SOCIAL COHESION AND FORCED DISPLACEMENT A DESK REVIEW TO INFORM PROGRAMMING AND PROJECT DESIGN June 2018 Social Cohesion and Forced Displacement A Desk Review to Inform Programming and Project Design June 2018 Joanna P. de Berry and Andrew Roberts With contributions from Helidah Ogude and Anthony Finn © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vii Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................... viii Executive Summary......................................................................................................................... 1 Context ............................................................................................................................................ 2 Methodology................................................................................................................................... 3 Social Cohesion Definitions ............................................................................................................. 3 Box 1. Five Dimensions of Social Cohesion ........................................................................................... 4 Core Indicators .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Box 2. Comparison of Key Social Inclusion Indices ............................................................................... 6 Forced Displacement and Social Cohesion ............................................................................................... 8 Box 3. Displacement Settlement Scenario and Social Cohesion........................................................... 9 Box 4. The Historical and Cultural Construction of Narratives Around Refugee Presence in North-east Kenya ................................................................................................................................ 10 Social Cohesion Programming and Policy: Analysis and Assumptions ................................................... 13 World Bank Projects................................................................................................................................ 15 Box 5. Syrians under Temporary Protection (SuTPs) .......................................................................... 16 NGO Approaches ..................................................................................................................................... 18 Box 6. Danish Refugee Council and Search for Common Ground Definitions of Social Cohesion ..... 19 Box 7. Current Examples of Approaches to Social Cohesion in Displacement Settings ..................... 21 Utilizing Social Cohesion in Strategy, Policy and Programs: A Way Forward ............................... 22 The SCORE Index ..................................................................................................................................... 24 Box 8. The SCORE Application in Liberia ............................................................................................. 24 Box 9. SCORE Ukraine IDP Metrics ...................................................................................................... 25 Box 10. SCORE Bosnia and Herzegovina Overview ............................................................................. 26 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 26 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 27 Annex 1 – Review of World Bank Projects.................................................................................... 31 v vi Acknowledgments This study was undertaken jointly by the Global Practice for Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience (GSURR) and the Fragility, Conflict and Violence (FCV) Group. The task team leaders were Joanna P. de Berry (FCV) and Andrew Roberts (GSURR). Helidah Ogude (GSURR) and Anthony Finn (Consultant) undertook the literature and portfolio reviews which contributed to the study. Valuable peer review comments were received from Loren B. Landau (University of the Witwatersrand), Bernard Harborne (Lead Social Development Specialist) and Varalakshmi Vermuru (Lead Social Development Specialist). This work is part of the program “Building the Evidence on Protracted Forced Displacement: A Multi- Stakeholder Partnership". The program is funded by UK Aid from the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID). It is managed by the World Bank Group (WBG) and was established in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The scope of the program is to expand the global knowledge on forced displacement by funding quality research and disseminating results for the use of practitioners and policy makers. This work does not necessarily reflect the views of DFID, the WBG or UNHCR. vii Acronyms CDD Community-Driven Development DfID Department for International Development (UK) DRC Danish Refugee Council EU European Union FCV Fragility, Conflict and Violence ICG International Crisis Group IDA International Development Agency IDP Internally Displaced Person ITT Intergroup Threat Theory M&E Monitoring and Evaluation NRC Norwegian Refugee Council OECD Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation SCORE Social Cohesion and Reconciliation SFCG Search for Common Ground UNDP United Nations Development Programme VALCOS VALeurs et COhésion Sociale WBG World Bank Group viii Executive Summary are mediated by important factors such as pre- existing relationships between the displaced and Forced displacement changes social relations; host communities, perceptions of identity, the arrival of displaced persons is often relative disparity between different groups associated with social disruption, tension, affected by forced displacement, spatial grievance, social fragmentation and economic arrangements and the duration of displacement. upheaval. In this context, host governments are How these factors inter-relate and which ones increasingly seeking advice from the World Bank prove more salient is, however, a product of Group (WBG) on how to target and design policy historical and political influences. The literature and operations for displaced persons in ways focusses on social relations between displaced that do not exaggerate social tension and instead and host and neglects other dimensions such as promote social cohesion. dynamics within the respective communities, returnees or those who stay behind. This desk review aims to contribute toward a stronger conceptual and practical understanding The need for further investment in political and of social cohesion in the context of forced historical analysis of the social dynamics around displacement. The review includes reflection on displacement is a key recommendation of the the current portfolio of WBG forced review. Without clear analysis of the social displacement projects, many of which have a context, points of pressure and social strain stated aim to improve social cohesion. The around forced displacement, programming to review identifies a number of gaps in current address social cohesion can be based on practice including a lack of clear definition of assumptions about what works. Two prevailing social cohesion; a lack of analysis on the political assumptions are that addressing inequity in and historical context; (which determine social service provision between host and displaced relations in the context of forced displacement); persons will produce social cohesion and that a lack of coherence in project design with a community driven development can foster tendency to be over-optimistic about the extent collective action and solidarity. But theories of to which a project by itself can promote social change, which root choice of these approaches cohesion; and a lack of monitoring and in a clear contextual identification of the evaluation to establish changes and influences problem to be addressed, are often lacking in on social tensions. programmatic and project design, so the logic behind programmatic approaches can remain The review finds that a lack of clarity around the obscure. In addition, very little monitoring and concept of social cohesion is not unique to the evaluation has taken place, which would provide World Bank. Indeed, within the wider academic evidence of the effectiveness of these literature, there is variety in how the concept is approaches. deployed and understood. Recently, however, investment has been made in clarifying the In general, the review finds that attempts to composite attributes of social cohesion in the foster social cohesion at the project level are context of conflict. The desk review presents often over-ambitious. Social cohesion should be three such indexes of social cohesion, which identified at the contextual level and addressed could have application in the context of forced through a comprehensive programmatic displacement for improved definition of the response, in which project activities make a context. contribution. Similarly, the review finds that literature is thin. What the literature does conclude is that social relations in the context of forced displacement 1 Context global policy toward refugees and other forcibly displaced and more progressive approaches that There is global momentum directed toward enable fuller integration. addressing the challenge of forced displacement through development Host governments are increasingly seeking approaches. The increased caseload of displaced advice from the World Bank Group (WBG) on persons has seen resources for governments and how to target and design policy and operations humanitarian assistance stretched beyond for displaced persons in ways that do not recognition. And as situations of forced exaggerate social tension. The demographic displacement have become ever more ‘shock’2 of displacement is often associated with protracted, immediate humanitarian assistance social disruption, tension, grievance, social needs to be complemented by medium and long- fragmentation and economic upheaval. The term sustainable development approaches. Such arrival of new people under circumstances of approaches, where policy conditions allow, forced movement will affect previous support the self-reliance of those affected, compositions and distributions of ethnicity and address the development impacts of displaced race. It may exacerbate political, social and persons on the communities in which they settle economic differences disrupting previous and promote socio and economic inclusion in a balances of tolerance, social acceptance and way that can foster poverty alleviation.1 cohesion. To achieve its twin goals of alleviation of The protracted nature of displacement has extreme poverty and promotion of shared made the issue of long-term integration a prosperity, the WBG recognizes that while pertinent concern for some hosting working with governments and partners, it governments. Over the last six years, return must play a key role in finding development accounted for only 27 percent of those who responses for displacement situations. Under exited refugee status globally. Large majorities IDA18, the WBG will significantly scale-up its of forcibly displaced persons are reluctant or financing for projects addressing forced unable to return to a place associated with war, displacement and situations of Fragility, Conflict trauma and a lack of economic opportunities. and Violence (FCV), generally. For example, a Faced with the reality that the displaced may not new dedicated financing window of $2 billion return in the short to medium term, and that will enable governments of IDA-eligible refugee limited options exist for other durable solutions, hosting countries to undertake activities that host governments are confronted with a promote greater social and economic inclusion common dilemma: whether to pursue greater and self-reliance for refugees. Some countries, socio-economic inclusion of the displaced not eligible for the refugee window, may also knowing that there are societal dynamics that have large populations of internally displaced may be affected and made problematic by that people (IDP) for which they seek solutions under very inclusion. Yet recent evidence indicates that country-allocated IDA. For non-IDA countries, a not pursuing integration may have negative new Global Concessional Financing Facility will consequences for some host countries. For support access to employment and services for example, some countries that struggle to refugees. These financing tools, and the projects integrate the displaced and migrants have faced they support, have the potential to contribute to residual problems such as civil unrest, citizen a significant window of opportunity in changing anger, xenophobia and a growing distrust of 1 World Bank and UNHCR, 2016. “Forcibly Displaced 2 Ibid. — Toward a development approach supporting refugees, the internally displaced, and their hosts”. 