More than 1.1 billion people globally lack access to electricity, and 2.9 billion lack access to clean cooking fuels. Why does gender matter in access to energy services?
... See More + One focus of the gender, energy, and poverty narrative has been that since women play a significant role in energy systems as part of their subsistence and productive tasks, they are disproportionately affected by energy shortages. In recent years however, there is a growing awareness that energy, as a critical enabler to development, can also play a transformative role in the lives of men and women by enhancing their productivity and effectiveness at home and at work. Men and women differ in the purposes for which they need and use energy and in their levels of access. This paper explores the linkages between gender, energy, and poverty and the empirical evidence on these linkages - with an emphasis on electricity and cooking energy. It also reviews global experience on what strategies and approaches have been employed to integrate a gender perspective in energy, what results have been achieved, and good practices and lessons learned.
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Analysis of household expenditure surveys since 2008 in 22 Sub-Saharan African countries shows that one-third of all people use electricity. As expected, users are disproportionately urban and rich.
... See More + In communities with access to electricity, lack of affordability is the greatest barrier to household connection. Lifeline rates enabling the poor to use grid electricity vary in availability, with six countries allowing 30 kilowatt-hours or less of electricity usage a month at low prices. Affordability challenges are aggravated by sharing of meters by several households -- denying them access to lifeline rates -- and high connection costs in many countries, made worse by demands from utility staff for bribes in some countries. Collection of detailed information on residential schedules enabled calculation of the percentage of total household expenditures needed for electricity at the subsistence and other levels. Affordability varied across countries, with grid electricity even at the subsistence level being out of reach for the poor in half the countries and even more so once connection charges are considered. Examination of the gender of the head of household shows that female-headed households are not disadvantaged in electricity use once income and the place of residence (urban or rural) are taken into account. However, female-headed households tend to be poorer, making it all the more important to focus on helping the poor for the goal of achieving universal access. Installing individual meters and subsidizing installation, encouraging prepaid metering so as to avoid disconnection and reconnection charges, reformulating lifeline blocks and rates as appropriate, and stamping out corruption to eliminate bribe-taking can all help the poor.
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Policy Research Working Paper WPS7789 AUG 09, 2016
Kojima,Masami; Zhou,Xin; Han,Jeesun; De Wit,Joerie Frederik; Bacon,Robert W.; Trimble,Christopher PhilipDisclosed
This engagement note in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) aims to identify entry points that respond to the strategic goals and country development priorities announced by GCC member states.
... See More + This note provides an overview of the recent progress and key economic challenges facing women in GCC countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The note builds on GCC country priorities and aims to support ongoing governmental efforts toward economic diversification and fostering knowledge-based economies. All six countries have developed national development plans that stress the importance of moving away from the heavy reliance on hydrocarbons and toward investing in human capital through quality education and strategic training in productive sectors such as science and technology.
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GFDRR is bolstering both its commitment to and capacity for integrating gender issues into its climate and disaster risk management efforts. GFDRR’s gender strategy is an overarching plan that emerges from and is driven by the Inclusive Community Resilience (ICR) program but is applied across the GFDRR portfolio.
... See More + The plan addresses two critical aspects of gender and Disaster Risk Management (DRM): (i) understanding and addressing the different needs of men and women in DRM investments; and, (ii) promoting women’s empowerment for broader resilience strengthening. In developing this Gender Action Plan, GFDRR also leverages the momentum of the 2015-23 World Bank Group Gender Strategy2 and its extensive evidence base. The new WBG Strategy builds on the evidence base and conceptual framework of the World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development,3 and was consulted with over 1,000 stakeholders in 22 countries. It aims to move the Bank’s development work beyond gender mainstreaming to outcomes and results. It also identifies climate change and disaster risk management as emerging areas that require additional attention and calls for bringing a gender lens to resilience and developing gender-smart solutions to climate change.
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This report summarizes findings from the inception phase of the research project The Impact of War on Somali Men (IWM) undertaken by the Rift Valley Institute (RVI)1 between December 2013 and May 2014.
