ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 1. The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are technical reference documents with general and industry-specific examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). 1 When one or more members of the World Bank Group are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as required by their respective policies and standards. These industry sector EHS Guidelines are designed to be used together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at www.ifc.org/ehsguidelines. 2. The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are generally considered to be achievable in plantations by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application of the EHS Guidelines to existing farming and forestry systems may involve the establishment of site-specific targets, with an appropriate timetable for achieving them. 3. The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks established for each project on the basis of the results of an environmental assessment in which site-specific variables— such as host country context, assimilative capacity of the environment, and other project factors—are taken into account. The applicability of specific technical recommendations should be based on the professional opinion of qualified and experienced persons. 4. When host country regulations differ from the levels and measures presented in the EHS Guidelines, projects are expected to achieve whichever is more stringent. If less stringent levels or measures than those provided in these EHS Guidelines are appropriate, in view of specific project circumstances, a full and detailed justification for any proposed alternatives is needed as part of the site-specific environmental assessment. This justification should demonstrate that the choice for any alternate performance levels is protective of human health and the environment. APPLICABILITY 5. This document includes information relevant to large-scale plantation crops and outgrower systems and focuses on the primary production and harvesting through farming and plantation forestry of major multi-year food, fiber, energy, ornamental, and pharmaceutical crops, located in both temperate and tropical regions. It includes tree crops (such as olives, citrus, coffee, rubber, eucalypts, and cacao) as well as banana, sugarcane, and palm oil. It does not include the processing of raw materials into semi-finished and 1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence, and foresight that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative capacity, as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility. 1 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 finished products. Annual crop production is addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Annual Crop Production. Annex A contains a description of industry activities for this sector. This document is organized in the following manner: 1. Industry-Specific Impacts and Management ............................................................................. 2 1.1 Environmental .......................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Occupational Health and Safety ............................................................................................ 16 1.3 Community Health and Safety ............................................................................................... 20 2. Performance Indicators Monitoring ......................................................................................... 21 2.1 Environment........................................................................................................................... 21 2.2 Occupational Health and Safety ............................................................................................ 24 3. References ................................................................................................................................. 25 Annex A. General Description of Industry Activities ................................................................... 31 Annex B. Water Consumption ........................................................................................................ 35 1. INDUSTRY-SPECIFIC IMPACTS AND MANAGEMENT 6. The following section provides a summary of EHS issues associated with plantation crop production, along with recommendations for their management. Additional guidance on EHS issues that may be common across industry sectors is presented in the General EHS Guidelines. 7. Farm or forest management plans often serve as an underlying framework for the management of environmental and social risks and impacts for perennial crop production. A farm or forest management plan would normally cover, among other things, the risks and issues presented in this document. 1.1 Environmental 8. Environmental issues in plantation crop production primarily include the following: • Soil Conservation and Management • Nutrient Management • Crop Residue and Solid Waste Management • Water Management • Pest Management • Use and Management of Pesticides • Fertilizers • Biodiversity and Ecosystems • Genetically Modified Crops (GM Crops) • Energy Use • Air Quality • Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions 2 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 1.1.1 Soil Conservation and Management 9. Physical and chemical degradation of soils may result from unsuitable management techniques, such as use of inappropriate machinery or earthworks associated with plantation preparation and infrastructure development. Chemical degradation of soil may result from insufficient or inappropriate use of mineral fertilizers, failure to recycle nutrients contained in crop residues, and failure to correct changes in soil pH that result from long-term use of nitrogen fertilizers and excessive use of poor-quality water, resulting in salinization. 10. Soil erosion may result from poor crop canopy closure after land preparation and lack of soil conservation structures on sloping land planted with perennial crops. 2 Soil loss prevention practices include appropriate use of the following techniques: • Practice reduced and zero tillage (often known as “low till” or “no till”), as well as direct seeding and planting, to minimize damage to soil structure, conserve soil organic matter, and reduce soil erosion. • Minimize soil compaction, damage, or disturbance by using appropriate land preparation machinery at the right time of year. • Use cover crops, 3 intercropping along contours with legumes 4 to create multi-species shelterbelts, and/or windbreaks to reduce evapotranspiration and soil loss through wind and water erosion. • Replenish soil organic matter by recycling crop residues, compost, and manures. • Implement earthworks when weather conditions pose the lowest risk of causing environmental damage. • Employ erosion control management practices (e.g., contour and strip planting, terracing, discontinuous trenching, intercropping with trees, and grass barriers) in sloping areas. • Draw up mitigation plans for planting or harvest operations that must take place during unsuitable periods. • Use flow control weirs and diversion canals to reduce erosion in areas with field drainage. • Restrict the width of roads to the minimum that will provide the means for efficient and safe transport. 11. The following approaches are recommended to maintain soil productivity over the long term: • Cultivate crops that are suited or adapted to the local climate and soil conditions and adopt good agronomic practices 5 to optimize crop productivity. 2 Fred R. Weber and Marilyn W. Hoskins, “Soil Conservation Technical Sheets,” (Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho 1983). 3 For example: Crotalaria, Canavalia, Mucuna, or Tephrosia. 4 For example: such as Cajanus, Sesbania, Lupinus, or Tritolium. 5 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Good Agricultural Practices Principles (2007). Among others, good practices include those that select cultivars and varieties on an understanding of their characteristics, including response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability and nutritional value, disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals; maximize the biological 3 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Collect meteorological data on precipitation, evapotranspiration, temperature, sunlight, and use information to inform and guide agronomic and silviculture management techniques. • Use soil maps and soil survey results to determine crop suitability and appropriate soil management practices. • Develop and implement a soil monitoring and management plan that includes soil and terrain mapping and erosion risk identification. • Conduct regular surveys to monitor soil structure and chemistry in order to identify areas where remedial action is required. • Recycle and/or incorporate organic materials (e.g., crop residues, compost, and manures) to replenish soil organic matter and improve soil water-holding capacity. • Minimize the use of pesticides by implementing a pest and disease early warning system, by using biological pest and disease control methods, and by implementing control measures before outbreaks require large-scale control. 1.1.2 Nutrient Management 12. Nutrient management strategies 6 should aim to maintain and/or improve soil fertility and optimize crop yield while minimizing off-site environmental impact (e.g., contamination of groundwater resources and eutrophication of surface water resources from surface runoff and leaching of nutrients). Consider the following practices: • Use green manures, cover crops, or mulching techniques to maintain soil cover, reduce the loss of nutrients, replenish soil organic matter, and capture and/or conserve moisture. • Incorporate nitrogen-fixing legume crop plants and cover crops in the cropping cycle. • Draw up balanced fertilizer programs for each soil management unit based on fertility results, soil and leaf analysis, and crop assessment. • Assess EHS risks associated with the nutrient management plan and mitigating strategies to minimize potential adverse EHS impacts. • Time the application of crop nutrients to maximize uptake and minimize nutrient runoff. • Assess soil pH periodically and apply soil amendments (e.g., agricultural lime) to correct changes in soil pH as required to ensure that nutrients are available for plant uptake. • Conduct periodic soil analysis to detect changes in soil fertility, inform decisions on fertilizer application rates, and avoid unsustainable nutrient depletion and over-fertilization. • Establish and respect setbacks from watercourses—including appropriate buffer zones, strips, or other “no-treatment” areas along water sources, rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, and ditches— to act as a filter for potential nutrient runoff from the land. benefits of weed control by competition, by mechanical, biological and herbicide options, by provision of non-host crops to minimize disease; apply fertilizers—organic and inorganic—in a balanced fashion, with appropriate methods and equipment and at adequate intervals to replace nutrients extracted by harvest or lost during production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by recycling crop and other organic residues. 