In the application, three principles are of critical importance: o In educational development, the teacher is both the critical resource and a major constraint; to help the teacher's professional development is the key to success. o Educational development is a cumulative process; progression from one phase to the next depends on the teacher's mastery of the subject area and instructional techniques in the previous stage. o Improvement is determined by the extent to which the teacher uses the innovations effectively, which will be greatly helped through a comprehensive package including textbooks, writing materials, in- service training, and professional support. The pre-professional stage (or Dame School in Beeby's words) is often characteristic of the most deprived schools in low-income countries. Teachers are poorly educated, untrained, and unmotivated, with questionable mastery of the subject content. The curriculum has narrow subject content, and is unfamiliar to teachers. Drop-out in early grades is high. Often, only one textbook is available per class; other instructional 19 The discussion in this section is drawn heavily from Adriaan Verspoor, "Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education," in Heyneman and Farrell (eds.), Textbooks in the Developing World, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989). 20 Beeby, "The Quality of Education in Developing Countries," (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1966); Beeby, "The Stages of Growth in Educational Systems," In Heyneman and White (eds.) The Quality of Education and Economic Development, (Washington, D.C.t World Bank, 1986). 21 Hall, "Concern-based In-service Teacher Training: An Overview of the Concepts, Research and Practice." (Paper presented at the Conference on School-focussed In-service Training, Bournemouth, U.K., March 2-3, 1978.) 22 materials are absent. Teaching techniques include recitation and copying the texts on and off the blackboard; the emphasis is on rote memorization. Supervision is sporadic, and support is rare. Teachers are unaware of alternative methods of instruction. The per-pupil expenditure for textbooks and materials is often one dollar or less per year. To introduce change in this stage entails strengthening supervision and support; bringing order to the school; providing highly structured teacher's guides, textbooks, and basic instructional materials; training teachers in the subject matter and a few basic teaching techniques; and helping them see the possibility of improvement. In the stage of formalism, teachers have basic general education, but little professional training. They have moderat.,.y mastered the subject matter, and have incidental contact with colleagues through in-service training. They are also a little more interested in professional improvement, but can be easily discouraged. The curriculum is highly structured, emphasizing the three R*a. Standards are imposed by examinations. Repetition is accepted as a means to maintain uniformity. Textbooks are used in a mechanical fashion. A total of one or two textbooks (most of them in core subjects) are available for every pupil in core subjects. However, other instructional materials are minimal, and expenditure for textbooks and materials is often two dollara or less per pupil per year. Teaching emphasizes memorization and adheres closely to syllabi and curriculum sequences. Instructional techniques are rigid and uninspiring. Supervision is occasional and stresses compliance with rules and procedures. In-service training is available only infrequently, focusing on dissemination of structured programs and standardized application of curricula and materials. Teachers are uncertain about innovations, and partially adapt them according to their personal and professional capacity and motivation. In this stage, innovations should aim at broadening the curriculum; increasing the availability of textbooks; providing teachers' guides and textbooks to set standards; providing performance feedback through tests and examinations; and increasing competence of teachers through training, supervision, and school-level support. In the stage of transition, teachers have adequate general education and training, and have mastered the subject matter. They also have occasional contact with colleagues, and are interested in improving student performance. Curricular goals are broader, but syllabi are still heavily dominated by examination. Little attention is paid to the emotional and creative development of children. The use of textbooks has become routine. Textbooks and instructional materials are available, and selective use of them begins to occur. The per-pupil expenditure on textbooks and materials is about five dollars per year. The school may also have a small library. While memorization still plays an important role, there are attempts to introduce prof-lem-solving strategies. Medium-term planning helps teachers use textbooks and materials in a more goal-oriented way. Some tracking of students may occur. Supervision becomes more frequent and is less oriented towards compliance. In-service training is also more frequent, emphasizing the application of teaching. While teachers are skeptical about immediate 23 effects, they are willing and able to make honest efforts to adapt innovations for the ease of classroom management and standardized application. Under this condition, improvement programs should focus teaching more on understanding, introduce some diversity and flexibility in the curriculum, pay some attention to emotional/creative development, and promote professional exchange between teachers. In the stage of full professionalism, teachers are well educated and well trained. They have good subject mastery and frequent