2 government. In South Africa, a country that has levels of inequality.3 This can place great high rates of unemployment and inequality and economic and political pressure on host is simultaneously the major destination hub for governments who may not want to be perceived mixed migrants and the forcibly displaced from by their constituents as placing the needs of the across the region, has faced challenges with forcibly displaced above theirs. integration since the advent of its democracy. In 2008 and 2015, these challenges culminated in To respond, the World Bank needs a stronger episodes of xenophobic-motivated violence. conceptual and practical understanding of how to work with governments to identify and Host countries of all income levels are address the social challenges of forced concerned with how to manage forced displacement. This paper will inform senior displacement in ways that do not compromise management undertaking dialogue with client the well-being of their citizens or lead to social governments and task teams preparing projects tension and potentially violence and conflict. on how to understand and contribute toward While there are strong signs that there is more enhanced social cohesion in situations of forced open dialogue and cooperation between displacement. countries to pursue development responses, host governments will continue to face political Methodology risks (often associated with public perception) and continue to bear much of the cost associated This paper aims to improve understanding of with hosting. Social change, tensions and fear of social cohesion to enhance diplomatic, policy threat from the arrival of displaced people and and operational responses, which can address their inclusion into society are factors that often social tensions associated with forced contribute to public perceptions and the displacement. Its findings are drawn from the associated policy decisions host governments summary and conclusions of three contributing must make. For host governments and their pieces of work. The first input was a desk review partners, a key issue is how to ensure the of existing academic and policy literature on the cohesiveness of the communities and societies conceptualization of social cohesion. The second affected. was a desk review of the existing academic literature on the impacts of forced displacement Some of these political-economy challenges on social cohesion. The third was a portfolio may be geographical in nature. A country’s review of World Bank projects addressing forced proximity to fragile or conflict-affected countries displacement and assessment of how the may mean that it will periodically, or on a concept is defined and applied amongst other protracted basis, take on a disproportionate selected NGO agencies. ‘burden’ of hosting the displaced; countries such as Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya are some Social Cohesion Definitions examples of such instances. Many of those countries who most often host displaced The topic of social cohesion had until recently persons are predominantly low- and middle- largely disappeared from political, economic income countries, which typically face a wide and academic debate. Recent economic stresses array of development challenges to start with— and migration into wealthier societies has, such as high rates of unemployment, low growth however, elevated social cohesion back onto the levels, inadequate social protection and/or high agenda.4 It is possible that the motivation for 3 4 World Bank and UNHCR, 2016. “Forcibly Displaced Ackett, Sylvian et al. Measuring and Validating Social — Toward a development approach supporting Cohesion: a bottom up approach. OECD, 2011. refugees, the internally displaced, and their hosts”. 3 intensified interest in social cohesion is (ii) all groups are characterized by boundaries perceived threats emanating from immigration (imagined and/or real9); relationships between and increased ethnic diversity largely in northern groups are more likely to be antagonistic than countries and particularly those in the European complementary particularly during dangerous or Union (EU) and United States (US). The EU contentious times; and (iii) while some threats Cohesion Fund is, in fact, now one of the major may only be perceived threats, regardless, items featured in the Union annual budget.5 “perceiving threats when none exist may be a less costly error than not perceiving threats The concept of social cohesion originates from when in fact they do exist. Thus, by default, a range of academic disciplines and varies from people may be predisposed to perceive threats abstract theoretical definitions to proposed from outgroups.”10 In ITT these threats can be metrics for measurement. A variety of fields symbolic and realistic, they can be threats to the with little cross-fertilization have emphasized ingroup as a whole or threats to individual different dynamics of social cohesion such as members. The distinctions between symbolic common identity, economic inclusion and trust. and realistic threats is important for even long- Some coherence has been achieved in the more term situations involving displaced populations recent and more complex definitions of social as is the emphasis on perceived threats resulting cohesion, which have rooted themselves in five in exclusionary attitudes.11 dynamics of social cohesion (see Box 1), which have been developed by subsequent key Box 1. Five Dimensions of Social Cohesion12 authors.6 This has included identifying both the vertical and the horizontal interactions among Belonging ………. isolation members of society as characterized by a set of Inclusion ………. exclusion attitudes and norms that includes trust, a sense Participation ………. non-involvement of belonging and the willingness to participate Recognition ………. rejection and help, as well as their behavioral manifestations. Legitimacy ………. Illegitimacy Intergroup Threat Theory (ITT) informs most of In displacement and fragile and conflicted- the more recent definitions of social cohesion. affected (FCV) contexts, the focus on intergroup ITT has crossovers with theories of ethnicity7 and perceptions and contact often translates into community8, all of which emphasize that: (i) social cohesion interventions being social groups shape our identities and our lives; conceptualized as peace-building and 5 Jeannotte, M. S. Social cohesion around the world: and Community in a Central Bosnian Village. an international comparison of definitions and Princeton UP, 1996. 8 issues', Paper SRA-309. Strategic Research and Cohen, Anthony P. The Symbolic Construction of Analysis Directorate, Department of Canadian Community, Social Science, 1985. 9 Heritage, Ottawa, 2000. Barth, Fredrik. “Boundaries and Connections.” 6 Bernard, P. La Cohesion sociale: a critique d’un Signifying Identities: Anthropological Perspectives on quasi-concept. Lien social et Politiques – RIAC 41, Boundaries and Contested Values. Ed. Anthony P. 1999. Chan, Joseph et al. Reconsidering Social Cohen. London, Routledge, 2000. 10 Cohesion: Developing a Definition and Analytical Stephan, Walter J. et al. Intergroup Threat Theory. Framework for Empirical Research. Social Indicators Todd D. Nelson (ed). Handbook of Prejudice. New Research, 75(2), 2006. York, 2009. 7 11 Bruce, Steve. The Edge of the Union: The Ulster Ibid. 12 Loyalist Political Vision. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. Jenson, J. Mapping Social Cohesion: The State of Bringa, Tone. Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity Canadian Research. Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc. CPRN Study No F/03, 1998. 4 confidence-building measures between social program evaluation results and groups. For example, the Social Cohesion and information on evidence is Reconciliation (SCORE) Index13 Project uses a scarce, and the theory theory of change that “social cohesion underlying reconciliation affects/predicts reconciliation such that higher programs can often be hard to levels of social cohesion will lead to a higher access or even comprehend. propensity for reconciliation.” Reconciliation, inter-group relations and conflict mitigation Core Indicators remain the driving logic in SCORE, which was first developed for application in Cyprus and has Initiatives to improve the definition and subsequently been applied and built upon in measurement of social cohesion has involved Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Ukraine. the development of subjective and objective indicators across the horizontal (intergroup) When it comes to programming, the overall and vertical axis (person-state). For example, tendency is for vague definitions of social the horizontal could be evident in the levels of cohesion to be used (or no definition at all); trust in other social groups and the vertical often with limited systematic analysis, theory evident in the level of trust in the institutions of of change or defined measurable indicators of the state. impact. The literature review conducted for this work concluded that the use of the concept of Outside of these two axes, the configuration of social cohesion in programming is often opaque, definitions remains quite variable with many incomplete or under-developed. In addition, different combinations depending upon the M&E systems to set a baseline and then measure bias of the conceptual approach. Box 2 the impact made by donor programs on social selectively compares social cohesion indicators cohesion often are patchy and orientated in use currently and developed by the UNDP for toward traditional outcome or output the Arab region14, the VALCOS index developed measurement rather than impact. Recent work for the OECD15 and SCORE, all of which include to strengthen the conceptualization of social and encapsulate the findings of key authors cohesion, such as the development of the SCORE (Bernard, 1999 and Chan et al., 2006). Other Index to measure social cohesion in indices, such as the Scanlon-Monash Index of reconciliation contexts, stems from recognition Social Cohesion or the parameters for of this weakness: measurement proposed by the Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic ...donors which are providing Performance and Social Progress16, offer resources for …programs often additional perspective, but the main thrust of do so without a systematic others considered for the literature review are application of existing theory largely covered by the UNDP, VALCOS and SCORE and evidence ...Unfortunately tools and methodologies. 13 14 The SCORE Index was developed through a Harb, C. Promoting Social Cohesion in the Arab partnership between UNDP-ACT and the Centre for Region Project. Background Paper, UNDP, 2017. 15 Sustainable Peace and Democratic Development with Ackett, S et al. Measuring and Validating Social USAID funding. The index is a tool designed to Cohesion: a bottom up approach. OECD, 2011. 16 measure social cohesion and reconciliation as two Stiglitz, Joseph E. et al. Report by the Commission indicators of peace in multi-ethnic societies around on the Measurement of Economic Performance and the world. Social Progress. European Commission, 2009. 5 Box 2. Comparison of Key Social Inclusion Indices UNDP OECD — VALCOS SCORE What to • Intergroup and • Legitimacy/Illegitimacy: • Trust in institutions measure – key attitude to Confidence in national (horizontal) Indicators institution distributive systems; • Human security • Collective action Confidence in national organisations; Confidence in • Satisfaction with civic (social identities, life justice perceptions authority institutions; and efficacy) Satisfaction and approval of democracy and government • Socio-political identification • Acceptance/Rejection: Proximal solidarity; distal • Emotions – solidarity intergroup focus: (anger, fear, • Participation/Passivity: contempt, hate, Social associations, political respect, empathy, associations, cultural affection) associations, youth and leisure associations • Trust – horizontal and vertical • Human security threats • Justice • Political participation/rep What to • Regional socio- • Social macro variables such • Reconciliation measure – political dynamics as those in the Spearman indicators: stereotypes, auxiliary rank (employment, work intergroup anxiety, and economy; health and social distance, social indicators education, demography, threats, active and subjective well-being). discrimination, positive Others in VALCOS and feelings for other elsewhere include suicides, groups life satisfaction, happiness, voting, unemployment rate, at risk of poverty rate, GDP per inhabitant, lifelong learning, levels of internet access, income per capita, minimum wages, happiness, fertility, cinema attendance, emigration rate, life satisfaction, infant mortality 6 Why measure? • Describe socio- • Mapping social cohesion in • Mapping political dynamics European countries • Predictive • Geographical • Change over time in • Connect social inclusion mapping (threats, cohesion and underlying to other development readiness for action socio-macro indicators outcomes etc.) • Inform European social and • Peace building and • Change over time in economic policy reconciliation attitudes and perceptions • Transformation of state institutions • Map differences between groups • Restoration of the legitimacy of the state • Intervention impact assessment • Estimate readiness for political compromise • Modelling social cohesion Measuring • Sampling and • Micro socio-economic data • Stakeholder methodologies quantitative (secondary) consultation surveying • Multidimensional scaling • Systems analysis • Multivariate • Confirmatory factor analysis • Quantitative sampling statistical analysis • Analysis (diagnostic and • Descriptive predictive) statistical analysis • Recommendations • Testing • Scaling Based on a basic comparison of these three the VALCOS index uses more economic representative indices, the following can be peripheral indicators in line with the concluded. OECD definition of social cohesion having social mobility and economic • There is a lack of consensus vectors. This overlaps with the Council of conceptually on what constitutes social Europe approach which, while cohesion. Some conceptualizations emphasizing social protection, overlap as do the social vectors where necessarily has a foothold in poverty cohesion can be observed. Particularly analysis and poverty alleviation. relevant are the horizontal and vertical • Specific indicators are needed for axis for the measurement of trust, particular displacement contexts. While legitimacy, political representation and these indicators can be usefully applied justice. to displacement contexts, there is a • The concept of social cohesion has need to contribute additional indicators plasticity. Depending on the disposition to help elucidate additional pre-existing of the defining agency, there are fault lines in social cohesion in the host different emphases placed on the and, where possible, the displaced definition. Often emphasis is linked to populations. Much of the literature on the context being studied. For example, social cohesion originates in Europe or 7 North America. This leads to bias, such displacement is based on an extensive and as focusing on the impact of minority detailed literature review of over 3,000 sources. groups on social majorities and the “Social relations” ranks mid-table, detailing the effect of integration (or lack of socio-economic impact of displacement; in other integration) on social cohesion or words, of all the seventeen identified topics theoretical blind spots, such as risks to