6 Roy et al., Plant Nutrition for Food Security, A Guide for Integrated Nutrient Management, (FAO, 2006) and www.nutrientstewardship.com. 4 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Select and maintain fertilizer application equipment to ensure desired application rates are used and overbroadcasting of solid fertilizers as well as overspraying of liquid fertilizers are minimized. • Implement nutrient planning and documentation, which includes the use of a fertilizer logbook to record the following information: o Dates of purchase, dates of use, amount of fertilizer and nutrient used (kg/ha), purpose of use, and crop growth stage. o Weather conditions before, during, and after application. o Methods used to minimize nutrient loss (e.g., incorporation into the soil, split applications, irrigation after application). • Provide farm operators with training in nutrient management following published principles and agricultural practice manuals. 7 • Ensure that all personnel are trained in and use appropriate management procedures for the storage, handling, and application of all types of fertilizers, including organic wastes. • Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should be used according to the Safety Data Sheets (SDS) of the product or to a risk assessment of the fertilizer product. SDS should be available at each management unit. 1.1.3 Crop Residue and Solid Waste Management 13. In all plantation systems, residues can be recycled beneficially to improve soil organic matter and soil structure, as well as to reduce soil loss. In addition to annual or intermittent residues, many plantation crops also result in major residues at the end of their commercial life. These residues are valuable sources of organic matter and carbon and can lead to the extended release of nutrients during the development (growth) phase of the next crop cycle. Prevention and control strategies for potential risks and impacts include the following: • Develop and implement a residue management plan in combination with results from nutrient management research and planning. • Recycle residues and other organic materials by leaving the materials on site or through composting (and spreading). • Consider the potential for harboring and spreading pests and diseases before implementing this practice. • Disperse (or mulch) large vegetative structures (e.g., trunks, branches), unless there are compelling habitat and biodiversity benefits identified in the Biodiversity Management Plan. • Consider using crop residues for other beneficial purposes—such as animal feed, bedding, or thatching—when leaving residues in the field is neither practical nor appropriate. • In cases where crop residues are in excess of those needed for nutrient management, consider using as a thermal energy source for agriculture processing or for the generation of heat and/or power. Relatively high atmospheric emissions (such as of particulate matter and carbon 7FAO, Guidelines and Reference Material on Integrated Soil and Nutrient Management and Conservation for Farmer Field Schools (Rome: FAO, 2000) http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/230157/misc27.pdf. 5 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 monoxide (CO)) are possible when using crop residues for thermal combustion; their handling, storage, and processing may present risks of fire, such as from spontaneous combustion of improperly stored damp residues or explosion of combustible dust. Strategies to prevent and control risks and impacts include: o In the planning phase, obtain physical and chemical data on the fuel and implement advice from a qualified specialist. o Undertake tests with the “new” residual biomass fuel prior to introducing it, and demonstrate that expert advice and feedback have been followed. o Adopt management practices in line with General EHS Guidelines in managing risks for fire and explosion. • Avoid using harmful residual chemicals at end of crop life when preparing for removal. 14. Non-crop wastes from the production systems (e.g., pesticide containers, waste pesticides, and packaging) often have the potential to contribute to adverse health, safety, or environmental impacts. Considerations for the prevention and control of potential impacts from these wastes include: • Ensure all packaging for pesticides and herbicides is returned to the farm or forest after use and properly stored until final disposal. • Do not burn packaging, plastics, or other solid waste. Dispose of this waste in designated waste disposal facilities or by recycling. Manage solid waste in accordance with the General EHS Guidelines. • Consider large container and/or bulk systems for fuels, oils, fertilizers, and chemicals to reduce the volume of waste containers. • Examine alternative product formulations and packaging (e.g., biodegradable material). • Manage expired and unwanted pesticides as hazardous wastes in accordance with the General EHS Guidelines and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Guidelines for the Management of Small Quantities of Unwanted and Obsolete Pesticides. 8,9 1.1.4 Water Management 15. Water management for plantation crop production should aim to conserve the quantity and quality of water resources while optimizing crop yield. Surface or groundwater resources used for irrigation should be managed in accordance with the principles of Integrated Resource Water Management, 10 consistent with the following recommendations: • Determine rain or water irrigation requirements of the crop, based on internationally recognized guidelines, while recognizing seasonal variations and regional norms. When irrigation is 8 FAO, Guidelines for the Management of Small Quantities of Unwanted and Obsolete Pesticides (Rome: UNEP, WHO, and FAO, 1999) http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/obsolete_pesticides/docs/small_qties.pdf. 9 In the event that disposal of pesticides involves overseas shipments, the project must ensure compliance with the country’s commitments under the Stockholm, Rotterdam, and Basel Conventions. 10 Global Water Partnership. 6 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 practiced, develop an appropriate irrigation plan and schedule, and monitor consumption and compare regularly with these targets. • Maintain soil structure and soil organic matter. Use of crop residues and mulches will assist in maintaining soil organic matter levels, retaining soil humidity, and reducing surface evaporation. • Maximize the retention of rainwater through appropriate “rain harvesting” techniques, which may include: o Diverting water flow from roads and paths toward crops, thus storing water in the soil and reducing the effect of short dry spells. o Storing runoff from rainy periods for use during dry spells by using tanks, ponds, cisterns, and earth dams. o Controlling weeds through the use of cover crops, mulching, or herbicides to encourage beneficial but low-water-use soil cover plants. o Maintain protective vegetation in canals and drainage systems to reduce canal bank scouring and slow runoff. • When irrigation is used, implement irrigation water conservation techniques, such as: o Ensure regular maintenance of the irrigation system, as well as that of its associated channels and infrastructure. o Maintain a water management logbook that records the time and quantity of rainfall evaporation, as well as the amount of irrigation applied and soil moisture levels (%), in order to verify both that irrigation is being used according to crop need and to develop an understanding of long-term trends in water use. o Reduce evaporation by avoiding irrigation during periods when evaporation is elevated (e.g., in periods of higher temperatures, reduced humidity, or high winds). Use trickle or drip irrigation techniques (if practical), or install “under canopy” rather than overhead sprinklers. o Reduce evapotranspiration by using shelterbelts and windbreaks. o Reduce seepage losses in supply channels by lining them or using closed pipes. o Consider collecting storm water through catchments. o Employ a cutback furrow irrigation technique, slowing or stopping irrigation water well before the water reaches the end of the furrow and discharges to the environment. o If herbicides are used, ensure they are applied at the appropriate time of year to most effectively control undesirable vegetation and reduce its water consumption. • The following measures are recommended to prevent and control the contamination of water sources: o Avoid over-irrigation, which may result in the leaching of nutrients and contaminants. o Ensure appropriate soil moisture by active monitoring of soil humidity. o Use harvesting methods or other appropriate measures to minimize the amount of debris deposited in streams. o Establish and respect setbacks and buffer zones in riparian areas. Buffer widths should be based on the specific risk, land management regime, and slope of the area. 7 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 o Remove harvest debris from streams and consider the use of debris traps, such as trash lines, where possible. 16. Sediments may become a significant pollutant due to their physical and chemical properties. Suspended sediments in surface water carry pollutants such as pesticides, nutrients, and trace metals, affecting water quality. Sediment loading reduces storage and flow capacities of streams, lakes, and reservoirs; may adversely affect water supplies; and increases the risk of flooding. Soil loss prevention practices are presented in the "Soil Conservation and Management" section. 