WPS8161 Policy Research Working Paper 8161 Does Financial Education Impact Financial Literacy and Financial Behavior, and If So, When? Tim Kaiser Lukas Menkhoff Development Economics Vice Presidency Strategy and Operations Team August 2017 Policy Research Working Paper 8161 Abstract A meta-analysis of 126 impact evaluation studies finds that clients as well as in low- and lower-middle income economies. financial education significantly impacts financial behavior Specific behaviors, such as the handling of debt, are more and, to an even larger extent, financial literacy. These results difficult to influence and mandatory financial education also hold for the subsample of randomized experiments tentatively appears to be less effective. Thus, intervention (RCTs). However, intervention impacts are highly hetero- success depends crucially on increasing education intensity geneous: financial education is less effective for low-income and offering financial education at a “teachable moment.” This paper is a product of the Strategy and Operations Team, Development Economics Vice Presidency. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at lmenkhoff@diw.de. The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Produced by the Research Support Team Does Financial Education Impact Financial Literacy and Financial Behavior, and If So, When? Tim Kaiser and Lukas Menkhoff JEL classification: D 14 (personal finance), I 21 (analysis of education) Key words: financial education, financial literacy, financial behavior, meta-analysis, meta- regression, impact evaluation Tim Kaiser is a research associate at the University of Kiel, Germany and the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin); his email address is tkaiser@diw.de. Lukas Menkhoff (corresponding author) is the head of department of International Economics at the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin) and Professor of Economics at the Humboldt-University of Berlin; his email address is lmenkhoff@diw.de. Acknowledgements: We thank the authors who responded to our requests to provide their datasets or further details about their studies for their kind cooperation. Moreover, we appreciate valuable comments from participants at the Research in Behavioral Finance Conference 2016 in Amsterdam, the Meta-Analysis in Economics Research Network Colloquium 2016 in Conway, What Works Global Summit 2016 in London, the Conference in Behavioral Economics and Financial Literacy 2016 in Barcelona, and seminar participants in Berlin, Halle, Hamburg, Kampala, Kiel, and Vienna. In particular, we thank the editor (Eric Edmonds), three anonymous referees, Martin Brown, Nathan Fiala, Greg Fisher, Antonia Grohmann, Roy Kouwenberg, Jochen Kluve, Andreas Lutter, Christian Martin, Olivia Mitchell, Bob Reed, Anna Sokolova, Tom Stanley, Bertil Tungodden, Ludger Wössmann, and Dean Yang. Research assistance by Melanie Krüger and Iven Lützen, and financial support by DFG through CRC TRR 190 are gratefully acknowledged. I. INTRODUCTION The financial behavior of consumers and small-scale entrepreneurs is receiving increased interest. Evidence suggests a remarkable incidence of suboptimal individual financial decisions despite the fact that these decisions are highly relevant for individual welfare. The most prominent case of such an important financial decision in advanced economies is the amount and kind of retirement savings (cf. Duflo and Saez 2003). Studies show that undersaving is prevalent in many advanced economies and that households tend to save in inefficient ways, indicating that many may be unable to cope with the increasingly complex financial markets (e.g., Lusardi and Mitchell 2007; Choi et al. 2011; Behrman et al. 2012; van Rooij et al. 2012). This kind of behavior also stretches across other areas, including portfolio composition (Campbell 2006;Choi et al. 2010;Bucher-Koenen and Ziegelmeyer 2014;von Gaudecker 2015), excessive and overly expensive borrowing (Stango and Zinman 2009; Gathergood 2012; Agarwal and Mazumder 2013; Gerardi et al. 2013; Zinman 2015), as well as participation in financial markets in general (van Rooij et al. 2011). Related problems arise in developing countries often with even more serious consequences as people are exposed to heavy shocks without having sufficient insurance or mitigation instruments (e.g., Cole et al. 2011; Drexler et al. 2014; Gibson et al. 2014; Sayinzoga et al. 2016). All this strongly motivates providing financial education to foster financial behavior. In surprising contrast to this obvious motivation for financial education stands the lack of compelling evidence that providing financial education is an effective policy for targeting individual financial behavior (Hastings et al. 2013; Zinman 2015). Narrative literature reviews are inconclusive, either emphasizing the effectiveness of education measures (e.g., Fox et al. 2005; Lusardi and Mitchell 2014) or emphasizing the opposite (e.g., Willis 2011). Further, the two available meta-analyses of this issue do not converge in their findings: Fernandes et al. (2014) summarize overall unreliable effects of financial education, whereas Miller et al. (2015) show that education can be effective in targeting specific financial behaviors. Given this inconclusive evidence on a most important issue, what can we learn in order to explain the heterogeneity in findings and to make financial education more effective? We go beyond the extant literature and systematically code the circumstances of financial education for our meta-analysis. This allows us to examine the determinants of a positive impact of education. Another unique characteristic of our analysis is the focus on both objectives of financial education (i.e., improvements in financial literacy and financial behavior). Hence, we investigate the role of financial literacy for financial behavior in a unified setting. Finally, our study benefits from a rapidly rising field (see figure S1.1 in the supplemental appendix S1). We follow the established procedures for the meta-analysis approach (e.g., Lipsey and Wilson 2001). The result is a sample of 126 studies reporting 539 effect sizes. Studies targeting entrepreneurs and exclusively measuring business outcomes (such as revenues) are omitted by design. We only 2 consider studies reporting about interventions, such as trainings and counseling efforts. Thus, we focus strictly on exogenous variation in financial education and neglect works exclusively analyzing the possible impact of cross-sectional (baseline) differences in financial literacy on financial behavior. Finally, we carefully code interventions as we examine in detail how financial education was delivered to the target groups. Our meta-analysis results in six principle findings: (i) increasing financial literacy helps. Financial education has a strong positive impact on financial literacy with an effect size of 0.26 (i.e., above the threshold value of 0.20 that characterizes “small” statistical effect sizes [see Cohen 1977]). Moreover, effects on financial literacy are positively correlated with effects on financial behavior; (ii) financial education has a positive, measurable impact on financial behavior with an effect size of 0.09. An effect size of 0.08 is still found under rigorous randomized experiments (RCTs); (iii) effects of financial education depend on the target group. First, teaching low-income participants (relative to the country mean) and target groups in low- and lower-middle income economies has less impact, which is an obvious challenge for policymakers targeting the poor. Second, it appears to be challenging to impact financial behavior as country incomes and mean years of schooling increase, probably because high baseline levels of general education and financial literacy cause diminishing marginal returns to additional financial education; (iv) success of financial education depends on the type of financial behavior targeted. We provide evidence that borrowing behavior may be more difficult to impact than saving behavior by conventional financial education; (v) increasing intensity supports the effect of financial education; and (vi) the characteristics of financial education can make a difference. Making financial education mandatory is associated with deflated effect sizes. By contrast, a positive effect is associated with providing financial education at a “teachable moment” (i.e., when teaching is directly linked to decisions of immediate relevance to the target group (cf. Miller et al. 2015:13). Complementing these findings, the meta-analysis also provides interesting non-results because several characteristics of financial education are without systematic impact on financial behavior. These include the age and gender of participants, the setting, or the choice of intervention channel through which financial education is delivered. The findings reported above clearly motivate to implement financial education because it can positively affect financial literacy and financial behavior. However, its limited effectiveness raises two additional problems for policymakers: First, what can be done to make financial education generally more effective? Second, as a particularly obstinate aspect of the general question raised before, how can one reach those people who do not participate voluntarily? Problematic groups in this respect include low-income individuals, residents of low-income countries, and all those who do not self-select into education measures, as indicated by negative effects from mandatory courses and RCTs. For these groups, it appears that financial education needs an improved approach to be successful. More research 3 and experience is necessary to better identify the determinants of successful financial education (e.g., Hastings et al. 2013). Our study follows several earlier survey studies about financial education. Most of these studies have a narrative character, among them widely cited works such as Fox et al. (2005), Willis (2011), Hastings et al. (2013), and Lusardi and Mitchell (2014). This gives the authors some flexibility about selecting and interpreting the most relevant studies. A quantitative meta-analysis is more rigid in approach but has the advantages that transparent rules of procedure ensure replicable results and that quantitative relations can be derived. Overall, narrative surveys and meta-analyses complement each other. We perform a meta-analysis because there are just two earlier systematic accounts of the financial education literature that leave much room for more research. The study by Miller et al. (2015) covers only 19 papers due to its extremely restrictive selection criteria, requiring interventions on identical outcomes. This limits the sample sizes to about five studies and estimates per subsample, which does not allow investigating the sources of heterogeneity. Thus, the most similar study to our work is Fernandes et al. (2014), which covers 90 effect sizes from financial education reported in 77 papers. Despite an overlap of 44 percent with their sample of studies, our research differs in four crucial ways, which explains our new results: (i) most important is that we analyze determinants of program effectiveness in a