covered in existing literature on forced good governance. While the UNDP index displacement, social relations is in eighth place. includes human security, it also includes There is no explicit place for the concept of social indicators of propensity to collective cohesion per se; and often social cohesion is action, which is in line with the regional entirely absent from analysis of the social impact socio-political dynamics within which of displacement.19 social cohesion is to be measured by that index. The likely consequence is that to The limited literature that does explore the measure social cohesion and the relationship between forced displacement and impacts upon it by displacement (and social cohesion has attempted to identify then to derive efficient and effective factors that enable the restoration of positive interventions where there is a need and social cohesion or contribute to a deterioration demand), new indictors will be required. in social relationships. Some of these factors include: Forced Displacement and Social Cohesion • the make-up and content of community Assessing the reported impact of displacement and narratives about social identity on social cohesion is challenging. In recent within the host community; years, there has been an increase in the amount of literature on displacement, emanating from • pre-existing relationships between the development actors and traditional knowledge displaced and host community; brokers such as universities and think tanks. But • capacity or readiness of the government a recent WBG anthology of research into the and communities to host, including social and economic impacts of displacement access to and capacity of infrastructure accurately summarizes that while there is much and services; written on displacement, research on economic and social impact is characterized by a lack of • economic deprivation and inequality systematic and rigorous methodologies.17 within the host community; • the actual duration of the displacement One of the main weaknesses of the literature on situation and/or the perceived time it social cohesion and forced displacement is, will take before the situation is therefore, that there is simply not very much of normalized/the displaced return to the it. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh et al.’s (2011) 18 ranking of places of origin; how literature examines the impacts of 17 World Bank. Lebanon: Economic and Social Impact literature review (Volume 1). University of Oxford and Assessment of the Syrian Conflict. World Bank. 2013. World Bank, 2012. 19 Turkey’s Response to the Syrian Refugee Crisis and World Bank. Turkey’s Response to the Syrian the Road Ahead. World Bank, 2015. World Bank. Refugee Crisis and the Road Ahead. World Bank. Kurdistan Region of Iraq: Economic and Social Impact 2015. World Bank. Kurdistan Region of Iraq: Economic Assessment of the Syrian Conflict and ISIS Crisis. and Social Impact Assessment of the Syrian Conflict World Bank. 2015a. and ISIS Crisis. World Bank. 2015a. 18 Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena et al. Study on Impacts and Costs of Forced Displacement: state of the art 8 • patterns of settlement, such as means close physical proximity, it does not encampment or self-settlement; necessarily entail cohesion between social groups. The physical pattern of settlement • pre-existing stressors including national impacts on social contact, economic activity and regional conflict dynamics; within the displaced population and between • perceptions, the relationship between the host and displaced population. Fiddian- host community and their government, Qasmiyeh, Elena et al. (2011), in their public discourse and political rhetoric, examination of the economic impact of with media playing an important role. displacement, create a matrix based on a sliding index that depicts the degree of interaction with Patterns of settlement, for example, can impact the host population. Their matrix is useful for on social cohesion as settlements can mean understanding the implications settlement total physical separation of the displaced and patterns have for social cohesion. The following host community to rural or urban cohabitation. is an adaptation of their matrix to include effect While cohabitation in an urban or rural space on social cohesion. Box 3. Displacement Settlement Scenario and Social Cohesion Scenario of Characteristics of the Displacement Scenario Relevant to Displacement Impact on Social Cohesion Closed Camp Complete separation. Camp Limited contact between Lack of opportunity for social population largely unable to displaced and host connection between internal move outside of camp. populations across economic camp populations and external Access to services consist of transitions ‘host’ populations humanitarian assistance provided by external actors Open Camp Displaced population living Displaced population and Increased opportunity for in camps, but able to move some members of host social connections. ‘Border’ and trade inside and population living in camps. between camp and non-camp outside of the camp Economic relations. Move- remains evident ment of displaced population Self Displaced population Separate location and Opportunity for social Settlement establishes own settlement; separate legal status, but connection. Access to services may or may not interact equal economic dependent upon the with local population opportunities with local normative framework and population capacity and availability Non-urban Displaced population lives Degree of socio-economic Opportunity for social cohabitation in same village as local and political interactions will connection. Access to services population vary across the spectrum dependent upon the normative framework and capacity and availability Urban Displaced population lives Degree of socio-economic Opportunity for social cohabitation in the same urban context and political interactions will connection. Access to services as local population vary across the spectrum dependent upon the normative framework and capacity and availability 9 Social cohesion is context specific. Critically, the Box 4. The Historical and Cultural literature concludes that all the factors which Construction of Narratives Around Refugee influence social cohesion do not function in Presence in North-east Kenya21 isolation. Instead, they mediate situations simultaneously and, in some cases, cause The WBG report undertakes social impact seemingly conflictual outcomes within the same analysis to unpack the historical and cultural context. But the way they intersect and cause construction of narratives around refugee mutual influence is context specific. Context can presence in north-east Kenya. The meta- be local, sub-national, country or regional basis narrative which prevails is that refugees are but also includes historical narratives, state ‘other’ and ‘violent usurpers’ of the rights, land capacity institutional, governance and service and resources of the Turkana hosts and are to delivery. Therefore, upstream socio-political be feared. One of the most important context, political economy analysis, conflict and contributing narratives to this meta-narrative demographic analysis are important to better is the underlying sense of marginalization the understand the concept and to utilize it in policy Turkana experience from broader and programming. All too often this level of development processes in Kenya with a lack of analysis is not undertaken. A rare example of trust in central and local government to include them or address their needs. In this where such an approach has been undertaken is context, refugees are perceived as yet another illustrated in Box 4. damaging incursion into an already disadvantaged situation. Meta-narratives of If broad conclusions are possible from this distrust are also enhanced in the event of limited literature, one of the most important is violent or exploitative interactions between that the state of social cohesion must be refugee and host. While inter-communal understood as part of the wider social fabric violence is relatively low, there are many first- and not just an issue associated with a hand experiences of hosts feeling cheated or particular circumstance or event such as forced threatened by refugees, which perpetuate the displacement. The tensions, which may arise at meta-narrative. Nevertheless, the report the time of forced displacement, may garner points out that in daily life, this meta-narrative increased attention to the topic of social is highly nuanced; it is mediated by the many cohesion by hosting governments and the World individual and group inter-actions, which are Bank at a particular time and place. But analysis positive and welcoming in nature, and the of these tensions at a certain time should not be perceived opportunities of refugee presence. divorced from the understanding that social There are high levels of inter-group exchange, conflict and the navigation of diversity is an collaboration and mutual benefit and, thus, intrinsic part of social functioning even under many sub-narratives prevail around the peaceful and less stressful conditions. The key is ‘goodness’ of refugees and their presence. to understand how forced displacement changes Distance is a key factor; closer to the camps, existing social balances, which may already be hosts are more likely to refer to positive sub- riven with social fault lines and are always in a narratives and to positive interactions, while constant flux of formation and reformulation, of further away, hosts are more likely to subscribe to the negative meta-narrative. transition and change as part of historical development.20 20 21 Landau, L. peer review comments. Refugee Impacts on Turkana Hosts: A Social Impact Analysis for Kakuma Town and Refugee Camp Turkana County, Kenya, World Bank, 2016. 10 Nevertheless, there may be distinct potential increase in the forcibly displaced from characteristics of forced displacement, which other regions. have the propensity to exaggerate social tension. The rapidity of population influx, the Pre-existing relationships between the forcibly large numbers involved, the harrowing images of displaced and their hosts can matter— overwhelming human inflow and ungainly specifically the narratives of shared identity. suffering perpetuated by the media can all The latter is evidenced in Lebanon, where appear very threatening and can irritate existing decades long interactions with Syrian seasonal social apprehension. In addition, the existence of workers and other economic migrants has been dedicated and rapid humanitarian intervention instrumental in shaping how Lebanese hosts toward displaced populations can initiate further characterize Syrian refugees. Stereotypes of social change and garner resentment, when local Syrians are either military officers or menial populations feel bypassed in the process (see workers with low social standing, provide the below). These specificities of the social impact of backdrop against which Lebanese hosts hold forced displacement need to be acknowledged negative perceptions of Syrian refugees. and understood in the light of how they intersect However, in a UNHCR study, it was found that with existing social division. these negative stereotypes were influenced by Lebanese media while more positive perceptions Sociological literature does also suggest that in were held among Lebanese hosts that interacted societies with rigid relationships and social more regularly with Syrian refugees.24 These pre- identities, there is less capacity to maintain existing relationships can contribute to positive social cohesion under conditions of rapid perceptions and greater inclusion (for example, change such as forced displacement.22 Such toward Pashtun Afghans hosted in Pakistan) or change can challenge gender roles, generational negative perceptions and greater tension (for relationships and the basis of social membership example, Rwandans in eastern Democratic when those identities are tightly prescribed. Republic of Congo). It was pre-existing racial and Rigid boundaries can also contribute to the regional prejudices in Colombia that caused internalization of injustice. These perceptions of tensions between Afro-Colombian and injustice can cause host communities to retreat indigenous IDPs and their hosts; some hosts inward and increasingly define their identities refused to house Afro-Colombians and more myopically and likely in opposition to the indigenous IDPs. displaced.23 Elites and the otherwise politically powerful may also be able to mobilize groups Critically, it is equally possible for conflicting with rigid boundaries more easily, especially if narratives to exist alongside each other. In those boundaries are hardened by perceptions Turkey, for example, data from 2015 showed of injustice. In parts of Europe, for instance, the that 66% of refugees reported having a good rise in chauvinist nationalism has seen some relationship with their hosting community, 80% among the political class evoke ever narrowing reported having ‘no social problems with Turks’ boundaries of identity in the face of actual or a and only 25% felt discriminated against. Meanwhile, 73% of respondents from the 22 23 Bauman, Z. Liquid Times: Living in an Age of Marc, A. et al. Societal Dynamics and Fragility: Uncertainty. Polity Press. 2007; Bauman, Z. Strangers Emerging societies in responding to fragile solutions. at Our Door. Polity Press. 2016 and Wodak, R. et al. The World Bank Group. 2012. 24 The Discursive Construction of National Identity. UNHCR 2014, Harb, C., and R. Saab. 2014. Social Edinburgh University Press. 2009. Cohesion and Intergroup Relations: Syrian Refugees and Lebanese Nationals in the Bekaa and Akka. Beirut, Lebanon: Save the Children. 