... See More + In this project, the Rift Valley Institute is working with Somali men and women to investigate the impact of prolonged war and conflict on Somali men and boys. The IWM study aims to contribute to development and stability in the Somali regions through better-informed policy and practice, by deepening knowledge and understanding of the en-during effects of war and violent conflict on Somali males, and the consequences for Somali society. This is the first extensive study of Somali male ex¬periences of the war and its consequences. It builds on an earlier study on Somali women’s experiences of the war, documented in the publication Somalia the untold story – the war through the eyes of Somali women (Judith Gardner and Judy El-Bushra [eds], 2004). According to the women in that study, women’s and girl’s lives will not fully recover until the impact of the war on adult and young men had been addressed. A forum held in Nairobi in 2013 as a preparatory step in the design of the IWM project concluded that the international community’s commonly-held stereotypes of Somali men, as inherently violent, prone to extremism, a threat to Western security interests and to their own society, are based on flim¬sy evidence about men’s engagement in violence and about the impact war has had on their lives. Yet these assumptions are influential in shaping international and national policy and practice. The intention of the IWM project is to make a timely contribution to improved policy and practice by providing a more nuanced and grounded view, of relevance both to Somalia policy, and to policy relating to gender in insecure contexts more broadly.
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The objectives of the Energy Sector Development Project are, through technical assistance, to strengthen the policy development and strategic framework for renewable energy and rural electrification, and to attract investors for the sustainable development of a new hydropower generator that will supply the Port Moresby grid.
... See More + The project has two components: (1) Technical assistance the energy sector policy and strategy development. This component focuses on the policy and strategy of the electricity sector with a focus on rural and renewable energy in PNG. It will also provide capacity building for the Government of PNG's role in development of the Naoro Brown hydropower project. (2) Technical assistance for preparation and planning for Port Moresby hydropower supply. This includes the preparation of the Naoro Brown hydropower project (approximately 80MW) to supply the Port Moresby grid, and improved planning related to hydropower supply for Port Moresby.
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The objective of the Uttar Pradesh Core Road Network Development Program Project for India is to: (i) improve quality, safety and sustainability of targeted state highway corridors and; (ii) to introduce better road management practices.
... See More + Some of the negative impacts and mitigation measures include: all vehicles delivering materials to the site shall be covered to avoid spillage of materials; the contractor shall take every precaution to reduce the level of dust emission from the hot mix plants and the batching plants up to the satisfaction of the Engineer in accordance with the relevant emission norms; all crushers used in construction shall confirm to relevant dust emissions control as legislated. Clearance for siting shall be obtained from the UP Pollution Control Board Alternatively, material can be procured from licensed crusher only; dust screening vegetation will be planted on the edge of the Right of Way (RoW) for all existing roadside crushers; maintenance of vehicles, equipment and machinery shall be regular and proper, to the satisfaction of the Engineer, to keep noise from these at a minimum; and blasting shall be carried out only with permission of the Engineer. All the statutory laws, regulators, rules, etc., pertaining to acquisition, transport, storage, handling and use of explosives shall be strictly followed.
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Adolescents around the world face tremendous challenges to meeting their sexual and reproductive health (SRH) needs. Inadequate access to health information and services, as well as inequitable gender norms, contribute to a lack of awareness about puberty, sexuality, and basic human rights that can have serious implications on their health and welfare throughout the rest of their lives.
... See More + These underlying factors lead to high rates of early pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), sexual violence, and early and forced marriage globally. Research has found that adolescence is a profound and complex stage of life that influences future health outcomes, attitudes, and behaviors. Using a life course-perspective requires understanding the relationships between early childhood health and development and its effect on adolescence; the importance of biological changes, cultural traditions, and social norms associated with puberty; as well as the influence that social determinants have on adolescents up-take of health-related behaviors. To improve and promote adolescent health, development and well-being, it is also important to acknowledge the broader policies and environment in which they live, learn, work, and form relationships (Sawyer 2012).