broader way by applying respective coding; (ii) we consider various outcomes per study (on average about four per study) and their respective effect sizes; moreover, (iii) we cover recent and mostly randomized experiments providing evidence of effective interventions; and (iv) we cover additional studies focusing exclusively on financial literacy as the outcome variable. This paper is structured in seven further sections. Section 2 introduces our meta-analytic approach. Section 3 describes our data. Section 4 provides first results of the meta-analysis, while section 5 uses these results to explain heterogeneity of financial education treatment effects. Robustness tests are mentioned in section 6, and section 7 concludes with policy considerations and venues for future research. II. META-ANALYTIC METHOD Meta-analysis is a quantitative method to synthesize findings from multiple empirical studies on the same empirical research question. In a meta-analysis, the dependent variable is comprised of a summary statistics reported in the primary research reports, while the explanatory variables may include characteristics of the research design, the sample studied, or, in case of impact evaluations, the policy intervention itself (cf. Stanley 2001: 131). Meta-analyses can provide answers to two specific 4 questions (cf. Muller 2015; Pritchett and Sandefur 2015; Vivalt 2015). First, is the combined (statistical) effect across all studies reporting effects of similar interventions on similar outcomes significantly different from zero? And, second, what explains heterogeneity in the reported findings? In order to be able to aggregate summary statistics reported across heterogeneous studies, one must standardize these statistics into a common metric. If all studies would operationalize and measure outcomes in the same unit, meta-analysis could be performed directly using economic effect sizes (e.g., elasticities or marginal effects) in contrast to statistical effect sizes (cf. Stanley and Doucouliagos 2012: 23). This, however, is rarely the case in a large sample of heterogeneous (quasi-) experimental impact evaluations. Thus, we use a standard approach of coding a variable capturing intervention success and impact. Our impact measure (effect size) is the standardized mean difference (SMD) for each treatment effect estimate. We use the bias corrected standardized mean difference (Hedges’ ) as our effect size measure, which is defined as the mean difference in outcomes between the treatment (M ) and control (M ) (i.e., the treatment effect) groups as a proportion of the pooled standard deviation (SD ) of the dependent variable: (1) = with ( ) ( ) (2) = . where n and are the sample size and standard deviation of the treatment group, and and are for the control group. Additionally, we capture the standard error of each standardized mean difference ( ), which is defined as: (3) = + ( ) Hedges’ informs about the size and direction of an effect in scale-free standard deviation units. This metric is only slightly different from other popular effect size measures in experimental impact evaluations, such as Cohen’s d and Glass ∆ (see, e.g., Banerjee et al. 2015). Hedges’ , however, introduces minor corrections that reduce bias in the effect size estimate in cases with small sample sizes and when the sample sizes of treatment and control groups are unequally distributed. Results are qualitatively robust to using alternative measures or relying on (partial) correlations (cf. Lipsey and Wilson 2001). 5 As a rule of thumb, Cohen (1977) suggests that effect sizes smaller than 0.20 should be considered as a “small effect”; effect sizes around 0.50 indicate a “medium effect”; while effect sizes greater than 0.80 constitute “large effects.” Where pure mean comparisons, standard deviations, and sample sizes for each experimental outcome are not reported directly we exhaust all possibilities to calculate or estimate effect sizes ( ) and its corresponding standard error from the range of available statistical data (cf. Lipsey and Wilson 2001). In the estimation of summary effects of the literature, our main approach follows a full pooling least squares meta-regression framework (e.g., Card et al. 2015). Accordingly, the financial education treatment effect ( ) can be explained by exogenous, observable characteristics, the impact on an outcome i, reported in study j is expressed as a linear function (4) = + + where is a vector of observable (exogenous) study-level covariates, such as intensity of intervention, α is an intercept, and denotes an error-term independent from . We estimate our models using multiple effect sizes per study and account for heteroscedasticity by clustering standard errors at the study-level. Reassuringly, results are not sensitive to a set of changes in estimation strategy and accounting for publication selection bias (see section 6 and supplemental appendix S3). III. SAMPLE DESCRIPTION This section describes the selection of studies, the extraction of effect sizes and study-level covariates, and types of financial education programs. Selection of Studies We follow the established meta-analytical protocol (cf. Lipsey and Wilson 2001: 23, Stanley 2001: 143). This starts with systematically searching the relevant databases, including working papers, for the following keywords: (i) financial literacy; (ii) financial knowledge; (iii) financial education; (iv) financial capability; and (v) combinations of these keywords with “intervention.” Moreover, we consider all records from meta-analyses (Fernandes et al. 2014; Miller et al. 2015) and narrative literature reviews (Fox et al. 2005; Collins and O’Rourke 2010; Willis 2011; Xu and Zia 2012; Hastings et al. 2013; Blue et al. 2014; Lusardi and Mitchell 2014). This search resulted in over 500 potentially relevant published journal articles and over 600 results from working paper databases with some apparent overlap. We stopped collecting studies in October 2016 (see appendix S1). From this collection, we drop studies that do not meet our three criteria for inclusion: (i) reporting on impacts of an exogenous educational intervention on financial literacy and/or financial behavior; 6 (ii) providing a quantitative assessment of intervention impact that allows coding an effect size statistic ( ) and its standard error; and (iii) relying on an observed counterfactual in the estimation of intervention impacts. This selection process leads to a final sample of 126 independent intervention studies that report 539 effect sizes (further details in tables S1.1 and S1.2 in the supplemental appendix S1). Of these, 90 studies report 349 effect sizes on financial behavior, and 67 studies report 190 effect sizes on financial literacy. Among these 90 plus 67 studies, there are 31 studies reporting effect sizes on both financial literacy and behavior. RCTs are rare in the early years of the literature, but their share has risen dramatically, with the majority of studies conducted from 2011 onward being randomized evaluations (see figure 1). This development in the literature is very favorable for meta-analyses, since it ensures a high internal validity of research findings reported in the primary studies and helps to clearly distinguish between selection and treatment effects. Figure 1. Number of Studies in Our Sample by Research Design per Year Source: Authors’ calculations based on the data source discussed in the text. 7 Extraction of Effect Size Estimates and Study Descriptors As the next step, we code the effect of financial education on financial literacy (i.e., a measure of performance on a financial knowledge test), since knowledge development is the primary goal of financial education (Hastings et al. 2013; Lusardi and Mitchell 2014). Moreover, we code treatment effects of financial education on several financial behaviors (see table S1.2 in the supplemental appendix S1), such as an increase in savings after the treatment. Multiple estimates per study are considered if multiple outcomes, time-points, or treatments are reported; however, results are robust to aggregating all effects per study into one synthetic effect size. Further details about this process are described in supplemental appendix S1. Types of Financial Education Programs Our dataset includes four main types of financial education programs. First, and most frequent, are evaluations of classroom financial education (approximately 83 percent of all estimates) in various settings, such as schools, universities, the workplace, or specific sites such as savings groups or microfinance institutions. These studies are quasi-experiments or RCTs, in which the researcher has control over content, intensity, and survey design in order to measure specific outcomes. There is an increasing interest in the literature in multiple-treatment and cross-over designs to investigate optimal delivery strategies and potential causal mechanisms (i.e., Drexler et al. 2014; Carpena et al. 2015; Skimmyhorn 2016). These studies have high internal validity but may report site-specific effects that causally interact with unobserved features of the specific sites (cf. Muller 2015). Additionally, measurement of outcomes is typically in the short or medium run (approx. 65 percent), since long time series are usually not available. A different strand of the literature evaluating this type of program looks at classroom financial education utilizing (plausibly exogenous) variation in (mandatory) school financial education mandates (e.g., Tennyson and Nguyen 2001; Brown et al. 2016). These studies are typically quasi-experimental in nature, and, while possibly weaker in internal validity, possess high external validity, since they typically have large sample sizes and measure relatively long-run effects on behavioral outcomes, such as savings. A second type of intervention is online financial education (approx. 