11 Turkish community said that while they were involved in displacement contexts and a sympathetic, on reflection the Syrians should be consideration of whether it is a condition of a sent back to Syria. society as a whole. In reality, the literature says little about the nature of social cohesion in The literature is conclusive in finding that social displacement contexts, the impact upon it by relations are consistently aggravated by displacement, how that impact is disaggregated, perceived and/or real disparities in access to such as by impact upon actors (displaced, host opportunities and by heightened competition communities, host society), and what is its over that access. For example, around the importance to programming in displacement Buduburam refugee camp in Ghana, perceived context. discrimination over the distribution of land and water created tensions between hosts and Issues of return and repatriation are also largely refugees—in a context in which resources were invisible in the literature that has been scarce to begin with.25 In Colombia, hostility reviewed for this paper. There remains an toward displaced persons was exacerbated by outstanding question of how to understand the the aid offered by the state: host communities variation of social cohesion impacts across resented the “special treatment” provided to different scenario: pre-displacement (host and IDPs vis-à-vis the non-IDP poor,26 resulting in displaced populations), during displacement accusations that the displaced persons were (host and displaced populations) and post-return “not truly displaced,” “bad workers” or “people (former host populations, displaced populations, who do not work at all.” In other cases, even returnee populations and receiving positive objective outcomes remain highly populations). This absence weakens a dependent on subjective perceptions, which can programmatic ability to devise inclusive in turn affect behaviors and policy outcomes.27 interventions in return areas (repatriation to site For instance, a long-term empirical study found of origin, to neighboring site, to region of origin some disconnect between reality and or to region other than the one of origin). perceptions in some Ugandan host communities living close to Congolese refugee settlements: Time, or the duration of displacement, is rarely their welfare had improved, but they felt it had explicitly investigated as a factor in the social deteriorated, which in turn negatively affected influences of forced displacement. Time can be their relationship with the refugees.28 a critical and cross-cutting dynamic that can affect not just social cohesion but also how The forced displacement literature is, however, indicators of social cohesion can best be utilized inherently limited in that it tends to only and be context specific. For example, the consider cases where the majority (the host “historically complicated relationships”29 population) are impacted upon by the minority between Lebanese and Syrians and the Lebanese (the displaced populations). Often missing is a experience of Palestinian displacement where consideration of what other groups and initially a “short-term resettlement turned into a structures relevant to social cohesion are massive, largely Sunni, long-lasting, militarized 25 27 Agblorti, S. “Refugee Integration in Ghana: The Host Jacobsen and Bakewell. 2013. Inclusion Matters: Community’s Perspective.” Research Paper 203. The Foundations for Shared Prosperity. New Frontiers Geneva: UNHCR, 2011. of Social Policy. Washington, DC: World Bank. 26 28 Lopez, R et al. The Effects of Internal Displacement Kreibaum, Merle. "Their suffering, our burden? on Host Communities a Case Study of Suba and How Congolese refugees affect the Ugandan Ciudad Bolívar Localities in Bogotá, Colombia. ICRC population." World Development 78 (2016): 262-287. 29 and Brookings Institute, 2011. International Crisis Group. Too Close for Comfort: Syrians in Lebanon. Middle East Report No. 141. ICG, 2013. 12 presence”30 compounds the perception in the programmatic design and to validate the Lebanon of Syrian displacement as a permanent relevance of some of these assumptions. phenomenon with complex demographic, social, political and ethnic threats to the majority The sensitive political nature of much population. situational analysis, particularly where the displacement is large and into an already fragile The literature is also weak in acknowledging state, does pose restrictions on donors and that the composition of ‘local’ groups can vary implementing partners. This may include the and change. Missing is an acknowledgement complex political context they need to negotiate that the composition of local groups can change and which may constrain the candidness of the from situation to situation. In some cases, analysis and subsequent policy and practice. ‘locals’ could refer to resident population that Fragile states, states emerging from conflict, or may include previous refugees and other those that have significant political or previous immigrants. In other cases, ‘locals’ may institutional instability have major challenges to just refer to the native-born population or long- their social cohesion. In displacement contexts, term residents31. Similar permutations can apply particularly where displacement is into states to displaced populations. that are fragile, conflict-affected or have significant political or institutional instability, Social Cohesion Programming and Policy: policy targeting social cohesion can shy away Analysis and Assumptions from explicitly defining it given its links to possible pre-existing fault lines in the receiving Social cohesion programming tends to be country. Arguably this is the case with the Syria designed on the basis of loose Regional Response Plan which shies away from conceptualization and many implicit an analysis of the fragility in host countries and assumptions. The lack of a coherent agreed does not question assumptions about understanding on social cohesion and weak displacement into Lebanon and its neighbor substantiation in the literature of the impacts of countries, such as the permanency of displaced forced displacement on socio-economic realities populations. are two factors for this. For example, at times social cohesion is used in programming as a Strategizing about fostering social cohesion is synonym for community relations, and in others highly sensitive, particularly when the reality is it is an output in the form of new constituted that much displacement will be long term. This voluntary or community organizations (brought may not be accepted by host governments or together and given technical assistance by a set even by the normative frameworks used to of donors or national government). Equally, the provide status. Examples of challenges in the prospect of development can be conceptualized normative frameworks include the reservations as an incentive for communities to be cohesive, of countries in Africa that host displaced achieved by investing in leadership, engaging populations. For example, while being party to with youth and bringing together host and the 1951 Convention and Protocol, Angola, refugees or IDPs based upon a common vision Egypt, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, for the development of an area or region. What Namibia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Uganda and is often missing is an in-depth contextualization Zambia have significant reservations that restrict of displacement impact that includes historical the protection granted to refugees. These narratives and attitudinal evidence, to inform include reservations limiting access to education 30 31 Ibid: Christophersen, Mona et al. Ambivalent Hospitality: Coping Strategies and Local Responses to Syrian Refugees in Lebanon. Fafo, 2013. 13 and employment, thus undermining both and natural resources (and occasionally on the horizontal and vertical axes of social cohesion. It functioning of government itself) and concludes is often unclear how rooted the programmatic that any strain on services or shocks in the eco- intervention is in a true understanding of these system are therefore likely to lead to a national, regional and local political constraints. breakdown in social cohesion or are evidence of negative impact on social cohesion. Lack of rigorous methodology to establish baseline analysis means some policy and This is the tautology at the heart of much strategy is built on secondary analysis and analysis where increasing social cohesion or qualitative consultations from which findings preventing the deterioration of social cohesion are generalized to a national or regional is considered a development goal. Effectively situation. In much of the literature, it is any broad intervention targeting socio-economic challenging to locate an in-depth analysis that stresses of host and displaced communities is considers the reality of displacement from the considered as contributing to social cohesion perspectives of host and displaced populations, which in turn is a foundation for future that is informed by a nuanced understanding of development. the internal politics of the receiving country and that understands any legacy of conflict, Of the many synonyms for social cohesion, trust displacement or social disharmony that may or is possibly the most coherent and has roots in may not be exacerbated by the arrival of large- the more well-defined indices of social cohesion scale displacement. Thus, it is difficult to gauge and its location in inter-group relations. Where to what extent any such analysis really informs social cohesion is emphasized as trust (trust the understanding and the change model in an among members of society, trust between intervention or strategy targeting social displaced communities and host communities, cohesion and displacement. Yet the varying trust between members of society and the composition of host and displaced communities, institutions of the state), it is often the case that the changing permeability of its community over the social change model emphasizes a multi- time in response to social, economic, political faceted approach to building trust in society but and ethnic stresses and the influence of shies away from considering economic drivers of historical and social context requires a nuanced change (such as equal pay, equal access to understanding. Arguably only an explicit theory employment opportunities etc.). For example, in of change with coherent indices and measure of the context of the widespread displacement in social cohesion indicators can really tackle these the Arab region, the UNDP’s Promoting Social nuances. Cohesion in the Arab Region (PSCAR) project names economic factors that influence social In absence of such analysis, the prevailing cohesion but chooses to focus on building trust assumptions about social cohesion are many. between groups in society, including displaced One prevailing base assumption is that ‘social people, and between members of society and cohesion’ is self-evident whether considered an the institutions of the Arab states as the means end-in-itself or as a pathway to development. to secure social cohesion. The fundamental Social cohesion is assumed to be assumption is that by addressing limited interchangeable with a host of other concepts or “pluralistic participation in social, economic and socio-economic dynamics, such as a stable political life”, and in some cases, “the limited peaceful relationship between host and refugee respect for cultural diversity,” the project will populations, effective social protection address the fundamental drivers of “social mechanisms or trust. The analysis then turns to discontent” and group dissatisfactions. the stresses placed on a wide variety of social protection services and mechanisms, markets 14 Assumptions are also made about community should avoid this assumption and acknowledge and the capacities of host and displaced that the aim is to manage conflict without it communities to integrate. Often community- being harmful or exclusionary rather than to driven development (CDD), participative prevent it at all.34 decision making (including creating grass roots volunteer organizations such as Village World Bank Projects Committees32) employment programs and social protection programs are assumed to bring The issue of social cohesion is not new to the communities closer together, increase WBG. The World Bank has an established history understanding and positively impact on social of working on social cohesion, particularly in the cohesion. This is without clear definition of the social development sector where social cohesion entities being engaged (communities) or the is one of three pillars of the Social Development measurement of impact on social cohesion. Strategy. The WBG’s Social Development Community is a ‘fuzzy concept’33 with Strategy of 2005 defines “cohesion” as follows: boundaries that have varying degrees of “cohesive societies enable women and men to permeability, depending on a multitude of work together to address common needs, external and internal factors. Host communities overcome constraints and consider diverse and the displaced are not static entities. interests. They resolve differences in a civil, non- Movement of people in and out of the confrontational way, promoting peace and community, or the locations where there is a security.” Whilst the 2011 Mid-Cycle majority of one or the other, can be influenced Implementation Review of that strategy defines by many factors including new economic it as “cohesive institutions enable individuals and opportunity at the arrival of displaced communities to overcome social and economic populations and new demand for services and divisions and prevent the exposure and services providers. exacerbation of fault lines and occurrence of violent conflict.” What is required, however, is a Finally, underpinning all these assumptions is stronger ability to apply these concepts in the an often-unspoken objective, in which context of forced displacement, at a time when programs seek to create greater social there is new expectation and incentive to homogeneity. All too often social cohesion address the issue. interventions incorporate activities trying to support community-based adherence to the World Bank teams often consider tackling social same values and priorities. When unpacked, this cohesion as an important part of their assumption can look naïve. It ignores the fact engagement on forced displacement. As part of that social tension is inherent to human society this report, a portfolio review was conducted and is often necessary for communities to move which found 30 World Bank financed projects forward in achieving collective goods. It addressing forced displacement across different presumes that full incorporation and regions. Of the projects considered, 24 (86%) membership is what displaced persons are make mention of the term ‘social cohesion’ seeking. Many displaced persons use their several times where it is framed as an important marginalization and outsider status as a coping issue in project documents and one which strategy, to avoid detection and social control or project interventions may affect. See Annex 1 for to facilitate ongoing mobility. A more list of projects identified. There is a common sophisticated definition of social cohesion perception among project teams (based on the 32 34 UNHCR. Landau, L. peer review comments. 