1.1.5 Pest Management 17. The primary aim of pest management should not be to eradicate all organisms, but to manage “pests,” including insect pests, diseases, and weeds that may negatively affect plantation crops so that they remain at levels beneath an economically and environmentally damaging threshold. Pests should be managed through a process of integrated pest management (IPM) 11 that combines chemical and non-chemical approaches to minimize pest impact, while also minimizing the impact of such measures on the environment. Pesticides should be used only to the extent necessary under an IPM and integrated vector management (IVM) approach, and only after other pest management practices have either failed or proven inefficient. The following steps should be considered and documented in an integrated pest/vector management plan: • Identify the main pests affecting crops in the region, assess the risks to the operation, and determine whether a strategy and capacity is in place. • Where possible, apply early-warning mechanisms for pests and diseases (i.e., pest and disease forecasting techniques). • Select resistant varieties and use the cultural and biological control of pests, diseases, and weeds to minimize dependence on pesticide (chemical) control options. An effective IPM regime should: o Identify and assess pests, threshold levels, and control options (including those listed below), as well as risks associated with these control options. o Rotate crops to reduce the presence of insects, disease, or weeds in the soil or crop ecosystems. o Support beneficial bio-control organisms—such as insects, birds, mites, and microbial agents—to perform biological control of pests (e.g., by providing a favorable habitat, such as bushes for nesting sites and other original vegetation that can house pest predators and parasites). o Favor manual, mechanical weed control and/or selective weeding. o Use animals to graze areas and manage plant coverage. 11 IPM refers to a mix of farmer-driven, ecologically based pest control practices that seeks to reduce reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides. It involves: (a) managing pests (keeping them below economically damaging levels) rather than seeking to eradicate them; (b) relying, to the extent possible, on nonchemical measures to keep pest populations low; and (c) selecting and applying pesticides, when they have to be used, in a way that minimizes adverse effects on beneficial organisms, humans, and the environment. 8 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 o Employ mechanical controls—such as traps, barriers, light, and sound—to kill, relocate, or repel pests. o Use pesticides to complement these approaches, not replace them. o Prior to procuring any pesticide, assess the nature and degree of associated risks and effectiveness, taking into account the proposed use and the intended users. 1.1.6 Pesticides Use and Management 18. Where pesticide use is warranted, in order to prevent, reduce, or control the potential contamination of soils, groundwater, or surface water resources caused by accidental spills during transfer, mixing, storage, and application, pesticides should be stored, handled, and applied in a manner consistent with the recommendations for hazardous materials management presented in the General EHS Guidelines. 19. A pesticide management plan (PMP) that includes procedures for the selection, procurement, storage, handling, and ultimate destruction of all out-of-date stocks should be prepared in accordance with FAO guidelines and should be consistent with country commitments under the Stockholm, 12 Rotterdam, 13 and Basel 14 Conventions. The PMP prescribes the type of pesticides to be used, as well as the purpose of their use, and outlines best practice for the procurement and storage of all pesticides. Personnel must have appropriate training—including certification, where relevant—to handle and apply pesticides safely. In particular: • Ensure that any pesticides used are manufactured, formulated, packaged, labeled, handled, stored, disposed of, and applied according to the FAO’s International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management. 15 • Do not purchase, store, use, or trade pesticides that fall under the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Recommended Classification of Pesticides 16 by Hazard Classes 1a (extremely hazardous) and 1b (highly hazardous), or Annexes A and B of the Stockholm Convention. 17 • Do not use pesticides listed in WHO Hazard Class II (moderately hazardous), unless the project has appropriate controls established with respect to the manufacture, procurement, or distribution and/or use of these chemicals. These chemicals should not be accessible to personnel without proper training, equipment, and facilities in which to handle, store, apply, and dispose of these products properly. • Preferentially, use selective pesticides, where appropriate, rather than broad-spectrum products to minimize impacts on non-target species. 12 http://chm.pops.int/. 13 http://www.pic.int/. 14 http://www.basel.int/. 15 FAO, International Code of Conduct on Pesticides Management (revised 2014), (Rome: FAO, 2014) http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/CODE_2014Sep_ENG.pdf 16 World Health Organization (WHO), Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification (Geneva, 2009): http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard/en/ 17 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2011. 9 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 Storage • Store all pesticides in a lockable, bunded container or store that has sufficient space in which to capture any spills without contaminating the environment. Stores should be set away from water sources, residential and built-up areas, as well as livestock and food storage areas. • Procure spill kits and institute suitable control measures in case of accidental spillage. • Store all pesticides in their original, labeled containers and ensure that storage instructions are followed. • Keep a register of all pesticides procured, recording when they were received, the amount used, the amount remaining in store, and their location. • Keep SDS at appropriate locations in storage facilities. • Warehouses must have appropriate ventilation, secondary containment, and emergency showers and kits. Handling • Operators must read, understand, and follow product label directions for mixing, safety, application, and disposal; use trained personnel for critical operations (e.g., mixing, transfers, filling tanks, and application). • Insist that correct PPE (e.g., gloves, overalls, eye protection) for each exposure route 18 listed in the SDS be worn at all times when handling and applying pesticides. • Mandate that any mixing and filling of pesticide tanks occur in a designated filling area. o This should be set away from watercourses and drains. o If on concrete, water should be collected in a separate sump and disposed of as a hazardous waste. o Ensure that spills are cleaned up immediately using appropriate spill kits; spills should not be washed away into watercourses or drains. Application • Give preference to the application method with the lowest EHS risk. • Select pesticide application technologies and practices designed to minimize off-site movement or runoff (e.g., low-drift nozzles, using the largest droplet size and lowest pressure that are suitable for the product). • Establish buffer zones around watercourses, residential and built-up neighborhoods, as well as livestock and food storage areas. • For the aerial application of pesticides, the boundaries of target areas should be clearly demarcated and all possible nearby communities, livestock, and rivers should be identified in the flight plan. The aerial application of pesticides should not be conducted where there is potential for contamination of organic or otherwise certifiable production. 18 Possible routes of exposure are skin contact, eye contact, inhalation (respiratory system), and ingestion (swallowing). 10 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Ensure that all equipment is in good condition and properly calibrated to apply the correct dosage. • Insist that applications occur under suitable weather conditions; avoid wet weather and windy conditions. Disposal • Any unused dilute pesticide that cannot be applied to the crop, along with rinse water, and out- of-date or no-longer approved pesticides, should be disposed of as a hazardous waste, as per FAO guidelines. • Empty pesticide containers, foil seals, and lids should be triple rinsed, and washings used in the pesticide tank should be sprayed back onto the field or disposed of as hazardous waste in a manner consistent with FAO guidelines and according to the manufacturer's directions. Containers should be stored safely and securely under cover prior to their safe disposal; they should not be used for other purposes. 1.1.7 Fertilizers • Store fertilizers in their original packaging and in a dedicated location that can be locked and properly identified with signs, access to which is limited to authorized persons. • Ensure that SDS and inventories are available at fertilizer storage facilities and available to first responders when necessary. • Only purchase and store minimal fertilizer requirements, and use older fertilizers first. • Keep fertilizer stores separate from pesticides and machinery (e.g., fuels, ignition, or heat sources). • Know and understand each crop’s fertilizer requirements and only apply what is required, when it is required, to minimize losses to the environment. • Implement a suitable training program for personnel that are transporting, handling, loading, storing, and applying fertilizers. 1.1.8 Biodiversity and Ecosystems 20. Perennial crop production has the potential to have a direct and indirect impact on biodiversity and ecosystems. Key direct impacts relate to habitat conversion or degradation, water usage, pollution, introduction of invasive species, inappropriate cultivation techniques, 19 and quality and or availability of priority ecosystem services. Indirect impacts relate to in-migration, and induced changes to access for traditional land uses (including hunting, fishing, and recreation). Impacts and associated mitigation activities related to biodiversity and ecosystems are primarily specific to the crops, techniques, and existing land use context at any specific site. 21. Impact avoidance should be the goal. Appropriate site selection, including expansion planning, is the single most important impact avoidance measure available to plantation crop production. Early screening 19 UNDP, Protecting Biodiversity in Production Landscapes, (UNDP: South Africa, 2012). 11 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 can improve macro-level project site selection so as to avoid selecting areas with high biodiversity values, such as critical or natural habitat, areas with high conservation values (HCV), those modified habitats that contain significant biodiversity value (such as previously abandoned farmland that has subsequently developed into secondary forest), or provisioning or regulating ecosystem services. Such screening can thus help with scoping of priorities for further assessment, if complete avoidance is not possible, thus reducing unnecessary biodiversity and/or ecosystem impacts and costs in the future. Screening should be conducted to identify species and sites of importance within the broader region or landscape. Tools, such as the Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT), 20 can facilitate access to key international data sets. Sites of local, regional, and international importance 21 may include: nationally and internationally protected areas, Important Bird Areas (IBA), Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) areas, Ramsar Sites (Wetlands of International Importance), along with known congregatory sites and unique or threatened ecosystems. 