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Reliance on solid fuels for cooking is an indicator of energy poverty. Access to modern energy services - including electricity and clean fuels - is important for achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
... See More + It can also reduce women's domestic burden of collecting fuelwood and allow them to pursue educational, economic, and other employment opportunities that can empower them and lead to increased gender equality. Similarly, the use of clean cooking and heating fuels in efficient appliances can reduce child mortality rates. Without access to modern energy services, the likelihood of escaping poverty is very low. Interventions to improve energy access to the poor have focused mainly on electricity access and have often neglected nonelectricity household energy access. Household energy for cooking in particular has received little policy attention in the overall energy sector dialogue, and consequently its lending volume remains low, in spite of the magnitude of the development challenges it represents. The objective of this note is to assist task teams with broad project design principles related to household energy for cooking. It follows five main reports produced by the World Bank Group over the last three years: (1) "Household Cookstoves, Environment, Health, and Climate Change: A New Look at an Old Problem"; (2) "Household Energy Access for Cooking and Heating: Lessons Learned and the Way Forward"; (3) "One Goal, Two Paths Achieving Universal Access to Modern Energy in East Asia and Pacific"; (4) "Wood-Based Biomass Energy Development for Sub-Saharan Africa"; and (5) "What Have We Learned about Household Biomass Cooking in Central America?" These reports make the case for a re-engagement of the World Bank Group in the household energy access sector. This note is organized into two sections: (a) context and background, and (b) project design principles.
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Working Paper (Numbered Series) 90274 JUL 01, 2013
Many key development outcomes depend on women s ability to negotiate favorable intrahousehold allocations of resources. Yet it has been difficult to clearly identify which policies can increase women’s bargaining power and result in better outcomes.
... See More + This paper reviews both the analytical frameworks and the empirical evidence on the importance of women’s bargaining power. It argues that there is sufficient evidence from rigorous studies to conclude that women’s bargaining power does affect outcomes. But in many specific instances, the quantitative evidence cannot rigorously identify causality. In these cases, a combination of quantitative and qualitative evidence may suggest policy levers. Taken together, there are sufficient data in place to support a greatly expanded focus on intrahousehold outcomes and bargaining power. Additional data at the individual level will allow for further and more detailed research. A growing literature supports the current conventional wisdom – namely, that the patterns of evidence suggest that women s education, incomes, and assets all are important aspects of women s bargaining power. The paper begins by reviewing the analytical frameworks for intrahousehold issues. Because this intrahousehold literature is quite heterogeneous, it is useful in each instance to consider the “players” in the bargaining negotiations. In addition to bargaining between spouses, bargaining may exist between parents and children and various other members of the household. The academic literature has focused on finding rigorous ways to demonstrate causality, and the next section focuses on the challenges of proving causation rather than simply correlation. Next, the paper turns to the empirical measures of bargaining power that have been used, followed by a discussion of the types of outcomes that have been shown to be affected by women’s bargaining power. A central question is how different outcomes are affected by women’s bargaining power. The paper concludes by explaining how policy makers can effectively use the findings.
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Despite showing some positive outcomes in terms of gender equality when compared to the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) regional average, Belarus, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine are confronted with a set of gender issues, which need to be addressed.
... See More + The key gender disparities in the sub-region are in the endowments (health and demographics), in access to economic opportunities (labor markets) and women’s voice in these countries. In endowments, one of the most salient gender issues in the sub-region is that of high gender gap in life expectancy, largely attributable to the extraordinarily high male mortality rates in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. Due to the gender gap in life expectancy, the share of female population above the age of 65 is exceptionally high in these countries. The determinants of high male mortality rates may be associated with alcohol abuse and other related risks, though more research is needed to accurately establish the causes of this phenomenon.
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Gender-related outcomes are heterogeneous across the Western Balkans countries. This sub-region performs reasonably well in terms of gender equality in endowments (health, demographics and education) when compared to the regional Europe and Central Asia (ECA) average.
... See More + The key gender challenges, however, are present in second generation issues, particularly in access to economic opportunities. Specifically, gender related gaps across countries are manifested in a high gender labor force participation gap, relatively low female earnings, and a low share of female participation in firm-ownership.
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The EU10 countries were traditionally ahead of the rest of the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region in terms of gender equality. The last decade was marked by further progress in most of the key areas.
... See More + The outcomes, however, are very heterogeneous across the sub-region. Whereas Poland, Romania and Slovenia performed well, in a number of countries, gender equality in endowments, access to economic opportunities and women’s voice is still held back by serious constraints. Gender disparities in health and demographics are prevalent in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, where populations are affected by high gender gap in life expectancy and a disproportionately high share of female population over 65 years of age. In other countries of the sub-region, gender disparities in access to economic opportunities are especially noticeable in the labor markets. For example, in Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic and Slovak Republic, second generation issues arise, such as a low share of women with firm ownership.
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Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have made progress in many gender-related aspects in the past decade and show outcomes that are in some cases an improvement over the regional Europe and Central Asia (ECA) average.