33 Cohen, Anthony P. The Symbolic Construction of Community, Social Science, 1985. 15 framing in project documents) that social Systematic identification of what social cohesion is a pertinent issue within the context cohesion challenges may exist are rarely of forced displacement. This speaks to the level conducted. Instead, most projects make what of demand amongst client countries for tackling appear to be largely intuitive deductions about the social tensions and upheaval associated with the likelihood that tensions may exist and why. the arrival of displaced persons. It also speaks to These deductions are either assumptions or an intuitive sense that social inclusion is a firsthand anecdotal observations. For example, fundamental part of a development response to reasons for stating that social tensions may exist forced displacement. See Box 5. and why include: i) an observed disruption in peace and security in the given context; ii) the Social cohesion as a concept and what a given observed detrimental socio-economic project is attempting to address is, however, consequences of a refugee crisis or conflict with usually weakly articulated. None of the project particular emphasis on access to social services; documents reviewed explicitly defined social iii) the presence of refugees/IDPs within host cohesion. Defining social cohesion within the communities; iv) the manner in which context of forced displacement interventions international organizations have responded to a appears to not be recognized as a necessity for crisis; and v) a lack of government capacity to project teams or may be viewed as too complex respond to a conflict/displacement crisis. a task. Specific observations in project documents include: “the socio-economic consequences of Box 5. Syrians under Temporary Protection the refugee crisis have led to increasingly fragile (SuTPs) inter-communal relations and social tensions”; “the fact that Syrian refugees have been the The current work between the WBG and the main beneficiaries of international and Government of Turkey is piloting an government assistance remains a source of assessment of the socio-economic impact of tension between communities”; “high population Syrians under Temporary Protection (SuTPs) density, combined with cycles of forced on Turkish Hosting Communities, lies within displacement and conflicts undermine social the paradigm that impact is by the minority cohesion, contribute to tensions between community on the majority. At the time of communities and ethnic groups, and perpetuate writing there is no explicit focus on social deep social and economic inequalities”; and cohesion although attitudinal surveys are to “current patterns of population displacement be used as part of the analytics. An earlier (2013) assessment by the Bank on Turkey’s and the lack of government capacity to mediate response to Syrian Refugees identifies that and manage land ownership disputes could social cohesion is one of five “socio-economic constitute points of contention”. pressures and displacement responses” in Turkey as a result of Syrian displacement (the Only four projects out of 30 (13%) have specific others are: (i) labour market and skills; (ii) interventions that seek to address social welfare; (iii) education and health, and (iv) cohesion challenges. These projects ascribe to housing and municipal services). The common themes identified about the type of assessment which locates the impact of interventions or approaches that will affect displacement first in these five pressure zones social cohesion outcomes, namely: i) conflates ‘social cohesion’ and ‘social tensions community-based or participatory approaches; and vulnerabilities’ social protection and and ii) a strengthening of community structures international support. to resolve conflicts/enhance peaceful coexistence with an emphasis on increased interaction and collaboration within and between communities. 16 Only two projects specify indicators to monitor are commonly referenced as the means to social cohesion outcomes. A project in achieve social cohesion. Some examples Mauritania35 has the following indicator: include: “the first way to promote social cohesion “decrease in proportion of target households through the Project will be through a reporting cases of conflict in previous 12 participatory process”; “if citizens participate months”. It was reported that “30% of and engage in the process of identifying and communities noted that the project has resulted prioritizing their developmental needs……social in reinforced social cohesion or strengthened cohesion will improve”; and “a community- conflict mitigation.” In the second project in Cote driven approach and or a ‘whole of community’ D’Ivoire 36, the indicator was, “number of social approach in tackling the reintegration of cohesion projects realized: # of houses built, displaced populations [will] help foster a sense of including for IDPs.” No report on actual social cohesion” and “participatory modalities outcomes was reported. [will] help build strong local ownership and thereby foster community resilience and social The remaining two projects monitor social cohesion.” Markedly, few projects provide cohesion outcomes but do not have specific evidence—either drawing from the context or interventions. The IDP Living Standards and from other similar contexts or literature—such Livelihoods Project in Azerbaijan37 has as its approaches will necessarily lead to improved objective to improve living conditions and social. It may be the case that some literature or increase the economic self-reliance of targeted other projects that have used this approach have internally displaced persons. It has the following indicated positive contributions to social indicators: i) “% of targeted beneficiaries who cohesion, however, this is not explicitly cited. feel socially excluded in the wider society”; and ii) “% of targeted beneficiaries whose social map of Assumptions are also made about community trusted relations includes non-IDP as well as and the capacities of host and displaced IDP.” In the DRC Eastern Recovery Project38, the communities to integrate. Often, community- objective is to improve access to livelihoods and driven development, participative decision socio-economic infrastructure in vulnerable making, employment programs and social communities in the eastern provinces of that protection programs are assumed to bring country. The project has the following single communities closer together and positively indicators: i) “improvement in social cohesion impact on social cohesion. This is without clear among beneficiaries of community subprojects”. delineation of the stakeholders being engaged It is noted that social cohesion will be measured (often communities) or the measurement of using a composite index that will include: level of impact on social cohesion. acceptance of others into the community; level of trust in other community members; and A limited number of projects appear to have propensity to work collectively to address done some assessment that substantiate why development challenges. community-based or participatory approaches are appropriate. For example, the Emergency Within WBG projects, it is notable that Services and Social Resilience Project40 has as its community-based or participatory processes39 objective to help Jordanian municipalities and 35 38 Sustainable Livelihoods for Returnees and Host DRC Eastern Recovery Project (P145196), SPL, AFR. 39 Communities in The Senegal River Valley Project in Such approaches usually consider the inclusion of Mauritania (P132998), SURR, AFR. marginalized groups such as ethnic minorities, 36 Cote d'Ivoire: Post Conflict Assistance Project – AF women, youth and refugees/returnees/IDPs. 40 (P144762/P0828817), SURR, AFR. Emergency Services and Social Resilience Project - 37 IDP Living Standards and Livelihoods Project AF (P161465/P147689), SURR, MNA. (P122943), SURR, ECA. 17 host communities address the immediate The project document notes that “social service delivery impacts of Syrian refugee protection initiatives have proven to reduce the inflows and strengthen municipal capacity to potential for social tensions/unrest, insecurity, support local economic development. It aims to and crime by reducing poverty and inequality”. foster “social cohesion through voice and The project document goes on to reference an participation”. In substantiating this approach, evaluation of a cash transfer program in Kenya “initial analysis of previous or existing projects as an evidence base for this claim. “In Kenya, a using participatory mechanisms indicate a high direct cash transfer program42 was implemented satisfaction with this method of decision-making in communities hosting the displaced following and its ability to increase the sense of agency in the violence that erupted in 2007, and which led locations removed from the center. International to the large-scale destruction of buildings, experience in a range of conflict affected disruption of labor markets and displacement of countries, from Cambodia to Sri Lanka and Sierra around 300,000 individuals. The evaluation Leone, is consistent with this approach”. found that, “in terms of social cohesion, the program reduced tensions, allowed people to Assumptions are made about what feel safer again, re-established trust and led to interventions will affect social cohesion participants reporting higher encouragement to outcomes. Although they vary and depend on restart their lives.” the project objectives and sector focus, common examples include: i) greater access to livelihood NGO Approaches opportunities/self-reliance for both refugees Beyond the WBG the increasing significance of and host communities; ii) increased access to social cohesion in forced displacement contexts social services and improved quality in those is recognized. As part of this report, feedback services (e.g., education, health); and iii) access was received from a limited number of external to mechanisms that can restore or address issues partners: the Danish Refugee Council (DRC); of injustice and access to social infrastructure Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC); Zimbabwe where different communities can meet and Community Based Planning Program; Search for discuss/resolve pressing problems. Some Common Ground (SFCG); and the Myanmar projects indicate a sensitivity around Social Cohesion Framework and Lebanon’s Social communication of project intentions and the Cohesion Programming. All agencies assumed links to social cohesion outcomes. For acknowledge the growing significance of social instance, “undertaking communication, cohesion in the context of forced displacement harmonization and sensitization campaigns and are beginning to develop systematic ways to within host communities” and “other special address it. The exception is SFCG where measures” about the intentions of the project addressing conflict is its core mandate and as will “improve social cohesion”. such it has developed systematic approaches to In some cases, evaluations point to positive address social cohesion challenges. Other outcomes. The Emergency National Poverty partners, including development agencies, were Targeting Project41 has an objective to expand approached, but feedback was not received coverage of the social assistance package of the within the timeframe of the report. National Poverty Targeting Program (NPTP) to All the agencies sampled are further along than Lebanese citizens affected by the Syrian crisis. the WBG in the systematic use of a definition of 41 Emergency National Poverty Targeting Program – Community: Nakuru, South Rift Valley, Kenya. Action AF (P158980), SPL, MNA. Contre la Faim (ACF) International Network. 