22. Screening should consider any existing spatial data and landscape mapping as part of the literature review and desktop analysis. Key sources for biodiversity or ecosystem information include Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA), National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP), 22 relevant sector plans (including those that may be impacted, such as eco-tourism or fisheries), and conservation plans. 23. Conversion of existing critical, natural, or HCV habitats into agriculture should be avoided wherever possible and planting on modified habitats or degraded lands should be promoted. This should be informed by an assessment of existing modified habitats or degraded lands suitable for crop production or restoration, to reduce risks and costs associated with biodiversity impacts or further reduction of ecosystem services. 24. The farm- or forest-level management plan should be informed by an assessment of biodiversity values of importance, including species, sites, and habitats. This should, at a minimum, consider the farm/forest management unit, but in cases of higher risk, expected landscape connectivity or wildlife movement issues should consider a broader landscape unit based on the specific needs of biodiversity values in question. Very large management units, particularly where conversion or planting will be managed in smaller sub-units (e.g., multiple compartments or a phased approach), may not find a single comprehensive assessment to be practically feasible. In such cases, a desktop assessment, including analysis of satellite data supported by targeted groundtruthing, can be used to scope areas of potentially modified, natural, and critical habitat, as well as to identify potential set-asides and restoration areas that could mitigate possible impacts on biodiversity values across the full management unit. Groundtruthing can be practically implemented at the level of smaller sub-units (e.g., refining existing set-asides or establishing new ones). Perennial crops subject to international standards and certification systems now routinely employ tools to identify, delimit, and manage areas of HCV. 23 Such areas should be clearly established on maps and within management plans. It is important that the conversion or planting schedule for these sub- 20 http://www.ibatforbusiness.org 21 EC Guidance Document, Wind Energy Developments and Natura 2000, (European Commission: 2011). 22 Convention on Biological Diversity, National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) http://www.cbd.int/nbsap/search/default.shtml. 23 E. Brown et al., "Common Guidance for the Identification of High Conservation Values," (2013) 12 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 units allow sufficient time (one to two years) to allow for assessment, analysis, and development of an appropriate management plan based on this information. 25. Some biodiversity values will require on-site management to maintain viability on-site and within the larger landscape. These include maintaining, establishing, or restoring corridors (e.g., riparian areas, movement corridors for wildlife), set-asides (e.g., important breeding or feeding sites), and buffer zones (e.g., to minimize off-site disturbance to neighboring riparian areas and wetlands, protected areas, and other important sites). The number, extent, and location of these areas should be informed by the assessment process and not simply by the prevalence of areas in which development is not feasible (e.g., steep slopes). Active management (e.g., access control, hunting reduction, and enrichment planting with indigenous species) and monitoring may be required in some situations to maintain required biodiversity values. 26. Developers should seek to avoid the introduction of invasive species, as well as control and reduce their further spread. This includes sourcing planting material (e.g., seeds, tube stock) from reliable suppliers who can provide evidence of purity. 27. Developers should use planting material that does not contain seeds from invasive alien species and that complies with local quarantine and hygiene regulations, implementing machinery cleaning programs when moving between fields to remove soil and seeds that may carry invasive or alien species. 1.1.9 Genetically-Modified Crops (GM Crops) 28. A Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is defined as a living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern technology. 24 Environmental concerns related to the introduction of GM crops should be addressed and appropriate research conducted to demonstrate that human and environmental risks (if any) are acceptable. 29. The introduction of GM perennial crops should be conducted in compliance with the host country’s regulatory framework. If such a regulatory framework does not exist in the host country, the applicability of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 25 should be verified and used to scientifically evaluate the potential impacts and risks related to a specific crop’s introduction, including its invasive potential, and identify appropriate mitigation measures. The next steps in the risk assessment are to evaluate the likelihood of the events occurring, the consequences if it happens, and whether the overall risks (i.e., consequence and likelihood) are acceptable or manageable. 1.1.10 Energy Use 30. Energy is used in perennial crop production for site preparation, cultivation, management, irrigation, harvesting, transport, lighting, heating, cooling, and ventilation. Recommendations to reduce energy use and increase efficiency are presented in the General EHS Guidelines. Additional recommended strategies include: 24 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (http://bch.cbd.int/protocol). 25 Ibid. 13 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Select energy-efficient machinery and equipment (e.g., tractors, ventilation systems, drying and storage systems, cooling devices) and consider on-board fuel-use monitors. • Consider implementing training programs to make operators aware of energy-efficient practices when using machinery (e.g., switching off engines when waiting to load) and when driving. 31. Irrigation energy use can be significant: the following techniques are recommended for efficient use of energy in irrigation systems: • Develop an irrigation plan that is appropriate for climate, season, soil conditions, plant materials, and grading. This plan should include optimum scheduling, monitoring, and recording systems so that energy usage and efficiencies can be examined. An irrigation logbook or database should be maintained so that quantitative measures are recorded (e.g., kWh electricity per cubic meter applied, fuel usage as liter per cubic meter applied). • Regularly maintain the irrigation system and associated infrastructure, such as supply channels and water storage. • Select efficient pumps. • Ensure properly matched pumps, systems, and power sources by keeping a good record of the amount of water pumped and the energy used to ensure suitability. 1.1.11 Air Quality 32. Atmospheric emissions are primarily associated with emissions of combustion by-products—including carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) —resulting from the operation of mechanized equipment or from combustion by-products from the disposal or destruction of crop residues or processing by-products. The impacts of these pollutants depend on the local context, including the proximity to communities, sensitivity of ecosystems, concentrations of the pollutant, topography, and meteorology. Air-quality issues, including management of mechanized farm equipment, should be managed according to recommendations in the General EHS Guidelines for mobile and stationary sources. Specific recommendations for perennial crop production to prevent and control air emissions are: • Avoid open burning for land preparation, weed control, and post-harvest treatments. Evaluate controlled burning in energy production facilities to extract thermal energy for beneficial use. Where burning is unavoidable, potential impacts should be identified and weather conditions monitored to schedule burning in an effort to minimize impacts. • Prohibit burning of pesticide-treated agricultural wastes and by-products (e.g., pesticide containers) to avoid unintended emissions of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). • Adopt IPM strategies to avoid and reduce use of pesticides and associated drift. • Monitor and minimize ammonia emissions resulting from nitrogen fertilizer and manure use. Note certain types of nitrogen fertilizer have higher ammonia emissions associated with their use than others. Consider incorporating fertilizer at planting to minimize ammonia emissions. • Reduce the risk of fire by reducing the build-up of potential fuel sources and controlling weeds and invasive species. Where controlled burns of residues are necessary, ensure optimal conditions for the low risk of spread and low impact on existing air quality. 14 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Consider in-field systems and logistics that reduce the usage of high-emission equipment (e.g., the use of cable transport systems instead of tractors). • Evaluate the substitution of no- or low-emission energy sources for combustion methods. Ensure proper maintenance and operation of combustion equipment (irrigation engines, boilers, tractor engines, heaters, etc.) and consider replacing old units or retrofitting air emission controls. • Modify field operations where possible (e.g., reducing the number of in-field passes with machinery, reduced tillage operations, or improved logistics to minimize travel distances). • Modify timing of operations, where possible, to coincide with favorable atmospheric conditions and reduced risk of air pollution. • Establish cover crops where possible; retain residues, and reduce tillage intensity to avoid dust and soil degradation due to wind erosion. Where water supplies are ample, water application to cropped areas and access roads may reduce the risk of airborne dust. • Establish natural wind barriers—such as vegetative field borders, hedgerows, herbaceous wind barriers, and tree/shrub establishment—to intercept airborne particulate matter and droplets, which may also include contaminants. 