8 percent of estimates). While similar in research design to experiments on classroom financial education, these studies usually estimate the effect of certain online modules on financial literacy and behavior and typically evaluate instructional videos or interactive applications. The third type of financial education treatments evaluated in the literature are individualized counseling interventions (two percent of estimates). These have been mainly studied in the US and typically study outcomes related to the handling of (mortgage) debt. 8 As a fourth and last type, we identify informational and behavioral nudges, such as information fairs at the workplace and informational brochures (seven percent of estimates). These studies typically evaluate behavioral change in response to these low-intensity treatments. There is one study in our sample that studies the effect of a behavioral nudge in the form of “financial edutainment” in mass- media (cf. Berg and Zia 2013). This is an intervention designed to impact financial behaviors through a non-cognitive channel (as opposed to increasing financial knowledge), and the included study evaluates the impact of financial messages inserted into episodes of a popular television series in South Africa. IV. RESULTS FROM META-ANALYSIS We report the mean effects for all studies (section 4.1) and then for subsamples: financial literacy and financial behavior (section 4.2), types of financial education programs (section 4.3), research designs (section 4.4), and different country groups (section 4.5). Summary Effects of Financial Education Here we discuss the average effects of financial education on financial literacy and financial behavior. Based thereon, we study the relation between these two outcomes. As a starting point, we note that the summary effect of financial education on all kinds of reported outcomes is estimated to be g = 0.148 (p = .000, n = 539). However, heterogeneity in effect sizes is high, indicating that outcomes could be disaggregated for meaningful analyses. Financial behavior. We find that the average impact of educational interventions on financial behaviors is statistically highly significant (g = 0.086) (see table S1.3 in the supplemental appendix S1). The main reason that we get a more favorable result than Fernandes et al. (2014) is that we profit from a moderate, positive time trend (more details in supplemental appendix S2). To compare the magnitude of this effect size to results from health promotion on behavioral change (e.g., weight loss and nutrition in obesity studies), Portnoy et al. (2008) report in their meta-analysis of 75 RCTs an average effect size of about 0.1. Financial literacy. The average impact of financial education on financial literacy is substantially higher (g = 0.263, p = .000, n = 190) than the one on financial behavior (see figure S1.2 and table S1.3 in the supplemental appendix S1). Moreover, financial education explains 1.7 percent of the variance in financial knowledge and, thus, appears to be only slightly less effective than educational interventions in other domains such as math and science instruction (cf. Fernandes et al. 2014: 1867). To put this effect size in perspective: the meta-analysis of 225 studies by Freeman et al. (2014) reports an average effect size of around 0.47 for studies evaluating student performance in response to 9 alternatives to lecturing in undergraduate science education; however, these interventions occur in a university context and last for a full semester. Relationship between financial literacy and behavior. The intuition is that increases in financial literacy scores are an important intermediate result in a causal chain expected to lead to behavior change (e.g., Grohmann et al. 2015; Fort et al. 2016). Indeed, for a sample of 31 studies, we find in a regression with standard errors clustered at the study-level that the effect size on financial literacy is a statistically significant predictor of effect size on financial behavior (b = 0.230, p =.022). Thus, an increase of one standard deviation unit in financial literacy scores is related to an average increase of 0.23 standard deviation units of the financial behaviors studied. However, the non-overlapping confidence intervals of these effect sizes also indicate that these two elements of the causal chain should be analyzed separately when attempting to explain the heterogeneity in effect sizes. Effect Sizes by Type of Financial Behavior Figure 2 shows the average effect size for the seven categories of financial behaviors targeted by the educational interventions in our sample. Figure 2. Forest Plot of Effect Sizes by Type of Financial Behavior Studied Source: Authors’ calculations based on the data source discussed in the text. 10 Average effect sizes for three out of seven categories of outcomes are clearly positive and highly statistically significant at the one percent level. Additionally, all confidence intervals for the different types of financial behaviors overlap each other, indicating that there are no extreme differences in impacts depending on the specific form of financial behavior targeted. In detail: (i) the average effect size on “budgeting” appears to be higher than those on downstream behaviors; and (ii) effect sizes related to saving and retirement saving appear to be higher than the average effect size of financial education on borrowing behavior; (iii) this latter average effect size is small (g = 0.02) and insignificant from zero; (iv) similarly, the average effect sizes for “insurance” (g = 0.05), “remittances” (g = 0.03), and “bank account behavior” (g = 0.00) are estimated to be small and insignificant from zero, although based on a few studies per category only. Thus, debt-related financial behaviors may be the most challenging to target through financial education (see Miller et al. 2015: 238). Overall, these findings correspond to the results provided by Fernandes et al. (2014) and Miller et al. (2015) and extend to our much larger sample. Effect Sizes by Type of Financial Education Intervention We form subsamples by the main types of financial education interventions, as discussed in section 3.3. First, we compare classroom financial education to three types of non-classroom delivery channels (online financial education, counseling, and informational/behavioral nudges). Second, we distinguish between financial education at school and two non-school settings (workplace and other settings). Panel A of table 1 shows results split by outcomes on financial literacy and financial behavior. While in-person classroom trainings appear to be (unconditionally) more effective than non-classroom delivery channels in increasing financial knowledge, we observe no statistically significant difference regarding impacts on financial behavior. Turning to the intervention setting, it appears that interventions in schools are more effective at increasing financial literacy but yield marginally significant smaller treatment effects on financial behavior. However, we note that these relations are obviously partially confounded with several other relevant variables (e.g., the age of the participants, the delay in measurement, and research design), which indicates the importance of an examination in a multivariate setting (cf. section 5). 11 Table 1. Effect Sizes of Financial Education by Intervention Type, Research Design, and Country Groups Outcome Type Studies Obs. ES (g) SEg p-value Diff. (t-value) A Effect sizes by intervention channel & setting Fin. literacy Classroom 58 135 0.294 0.054 0.000 0.106** Non-classroom 9 55 0.188 0.039 0.001 (2.015) - Online 5 41 0.217 0.060 0.018 - Counseling 0 - Nudge 4 14 0.103 0.045 0.108 Fin. behavior Classroom 70 317 0.084 0.013 0.000 -0.014 Non-classroom 20 32 0.098 0.020 0.000 (0.452) - Online 11 18 0.085 0.034 0.031 - Counseling 7 8 0.095 0.030 0.020 - Nudge 2 6 0.140 0.007 0.031 Fin. literacy School 35 62 0.373 0.076 0.000 0.163*** Non-school 32 128 0.210 0.035 0.000 (3.273) - Workplace 1 1 0.164 0.063 - Other 31 127 0 210 0.035 0.000 Fin. behavior School 27 90 0.057 0.014 0.000 -0.039* Non-school 63 259 0.096 0.014 0.000 (1.96) - Workplace 17 47 0.121 0.049 0.023 - Other 46 212 0.090 0.015 0.000 B Effect sizes by research design Fin. literacy RCTs 33 135 0.209 0.033 0.000 -0.185*** Quasi-exp. 34 55 0.394 0.083 0.000 (-3.638) Fin. behavior RCTs 40 227 0.081 0.015 0.000 -0.012 Quasi-exp. 50 122 0.093 0.022 0.000 (-0.661) C Effect sizes by country group Fin. literacy High income 53 123 0.328 0.058 0.000 0.183*** Developing 14 67 0.145 0.031 0.000 (3.787) - Low 3 6 0.219 0.069 0.086 - Lower-middle 6 44 0.155 0.047 0.023 - Upper-middle 5 17 0.092 0.023 0.017 Fin. behavior High income 66 168 0.071 0.019 0.000 -0.027 Developing 24 181 0.098 0.014 0.000 (-1.512) - Low 6 39 0.161 0.038 0.009 - Lower-middle 12 90 0.091 0.008 0.000 - Upper-middle 6 52 0.06 0.023 0.045 Notes: Average effect sizes (g) estimated via OLS regressions of effect sizes fitting only an intercept. Sample is split by an indicator of intervention type, research design, or country group. “Channel” is a categorical variable operationalized in the form of four dummy variables: Classroom, Counseling, Online, and “Nudge” where “Nudge” is the default (omitted) category in the regressions. “Setting” is a categorical variable operationalized through three dummy variables: School, Workplace and Other where Other is the omitted category in the meta-regression analyses. Country groups are based on the World Bank Atlas method and refer to 2015 data on GNI per capita. Low-income economies are defined as those with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2015, lower-middle income economies are defined by a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $4,035, upper-middle income economies are those with a GNI per capita between $4,036 and $12,475, and high-income economies are defined by a GNI per capita greater than $12,475. Standard errors are clustered at the study level. ***, ** and * denote significance at the one percent, five percent and ten percent level. Source: Authors’ analysis based on data sources discussed in the text. 12 Effect Sizes by Research Design Regarding research design, Fernandes et al. (2014: 1865) find that weaker research designs lead to inflated effect sizes. Thus panel B of table 1 compares average effect sizes as a function of research design. When we focus on financial behaviors as outcomes, RCTs show statistically highly significant (unconditional) effect sizes of 0.081. These are only slightly smaller than for quasi-experiments with 0.093, indicating that the small but positive significant effects of financial education exist even under the most rigorous empirical standards. RCTs also provide a significant positive effect of financial education on financial literacy with 0.209. Here the difference to other designs (effect size of 0.394) is significant at the one percent level. Effect Sizes by Country Groups To investigate another potential source of heterogeneity, we disaggregate our data by country groups. Panel C of table 1 shows effect sizes by country groups as classified by the World Bank based on 2015 GNI per capita. We find that effect sizes on financial literacy are significantly higher in developed (high income) economies (g = 0.328) than in developing economies (low income, lower- and upper- middle income economies, g = 0.145). Turning to effect sizes on financial behavior, this difference is statistically insignificant in this unconditional comparison but differences between country groups become more nuanced and statistically significant when controlling for other relevant variables (see section 5.2). V. EXPLAINING HETEROGENEITY IN FINANCIAL EDUCATION TREATMENT EFFECTS Section 4 shows that the average effect size of financial education is accompanied by large heterogeneity. Thus, we examine whether there are factors explaining this heterogeneity. This will also suggest directions that future financial education policies might take in order to increase their impact on financial behavior. Potential Correlates of Effect Size The effectiveness of financial education is potentially influenced by the peculiarities of the specific intervention. Based on prior literature, we group these characteristics into four categories: (i) the research design; (ii) the intensity of education; (iii) the target group of education; and (iv) the characteristics of the education program. (i) Regarding the research design of a financial education study, we expect the method of investigation (i.e., RCT vs. less