42 Henderson, M. and S. Pietzsch (2008). Direct Cash Transfer to Post Election Violence Affected Host 18 social cohesion. Both the DRC and SFCG have Box 6. Danish Refugee Council and Search definitions of social cohesion which are for Common Ground Definitions of Social grounded in a review of various sources of Cohesion literature, but they also have more specific definitions that apply to specific country DRC’s Addressing Root Cause (ARC) contexts. NRC, however, does not have an platform organizational definition but rather considers Social cohesion references two features of social cohesion to be implicitly society for which specific indicators can be recognized/embedded in terms such as developed as per the relevant context. “community resilience and self-reliance” or i) “the absence of latent conflict – whether “coexistence”, which are terms commonly used in the form of income/wealth inequality; to describe the activities it engages in. See Box 6. racial/ethnic tension; disparities in political Assumptions about what interventions might participation; or other forms of work are varied. The NRC places emphasis on polarization; and community-based approaches whilst DRC’s ii) “the presence of strong social bonds” – approach is rooted in addressing both vertical measured by levels of trust and norms of and horizontal governance issues; access to basic reciprocity; the abundance of civic-society service, security and economic development, all associations and the presence of within the context of a respect for human rights institutions of conflict management (i.e., responsive democracy, and independent and rule of law. SFCG’s approach aims to judiciary, and independent media). transform the way individuals and societies deal with conflict by building capacities, relationships DRC notes that “despite the existence of these and systems that prevent the resort to violence definitions, numerous DRC programs make by using “dialogue, media and community” to reference to social cohesion without explicitly provide safe spaces for different people across defining it, assuming that there is a commonly dividing lines to dialogue as well as challenging agreed definition of it that is based on social public discourse that may contribute to social cohesion as the ‘glue’ that binds together tensions using popular media. Critically, as quite different groups within a given society”. For distinct from DRC, SFCG stresses that while DRC, the mere existence and recent rise of the concept denotes there is a real and/or ensuring improved access to services (i.e., perceived deficit of social cohesion, i.e., that health, schools, sanitary) is important, it “does forced displacement puts social cohesion not necessarily result in better relations under pressure. [between Lebanese and Syrians], as it does not address the existing negative perceptions SFCG between the two groups.” This was reflected in Social cohesion is regarded as “the glue that Search’s conflict analysis in Lebanon where bonds society together, essential for achieving resentment toward Syrian refugees was often peace, democracy and development”. This based on the perception that refugees are, for ‘glue’ is made up of four key components: example, stealing jobs and causing housing Social relationships, Connectedness, Orientation toward the common good, and prices to rise, whereas when asked to point out Equality. These components in turn require specific examples, few respondents were able good governance, respect for human rights to. and individual responsibility. Social cohesion is not an ideal, but rather an attainable objective requiring the active and constant commitment of all levels of society and is critical to the process of building a peaceful society and nation. 19 NGOs are developing diagnostic tools though employment”. For the DRC, where Monitoring, little systematic diagnosis has been made Evaluation and Learning (MEL) initiatives assess within the humanitarian sector. The NRC is in social cohesion effects, it attempted to quantify the nascent stages of developing diagnostic tools them by: frequencies and types of contacts to identify what social cohesion problems may between hosts and refugees; mapping of be in particular contexts. The development of potential support networks; feelings of safety the Social Cohesion Framework for Myanmar, and tensions; etc. However, DRC notes that “in with a multitude of stakeholders from across the absence of a clear definition of social that country, was designed to inform the UNDP cohesion, DRC applies a set of ‘home-grown’ and SFCG joint initiative Social Cohesion for indicators to concretize, and facilitate M&E Stronger Communities project. Thorough activities.” analysis was undertaken to determine what might be the “dividing factors” of social tensions. Despite some progress, the plasticity of the The analysis covered the country context, concept means that the proposed impact of economic development and inequality, gender, displacement on social cohesion continues democratic governance and decentralization. largely to depend on the bias of the author, Examples of the dividing factors identified program or development agency. For example, included: “mutual mistrust between the of the three examples referenced in Box 6, none government and civil society”; “poverty and contain a definition of social cohesion or a rising social inequality exacerbate tensions and coherent set of indicators through which the increase potential for the escalation of conflict, impact either of displacement, or of as people compete over resources and programming and policy on social cohesion, can opportunities”; and “media propaganda in be measured. Myanmar negatively portrays various minorities and social groups, particularly on the basis of The challenge with measuring impact upon gender, ethnicity and religion”. Similarly, in social cohesion in displacement contexts is that Lebanon, SFCG at the end of 2013 conducted a once again there is a fundamental lack of wide conflict assessment in the 11 target definition of social cohesion either conceptually communities to reveal the real and perceived or via measurement matrices. Non-program factors fueling resentment and misperceptions literature examining the impact of interventions and to identify potential positive factors on on social cohesion tend to either replicate the which to build social cohesion. The assessment lack of definition in donor policy and allowed programming to be tailored to the programming43 or draw attention to the lack of specific social and political contexts of each baseline data, lack of program-related indicators community. DRC Jordan has a forthcoming study of social and the lack of a rigorous methodology. on social cohesion which highlights “tensions in Other issues arise even within reviews of studies its three areas of intervention, whether between on programmatic impact of social cohesion. One refugee and local populations, within refugee such assessment for DfID44 cites Beath et al.’s communities, and amongst host community 2012 study on CDD in Afghanistan45 as an populations. Frequently mentioned sources of example of a study finding positive or neutral tension between refugee and host community effects of CDD on social cohesion in conflict members include perceived lack of equal settings. However, the authors of that CDD study opportunities, lack of acknowledgement and never mention social cohesion but rather look at respect for diversity and competition for 43 44 Beath, A., Christia, F. and Enikolopov, R. “Winning Iffat, Idris. Building Social Cohesion in Post-Conflict Hearts and Minds? Evidence from a Field Experiment Situations. GSDRC, 2016. 45 in Afghanistan.” Princeton. 2012. Idris, Iffat (2016): 2. 20 Box 7. Current Examples of Approaches to Social Cohesion in Displacement Settings Turkana County, Kenya Within the Turkana County development strategy46 social cohesion is given limited conceptualization as sitting somewhere within work on peace building and conflict management. The indicators of impact on social cohesion in the strategy are a mix of outcomes from largely mainstreamed peace-building measures. These include “strengthening peaceful co-existence” through peace meetings at multiple levels in the county and between it and others in Kenya.47 Implicitly in the plan the concept of social cohesion is linked to democracy, good governance, social unity, peace and cultural heritage but how is not made apparent. Pakistan The RAHA program in Pakistan conceptualizes social cohesion as a means to promote co-existence between Afghan refugees and the wider Pakistani community and to “provide Afghans with a predictable means to a temporary stay”.48 Explicitly the RAHA targets social cohesion through the program as it is delivered in Refuge Hosting Areas (RHAs), specifically by promoting “peaceful co-existence and social cohesion among refugees and their Pakistani host communities”.49 Implicitly it aims to consolidate social cohesion by rehabilitating areas that were heavily populated by Afghani refugees but have since been depopulated through returns, and by compensating “the Pakistani communities for the economic, and environmental impact of past displacement”.50 Under the project remit and as documented in its evaluations51 the indicators and so the observable manifestation of social cohesion lies in cross- community cooperation (such as cross-community driven development, cross-community management of local infrastructure rehabilitation) and the establishment of voluntary of community structures through which cooperation occurs. MENA Syria Regional Response Plan (RPP6) The RPP6 and the Regional Development and Protection Programme (RDPP) targeting refugees (2.85 million Syrians) and host communities in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey (2.5 million host community members) focuses on “early recovery, social cohesion interventions and a transition from assistance to development-led interventions”.52 In the RPP6 narrative conceptually social cohesion is located in the space between economic inclusion and service delivery. It is defined through the negative impacts on the host communities by the influx of displaced Syrians. The context in which these negative impacts are to be addressed is the transition from humanitarian assistance to development. Alongside the humanitarian concern for the increasing, multi-dimensional vulnerability of the 10 million displaced Syrians (both the refugees and the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), there are severe current and longer-term impacts on the developmental and economic strategies of the host countries, their social cohesion and service delivery capacities which were already fragile in pre-crisis conditions.53 vectors that might be considered relevant to the A study in Liberia55 can be seen as an example of horizontal axis of social cohesion such as security the study of program impact on social cohesion. and population attitudes toward government.54 The author charts the importance of social 46 Government of Kenya/Turkana County Government, 2013. 47 Government of Kenya/Turkana County Government (particularly pp221f), 2013. 48 Solutions Strategy for Afghan Refugees to support Voluntary Repatriation, Sustainable Reintegration, and Assistance to Host Countries (RAHA) Pakistan. UNHCR, 2013. 49 Refugee Affected and Hosting Areas Programme. UNHCR, 2016. 50 Ibid. 54 Beath, A., Christia, F. and Enikolopov, R. “Winning Hearts and Minds? Evidence from a Field Experiment in Afghanistan.” Princeton. 2012. 55 King, E. “Can Development Interventions Help Post -Conflict Communities Build Social Cohesion? The Case of the Liberia Millennium Villages.” CIGI-AI Discussion Paper No. 9. Africa Initiative Discussion Paper Series, Africa Initiative and The Centre for International Governance Innovation. 2013. 21 cohesion to development generally but bemoans ways has to reach beyond the kind of situational lack of baseline data and the tendency to assess analysis that is often presented in strategy, interventions after completion. This coupled policy and programming in displacement with the challenges of measuring changes in a contexts. social phenomenon and ensuring context specific assessment make measuring social The ‘ideal scenario’ for utilising Social Cohesion cohesion per se (not just in a displacement is first to define it. Given the findings in the setting) highly challenging. The assessment of accompanying literature review, the theoretical Liberia Millennium Villages tracks indicators that roots of conceptualisations of social cohesion, are reflected in the more dedicated social the semantic debates over what constitutes cohesion measurement tools, particularly SCORE social cohesion and the plasticity of the concept, index and UNDP’s Social Cohesion Index for the it is advisable to apply a basic definition. Based Arab Region. on this literature review, a proposed working definition of social cohesion for World Bank Utilizing Social Cohesion in Strategy, interventions is support to the management of social conflict in ways so as to prevent that Policy and Programs: A Way Forward conflict resulting in violent repercussions and harmful social marginalisation. The challenge for programs and projects aiming to address social cohesion is to utilize a clear and Once defined, the most effective application of concise concept of social cohesion, to base its a definition is to a longer-term strategic application in a full assessment and observation approach rather than to discreet activities and of contextual social and economic dynamics and project interventions. Programming and to utilize indicators and methodologies that are strategy then “holistically contribute”56 to social suited to that specific context. cohesion within a given society as a whole. In addition, this need to be done at several levels This longer-term approach requires of intervention. At the micro-level this is the measurement and assessment of the social individual—the community member from whom cohesion context via social cohesion indices, quantitative or qualitative data will be solicited such as those used in the SCORE and UNDP in order to assess the situation on the ground. At initiatives. Additional indices such as the meso-level this is the data aggregated to the measurement of poverty or deprivation, can add community level. At the macro-level this is nuance to the data collected in a social cohesion national or regional/transnational context. The index. Similarly meta-analysis from social media extent to which each level is emphasized is usage (which is utilized to good effect in tracking variable, but at all times the unit of observation transactions between irregular migrants must be tied to a coherent, nuanced and (including asylum seekers) and people substantiated situational analysis that in many smugglers57) can also assist in profiling social 53 56 Ibid. Ibid. 54 57 Beath, A., Christia, F. and Enikolopov, R. “Winning See Schapendonk, Joris. “Turbulent Trajectorie s: Hearts and Minds? Evidence from a Field Experiment African Migrants on Their Way to the European in Afghanistan.” Princeton. 2012. Union.” Societies 2. (2012): 27-41. For media analysis 55 King, E. “Can Development Interventions Help Post- see: The Facebook Smugglers Selling the Dream of Conflict Communities Build Social Cohesion? The Case Europe. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine- of the Liberia Millennium Villages.” CIGI-AI Discussion 32707346. Accessed March 7th 2016. Re-accessed Paper No. 9. Africa Initiative Discussion Paper Series, November 16th 2017. Africa Initiative and The Centre for International Governance Innovation. 2013. 