1.1.12 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions 33. Perennial crop production produces GHG emissions, including methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide from different stages in the production cycle. Carbon is also stored in the crop’s residual biomass above and below ground, as well as in the soil ecosystem. The primary sources of GHG emissions during site preparation for perennial crops will be carbon dioxide associated with land use change. During the production phase, emissions are nitrous oxide from fertilizer use and carbon dioxide from on-farm fuel and electricity use. Emissions from fertilizer come from both the manufacture of the product and from the application of the product to the crop, with both activities resulting in nitrous oxide emissions, which have a high global warming potential. These emissions should be managed through resource-efficient farming. 34. The following are recommended measures for minimizing GHG emissions from crop production: • Identify sources of on-farm GHG emissions and establish a GHG management plan that includes methods of mitigating emissions and a monitoring program. • Follow the nutrient management plan to ensure that the nutrient balance is right for maximum crop uptake, the quantity of nitrogen matches crop needs, and the timing of application coincides with active growth stages. • Consider using a fertilizer recommendation system to help with planning. • Where available, use abated nitrogen fertilizers, which have lower GHG emissions associated with their manufacture, or use nitrification or urease inhibitors, which reduce soil emissions. • Reduce fossil energy use through adopting energy-efficient production and management practices. • Where feasible, consider using renewable energy (e.g., solar, wind, biofuel) for crop drying or to power irrigation pumps. 15 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 35. The loss of stored carbon in the land occurs primarily during harvest and plantation establishment. Land use changes, such as converting grassland or forest to crop production areas, are responsible for the release of GHG emissions in the form of carbon dioxide. If the existing vegetation is burned as part of site preparation activities for the new land use, both methane and nitrous oxide will be emitted during the combustion process, in addition to carbon dioxide. 36. When converting land, the potential impact on GHG emissions should be assessed and measures implemented to reduce and mitigate this impact. 37. The following activities and strategies can prevent and control GHG emissions: • Avoid conversion of high-carbon stock areas, such as natural forest and peatlands/wetlands. • Avoid open burning of biomass during site preparation, field operations, and post-harvest. • Protect soils from the loss of organic matter by implementing good soil conservation management practices. • Increase soil organic carbon stocks through land management techniques. • Maintain and rehabilitate degraded areas and vegetative buffer zones to increase carbon stocks. • Consider increasing the rate of sequestration with species/clone selection. 1.2 Occupational Health and Safety 38. In developing suitable plans for mitigating environmental, health, and safety risks associated with all plantation crops, the hierarchy of controls 26 should be followed as a means to limit workplace risk. Occupational health and safety (OHS) issues associated with plantation crop production include the following: • Physical hazards o Operational and workplace hazards o Machinery and vehicles o Confined and restricted space entry o Risk of fire and explosion • Biological Hazards • Chemical hazards 1.2.1 Physical Hazards Operational and Workplace Hazards 39. Operational hazards include: 26 http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ctrlbanding/. 16 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Slips, trips, and falls (inadequate workplace) resulting in sprains, strains, and fractures; • Ergonomics hazards from manual handling, lifting weights, or repetitive movements; • Sharp and moving objects in the workplace (e.g., foot injuries from thorns on oil palm fronds and fruit); and • Over-exposure to noise, vibration, and extreme or adverse weather conditions. 40. Occupational safety and health impacts and controls relating to safe work practices during routine operations are discussed in the General EHS Guidelines. Potential risks within perennial crop production include biological hazards, wounds from equipment or sharp objects, extreme/adverse weather, manual handling. 27 Exposure to vibration and noise from equipment operation. Exposure to extremes of weather, including sustained exposure to the sun or cold, can be harmful. Typical problems include hypo- or hyperthermia dehydration, UV damage to skin or eyes, and heat or cold exhaustion cases. These risks should be managed according to the General EHS Guidelines. Vibration from machinery may affect the whole body and can cause chronic backache or hip and knee pain and can additionally lead to spinal, gastro-intestinal, and urinary tract problems. Noise and vibration from hand-held equipment (such as chainsaws, brush cutters, or strimmers) can cause hand/arm problems or hearing loss. Machinery and Vehicles 41. Accidents may occur in the use of machines and vehicles, including worker transportation, farm tractors, harvesting and felling machinery, and a variety of other machines used on plantations and in forests. These may include vehicle collisions; vehicle and machinery roll-overs; uncontrolled movement resulting in personal injury (e.g., crushing by moving vehicles); damage or loss of asset; injury, entrapment, or death due to faulty or unguarded equipment and machinery (e.g., moving parts and pinch points on machinery and vehicles); entrapment due to unplanned starting, activation, or engagement of equipment (e.g., rollers); or injury during inspection or repair of vehicles (e.g., vehicle lift not secured while personnel working underneath). 42. Most fatal accidents are associated with crushing by vehicles or equipment. Where plantation crops are harvested by hand, many of the injuries are hand-tool related. By far the largest number of logging accidents occurring annually are associated with felling operations. Workers may also be exposed to associated risks, such as the noise produced by the machines they operate. Occupational safety and health impacts and controls relating to equipment and vehicle operation and repair are discussed in the General EHS Guidelines. Physical hazards resulting from felling activities are discussed in the Forest Harvesting Operations EHS Guidelines. Confined and Restricted Space Entry 43. Occupational health and safety hazards associated with confined and restricted spaces on plantations (e.g., processing bins and silos, product storage bins, water tanks, inadequately ventilated buildings, areas treated with pesticides, etc.) include risk of asphyxiation; explosions due to gas, dust, or fumes (e.g., residual petroleum fumes); and entrapment or enclosure within the confined space. Serious injury or fatality can result from inadequate preparation when entering a confined space or in attempting a rescue from a confined space. Entry into all confined spaces should be restricted and subject to permitted supervision by 27 ILO 2011. 17 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 properly trained persons, as described in the General EHS Guidelines. Restricted areas should be clearly marked and clearly conveyed to personnel and contractors. Risk of Fire and Explosion 44. Fire safety should be managed according to the General EHS Guidelines. Additional sector-specific risks include fires resulting from the combustion of stored oil or crop residues, which can lead to a loss of property or cause possible injury to or fatality of project workers. National or international safety standards should be used in the design, operation, and maintenance of facilities, where applicable. 28 45. Management plans and operating procedures should include comprehensive strategies for the prevention, detection, and suppression of fires within plantation perimeters and adjacent properties, including: • Description of primary detection methods, tools, and protocols; • Ability to communicate with field staff, contractors, and communities; • Measures for reducing fuel loading; • Means to access and contain fires within plantation premises; • Proper placement of appropriate fire suppression equipment; and • Training of staff, contractors, and communities in fire prevention and suppression actions. 1.2.2 Biological Hazards 46. Occupational health and safety hazards associated with crop production may include contact with venomous animals, such as stinging insects, spiders, scorpions, snakes, disease vectors (e.g., mosquitoes, ticks), and with certain wild mammals (e.g., tigers, wild pigs). Recommended mitigation measures include: • Wear appropriate protective clothing, such as a long-sleeved shirt, long pants, hat, gloves, and boots. • Inspect and shake out any clothing, shoes, or equipment (including PPE) before use. • Remove or reduce tall grasses, debris, and rubble from around the outdoor work areas. • Control water accumulation. • Use insect repellent. • On-site first-aid equipment (including, for example, antivenom serum) and trained personnel should be available, as well as procedures for emergency evacuation. • Use observation and sighting records so workers know areas where there are dangerous animals. Install fencing and other exclusion methods for larger animals and use armed guards/spotters to protect workers from large animals (e.g. elephants, tigers, wild boar). 28 For example, EN 1127-1 Explosive Atmospheres - Explosion Prevention and Protection, EN 13463-1 Non-Electrical Equipment for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres, NFPA 61: Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities. 2013 Edition, OSHA Grain Handling Facilities Standard 29 CFR 1910.272. 18 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 1.2.3 Chemical Hazards Exposure to Hazardous Products, including Pesticides and Herbicides 47. Occupational health and safety impacts associated with pesticides are similar to those for other hazardous substances, and their prevention and control are discussed in the General EHS Guidelines. Potential exposures to pesticides include: • Dermal contact (e.g., in storage rooms or from leaking containers or splashes/spillage); • Inhalation during preparation, mixing, and application; and • Ingestion by swallowing the pesticide or contaminated foodstuffs. 