rigorous designs) to be relevant. Second, the concrete measurement of an effect will influence the estimated size of impact. It is known that focusing on treatment on the 13 treated (TOT) (i.e., measuring a treatment effect on the population who actually received or attended the treatment) generally results in higher effect sizes than focusing on the intention to treat (ITT) effect (i.e., the population who was in principle assigned to treatment). However, ITT may be more relevant for policy (cf. Imbens and Wooldridge 2009: 15; Gertler et al. 2011: 73). Third, the delay between financial education treatment and measurement of the effect may negatively influence the effect size since effects of the intervention may decay over time (cf. Fernandes et al. 2014: 1867). Additionally, we control for the precision of effect size estimation by the inverse standard error (or the [squared] standard error, see supplemental appendix S3). All these variables are defined in table 2, which also provides descriptive statistics. (ii) A core variable of financial education interventions is the intensity of education (i.e., the number of hours taught). It is expected that higher intensity will support the effect. However, the time- frame over which the financial education intervention is delivered to the target group may also be of importance. We expect differences between high intensity and low intensity relative to the duration. Thus, we code the hours of financial education per week (i.e., intensity per week) and the duration of the intervention in weeks to investigate this issue. (iii) The expectation regarding a possible relation between the target group of education and effectiveness of financial education is as follows. Generally, learning is easier for younger people, younger people may be more open to new concepts and their baseline financial literacy scores are low (e.g., Lusardi and Mitchell 2014), meaning that the age of the target group may be negatively related to the effect size of financial education. Second, a gender gap in financial literacy is treated as a stylized fact in the literature (cf. Lusardi and Mitchell 2014) which may also translate to gender differences in treatment effects. Thus we include the percentage of women in the sample. Third, it is expected that the acquaintance of the target group with an educational environment may be helpful. As a proxy for such openness to education, we take the income of the target group relative to the overall population. Fourth, we expect that the overall institutional level of education should support domain-specific educational efforts (Jappelli 2010). As a proxy for this potential relationship, we take a country’s population mean years of schooling as reported by the United Nations Development Program Human Development Reports. Additionally, we augment our data with country-level financial literacy data from a 2015 global financial literacy survey (Klapper et al. 2015). We hypothesize that financial education interventions may yield higher effects when the population baseline financial literacy is lower, indicating more room for improvement through education. Finally, as a control variable we code the country of intervention according to the World Bank country group classifications. (iv) Regarding the characteristics of the education program, it seems interesting whether the channel (i.e., classroom, online, individual counseling, etc.) is important in explaining education effectiveness, since these formats come with different trainer to participant ratios and may rely on 14 different pedagogical approaches to financial education. It may be that willingness to learn and change financial behavior is lower when financial education is mandatory (cf. Collins 2013) or motivation to participate in financial education is not intrinsic but driven by incentives provided by the offering institution. Lastly, these characteristics may be correlated with specific settings (i.e., at school or at the workplace). Next, and going further in this direction, it is coded whether participants are educated at a teachable moment (i.e., that they have the possibility to apply their knowledge in a concrete case of interest to them, e.g., Doi et al. 2014; Miller et al. 2015). Thus, we capture whether the education addressed immediate financial issues (such as borrowers already in default, or migrants confronted with deciding through which channel remittances are sent). Alternatively, financial education was generic and offered at an unspecific moment, as is often the case in large scale financial education programs (e.g., Bruhn et al. 2014). Table 2. Summary Statistics Variable Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. A Descriptive statistics at the study-level RCT 126 0.405 0.493 0.000 1.000 TOT 115 0.452 0.500 0.000 1.000 Delay 93 82.231 273.613 0.000 1566 1/SE 126 57.535 210.450 2.480 1636.712 Intensity 87 11.211 14.929 0.100 87.000 Duration 76 7.341 14.150 1.000 103.000 Age 109 30.717 14.120 9.000 63.870 Percent female 123 54.011 18.493 0.000 100.000 Low income clients 102 0.529 0.502 0.000 1.000 Years of schooling 126 11.270 2.843 3.200 13.600 FL in population 124 50.419 11.658 24.000 66.000 Mandatory 96 0.292 0.457 0.000 1.000 Incentivized 86 0.314 0.467 0.000 1.000 Teachable moment 126 0.397 0.491 0.000 1.000 B Descriptive statistics at the estimate-level RCT 539 0.672 0.470 0.000 1.000 TOT 510 0.282 0.451 0.000 1.000 Delay 463 93.742 292.025 0.000 1566.000 1/SE 539 41.260 124.389 2.740 957.167 Intensity 451 15.384 23.444 0.100 144.000 Duration 434 7.908 14.236 1.000 103.000 Age 494 31.814 11.720 9.000 63.870 -continued- 15 Percent female 525 52.923 18.200 0.000 100.000 Low income clients 451 0.681 0.467 0.000 1.000 Years of schooling 539 9.890 3.463 3.200 13.600 FL in population 523 44.170 14.668 24.000 66.000 Mandatory 480 0.240 0.427 0.000 1.000 Incentivized 445 0.247 0.432 0.000 1.000 Teachable moment 539 0.479 0.500 0.000 1.000 Notes: “RCT” is a dummy variable with “1” if selection into treatment was conducted through randomization and “0” otherwise (such as matched designs). “TOT” is a dummy variable with “1” if the effect size estimate is derived from the treatment effect on the treated and “0” if it is derived from the ITT estimate. “Delay” is a continuous variable indicating the delay between treatment and measurement of outcomes in weeks. “1/SE” is the inverse standard error for each effect size estimate. “Intensity” is the total number of hours of financial education exposure to the treated. “Duration” indicated the time-frame of financial education in weeks. “Age” is the mean age of the sample in years. “Percent Female” is the relative frequency of female participants in the sample in percent. “Low income” is a dummy variable with “1” if the mean annual income per capita of the sample is below the country average income per capita. “Mandatory” is a dummy variable with “1” indicating mandatory participation in financial education and “0” voluntary participation. “Incentivized” is a dummy variable with “1” when incentives to participate where provided and “0” if participation was unconditional on incentives. “Teachable moment” is a dummy variable indicating whether the financial education intervention was offered at a teachable moment. Source: Authors’ analysis based on data sources discussed in the text. Meta-regression Models Explaining Intervention Impacts This section examines determinants of financial education effectiveness using a multivariate meta- regression framework including the above discussed potential correlates as right-hand side variables. Our procedure is motivated by economic and econometric considerations. From an economic point of view, we aim for including all variables that have a substantial theoretical foundation. From an econometric viewpoint, the specification should be parsimonious, especially in the presence of a relatively small sample size of studies. Thus, we start with a specification where we include all reasonable and available variables (table 3, column 1). In order to keep the number of studies considered high, we impute average or default values for missing observations (we show in supplemental appendix S3 that our main results are insensitive to imputation). The discussion considers groups of variables in four blocks, following their introduction in section 5.1. 16 Table 3. Explaining Heterogeneity in Effect Sizes on Financial Behavior (1) (2) (3) (4) Low (5) High / (6) Low All All RCTs inc. econ middle inc. income econ clients RCT -0.070** -0.068** -0.209** -0.079** -0.066** (0.027) (0.028) (0.091) (0.036) (0.032) TOT 0.079*** 0.068** 0.012 -0.016 0.076** 0.031 (0.027) (0.027) (0.040) (0.066) (0.035) (0.032) Delay 0.000 0.000 -0.001** -0.001** 0.000 -0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) 1/SE -0.000 -0.000 0.000 -0.003 -0.000 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.002) (0.000) (0.000) Intensity / week 0.004** 0.004*** 0.007*** 0.004** 0.003 0.004*** (0.002) (0.001) (0.001) (0.002) (0.003) (0.001) Duration -0.000 -0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.000 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) Age -0.001 (0.001) Percent female -0.000 (0.001) Low income clients -0.065*** -0.055*** -0.074*** -0.042** -0.048** (0.020) (0.017) (0.024) (0.019) (0.021) Years of schooling -0.016*** -0.019*** -0.016** -0.026*** -0.025*** -0.011* (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) (0.009) (0.009) (0.006) FL in population -0.003 (0.002) Country group a) Low/lower-mid. inc. econ. -0.129* -0.093** -0.092** -0.059 (0.073) (0.036) (0.042) (0.042) b) Upper-mid. inc. econ. 0.000 (0.060) Channel a) Classroom -0.003 (0.028) b) Counseling -0.018 (0.033) c) Online -0.028 (0.028) Setting a) School 0.022 (0.023) b) Workplace 0.041 (0.036) Mandatory -0.074*** -0.051** -0.078* -0.015 -0.065** -0.052 (0.024) (0.023) (0.044) (0.042) (0.025) (0.033) Incentivized -0.012 (0.029) Teachable moment 0.079*** 0.064** 0.016 0.025 0.069** 0.072** (0.021) (0.026) (0.035) (0.026) (0.029) (0.032) Constant 0.477*** 0.332*** 0.338*** 0.514*** 0.406*** 0.188* (0.157) (0.079) (0.095) (0.110) (0.114) (0.095) R2 0.210 0.183 0.149 0.170 0.204 0.109 n (Studies) 90 90 40 18 72 44 n (Effect sizes) 349 349 227 129 220 234 Notes: Non-standardized coefficients from OLS regressions. Dependent variable in columns (1) and (2) is effect size (Hedges’ g) on financial behavior in the full sample of studies reporting on financial behavior as an outcome. Column (3) shows results for RCTs only. Column (4) and (5) show results for financial behavior split by country groups. Column (6) limits the sample to classroom trainings only. Robust standard errors clustered at the study-level in parentheses. ***, ** and * denote significance at the one percent, five percent and ten percent level. Source: Authors’ analysis based on data sources discussed in the text. 17 Research design. Starting with the research design of the underlying primary studies, we find that RCTs report—ceteris paribus—slightly smaller effect sizes than non-RCTs, which is in line with earlier presumptions (see table 1, panel B). However, now this difference is statistically significant (see column 1 of table 3). As expected, the