22 cohesion stresses and the attitudes and coping mechanisms for dealing with breakdowns intentions in communities caught-up in or weaknesses. History will play an important displacement.58 In some cases (as see with the role in the formation of inter-communal European focused indices) the European Values attitudes and perceptions which are measured Survey can provide primary data from which during a social cohesion assessment or the analysis about social inclusion can be made assessment of other community dynamics. (depending upon the theoretical underpinning of the analysis), and at any time a variety of Any bias the recipient or implementing partner attitudinal surveys can contribute to the analysis has, which might affect such analysis, should be including those conducted at the micro and made transparent. For example, where the meso levels. operational or policy focus is on health and disability. Access to health services might impart The first step is a nuanced political economy a bias both in quantitative and qualitative tools study which should guide the understanding of and data toward subjective and objective the situation. In displacement contexts and indicators of health on horizontal and vertical beyond, political economy analysis provides lines, such as self-reported health status, impact understanding that institutions and ideas shape of health status on perceived trustworthiness or political action and development outcomes. It social capital, official health classification lays out the interests and incentives facing (including disability status), self-reported access different (possibly conflicting) groups in society to health services and trust in public service and how these generate outcomes, barriers and providers. opportunities that may encourage or hinder development and development interventions. It Tools and analysis could also have a bias toward clearly analyzes the role that formal institutions indicators of propensity to collective action. (legal and judicial, for example) play in shaping This might include peaceful protest, violent interaction at the community, sub-national and protests, self-defence, pervasiveness and effect national levels as well as political, economic and of perceptions of ethnic or other identity-based social competition. Finally, it maps the impact of bias, indicators of identity, threat perception and values, ideas, beliefs and perceptions including trust in institutions (particularly judicial, security political ideology, religion, cultural beliefs, ethnic and access to resources). At the level of assessing and national identity on political and public community dynamics, there may not be behaviour and policy. sufficient resources to dig deep into identity and the role it has in conflict or perceived intergroup History is crucial to the understanding of threat. In that case assessment of emotional cohesion in a displacement context regardless response to other groups or scenarios as well as of the geographical location. Analysis of the perceptions of trust could help compensate for historical context does not need to be overly the study limitations. extensive but can be succinct and rooted in the horizontal and vertical axes of inclusion as is Once a longer-term strategic approach to exemplified by the background analysis by ICG supporting social cohesion has been defined, on Syrian displacement into Lebanon. “Past project preparation and design should be done events, sectarian and political identities, the role with a view to influencing key aspects of this. of the media and profile of particular geographic Critically, in displacement, it should be region”59 are important factors when remembered that social cohesion is greater than understanding stresses on social cohesion and refugee-host community dynamics. Projects are 58 59 UNHCR. Big Data Analytics: Syria Return Intentions Guay, Joseph. (2015): 16. Monitoring. UNHCR Innovation, July 2017. 23 likely to only influence certain elements of a At the level of community dynamics (which is a more complex whole. Despite the challenge of useful level to inform project design and M&E), feasibility, the approach, methodology and generally indicators will include the following indicators applied at the project and and will be applied to an appropriate sample of strategy/policy level can (and arguably should) the populations being assessed: have coherence. There can be a correlation between the analysis and how this feeds into • Demographic profile (structured on sample monitoring project progress and social impact. parameters and potentially including non- Hence the importance of vertical and horizontal core demographic indicators such as health axes of analysis and whether they are those status); mapped out in political economy analysis or • Economic indicators (depending on bias can those presented in a particular social cohesion include at least the following: access to index—such as UNDP’s core, medial and material goods, tendency to migrate, peripheral indicators. economic status, financial security, perceptions of employment discrimination, The SCORE Index perceptions of access and barriers to assets, and household dynamics); and The SCORE index applies a country-level focus that can be distilled down to inform project • Social indicators (depending on bias can selection and targeting. In practical terms, at include at least the following: belonging, present the collaborative analytical work of the contentment, inter group perceptions SCORE index can be completed in six months, at including threat and trust, quality and which point project design and beneficiary quantity of intergroup contact, social selection can be guided by the findings. The networks, empowerments, respect, identity vision is for SCORE to be further refined and to and safety as well as value statements). become implementable in a three-month time Box 8. The SCORE Application in Liberia period. The index begins with a country-specific outcome (essentially, the ‘what are we trying to In Liberia SCORE was used through analyzing the change’) that is decided upon through a economic behaviour of citizens to map the collaborative process including with potential development orientation of key groups in recipient partners. The analytics then derive the particular parts of the country. The index found programming to achieve the outcomes (the that carers, that is: people who care for those ‘what we need to do’). The index draws on a only partially able to care for themselves or not library of indicators to monitor performance at all, had low development orientation (tended and, if required, augments these with new to give away their financial resources rather indicators created for the specific country of than invest them for themselves). Thus, despite operation. The index uses statistical regression providing an essential service for the vulnerable, to test the development hypothesis for the carers were among the poorest and least country, to better target beneficiaries and to be resilient population group. Furthermore, this more efficient in development programming, had a regional pattern. Essentially carers were particularly where there is an inter-group locked in a cycle of poverty. Based on this dynamic such as in displacement. By being programming could be orientated toward rooted in an evidence base and on-going increasing the developmental orientation of country-specific monitoring of progress toward a carers and so positively impacting not only the development objective, the SCORE index is lives of carers and their families but also the lives useful to test assumptions in development. of those for whom carers provided essential services outside the reach of the State. 24 There may be extenuating situations where difficult to access, perhaps newly arrived but neither social cohesion assessments or dispersed throughout urban or rural community dynamics assessments are feasible. settlements. In such context piggy-backing data Yet there may be reported stresses along the collection on existing communications networks vertical or horizontal axes, testimony or can in part overcome challenges in data indications of breakdown in trust, incidences of collection but not replace more in depth exclusion or increased tension, perception of surveying and analysis. threat and propensity to take harmful collective action. In such conditions non–traditional Globally, there is a growth in the connectivity of approaches can be useful, such as incident displaced populations. In 2015 mobile phone reporting, perhaps via key focus people in ownership rates among displaced populations communities, via social media or via mobile rivalled that of the world’s overall population.60 communications technology. However, the Increasingly mobile phone technology and limitations and risks of these more limited analysis of social media is being utilized not just approaches to cohesion and particularly in humanitarian assistance (cash transfers, for propensity to conflict must be managed. Issues example) but also for data collection in displaced such as reliability of data, reliability of reporting populations. In that way rapid and light alerts mechanisms, lack of political economy analysis related to community dynamics can be tracked and lack of control factors for the data collected in the wider context of development may influence the reliability of reporting and the interventions with displaced and host accuracy of any assessment. These risks may also communities. be relevant where displaced populations are Box 9. SCORE Ukraine IDP Metrics Source: USAID Presentation SCORE Ukraine. 11th February 2016. 60 GSMA. Landscape Report: Mobile Money, Humanitarian Cash Transfers and Displaced Populations. May 2017: 5. 25 Box 10. SCORE Bosnia and Herzegovina Overview Source: USAID Presentation SCORE Index BiH October 2014. Conclusions addition, what analysis exists has focused on the social nexus between This paper found that there are a number of displaced persons and host conceptual, methodological and programmatic communities, with little consideration of challenges with the concept of social cohesion. the potential social fissures and changes These challenges are: within groups of displaced persons, within the hosting society, or in the • Lack of definition. A literature review context of the return of displaced concluded that when used in the context persons back to their places of origin; of forced displacement, the concept of and social cohesion is rarely coherently • Lack of evaluation. Finally, the ability to defined and that its usage is elastic with make authoritative recommendations different scope and application across on what works to address social tension those who use it; in the context of forced displacement is • Weak analysis. Current social analysis of undermined by a lack of evaluation of the impacts of forced displacement is how existing programmatic attempts only very partial. As discussed further have worked or made a difference. below, particular gaps are assessment Where evaluation does exist, it is which place the substantiation of the focused on outcome or output social dynamics of social cohesion in measurement rather than on impact and historical and political context. In on longitudinal change. 26 Given these challenges, this work can only be between receiving communities and migrants seen as a first step toward strengthening the and second within migrant groups. Accepting evidence base and on issuing guidance on policy that social cohesion is an attribute of a society as and programming that can inform senior a whole, it is not located between host and management undertaking dialogue with client displaced populations (inter-communal governments and task teams preparing projects relations). on how to understand and enhance social cohesion in situations of forced displacement. Recommendations Valuable work has been undertaken to define The opportunity presented by social cohesion for the concept of social cohesion more coherently strategy, policy and programming in and to identify its composite variables. This displacement contexts is to coherently root work identified three more considered versions development interventions in a common of a definition of social cohesion and its understanding of the value of social cohesion to constituent variables. These are: communities and to achieving development outcomes. The following recommendations • the indexes of social cohesion developed apply for those designing projects and engaging by Charles Harp and applied by UNDP in policy dialogue with a view to addressing across the Middle East; social tensions in the context of forced • the VALCOS index applied by the OECD; displacement: • the SCORE index applied in Ukraine and 1. Exercise some caution on framing the Bosnia and Herzegovina issue. With these more deliberate attempts to define There may be no urgency to ‘fix the problem’. the concept, it is clear that social cohesion is a Understand that social conflict and the composite concept that encompasses a range of navigation of diversity is an intrinsic part of social vectors including the attitudinal and emotional functioning even under peaceful and less (for example, acceptance, empathy and trust), stressful conditions. the collective (for example, identity and propensity for joint action), the institutional and 2. Be realistic about what is achievable. systemic (for example, political participation) In crisis situations, for example, it is reasonable and the socio-economic (for example, relative to ask to what extent social cohesion can be deprivation and access to opportunities). measured in a large traumatized population in Moreover, these vectors run both horizontally transit or recently received by the host country. (between persons and groups) and vertically (between persons, communities and 3. Understand the context. institutions). Truly understanding the impact of forced displacement on social relations and • A short nuanced political economy study social cohesion requires an understanding of the will provide understanding of the impact of forced displacement across all these interests and incentives facing different variables and across several axes of society, (possibly conflicting) groups in society which makes it a complex and as yet, and how these generate outcomes, incomplete, undertaking. barriers and opportunities that may encourage or hinder development and Social cohesion is an attribute of a group or a development interventions. It should society not of individuals. This has relevance analyze the role that formal institutions when considering the World Bank’s proposal (legal and judicial, for example) play in that social cohesion in displacement is first shaping interactions at the community 27 and national levels as well as political, definition such as that proposed by World Vision economic and social competition. as derived from UNDP and USAID analysis: “the Finally, it should map the impact of set of relationships between and individuals and values, ideas, beliefs and perceptions, groups in a particular environment and between including political ideology, religion, those individuals and groups and the institutions cultural beliefs, ethnic and national that govern them in a particular environment.” identity on political and public behaviour and policy. 