48. The effect of such impacts may increase due to climatic conditions, such as wind (which may increase the chance of contaminant drift), elevated temperatures, or high humidity (which may be a deterrent to the use of PPE by the operator, thereby increasing the risk of exposure). Recommendations to minimize risks associated with pesticides and chemicals include (in addition to those listed in Section 1.1): • Use alternative products or methods with a lower OHS risk profile (such as using lower toxicity- rated products, or using safer application methods, such as shielded sprayers, incorporation, or low-volume equipment). • Train personnel on hazardous product management and storage. Include training on how to read labels and the SDS and to understand the risks associated with all hazardous products, including pesticides, fertilizers, and crop-processing products. • Train operators and support personnel to apply pesticides and ensure that these personnel have received the necessary certifications 29—or equivalent training where such certifications are not required—so that they are competent. • Monitor and proactively manage all stages of pesticide and chemical purchase, storage, mixing, usage, and disposal. Maintain accurate records and analyze these records for any evidence of undue exposure or misuse of hazardous products. • Respect pre- and post-treatment (re-entry) intervals to avoid operator exposure to pesticide residues in production areas and on roadside landings and logging decks. • Ensure that product withholding periods are observed to minimize the risk of chemicals or their by-products entering the value chain. • Ensure hygiene practices are followed (in accordance with FAO 30 regulations and the project pesticide management plan) to avoid exposure of personnel or family members to pesticide or chemical residues. 29 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies pesticides as either “unclassified” or “restricted.” All workers that apply unclassified pesticides must be trained according to the Worker Protection Standard (40 CFR Part 170) for Agricultural Pesticides. Restricted pesticides must be applied by or in the presence of a certified pesticide applicator. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/worker.htm. 30 FAO 2014. 19 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 49. Re-entry into plantation areas that have been treated with pesticides and fungicides should be guided by information provided by the chemical manufacturer, normally included in the SDS. 1.3 Community Health and Safety 50. Community health and safety issues during the production of plantation crops may arise due to land use changes or to the loss of natural buffer areas (such as wetlands, mangroves, and upland forests that mitigate the effects of natural hazards, such as flooding, landslides, and fire) that may result in increased vulnerability and community safety-related risks and impacts. The diminution or degradation of natural resources may result in health-related risks and impacts. Hazardous products, including pesticides, may affect community health in the same ways that they affect individual operators: through dermal contact, ingestion, or inhalation of harmful products or chemicals. Risk of exposure to hazardous products can be minimized by ensuring that the plantation group is following guidelines for the transportation, storage, handling, usage, and disposal of those products. Risks also arise from: • Potential exposure to pesticides (e.g., spray drift, improper disposal and use of packaging and containers) and presence of pesticides or by-products in potentially harmful concentrations in foodstuffs and postharvest products. • Potential exposure to pathogens and noxious odors associated with the use of manure. • Potential exposure to air emissions from fires, burning of crop waste, residues, or solid waste (e.g., packaging). • Increased risk of vehicle or machinery injuries on roads and access routes around the community. 51. While odors from manure—especially during application—are not generally hazardous, they can be a serious source of discomfort to the community. Avoid burning of residual crop and other wastes, which create harmful air emissions that may adversely impact surrounding communities. 52. Specific recommendations to minimize risks to communities include: • Monitor and record all potentially harmful products and activities and manage them to minimize the risk to communities. Regularly audit and update operating procedures and ensure that personnel are suitably trained. • Implement best practice guidelines for management of potentially harmful products, and follow the General EHS Guidelines. • Avoid the aerial application of pesticides and give priority to other management strategies, if possible. • Do not apply pesticides, chemicals, or manure if meteorological conditions are likely to result in adverse impacts in surrounding communities. • Use biological or lower-risk-profile products, if available. 20 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Respect pre-harvest intervals and post-harvest withholding periods for products that have been treated with pesticides to avoid unacceptable levels of residues. 31 • Do not store or transport pesticides and fertilizers with food (human or livestock foodstuffs) or beverages (including drinking water). • Ensure that animals and unauthorized people are not present in the areas where pesticides or other potentially harmful products are handled, stored, or applied. • Store manure and crop protection products as far away from dwellings as possible, and use measures, such as covering the manure, to reduce odors and atmospheric emissions. 2. PERFORMANCE INDICATORS MONITORING 2.1 Environment 53. The indicators in Table 1 can be used to monitor the effectiveness of EHS measures applied to the unit of production. This list of indicators is not crop-specific and can be generally applied to most crop production systems. 54. The performance indicators in Table 1 do not have minimum threshold requirements, as these are difficult to establish at the global level. When consistently measured and monitored as part of the farm/forest management plan implementation, they can be used to determine the effectiveness of risk mitigation actions and to enable adaptive management, where necessary. In addition, some indicators of resource efficiency can be used to demonstrate gradual improvements in resource efficiency against a baseline. Baselines should be measured for individual projects. 55. Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be implemented to address all activities that have been identified to have potentially significant impacts on the environment, during both normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable to the particular project. They should include monitoring of community impacts—such as those from waste, discharges, and emissions from any processing activities—through a well-designed monitoring program. 56. Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide representative data for the parameter being monitored. Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following monitoring and record-keeping procedures. Equipment should be properly calibrated and maintained. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards, so that any necessary corrective actions can be taken. Additional guidance on applicable sampling and analytical methods for emissions and effluents is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. 31 Examples of potentially applicable pesticide tolerance requirements include the FAO/WHO (1962–2005) Codex Alimentarius’ Maximum Residue Limits in Foods and 40 CRF Part 180, Tolerances and Exemptions from Tolerances for Pesticide Chemicals in Food, the latter of which applies to crops sold in the United States. 21 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 TABLE 1. CORE PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE INDICATOR EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENT MONITORING CRITERIA Farm or forest A site-specific farm or forest management plan is Yes/ No management plan available for review and updated annually. WATER Water quality parameters should not deteriorate Biochemical oxygen from baseline measurement levels. For off-site demand (BOD) (mg/L), pH, water supplies, measurement and monitoring Total suspended solids Water quality (on-site and according to vulnerable areas and key risks (such (TSS) (mg/L), turbidity off-site water supplies) as earthworks) should take place and plans may (Nephelometric Turbidity include measurement of TSS at discharge, but also Unit ), nutrients (mg/L), or in the upstream and downstream river/stream other potential pollutants (mg/l). Irrigation water – See above Concentrations should not exceed those described pesticides, nitrates, in national irrigation water quality standards or coliform, or other internationally recognized guidelines (e.g., WHO potential agricultural Water Guidelines applicable to irrigation water contaminants quality),a whichever is the more stringent. See above Concentrations should not exceed those described On-site water supplies – in national drinking water quality standards or pesticides, nitrates, internationally recognized guidelines (e.g., WHO coliform, or other Irrigation or Drinking Water Guidelines for potential agricultural compounds potentially present in on-site contaminants groundwater wells or surface waters),b whichever is the more stringent. Liters per hectare and liters Projects should aim to measure and improve water per ton of product resource efficiency (e.g., liters/ha and liters/t of Water resource efficiency product) and assess on a seasonal basis whether water use is in line with water availability within the watershed.c SOIL AND SOIL MANAGEMENT Projects should aim to reduce erosion hazard rating tons per hectare per year levels, which should be assessed annually based on Soil erosion and soil topography and slope; ground cover; exposed and erosion risk bare soil; evidence of sheet, gully, and/or rill erosion; recent sedimentation; silt deposition in streams; and exposed plant roots. • Soil maps appropriate to culture are available Nutrient application and • Soil analysis indicating nutrient deficiencies are kg nutrient per ha management available • Fertility prescriptions are in place and supported 22 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 TABLE 1. CORE PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (CONT.) PERFORMANCE INDICATOR EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENT MONITORING CRITERIA PESTICIDE Active ingredient usage per System in place that allows effective identification of Use and effectiveness of ton of market product and/or phytosanitary problems and effective