operationalization of treatment effects as TOT-estimates leads to inflated effect size estimates. Apparently, the delay between intervention and measurement of outcomes does not seem to be systematically related to effect sizes in this estimation (cf. supplemental appendix S3 for an alternative approach and investigation of heterogeneous treatment effects depending on delay in measurement). In addition, estimates with large inverse standard errors are associated with smaller effect sizes, indicating that larger and more precise studies report smaller effect sizes overall. However, this coefficient is small in size and insignificant. Intensity. Turning to the relationship between intensity per week and duration, column 1 of table 3 shows that intensity has a significant positive effect on treatment effects on financial behavior. Thus, an increase of one hour of financial education per week leads to a 0.004 standard deviation unit increase in the impact on financial behaviors studied. Considering that the average weekly duration is in this subsample is roughly nine weeks and weekly intensity is only about four hours, doubling the weekly intensity to eight hours while keeping everything else constant at the mean, would lead to an average treatment effect around 14 percent higher than the empirical mean predicted treatment effect in this fully specified model. Target group. Among participant characteristics, age and gender are not significant explanatory variables. However, the coefficient on “low income clients” is highly significant and negative, indicating that these individuals are more difficult to educate. Regarding increasing mean years of schooling at the country level, returns to additional financial education appear to diminish. This is in line with results from two studies in very different contexts (Europe and India) that report higher treatment effects for lower-educated individuals and diminishing returns to financial education upon higher baseline levels of education (cf. Cole et al. 2011; Fort et al. 2016). Similarly, the coefficient for baseline financial literacy in the population is also negative, albeit statistically insignificant. While these results suggest declining marginal returns to financial education, the negative effect for low- and lower-middle income economies—and also the above-mentioned coefficient on low-income clients— shows a countervailing influence from challenging groups or country circumstances. Characteristics of education. Regarding the channel variables, column 1 shows that no alternative channel appears to be generally more or less effective than financial education in classroom settings or informational nudges (omitted category). The same is true for the setting of the intervention where school and workplace settings are not systematically different from other settings. However, mandatory financial education and implementing financial education at a “teachable moment” appear to be important. Specifically, we find, that making financial education mandatory decreases effect sizes 18 by 0.074 standard deviation units: The predicted value for effect size on financial behavior in mandatory formats with everything else kept equal at the (empirical) mean would be only g = 0.030 (SE = 0.020, p = .134); thus, economically small and statistically insignificant from zero. In contrast, offering financial education at a teachable moment increases effect sizes by 0.079 standard deviation units. Thus, the predicted value for effect size on financial behavior would be ceteris paribus g = 0.124 (SE = 0.014, p = .000) (i.e., statistically highly significant), roughly 48 percent larger than the unconditional average effect size found in the sampleand about 45 percent larger conditional on the empirical means for all other covariates in this full model. Parsimonious specification. We reduce the above discussed fully specified model by keeping the variables on research design and intensity but otherwise eliminating the insignificant variables. Column 2 of table 3 describes the resulting reduced model that confirms the fully specified regression results from column 1. There are just some smaller changes in the estimated standard errors that occur at a few variables. This indicates that it is justified to rely on the parsimonious specification, in particular when we analyze subsamples with a much smaller number of observations in the following. Meta-Regression Models for Subsamples Given the large degree of heterogeneity across the 90 studies and their underlying financial education programs, we move to an analysis of more homogenous subsamples. RCTs only. Many will agree that RCTs fulfill the most rigorous requirements, implying that results limited to this subsample of studies are indeed reliable. We do not prefer this procedure because many observations are lost. Nevertheless, it is reassuring that results qualitatively hold, as shown in column 3 of table 3 for the subsample of 40 RCTs covering 227 effect sizes. However, while the negative coefficient for mandatory courses remains to be large in magnitude and statistically (marginally) significant, the coefficient for teachable moment loses explanatory power in this estimation. Interventions in low and lower-middle income economies. This subsample covers 18 studies that report 129 effect sizes (see column 4 of table 3). Again, all coefficients have the same sign and similar magnitude as in our parsimonious specification (column 2 in table 3), but differences in standard errors arise. While intensity of the intervention remains a strong predictor and low-income clients in low- income economies also benefit significantly less from financial education, mandatory formats and timing in the sense of offering financial education at a teachable moment appear less predictive of treatment effects. Interventions in upper-middle and high-income economies. Turning to the 72 studies that examine financial education in more affluent economies (column 5 of table 3), we find that results again are qualitatively very similar to the pooled analysis in column 2. Here, the opposing coefficients for mandatory formats and offering financial education at a teachable moment are statistically significant 19 at the five percent -level, indicating that these effects may be primarily driven by interventions in middle or high income economies. Interventions for low-income individuals. Examining the subsample of 44 studies focusing on low- income individuals results in a similar picture arising. Effects appear to be higher with increased training intensity and offering financial education at a teachable moment. However, country-level years of schooling and country income are now only marginally significant and insignificant covariates, respectively. Additionally, the coefficient for mandatory courses still has the same sign and similar magnitude, but is estimated with a larger standard error. Disaggregating financial behaviors and financial behaviors by target group. As discussed in section 4.2, it appears to be easier to affect financial behaviors in terms of (retirement-) savings and budgeting compared to borrowing behavior. Thus, we disaggregate the sample into three categories of financial behaviors and search for potentially heterogeneous effects of our main explanatory variables. We reduce the choice of variables for some subsamples to avoid problems with degrees of freedom due to relative few observations. Column 1 of table 4 shows results for the subsample of 32 studies reporting effect sizes on borrowing behavior. This result matches our main results of the aggregated sample of effect sizes (column 2 of table 3) with significant positive effects from increased intensity, negative effects for low-income target groups, and countries, negative effects from making financial education mandatory and positive effects from offering financial education at a teachable moment. Column 2 of table 4 shows results for the subsample of 20 studies that focus on borrowing as the outcome and have low- income clients as the target group. Again, results are nearly identical. However, the delay in measurement is now a marginally significant predictor: effect sizes in this sample seem to diminish as time between intervention and measurement of outcomes increases. Hence, treatment effects on debt related behaviors among low-income individuals may be shorter-lived. Turning to effect sizes reported in 67 studies on (retirement-) saving (column 3 of table 4), we observe that the relevant variables from our benchmark model (column 2 of table 3) remain significant predictors. However, voluntary versus mandatory formats seem to be unrelated to effectiveness. Column 4 of table 4 shows the results on savings and retirement savings for low-income individuals reported in 31 studies. Signs and magnitude are similar to the benchmark estimation, but the only coefficients estimated with a small standard error are intensity per week and the teachable moment. Thus, qualitative results hold, but effect sizes on saving behavior for low-income individuals may be difficult to impact through the considered covariates. 20 Table 4. Explaining Heterogeneity in Effect Sizes for Subsamples by Type of Financial Behavior and Target Group (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Borrow Borrow Save Save Budget Budget × × × low inc. low inc. low inc. clients clients clients RCT -0.136*** -0.100*** -0.002 -0.035 (0.022) (0.026) (0.045) (0.058) TOT 0.089** 0.106** 0.090 0.074 (0.033) (0.039) (0.054) (0.079) Delay -0.000 -0.000* 0.000 -0.000 -0.001 -0.019 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.002) (0.012) 1/SE 0.000 0.001** -0.000 0.000 -0.003* -0.007 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.002) (0.005) Intensity / week 0.003** 0.003** 0.003* 0.004** 0.037 0.595* (0.001) (0.001) (0.002) (0.002) (0.031) (0.308) Duration -0.000 -0.000 -0.001 0.000 -0.000 0.017 (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.003) (0.014) Low income clients -0.043** -0.050** (0.019) (0.022) Years of schooling -0.023*** -0.023*** -0.018*** -0.011 -0.020* 0.017 (0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.011) (0.011) (0.022) Low/lower-mid. inc. econ. -0.178*** -0.199*** -0.142*** -0.102 (0.052) (0.067) (0.045) (0.066) Mandatory -0.069** -0.120*** -0.025 -0.010 (0.032) (0.039) (0.031) (0.049) Teachable moment 0.100*** 0.087*** 0.084** 0.114* (0.025) (0.026) (0.036) (0.065) Constant 0.375*** 0.326** 0.305*** 0.147 0.361** -0.685 (0.087) (0.114) (0.091) (0.165) (0.134) (0.524) R2 0.473 0.394 0.194 0.147 0.206 0.359 n (Studies) 32 20 67 31 20 11 n (Effect sizes) 100 73 166 91 40 27 Notes: Non-standardized coefficients from OLS regressions with clustered standard errors at the study-level in parentheses. We only include right hand side variables where differential information from at least two studies is available in the regressions. ***, ** and * denote significance at the one percent, five percent and ten percent level. Source: Authors’ analysis based on data sources discussed in the text. Turning to the subsample of 20 studies on budgeting and record keeping behavior (column 5 of table 4), on which financial education yields the largest effects, we find that intensity