6. Don’t make assumptions. • History is key to the understanding of • It cannot be assumed that forced cohesion in a displacement context displacement upsets a prior and static regardless of the geographical location configuration of social relations or state- of the host and refugee communities, citizen connections. All too often and so must inform any political interventions incorporate activities economy or situational analysis of social trying to support community-based cohesion and displacement. This does adherence to the same set of values and not need to be overly extensive and can priorities. be succinct and rooted in the horizontal • All indicators, approaches and and vertical axes of inclusion as is methodologies are conditional on the exemplified by the background analysis particular context and any bias the by International Crisis Group (ICG) on World Bank, recipient or implementing Syrian displacement into Lebanon. Past partner has and any bias should be made events, sectarian and political identities, transparent. the role of the media and profile of particular geographic regions are • Tools and analysis could have a bias important factors when understanding toward indicators of propensity to stresses on social cohesion and coping collective action (including perhaps mechanisms for dealing with peaceful protest, violent protests, self- breakdowns or weaknesses. defense); pervasiveness and effect of perceptions of ethnic or other identity- • Spatial variances are important. based bias; indicators of identity; threat Including but not limited to urban and perception; trust in institutions rural locations and variances within (particularly judicial, security); and urban settings such a camp settlement perceived threat over access to (closed or open), urban and non-urban resources. settlement patterns, concentration or dispersed settlement. • At the level of assessing community dynamics, there may not be sufficient 4. Be prepared to take a long-term approach. resources to dig deep into identity and There is no ‘social cohesion’ programming or the role it has in conflict or perceived project activity that can fully address the social intergroup threat. In that case tensions associated with forced displacement. assessment of emotional response to Rather social cohesion is an approach to other groups or scenarios as well as development interventions whether in perceptions of trust could help displacement contexts or elsewhere. compensate for these limitations. 7. Use indicators and methodologies that are 5. Use a precise working definition. suited to the specific context. Teams should utilize a clear and concise concept of social cohesion. It is advisable to apply a basic 28 The level can be a higher level (such as country longitudinal application and one integrated with partnership strategy) or community level (such project M&E and social impact assessment. as in project preparation and impact assessment). At the level of community The most effective and efficient application of dynamics (which is a useful level to inform the social cohesion is through the indicators of project design and M&E), generally indicators either/both of the SCORE and Harp indices as will include the following and will be applied to they applied to a longer-term strategic approach an appropriate sample of the populations being to partnership and programming. The index assessed: begins with a country-specific outcome (essentially, the ‘what are we trying to change’) • Demographic profile (structured on that is decided upon through a collaborative sample parameters and potentially process including with potential recipient including non-core demographic partners. The analytics then derive the indicators such as health status). programming to achieve the outcomes (the ‘what we need to do’). The index draws on a • Economic indicators (depending on bias library of indicators to monitor performance can include at least the following: access and, if required, augments these with new to material goods, tendency to migrate, indicators created for the specific country of economic status, financial security, operation. By being rooted in an evidence base perceptions of employment and on-going country-specific monitoring of discrimination, perceptions of access progress toward a development objective, the and barriers to assets, and household SCORE index is useful to test assumptions in dynamics). development. • Social indicators (depending on bias can include at least the following: belonging, Additional indices, such as measurement of contentment, inter group perceptions poverty or deprivation, can add nuance to the including threat and trust, quality and data collected in a social cohesion index. quantity of intergroup contact, social Similarly meta-analysis from social media usage networks, empowerments, respect, (which is utilized to good effect in tracking identity and safety as well as value transactions between irregular migrants statements). (including asylum seekers) and people smugglers61) can also assist in profiling social In this approach to examining community cohesion stresses and the attitudes and dynamics, quantitative data and analysis must intentions in communities caught-up in be tested and explored in qualitative displacement.62 In some cases (as seen with the consultations with key informants and with sub- European focused indices), the European Values groups, such as those identified as particularly Survey can provide primary data from which vulnerable to active and passive social exclusion analysis about social inclusion can be made or perhaps those that have a propensity to (depending upon the theoretical underpinning general or particular forms of collective action. of the analysis), and at any time a variety of While assessing community dynamics can be a attitudinal surveys can contribute to the analysis once-off analytical exercise, the real value is in a including those conducted at the micro and 61 See Schapendonk, Joris. “Turbulent Trajectories: 32707346 . Accessed March 7, 2016. Re-accessed African Migrants on Their Way to the European November 16, 2017. 62 Union.” Societies 2. (2012): 27-41. For media analysis UNHCR. Big Data Analytics: Syria Return Intentions see: The Facebook Smugglers Selling the Dream of Monitoring. UNHCR Innovation, July 2017. Europe. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine- 29 meso levels. These lower-tier analyses can be reliability of reporting and the accuracy of any more feasible when the emphasis is on project assessment. preparation rather than the country-level strategy or beyond. Despite the challenge of 9. Regardless of the level of intervention, feasibility, the approach, methodology and units of observation remain the same. indicators applied at the project and strategy/ Regardless of whether certain aspects are policy levels can (and arguably should) have emphasized over others (such as indicators of coherence. There can be a correlation between trust or instances of inter-personal conflict), at the analysis and how this feeds into monitoring the micro-level the unit of observation is the project progress and social impact. individual from whom quantitative or qualitative data will be solicited. At the meso-level this is the 8. Be aware of accessibility challenges. data aggregated to the community level. At the Displaced populations may be difficult to access, macro-level this is national or regional/ perhaps newly arrived but dispersed throughout transnational context. The extent to which each urban or rural settlements. In such context level is emphasized is variable, but at all times piggy-backing data collection on existing the unit of observation must be tied to a communications networks can in part overcome coherent, nuanced and substantiated situational challenges in data collection but not replace analysis. This has to reach beyond the kind of more in depth surveying and analysis. Globally, situational analysis that is often presented in in correlation with growth in displaced strategy, policy and programming in populations, there is a growth in connectivity of displacement contexts. displaced populations to the extent that by 2015 mobile phone ownership rates among displaced 10. Partnerships are key for common populations rivalled that of the world’s overall understanding, programming and M&E. population. Increasingly and including within the Given the plasticity of the concept, the proposed UN agencies, mobile phone technology is being impact of displacement on social cohesion utilized not just in humanitarian assistance (cash depends on the bias of the author, program or transfers, for example) but also for data development agency. Working in partnership collection in displaced populations. In that way can be a way to identify and circumvent such rapid and light alerts related to community biases. dynamics can be tracked in the wider context of development interventions with displaced and host communities. There may be extenuating situations where neither social cohesion assessments or community dynamics assessments are feasible. In such conditions non–traditional approaches can be useful, such as incident reporting perhaps via key focus people in communities, via social media or via mobile communications technology, however, the limitations and risks of these shallow approaches to cohesion and particularly propensity to conflict must be managed. Issues such as reliability of data, reliability of reporting mechanisms, lack of political economy analysis and lack of control factors for the data collected may influence the 30 Annex 1 – Review of World Bank Projects Country/ Practice Project Code Project Name Region Task Team Leader (s) Sub-region Area P160941/P154278 Additional Financing of Federally Administered SAR Pakistan SPL Amjad Zafar Khan, Ali Nadeem Tribal Areas (FATA) Temporarily Displaced Persons Qureshi Emergency Recovery Project P163895 Great Lakes Region Displaced Persons and Border AFR Central Africa SURR Joanna Peace De Berry Communities Project Additional Financing P161591 Service Delivery and Support to Communities AFR Central African SURR Ana Paula Fialho Lopes Affected by Displacement Project Republic Giuseppe Zampaglione P161670 Employment Support Project for Syrians under ECA Turkey SPL Abla Safir, Mirey Ovadiya Temporary Protection and Host Communities P162004 Education Infrastructure for Resilience (EU Facility ECA Turkey SURR Elif Ayhan, Joel E. Reyes for SuTP) P163387 Jordan Emergency Health Project MNA Jordan HNP Aakanksha Pande P158066 Sustainable Livelihoods for Displaced and Vulnerable AFR Sudan SURR Abderrahim Fraiji, Rahmoune Communities in Eastern Sudan: Phase 2 Essalhi, Faizaa Fatima P161067 Development Response to Displacement Impacts AFR Eastern Africa SURR Varalakshmi Vemuru, Gandham Project (DRDIP) in the Horn of Africa N.V. Ramana P163468 Citizen Charter Afghanistan Project - Emergency SAR Afghanistan SURR Janmejay Singh Regional Displacement Response Additional Financing P161465/P147689 Emergency Services and Social Resilience Project AF MNA Jordan SURR Sima W. Kanaan P159470 Reaching All Children with Education in Lebanon MNA Lebanon EDU Noah Bunce Yarrow Support Project 31 P152822 Development Response to Displacement Impacts AFR Djibouti, Ethiopia, SURR Varalakshmi Vemuru, Michael Project in the Horn of Africa Uganda Mutemi Munavu, Teklu Tesfaye Toli P152821 AFCC2/RI-GLR: Displaced Persons & Border AFR Central Africa SURR Natacha Caroline Lemasle, Communities (Zambia) Joanna Peace De Berry P157861 Piloting Delivery of Justice Sector Services to Poor MNA Jordan GOV Paul Scott Prettitore Jordanians and Refugees in Host Communities P154278 FATA Temporarily Displaced Persons Emergency SAR Pakistan SPL Amjad Zafar Khan Recovery Project P152898 Emergency Education System Stabilization MNA Lebanon EDU Noah Bunce Yarrow P148552 Colombia: Collective Reparation for Victims through LAC Colombia SURR Marcelo Jorge Fabre Social Reconstruction Project P149724 Lebanon Municipal Services Emergency Project MNA Lebanon SURR Guido Licciardi P149242 Emergency Nat'l Poverty Targeting Project MNA Lebanon SPL Haneen Ismail Sayed P145865 Mitigate the Impact of Syrian Displacement on MNA Jordan SPL Haneen Ismail Sayed Jordan P145196/ P157303 DRC Eastern Recovery Project AFR DRC SPL Maurizia Tovo P144762/P0828817 CI: Post Conflict Assistance Project - AF AFR Cote d'Ivoire SURR Nicolas Perrin P132998 Sustainable Livelihoods for Returnees and Host AFR Mauritania SURR Daniel P. Owen Communities in The Senegal River Valley Project in Mauritania P122943/ P155110 IDP Living Standards and Livelihoods Project ECA Azerbaijan SURR Robert Wrobel Nijat Valiyev Rebecca Emilie Anne Lacroix 32 Projects with no mention of “social cohesion” P160223 Roads and Employment Project MNA Lebanon T&I Ziad Salim EL Nakat P159522 Economic Opportunities for Jordanians and Syrian MNA Jordan T&C John F. Speakman Refugees P4R P159307 Third National Solidarity Project SAR Afghanistan SURR Naila Ahmed P127079 Local Governance and Service Delivery Project AFR South Sudan SURR Zishan Faiza Karim P127949 AFCC2/RI Horn of Africa Emergency Health and AFR Kenya, Ethiopia HNP Sheila Dutta Nutrition Project P089751/ P107613 IDP Economic Development Support Project ECA Azerbaijan SURR Joanna Peace De Berry 33