contacts with colleagues, and are interested in improving student performance. Meaning and understanding are emphasized in a wider curriculum. Allowance is made for variation in content and methods. Considerable attention is paid to pupils' emotional and creative development. Textbooks are fully integrated in this teaching of "meaning and understanding." Textbooks are broadly available, with supplementary reading materials and reference books. The per-pupil expenditure on textbooks and materials is likely to range from over fifty to one hundred dollars. The school library is well-stocked. A variety of instructional materials is used to develop habits of learning, and the ability to investigate new ideas. Longer-term instructional planning allows teachers to adapt materials and curriculum sequence to student needs. Individualized and multi-group instructions are possible. The school principal becomes a source of pedagogical support, and external assistance is available as needed. Training emphasizes the development of professional skills, allowing teachers to select appropriate instructional approaches in each situation. Teachers are willing to try alternative strategies, and confident in their own ability to meet the needs of particular groups of students. At this stage, it is possible to make innovation a permanent feature of the system. (See Table 9.) 24 Table 9: Stages of Improvement in Educational Quality Teaching Supervisioal Response to Possible Teachers Curriculum Textbooks Techniques support losovation Change Pre-prfassional Poorly educated, Narrow content, One textbook per Recitation and Sporadic super- Ignorant of lino- Provision o untraied & un- with emphasis on class used by role learning. vision; emphasis vation. textbooks motivated, with 3 Re; low stan- teacher; near on control; ab- teachers guid questionable dards & high total absence of sence of support. in - serv mastery of con- wastage. instructional training in sub- tent. materials. Less ject matter & than $1 per pupil basic techniques. per year. Formalsm Lower secondary Highly structured I or 2 textbooka Rote memoriza- Occasional super- Uncertain about Broaden cur education with & exam-oriented; per pupil in core tion; rigid use vision; emphasis how to apply riculum; increa- little training, & high repetition. subjects. $2 per of single techni- on compliance; innovation, subject maste moderate subject pupil per year. que. infrequent in-ser- use texibooks mastery. vice training. guides to . standards. Transidon Secondar y Broader curri- Several textbooks Beginnina to use More frequent Willing to try Focus on under- education, with cular goals. for every pupil. the approach of supervision & in- now methods. standing; diver- adequate subject $5 per pupil per learning-by- service training. sify curriculum; mastery, & oc- year. doing. promote profea- casio nat sional exchange. profes sional contact. Professioanal Well-educated, Emphasis on Broad availability Inquiry approach. Principal is a Focus on student Innovation be well-trained, & meaning & of textbooks & source of needs. comes perma- motivated. understanding; materials. More support. Regular nent. attention to than $50 per in-service train- emotions & pupil per year. ing is provided. creativity. Source: Verspoor in Farrell & Heyneman (1989). 25 Conclusions and Recommendations A general lesson that can be drawn from the above discussion is that in designing a textbook project for a particular phase of development of the educational system, it is important to take into consideration the resource availability, curriculum requirements, the levels of teacher professionalism, the degrees of supervision and support, and the availability and utilization of textbooks and other instructional materials. These ambitious innovations can be introduced only gradually and over an increasingly large area at appropriate times. For textbook projects trying to support programs that aim at moving an education system from the pre-professional stage to the mechanical stage, supplying textbooks to all schools using an existing curriculum content would often be appropriate. Since poorly educated teachers depend heavily on textbooks for guidance, serious attention need to be paid to the academic and pedagogical quality of the textbook, to ensure factual and grammatical accuracy, to ease in progressively complex concepts, as well as to pitch the levels of difficulty and readability at the right level for the targeted age- groups. Attention should also be paid to the editorial and design quality to make textbooks attractive to both teachers and students. Once minimum teacher training, basic instructional materials, and basic disciplines and supervision structures have been in place, some diversity in instructional techniques can be introduced. Textbooks and teachers' guides are the essential instruments to help teachers overcome their uncertainty and become more confident in their subject mastery and classroom management. When the teachers have gained sufficiently in subject mastery and self confidence, they can be given more latitude to adapt the syllabi to accommodate the diverse needs of pupils. At this stage, there is a growing demand for more diversified instructional materials and textbooks. To move from the routine stage to that of full professionalism, the curriculum objectives will increasingly emphasize self-directed inquiry. As instruction becomes individualized, a large supply of textbooks and reference materials are required to accommodate the variety of learning needs and instructional approaches. In conclusion, textbooks have an important contribution to make to the improvement of instructional quality in all stages of educational development. 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