treatment. pesticides per hectare treated Pesticide residues on site These parameters should be below applicable Active ingredient in g/ha soil tolerance levels.d Pesticide residues on Active ingredient in µg/kg of These parameters should be below maximum produce product residue levels. AIR QUALITY, AIR EMISSIONS, AND ENERGY USE MJ/t product, kWh Projects should aim to show improvements in Energy use consumed, kWh/ha crop, energy efficiency. Systems to monitor and report kWh/t crop product energy use and efficiency should be implemented. Projects should aim to install appropriate monitoring systems to record changes in GHG emissions (t carbon stocks, gCO2eq/t product), including those GHG emissions and t carbon stocks, gCO2eq/t changes associated with above- and below-ground carbon stocks product carbon stocks (e.g., as part of harvest planning in forest management plans) and soil carbon stocks. CO2, CH4 can be measured using fixed or portable meters that are located near sources. Strategically placed depositional dust gauges or Depositional dust PM2.5/PM10 air quality monitoring equipment, e.g., Particulate matter (g/m2/month) TEOM (Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance), PM10, PM2.5 especially near sensitive receptors (e.g., clinic near a busy harvest road). Notes: a WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Volume 2: Wastewater Use in Agriculture http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/ b WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/ c See FAO (1998) Crop evapotranspiration – Guidelines for computing crop water requirements and Cropwat 8.0 tool - www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_cropwat.html d Examples of potentially applicable pesticide tolerance requirements and maximum residue levels include: Food and Agriculture Organization Codex Alimentarius’ Maximum Residue Limits in Foods http://www.codexalimentarius.net/pestres/data; US Code of Federal Regulations Title 40, Part 180 — Tolerances and Exemptions from Tolerances for Pesticide Chemicals in Food https://www.globalmrl.com/db#query; European Community MRLs http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/pesticides/eu-pesticides- database/public/?event=homepage&language=EN and MRL database of the Japan Chemical Research Foundation http://www.m5.ws001.squarestart.ne.jp/foundation/search.html 23 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 2.2 Occupational Health and Safety 57. Occupational health and safety performance should be evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, examples of which include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs®), published by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH); 32 the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, published by the United States National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH); 33 Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), published by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States (OSHA); 34 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values, published by European Union member states, 35 or other similar sources. 2.2.1 Accident and Fatality Rates 58. Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this sector in developed countries through consultation with published sources (e.g., U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and U.K. Health and Safety Executive). 36 2.2.2 Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring 59. The working environment should be monitored for occupational hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be designed and implemented by accredited professionals 37 as part of an occupational health and safety monitoring program. Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. 60. Where pesticides are used, the health conditions of the workers who handle pesticides should be monitored through periodic health exams that include clinical assessment and blood/urine testing of relevant bio-indicator parameters (e.g., for organo-phosphates, cholinesterase, and alkylphosphates). 32 http://www.acgih.org/tlv-bei-guidelines/policies-procedures-presentations/overview and http://www.acgih.org/store/ 33 http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/. 34 http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9992. 35 https://osha.europa.eu/en/legislation/directives/exposure-to-chemical-agents-and-chemical-safety/osh-directives 36 http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm. 37 Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists, Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their equivalent. 24 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 3. 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Bonn: IFOAM. http://www.ifoam.org/sites/default/files/page/files/ifoam_norms_version_august_2012_with_cover.pdf International Finance Corporation (IFC). Performance Standard 3. http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/25356f8049a78eeeb804faa8c6a8312a/PS3_English_2012.pdf? MOD=AJPERES International Labour Organisation (ILO). 1998. Safety and Health in Forestry Work: An ILO Code of Practice Geneva. International Labour Office. ———. 2000a. “Safety and Health in Agriculture.” Report VI (1), 88th Session, 30 May–15 June 2000. ILO, Geneva. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc88/rep-vi-1.htm#CHAPTER%20IV ———. 2000b. ILC88—Report of the Director-General: Activities of the ILO, 1998–99. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc88/rep-1a-3.htm ———. 2011. Productive and Safe Work in Forestry: Key Issues and Policy Options to Promote Productive, Decent Jobs in the Forestry Sector. Geneva, Switzerland, ILO (also available at: www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_158989.pdf). Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). 2002. Reducing and Eliminating the Use of Persistent Organic Pesticides. Geneva: IOMC and UNEP. http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/pdf/redelipops/redelipops.pdf 28 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 King, N. 2013. Banana Best Management Practices. Environmental Guidelines for the Australian Banana Industry. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry (Queensland). http://abgc.org.au/projects- resources/industry-projects/best-management-practice-project/ Meyer, J. (ed.). 2011. Good Management Practices for the Cane Sugar Industry. Prepared by PGBI Sugar & Bio-Energy (Pty) Ltd for International Finance Corporation. Molden, D. (ed.). 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. International Water Management Institute (IWMI). www.iwmi.cgiar.org/assessment/files_new/synthesis/Summary_SynthesisBook.pdf Muilerman, S. 2013. Occupational Safety and Health on Ghanaian Cocoa Farms. Baseline report. Sustainable Tree Crops Program, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Accra, Ghana. http://www.iita.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=50b4bf19-b1bd-44a2-9ac0- 56a590c7c36e&groupId=25357 Ortiz, O., & Pradel, W. 2010. Introductory Guide for Impact Evaluation in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programs. International Potato Center. http://cipotato.org/publications/pdf/005514.pdf Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). 2010. Sustainable Forest Management Requirements. PEFC ST 1003:2010 http://www.pefc.org/standards/technical-documentation/pefc- international-standards-2010/676-sustainable-forest-management-pefc-st-10032010 Roundtable for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. 2009. 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Agricultural Air Quality Conservation Measures: Reference Guide for Cropping Systems and General Land Management. www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1049502.pdf ———. Pesticides: Health and Safety, Worker Safety and Training. Washington, DC: US EPA. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/worker.htm World Health Organization (WHO). 2006a. Wastewater Use: Safe-Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Volume 2: Wastewater Use in Agriculture. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/en/ ———. 2006b. Wastewater Use: Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Volume 4: Excreta and Greywater Use in Agriculture. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/en/ ———. 2010. The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification: 2009. Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf ———. 2011. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 4th Edition. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/index.html 30 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 ANNEX A. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY ACTIVITIES 61. The production of perennial crops consists of planting useful crops and modifying the environment to provide them with optimum conditions for growth. The life cycle of a plantation is normally longer than one growing season. For example: olive trees may be productive for several hundred years; modern oil palm, coconut, and rubber plantations are productive for 20 to 30 years; but sugar cane crops are only grown for one or two seasons. Perennial crops belong to many different plant classifications and families. Products from palms include palm oil and coconuts; products from tree crops include citrus fruits, rubber, and cacao; products from bushes include coffee and tea; products from herbs include bananas; and sugar cane is derived from a member of the grass family. Tropical forestry plantations include species such as Eucalyptus and Pinus. Temperate and boreal plantations are varied and many include spruce, pine, and fir. 62. The optimal growing conditions (including nutrient and water needs) and threats (including diseases and insects) differ for each crop. This is also the case for the utilization of the crop, which varies from human consumption to industrial uses. 63. Modification of the environment ranges from minimal to intensive depending on the particular crop, growing conditions (soil, climate, diseases, weeds, and insects), and management techniques. The land area used for plantation crops and the scale of the production output are a factor of the above considerations, in addition to the use of fertilizer, water, and pesticides. It is the management of these latter factors that is of particular concern for environmental protection, as well as for occupational and community health and safety. However, achieving sustainable intensification and increased productivity per unit of land may be the most important factor in both reducing the expansion of plantation crops into natural areas and ensuring the adequate provision of foodstuffs for communities. 