is not significantly related to effect size. Additionally, all of the other signs and relative magnitudes of the coefficients remain similar to our benchmark estimation; however, with increased standard errors due to only 20 studies and 40 observations. Completing this exercise, we now examine determinants of treatment effects for the subsample of studies reporting on budgeting outcomes for low-income clients (column 6 of table 4). There are 11 studies in this subsample reporting 27 estimates. Again, qualitative results are similar and intensity now, again, is a marginally significant predictor of effect sizes on budgeting behavior. Overall, we find that the positive effects from increased intensity appear to be driven by interventions focused on (retirement-) saving and borrowing behavior, whereas the timing and voluntary participation matter, especially for borrowing behavior. Thus, the financial behavior that is 21 hardest to impact (borrowing) needs special effort in the sense of increased intensity and timing the financial education intervention at a teachable moment. VI. ROBUSTNESS The robustness tests cover eight different aspects and are reported in full in supplemental appendix S3. All of them confirm our qualitative findings. Here, we just mention these tests: (i) testing the average treatment effect with several alternative meta-regression models; (ii) repeating the parsimonious benchmark model without imputing missing values; (iii) running this model for studies about the US only; (iv) running this benchmark model with classroom studies only; (v) running this model with equal weight per study by either calculating one synthetic effect size per study or weighting effect sizes accordingly; (vi) running the benchmark specification with different empirical approaches; (vii) analyzing the influence of delay on effects; and (viii) testing a different definition of training intensity. Additionally, we further examine publication bias and possible heterogeneity in study quality in supplemental appendix S4 and use alternative econometric techniques that account for publication selection bias in supplemental appendix S3. VII. CONCLUDING POLICY DISCUSSION This meta-analysis covers studies that potentially contribute to realizing policy objectives, such as improved financial literacy and changes in individual financial behavior. Due to this close link to economic policy, we discuss insights that have potential policy relevance in three steps: General policy lessons: (i) the most important policy lesson from our research is that financial education can be effective. However, the field of financial education is not developed enough that established standards could be followed “blindly,” rather the process of designing interventions needs careful attention due to large heterogeneity across program types and individual studies;(ii) interventions targeting improvements in financial literacy are quite successful as they achieve effectiveness similar to comparable education interventions in other domains. As financial literacy education basically aims at improving financial knowledge and awareness, it seems evidentiary that it works well in the classroom and at school (see e.g. Bruhn et al. 2016). Improved financial literacy also has an indirect positive effect on financial behavior, although this indirect effect is small so that changes in financial behavior should also be addressed directly. (iii) Education interventions targeting financial behavior have desired effects on average. Although these effects are economically rather small, they are statistically robust. Impacts on financial behavior 22 are higher if the intensity of education is increased and if financial education is offered at a teachable moment. The effects are smaller if “problematic” groups are addressed, such as low-income clients. Policy lessons for subgroups. As the universe of studies covers widely diverse financial education interventions, we draw three lessons for more homogeneous groups: (i) regarding the country groups, education effects seem to be somewhat lower in low and lower middle-income countries. This is probably due to the disadvantageous institutional circumstances in these countries. A relative advantage in these countries, however, is that the general level of education (mean years of schooling in the population) is comparatively low so that marginal returns to additional domain-specific education are high. The lower opportunity costs of education may be a reason why mandatory participation conditions, such as school based programs, are less problematic and offering financial education at teachable moment appears to be of lesser importance in these countries;(ii) while problematic target groups, such as low-income clients, are more difficult to educate in general, the determinants of effective financial education are not different from the general population. If there is a difference, it appears that a teachable moment is relatively important, indicating that there is a particular need to get the attention of this target group; (iii) regarding the outcomes of financial education, improving debt related behavior is, on average, hardly successful. At the same time, mistakes can be rather consequential and the structure of many significant determinants is the same as for other financial behaviors, such that the general lessons may translate to this specific case; however, it needs much more input to reach economically significant results. Moreover, there is variation across studies revealing clear success cases, which suggests that it is useful to go down to the study level and learn from best practices. The effects on improving savings or budgeting behavior are much larger in magnitude than on borrowing. Research on open policy issues. In order to improve financial education policies in the future we see three areas of urgent research: (i) we need quite generally more reliable evidence on the effectiveness of financial education interventions. Almost two-thirds of the evidence comes from the US, indicating that there are large gaps of evaluation elsewhere;(ii) regarding the documentation of impact evaluations within published reports, it would be very desirable to provide more information about study and program characteristics (see Miller et al. 2015). A straight-forward example is the quality of teacher training or implementation, which can make a crucial difference but is unknown in almost all studies (Brown et al. 2016). The same applies to the ways in which the curriculum is structured and implemented (see Drexler et al. 2014 as a notable exception); (iii) finally, in order to come closer to welfare assessments, information in two directions is needed: first, information about program costs is frequently missing. Thus, in terms of welfare, positive education effects could be balanced with the true costs of the intervention (see also Lusardi et al. 2016). Second, the discussion of effectiveness of financial education policy should also consider principal alternatives to financial 23 education in general. Such alternatives include limiting the kind of available products (choices), altering the choice architecture (e.g., Carroll et al. 2009), working with nudges (e.g., Thaler and Benartzi 2004; Willis 2011), considering the promotion of commitment devices (e.g., Brune et al. 2016), offering incentives (e.g., Saez 2009), or implementing more rigid consumer financial protection policies (cf. Campbell et al. 2011). There are two arguments in favor of implementing financial education. First, the small average effect comes with low average intensity. More than 70 percent of our considered studies invest no more than two days in education, indicating that these measures may have only small effects, but also low costs. 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Zinman, J. 2015. “Household Debt: Facts, Puzzles, Theories, and Policies.” Annual Review of Economics 7: 251–76. 27 Appendix to accompany “Does financial education impact financial literacy and financial behavior, and if so, when?” Appendix S1: Supplementary material Appendix S2: Comparison of our dataset and results to previous meta-analyses Appendix S3: Robustness checks Appendix S4: Publication bias and heterogeneity of study quality Appendix S5: Overview of studies included in the statistical meta-analysis Appendix S6: References for studies included in the statistical meta-analysis 28 Appendix S1: Supplementary material This Appendix S1 contains two kinds of information: First, there are three tables (Table S1.1 to Table S1.3) and two figures (Figure S1.1 and Figure S1.2), which are referred to in the main text, mainly in the earlier sections. Second, there is a longer documentation about “Additional information on selection of studies and extraction of effect size estimates and study descriptors.” This documentation provides deeper information that complements Section 3.1 (Selection of studies) and Section 3.2 (Extraction of effect size estimates and study descriptors) of the main text. 29 Table S1.1: Summary of financial education studies by publication date and country Number of studies Percent of sample (1) (2) A By publication date 1999 2 1.59 2000 0 0.00 2001 5 3.97 2002 1 0.79 2003 4 3.17 2004 3 2.38 2005 6 4.76 2006 5 3.97 2007 6 4.76 2008 6 4.76 2009 8 6.35 2010 10 7.94 2011 7 5.56 2012 15 11.9 2013 9 7.14 2014 11 8.73 2015 15 11.9 2016 13 10.32 B By country of intervention Income Australia 2 1.59 High Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 0.79 Upper-middle Brazil 1 0.79 Upper-middle China 1 0.79 Upper-middle Dominican Republic 1 0.79 Upper-middle Germany 1 0.79 High Ghana 1 0.79 Lower-middle Hong Kong, China 1 0.79 High India 8 6.35 Lower-middle Indonesia 2 1.59 Lower-middle Italy 7 5.56 High Kenya 1 0.79 Lower-middle Malawi 1 0.79 Low Mexico 1 0.79 Upper-middle Mozambique 1 0.79 Low New Zealand 2 1.59 High Pakistan 1 0.79 Lower-middle Qatar 1 0.79 High Rwanda 1 0.79 Low Singapore 1 0.79 High South Africa 1 0.79 Upper-middle Spain 1 0.79 High Sri Lanka 1 0.79 Lower-middle Tanzania 2 1.59 Low USA 83 65.87 High Uganda 2 1.59 Low Low inc. econ. 7 5.5 Lower-middle inc. econ. 14 11.11 Upper-middle inc. econ. 6 4.76 High inc. econ. 99 78.57 Total 126 100 Notes: Country group classifications refer to 2015 World Bank data on GNI per capita (Atlas method). 