... See More + Despite this progress, gender disparities remain in endowments (demographics and education), access to economic opportunities (labor markets) and women’s voice in the South Caucasus countries. One of the most salient gender issues in the South Caucasus is that of ‘missing women’. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have a high sex imbalance at birth, with an average of 14 percent more male births than female births (highest in Azerbaijan at 17 percent). Sex ratios have been increasing since the 1990s in the South Caucasus, while staying stable in neighboring countries.
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This Results Profile focuses on Inclusive Development in Post-Conflict Bougainville Project in Papua New Guinea. Prior to the conflict, women played vital roles in community level decision making and were key agents of development.
... See More + The dynamics of the conflict and post-conflict period weakened this role resulting in women being marginalized from community decision-making processes. The project supported by World Bank increased community development activities which was more inclusive of women in planning and decision making. It strengthened the organizations that advanced the priorities of women.
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This Results Profile talks about strengthening gender capacities among gender focal points in water governance structures in Kenya. During the drought, women and girls in Kenya often travel far on foot in search of water from distant wells, ponds, or trucked-in water for farming or personal use.
... See More + The strenuous and time-consuming activity to meet the water needs of the family often forced girls out of school and prevented women from fully pursuing economic activities. In an effort to promote equal access to resources and participation of women in water governance structures, the Kenyan Ministry of Water and Irrigation and the International Development Association financed Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project formed a partnership to strengthen gender mainstreaming capacities among newly appointed Gender Desk Officers in institutions across the country. Through practical sessions, discussions, and presentations men and women were introduced to relevant policy issues and given the opportunity to review critically gender issues in the water and sanitation sector. As a result of the training workshops, gender mainstreaming activities were underway within a range of institutions across Kenya, and substantial progress had been recorded. With a firm commitment from the government of Kenya, with newly implemented incentives and penalties for Ministry staff to address gender inequality in their work, important steps were being taken to ensure the women of Kenya are given equal opportunities to participate in decision-making processes that directly affect their daily lives.
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Extractive industries (EI) impacts can be positive and negative, spanning economic, social, and environmental issues. Oil, gas, and mining projects may create jobs, but may also consume farming land for their use, changing livelihoods and limiting access to water, food, and firewood.
... See More + Water sources may become polluted, but new roads may be built and communities may become electrified. Markets may boom, but prices may rise steeply. Given male and female relationships to each other, to the economy, to the land, and to their communities, men and women have very different experiences of these EI impacts, and evidence increasingly demonstrates that in general women are more vulnerable to the risks, with little access to the benefits. This publication presents how and why men and women are differently impacted by EI, exploring what the implications are for business and development, and providing policy and action suggestions for how to mitigate negative impacts and amplify positive ones and how to monitor and improve results. The publication focuses primarily on larger scale commercial operations but also considers some of the issues relating to artisan and small-scale mining (ASM). The report is addressed to the stakeholders in extractive industries, i.e., oil, gas, and mining development and operations community members and leaders; government officials; and managers and staff of EI companies.
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Working Paper (Numbered Series) 51114 AUG 01, 2009
Extractive industries (EI) can bring many positive development impacts to the communities involved, but also have the potential to create or exacerbate vulnerabilities within these communities.
... See More + Benefits and risks are often evaluated and measured at the community level, with little examination of the different impacts on men and women. In fact, evidence suggests that a gender bias exists in the distribution of risks and benefits in EI projects: benefits accrue to men in the form of employment and compensation, while the costs, such as family and social disruption, and environmental degradation, fall most heavily on women. Despite the ample evidence of gender bias, and its implications, in EI, there is significant scope for increasing the gender focus of most EI projects in the World Bank. Analyzing and adapting projects to local gender issues can help to mitigate the risks created by EI, and amplify the potential benefits to both men and women, leading to increased profitability and more sustainable development impacts. Furthermore, understanding and adapting projects to improve gender sensitivity is essential to realizing the Bank's stated commitment to both mainstreaming gender and to the third Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of gender equality and empowerment of women. The following guidelines briefly outline some of the ways that EI can impact men and women differently and the associated development implications, and provide step by step suggestions for how to understand and integrate gender issues into World Bank Group EI project design.
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Working Paper (Numbered Series) 51115 AUG 01, 2009