64. As illustrated in the schematic diagram in Figure A-1, the agricultural operations for plantation crops are divided into soil preparation, nursery (or planting material/seed production), planting, and tending before the crop starts to yield productively. A.1 Site Planning and Preparation 65. Site preparation involves preparing and improving the soil and the surrounding borders specifically for plantation crops, including removing undesired plants, enhancing water supply and drainage systems, adding nutrients to the soil and regulating pH, and establishing various mitigation measures in view of potential threats from flooding, runoff, and erosion. This is the phase in which land use is assessed, topographic and terrain models are established, natural vs modified habitats are mapped, species and sites of high biodiversity value (including critical habitat and HCV areas) are identified, roads are planned, community receptors are identified, and watercourses are protected, etc. 66. Tractor-drawn equipment and heavy machinery (e.g., bulldozers, excavators) are often used to remove existing vegetation. Cleared vegetation can be left to form a mulch to help improve soil quality, rather than burned. 67. Following clearing, a period of six to eight weeks passes before the land may be selectively sprayed with herbicides, to reduce vegetation, and the plantation crop is then sown or planted. 31 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 FIGURE A-1. GENERALIZED PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION CYCLE A.2 Planting or Sowing 68. Depending on the type of plantation crop and soil conditions, the planting seedbed and planting rows are prepared to maximize early growth, to reduce soil exposure, and to optimize early yields from the crops. The choice of appropriate tools and equipment will ensure a successful crop, with minimum impact on the local environment. Sowing equipment and methods range from tractor-drawn implements (e.g., sugar cane) to manual planting by digging planting holes and inserting a juvenile plant (sapling) (e.g., oil palm, coconut, cacao, rubber, forestry), or to partially or fully mechanized planting methods (e.g., sugar cane, forestry). 69. The inter-row areas should be planted with suitable cover plants (e.g., legumes, food, or fodder crops) to protect the exposed soil, cycle organic matter and nutrients, and maintain desirable soil structure and conditions. 32 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 A.3 Weed Control 70. Weed control is the botanical component of pest control, which attempts to stop weeds, especially noxious or injurious weeds, from competing with plantation crops. Weed control is normally conducted mechanically through harrowing or other forms of plowing, the use of mulch or plastic barriers, or the use of chemical herbicides. A.4 Immature (Growing) Phase 71. In the plantation crop’s immature phase, the planted rows and access paths are kept clear of undesired vegetation and fire risk is managed to optimize early growth and prevent unplanned damage. Returning crop residues from harvesting, thinning, pruning, and processing to the inter-rows, and establishing vegetative cover crops in trees or palm and bush plantations, minimize soil and environmental impacts. Other activities in this phase to promote optimal growth include shaping the plantation crop canopy and structure (for example, pruning branches to form the trees or bushes and to assist future harvesting), irrigation, and the application of pesticides and nutrients. 72. Some plantations apply intercropping techniques to maximize harvest output. For example, olive tree plantations may also cultivate other crops, such as tomatoes and potatoes, between the rows of olive trees. A.5 Harvesting, Transport, and Postharvest 73. Once the crop reaches the mature stage of growth, it is carefully harvested. Harvesting of plantation crops involves digging, cutting, picking, or other methods to remove the crops from the ground, stalks, vines, bushes, or trees. Some are harvested by hand (e.g., oil palm, coconut, cacao, rubber) where there is adequate labor availability and/or mechanized methods are not available. Other crops may be harvested by machine (e.g., sugar cane, coffee), and some utilize both methods (e.g., forestry). For some crops, such as sugar cane and forestry, prescribed fire may be conducted to improve access to the crop and reduce fuel loading, although this practice is declining worldwide as the value of crop residues and effective residue management methods are demonstrated and effective methods of residue management are developed. 74. After the harvest, the crop is stored on site in a controlled environment and may undergo certain preprocessing activities, such as washing (to remove pesticide residues) and drying. 75. Plantation crops destined for use as processed foods (e.g., olives, palm oil) and products (e.g., forestry timbers) are likely to undergo extensive processing, and this may require significant water use (e.g., washing of food crops such as olives). Crops such as coffee and cacao require fermentation and drying on site before transport to the processing plant is possible. Crops such as oil palm and rubber undergo processing to extract the marketable fractions (e.g., palm oil, palm kernel, fiber) of the yield. 76. The processed plantation products are then prepared for market transport using a wide variety of forms, including: • Consumer packaging: the produce is packed using various materials, including corrugated cardboard, paper, and plastic/fabric packaging materials, to protect it until it reaches the consumer (e.g., fresh bananas) or additional processing facilities (e.g., coffee beans being sent for roasting and grinding). 33 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 • Small bulk containers: bulk containers including large crates (e.g., copra from coconuts), small tanks (e.g., refined coconut oil), or large reinforced cardboard containers (e.g., citrus fruit destined for juicing plants). • Break bulk systems: the products are packaged in lots that can be handled and these are then packed inside larger bulk handling in containers (e.g., bags of copra and bundles of timber are packed inside shipping containers). These large consignments are then broken down into smaller packages at the destination for further transport and distribution. • Bulk handling: typically, large tankers (e.g., palm oil, raw coconut oil), shipping containers (e.g., processed timber, bags of cacao or coffee), and freighters/ships (e.g., copra, timber). 77. The potential pollution outputs of harvesting and post-harvesting activities include air emissions from harvesting equipment and crop residue burning, wastewater contamination with organic wastes and pesticides from crop washing, wastewater and waste product from processing, and damaged packaging materials. A.6 Replanting Phase 78. Once the marketable component is harvested and/or the yield declines, a plantation is then prepared for the next cropping phase. Activities include: • Review of the site and replanning for the next crop cycle (including community and EHS); • Establishment of a nursery (e.g., oil palm, cacao, rubber, forestry) or seed crop (e.g., sugar cane) to provide planting material for the next rotation; • Removal and mulching of the existing crop in-situ; • Site preparation, including lining of new planting rows in the inter-rows; • Soil and nutrient management in preparation for the new crop; • Managing pests and diseases, if needed; • Replanting or propagating from rootstock; and • Restoration of infrastructure, such as irrigation systems, roads, bridges, and harvesting access paths. 79. When the plantation crop reaches maturity, the leaf area usually provides significant ground cover to limit weed growth, and weed control activities may not be necessary. A well-established canopy provides soil protection from raindrop impact and erosion. On slopes, the planting density should not be too dense to prevent light and rainfall penetration, which would limit protective inter-row vegetation establishment. 34 ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY GUIDELINES PERENNIAL CROP PRODUCTION November 23, 2015 ANNEX B. WATER CONSUMPTION 80. Water consumption per crop can be calculated and compared with a theoretical standard value. In practice, the requirements for water depend on crop species, soil type, evaporation, and water conservation practices. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) provides guidance on water management and how to calculate appropriate irrigation. 38 CropWat is a computer program for the calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate, and crop data that can help design and manage irrigation schemes. 81. Crop-specific evapotranspiration factors (crop coefficients—Kc) form the basis of crop water calculations. Table B-1 shows the single-crop coefficients for selected crops. 39 It is provided for illustrative purposes only and demonstrates that water requirements vary over the growing season, influencing the risks and impacts of a particular project. The total water requirements are therefore affected by the length and time of the growing season, which must also be considered when estimating whether crop water requirements are in line with water availability. 82. The risks and impacts associated with water use should consider the status of the river basin within which the project is located. TABLE B-1. INDICATIVE SINGLE-CROP COEFFICIENTS (KC) FOR SELECTED CROPS Single-Crop Coefficients (Kc) Single-Crop Coefficients (Kc) Initial1 Mid2 End3 Initial1 Mid2 End3 Banana 0.5–1.0 1.1–1.2 1–1.10 Rubber 0.95 1.0 1.0 Sugarcane 0.40 1.25 0.75 Tea 0.95–1.1 1.0–1.15 1–1.15 Oil Palm 0.95 1.0 1.0 Citrus5 0.5–0.7 0.45–0.65 0.55–0.7 Cacao 1.0 1.2 1.0 Citrus6 0.75–0.85 0.7–0.85 0.75–0.85 Coffee4 0.9–1.05 0.95–1.10 0.95–1.10 Olives 0.65 0.7 0.7 Notes: 1 Crop coefficient during the initial crop development stage. These values are subject to the effects of large variations in wetting frequencies. 2 Crop coefficient in the mid-season. 3 Crop coefficient at the end of the season. 4 Lower values are bare ground, higher values are with weeds. 5 No ground cover 20–70% canopy. 6 With active ground cover or weeds. Source: Allen, R, Pereira, L.S, Raes, D and Smith, M (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration – Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements – FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e00.HTM 38 R. Allen et al., “Crop Evapotranspiration – Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements,” FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56 (Rome, Italy: FAO, 1998). 39 The effects of the integration over time represent an average wetting frequency for a “standard” crop under typical growing conditions in an irrigated setting. 35