30 Table S1.2: Overview of coded outcomes and definitions Outcome category Definition Freq. Financial literacy (190 estimates) A Financial knowledge (+) Raw score on financial knowledge test 190 Indicator of scoring above a defined threshold (100%) Indicator of solving an item correctly Financial behaviors (349 estimates) B Borrowing & debt management behavior 100 (28.65%) 1) Reduction of loan default Binary indicator within a certain time-frame (+) 2) Reduction of delinquencies Binary indicator within certain time frame (+) 3) Better credit score (+) Continuous measure of credit score 4) Reduction in informal Binary indicator of informal loan or reduction borrowings (+) in number of informal loans 5) Lower cost of credit / interest Sum of real interest amount or interest rate rate (+) and (if applicable) cost of fees 6) Any debt (-) / (+) (depending Binary indicator on intervention goal) Binary indicator 7) Any formal loan (+) Continuous measure of borrowed amount 8) Total amount borrowed (-) / (+) (depending on intervention goal) 9) Total outstanding debt (-) / (+) Continuous measure of total debt (depending on intervention goal) 10) Better borrowing index (+) Study-specific index of survey items to measure borrowing amount, frequency, and repayment 11) Uses credit card up to limit (-) Binary indicator C Budgeting & planning behavior 40 (11.46%) 1) Having a written budget (+) Binary indicator 2) Positive sentiment toward Binary indicator budgeting (+) 3) Having a financial plan (+) Binary indicator 4) Keeping separate records for Binary indicator business and household (+) 5) Seeking information before Binary indicator making financial decisions (+) 6) Self-rating of adherence to Study-specific scale budget (+) D Saving & retirement saving behavior 166 (47.56%) 1) Total savings held (+) Continuous measure of savings amount or categorical variable indicating amount within range 2) Savings rate or savings within Savings relative to income timeframe (+) Amount over defined time-frame 3) Savings index (+) Study-specific index of survey items designed to measure savings amount and frequency -continued- 4) Any savings (+) Binary indicator 31 5) Has formal bank (savings) Binary indicator account (+) 6) Investments into own or other Continuous measure of amount invested business (stocks) (+) 7) Holds any stocks or bonds (+) Binary indicator 8) Has any retirement savings (+) Binary indicator 9) Participates in retirement Binary indicator savings plan (e.g. 401k) (+) 10) Amount of retirement savings Continuous measure of retirement savings (+) amount 11) Retirement savings rate (+) Retirement savings relative to income 12) Positive sentiment towards Binary indicator investing funds (+) 13) Reduction of excess risk in Continuous measure of retirement savings retirement fund (+) amount allocated to risky assets 14) Reduction of cost of savings Continuous measure of fee amount paid product (fees paid) (+) 15) Increase in contribution rate to Indicator of increase or continuous measure of retirement savings plan (+) amount increase 16) Net wealth (+) Continuous measure of net wealth E Insurance & risk mitigation behavior 16 (4.59%) 1) Any formal insurance (+) Binary indicator 2) Having a diversified portfolio Numbers of assets in portfolio; Standard (+) deviation of returns in portfolio F Remittance behavior 16 (4.59%) 1) Lower cost of remittance Continuous measure of cost or binary choice product (+) of lower cost product 2) Lower remittance frequency Measure of remittance frequency within and higher amount (lower timeframe and continuous amount remitted cost) (+) 3) More control over remitted Study-specific scale to measure control over funds (+) remitted amount G Bank account behavior 11 (3.15%) 1) Has formal bank (checking) Binary indicator account (+) Binary indicator 2) Opens formal account within certain time frame Binary indicator 3) Uses formal bank account Notes: When necessary, outcomes are reverse-coded so that positive signs reflect positive financial education treatment effects (i.e. when the dependent variable is coded as the probability of default, we transform this to the reduction in probability of default in order to be able to assign a positive sign). 32 Table S1.3: Summary of estimated financial education impacts Outcome Significance at 5% Significance at 10% Average effect size Negative Insig. Positive Negative Insig. Positive (SE) A Effects on financial literacy Fin. 1 72 117 2 62 126 0.263*** literacy (0.53%) (37.89%) (61.58%) (1.05%) (32.63%) (66.32) (0.414) B Effects on financial behavior Fin. 8 215 126 18 181 150 0.086*** behavior (2.29%) (61.60%) (36.10%) (5.16%) (51.86%) (42.98%) (0.012) Borrowing 5 80 15 10 70 20 0.023 (5.00%) (80.00%) (15.00%) (10.00%) (70.00%) (20.00%) (0.014) Budgeting 0 15 25 1 10 29 0.207*** & planning (0.00%) (37.5%) (62.50%) (2.50%) (25.00%) (72.50%) (0.053) Saving 2 61 57 6 49 65 0.108*** (1.67%) (50.83%) (47.50%) (5.00%) (40.83%) (54.17%) (0.017) Retirement 0 22 24 0 17 29 0.108*** Saving (0.00%) (47.83%) (52.17%) (0.00%) (36.96%) (63.04%) (0.034) Insurance 0 13 3 0 12 4 0.045 (0.00%) (81.25%) (18.75%) (0.00%) (75.00%) (25.00%) (0.024) Bank 0 10 1 0 10 1 0.003 account (0.00%) (90.91%) (9.09%) (0.00%) (90.91%) (9.09%) (0.027) behavior Remittance 1 14 1 1 13 2 0.035 behavior (6.25%) (87.50%) (6.25%) (6.25%) (81.25%) (12.50%) (0.046) Notes: Average effect sizes are estimated via OLS with standard errors clustered at the study-level in parentheses. ***, ** and * denote significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level. 33 Figure S1.1: Citations of published items with the keyword financial literacy per year, source: SSCI Figure S1.2: Kernel-density estimates of effect sizes by outcome (for Hedge’s g<1) 34 Additional information on selection of studies and extraction of effect sizes estimates and study descriptors. Selection of studies. We follow the established meta-analytical protocol (cf. Lipsey and Wilson 2001, p.23; Stanley 2001, p.143; Stanley and Doucouliagos 2012; Stanley et al. 2013). This starts with systematically searching the relevant databases for the most common keywords in order to aggregate a large sample of potentially eligible studies to be included in our meta- analysis. Keywords are (i) financial literacy; (ii) financial knowledge; (iii) financial education; (iv) financial capability; and (v) combinations of these keywords with “intervention.” To minimize publication bias and capture the broadest sample of studies possible, we systematically search not only the relevant databases for published records (e.g. ISI, Business Source Premier via EBSCO Host, JStor) but also for registered trials, working papers, and informal research reports (e.g. AEA RCT-registry, SSRN, Fin. Lit. E-Journal, RePEC, NBER, Worldbank eLibrary). All records from recent systematic accounts of the literature (Fernandes et al. 2014; Miller et al. 2015) are included in our initial pool of studies. In addition, we screen the references of narrative literature reviews (Fox et al. 2005; Collins and O’Rourke 2010; Willis 2011; Xu and Zia 2012; Hastings et al. 2013; Blue et al. 2014; Lusardi and Mitchell 2014). This search resulted in over 500 potentially relevant published journal-articles and over 600 results from working paper databases with some apparent overlap. We stopped collecting articles from these databases in October 2016. From this collection, we drop studies that do not meet our three criteria of inclusion: (i) Reporting on impacts of an exogenous educational intervention designed to strengthen the participants’ financial literacy and/or leading to behavioral change in the area of personal finance; (ii) providing a quantitative assessment of intervention impact that allows coding an effect size statistic ( ) and its standard error; and (iii) relying on an observed counterfactual in 35 the estimation of intervention impacts. Consequently, we only include experimental studies with sufficient information on intervention outcomes in our analysis, i.e. RCTs, quasi- experiments, and natural experiments (see below for coding of studies). Where necessary information was partially missing, we consulted additional online resources related to the article or contacted the authors of the primary studies via e-mail. This selection-process results in a final sample of 126 independent intervention studies that report 539 effect sizes. Of these, 90 studies report 349 effect sizes on financial behavior, and 67 studies report 190 effect sizes on financial literacy. Among these 90 plus 67 studies, there are 31 studies reporting effect sizes for both financial literacy and behavior. Our selection of studies covers 126 independent interventions from 1999 through 2016. Table S1.1 shows the composition of our sample of studies by the date of publication (Panel A) and the country in which the intervention took place (Panel B). While most interventions took place in the U.S. and other OECD countries, 21.4% of studies were conducted in low- or middle-income countries. The sample is comprised of 51 RCTs and 75 quasi-experiments. RCTs are rare in the early years of the literature, but the share has risen dramatically, with the majority of studies conducted from 2011 onward being randomized evaluations (see Figure 1 in the main text). Extraction of estimates. The next step in our meta-analytic process is to extract effect size estimates from the statistical data reported in the primary studies. Our analysis aggregates treatment effects of financial education interventions on two main categories of outcomes. First, we code the effect of financial education on financial literacy (i.e. a measure of performance on a financial knowledge test) since knowledge development is the primary goal of financial education (Hastings et al. 2013; Lusardi and Mitchell 2014). We do not include self- assessments of changes in financial knowledge as an outcome. Second, we code treatment effects of financial education on financial behaviors. These behaviors can be further disaggregated into the following categories: Borrowing, savings and 36 retirement saving, budgeting and planning, insurance, as well as remittances. Table S1.2 provides an overview of the categories and definitions of effect size estimates by outcome type. We code all available effect sizes per study on cognitive (financial knowledge) and behavioral outcomes. We include multiple estimates per study if multiple outcomes, time- points, or treatments are reported. We only extract main (average treatment) effects reported in the papers. Thus, we do not code estimates reported in the “heterogeneity-of-treatment-effects- section” within papers, such as sample splits or interaction-effects of binary indicators (e.g. gender, income, ability, …) with the treatment indicators. If results are only reported in a disaggregated manner (only effects on subsamples), we perform a within study (random- effects) meta-analysis (DerSimonian and Laird 1986) to generate an inverse-variance-weighted average effect size to proxy the main effect. Additionally, we aim to capture only non-redundant effect sizes per paper (i.e. we do not include effect sizes for the same intervention on the same outcome reported in the robustness-section). The number of coded estimates per study ranges from 1 to 87 estimates. We show in the Appendix S3 (robustness checks) that giving each study equal weight by creating a single synthetic effect size per study through a within-study meta- analysis or alternatively by weighting each observation by the inverse number of effect-size estimates contributed by each study yields similar results. In addition to the coding of all possible estimates of effect sizes ( ) and their standard errors of financial education treatment on financial literacy or financial behavior (cf. Section 2), we develop a coding protocol to extract potentially relevant information about the study (study descriptors) that may serve as predictor variables explaining the variability in effect sizes. Specifically, we aim at extracting data on (i) research design and measurement of dependent variables; (ii) the intensity of education; (iii) the sample/target group of the intervention; and (iv) the details of the intervention itself, such as channel, setting, and participation conditions. Coding of the included study reports was completed by the authors of 37 this paper and two research assistants who were trained using the guidelines by Lipsey and Wilson (2001, p.88). Overall intercoder reliability is high and data collection for most of the variables concerning the setting, participants, and research design of the primary studies was straightforward. However, key details of the underlying educational intervention are often missing or underreported in the research reports. If information is only partially missing authors were asked to provide these details via e-mail. References in Appendix S1 Blue, L., Grootenboer, P., and Brimble, M. (2014). Financial literacy education in the curriculum: Making the grade or missing the mark? International Review of Economics Education, 16, Part A(0): 51–62. Collins, J.M. and O’Rourke, C.M. (2010). Financial education and counseling—still holding promise. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 44(3): 483–498. DerSimonian, R. and Laird, N. (1986). Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials, 7(3): 177–188. Fox, J., Bartholomae, S., and Lee, J. (2005). Building the case for financial education. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 39(1): 195–214. Fernandes, D., Lynch, Jr., J.G., and Netemeyer, R.G. (2014). Financial literacy, financial education, and downstream financial behaviors. Management Science, 60(8): 1861–1883. Hastings, J.S., Madrian, B.C., and Skimmyhorn, W.L. (2013). Financial literacy, financial education, and economic outcomes. Annual Review of Economics, 5: 347–373. Lusardi, A. and Mitchell, O.S. (2014). The economic importance of financial literacy: theory and evidence. Journal of Economic Literature, 52(1): 5–44. Lipsey, M.W. and Wilson, D.B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Miller, M., Reichelstein, J., Salas, C., and Zia, B. (2015). Can you help someone become financially capable? A meta-analysis of the literature. World Bank Research Observer, 30(2): 220–246. Stanley, T. D. (2001). Wheat from chaff: Meta-analysis as quantitative literature review. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 15(3): 131–150. Stanley, T. D. and Doucouliagos, H. (2012). Meta-regression analysis in economics and business, Routledge, New York, NY. Stanley, T., Doucouliagos, H., Giles, M., Heckemeyer, J. H., Johnston, R. J., Laroche, P., Nelson, J. P., Paldam, M., Poot, J., Pugh, G., Rosenberger, R. S., and Rost, K. (2013). Meta- analysis of economics research reporting guidelines. Journal of Economic Surveys, 27(2):390– 394. 38 Willis, L.E. (2011). The financial education fallacy. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 101(3): 429–434. Xu, L., and Zia, B. (2012). Financial literacy around the world: an overview of the evidence with practical suggestions for the way forward. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6107. 39 Appendix S2: Comparison of our dataset and results to previous meta- analyses There are two earlier meta-analyses about financial education: The study by Miller et al. (2015) covers 19 papers due to its extremely restrictive selection criteria. Thus, most similar to our work is the study by Fernandes et al. (2014), which covers 90 effect sizes from financial education reported in 77 papers. Despite an overlap of 44% with their sample of studies, our research differs in four ways which explains our new results: (i) most important is that we analyze determinants of program effectiveness in a broader way by applying respective coding. (ii) Then we code the various outcomes per study and their respective effectiveness. Moreover, (iii) we cover recent and mostly randomized experiments providing evidence of effective interventions; and (iv) we cover additional studies focusing exclusively on financial literacy as the outcome variable. We aim to elaborate on these comparisons in this part of the Appendix. Comparison of studied samples. Our selection-process (see Appendix S1) led us to a final sample of 126 independent intervention studies that report 539 effect sizes. Of these, 90 studies report 349 effect sizes on financial behavior, and 67 studies report 190 effect sizes on financial literacy. Among these 90 plus 67 studies, there are 31 studies reporting effect sizes on both financial literacy and behavior. The sample is comprised of 51 RCTs and 75 quasi- experiments. As mentioned, Miller et al. (2015) select 19 intervention-studies for their statistical meta- analysis. Their main inclusion criterion is that interventions report on identical outcomes. This limits their analysis to sample sizes of four to six studies (and estimates) per outcome. While informative of magnitude and significance of effect sizes on identical outcomes, such an approach prevents a detailed investigation into the sources of heterogeneity, given the very limited number of studies available. However, we note that the results for size, direction, and significance of the main behaviors studied in Miller et al. 2015 are in line with our results (see Figure 2 in the main text). 40 Fernandes et al. (2014), with 77 papers selected, cover 90 effect sizes (15 RCTs and 75 quasi-experiments) of “manipulated financial literacy” (cf. Fernandes et al. 2014, p.1863). Of their 77 papers, 55 are also part of our sample. We exclude 22 single-group pre-posttest and quasi-experimental papers because they either do not analyze education interventions (but other personal finance related programs, e.g. match incentives), report only aggregate measures of self-reported financial behavior, wellbeing or self-efficacy, or because it is not feasible to calculate a meaningful effect size statistic. In addition, we include 35 recent studies that were not previously available. Moreover, we consider another 36 studies examining the impact of financial education on financial literacy but neglecting possible impacts on financial behavior. These differences explain the mentioned overlap of 44% regarding studies. Comparison of estimation results. We estimate the average treatment effect of educational interventions on financial behaviors to be statistically highly significant (g=0.086, p=0.000, n=349). Although the average treatment effect of 0.086 is small in magnitude, there exists a measurable and robust impact of financial education on various kinds of financial behavior. In comparison, Fernandes et al. (2014) estimate the summary effect of financial education on financial behavior to be roughly g=0.066. However, the authors use averaged effect sizes per paper and weight each observation with its average inverse variance. In order to obtain a better comparison with that study, we exactly apply their method (random effects meta-regression) with synthetic effect sizes per study to our sample of studies. This provides an average (weighted) effect size of g=0.079 (p=0.000, n=90) (see Table S3.1 in Appendix S3). Thus, our estimate of a summary effect for the literature is not too different from theirs. To investigate the potential source of this difference, we estimate the weighted average effect size among those recent studies that are not included in Fernandes et al. (2014). Indeed, we find that there is a larger average effect of financial education on financial behavior in this sample (g=0.13). This indicates that the new studies covered in our meta-analysis are the main 41 source of difference. Diving deeper into this issue, we find that Fernandes et al. (2014) estimate extremely small average effect sizes for their sample of 15 RCTs. Our broader sample of randomized experiments, however, leads to a much more positive assessment. In line with this observation, the effect size of financial education on financial behavior documented in RCTs seems to increase over time, indicating a positive time trend in effect sizes: a regression of effect size on year of study publication results in a statistically highly significant coefficient (b=0.014, SE=0.004). This moderate, positive time-trend is an important element in explaining our positive result about the effect of financial education on financial behavior. Turning to the result concerning the treatment effect of financial education on financial literacy (measured through knowledge assessments), we estimate the average impact of financial education on financial literacy to be g=0.263 (p=0.000, n=190). Thus, our analysis of a comprehensive sample of studies (n=67) leads to a positive assessment of the effectiveness of financial education on financial literacy. This education explains 1.7% of the variance in financial knowledge and, thus, appears only slightly less effective than educational interventions in other domains, such as math and science instruction (cf. Fernandes et al. 2014, p.1867). Our positive result is in remarkable contrast to Fernandes et al. (2014, p.1867), who find that financial education only explains 0.4% of the variance in financial literacy and state accordingly that, “financial education yields surprisingly weak changes in financial knowledge presumed to cause financial behavior.” However, this result seems a bit fragile as it is based on only 12 studies and cannot, obviously, be replicated in our larger sample of studies (cf. Fernandes et al. 2014, p. 1867). References in Appendix S2 Fernandes, D., Lynch, Jr., J.G., and Netemeyer, R.G. (2014). Financial literacy, financial education, and downstream financial behaviors. Management Science, 60(8): 1861–1883. Miller, M., Reichelstein, J., Salas, C., and Zia, B. (2015). Can you help someone become financially capable? A meta-analysis of the literature. World Bank Research Observer, 30(2): 220–246. 42 Appendix S3: Robustness checks Appendix S3 contains eight kinds of robustness checks: (i) we estimate the (weighted) average treatment effect of financial education on financial behavior using five alternative meta-regression models for continuous effect sizes; (ii) we show results without imputing missing values; (iii) we run our benchmark analysis with the subsample of studies conducted in the USA only; (iv) we run our benchmark analysis with the subsample of classroom financial education studies only; (v) we give each study the same weight in the analysis by creating one synthetic effect size per study or, alternatively, assigning a weight of the inverse number of observations contributed by each study to each estimate within a given study; (vi) we re- estimate our multivariate analysis using eleven alternative meta-regression models; (vii) we look for heterogeneous impacts depending on the delay in measurement of outcomes; and, lastly, (viii) we test a different operationalization of training intensity. (i) Summary of treatment effects on financial behavior under various models. Table S3.1 shows the estimated (weighted) average effect size of financial education treatment on financial behavior outcomes for six alternative models. We first perform an analysis on the full sample (Panel A) and disaggregate our sample further into RCTs only (Panel B) and a subsample containing only quasi and natural experiments (Panel C).