75719 v1 Summary Re p o r t Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Jointly prepared by The Ministry of Education and The World Bank Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Summary Re p o r t Jointly prepared by The Ministry of Education and The World Bank H i s M a j es t y S u lta n Q a b oos bin Said Foreword of Her Excellency the Minister of Education W hen His Majesty Sultan Qaboos ascended to the throne in 1970, one of the first commitments of his Government was to develop a public education system that would reach all parts of the country and would include all sections of society. At that time, there were only three schools in the whole of the Sultanate of Oman, all of them at the primary level and all for boys. To all intents and purposes, therefore, the country was starting with what was virtually a clean slate in terms of comprehensive educational provision. With very low enrollment rates, the early focus of the Ministry of Education centered on issues related to access. The clear priorities of the country were to build the required educational infrastructure; to conduct a teacher recruitment program, mainly from abroad; and to develop a curriculum. The aims were to provide universal primary education, to expand provision to elementary and secondary education, and to promote gender equality. Within a period of 40 years, the situation has been completely transformed. In 2008, there were nearly 1,300 schools in the country, providing education from grades 1 to 12 for over 600,000 students, 48 percent of whom were female. There were over 43,000 teachers, of which 89 percent were Omani. Education participation levels in Oman are now equal to or above those observed in other Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. The last 40 years has been a period of unprecedented development in the Sultanate, not only in education, but also economically and socially. The country is pursuing a development plan that focuses on economic diversification as a way of reducing its dependency on the oil sector. In addition, globalization of the world economy has brought its own strains, challenges and opportunities. These developments, coupled with the Government’s policy to “Omanize� the work- force, have meant that the country’s needs in terms of education have dramatically changed. To prosper in the global marketplace, the Sultanate requires an educa- tion system that can produce future employees who can engage in analytical thinking and problem solving and who are creative, adaptable and competitive. In response to these demands, the attention of the Ministry of Education in recent years has shifted away from concerns about access (since 97 percent of basic school-age Omanis are enrolled in schooling) towards attempts to qualitatively improve and increase the relevance of the education system so as to prepare our students to meet the challenges of a knowledge-based economy. The Ministry of Education is presently engaged in a number of major reform initiatives across the whole system. A new basic education system designed to provide a unified program for grades 1 to 10 was introduced in 1998, and a new post-basic education system organized on a “core plus electives� model for grades 11 and 12 was introduced in 2007. The reforms emphasize changing teaching, learning and assessment methodologies, updating the curriculum, adding new resources, improving facilities, reducing class sizes and upgrading the qualifications and skills of teachers. 6 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality However, there are still persistent issues concerning the quality of student achievement that need to be addressed. The Government of Oman invited the World Bank to collaborate with the Ministry of Education to undertake a study of the school education sector to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the present system and to provide recommendations for future improvement. On behalf of the Ministry of Education, I would like to thank the World Bank for its considerable efforts and expertise in producing such a comprehensive and valuable report. I would also like to express my appreciation to all those within the Ministry of Education whose assistance to the World Bank team helped to improve the relevance and quality of the report. I am confident that the report prove to be of considerable benefit to the Sultanate in helping it to improve its educational system in terms of access, equity, quality and efficiency. We are grateful for the continued fruitful collaboration and support offered by the World Bank and, as always, we are deeply appreciative of its contribution. With the strong political will and commitment of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos and his Government to the country’s educational development, we believe we can successfully prepare our citizens for the great challenges facing our nation through our mission to provide them all with an Education of Quality and Excellence. In light of this, the report will undoubtedly be instrumental in helping us to design future successful educational policies and strategies. Madiha Ahmed Al-Shaibani Minister of Education Sultanate of Oman Summary 7 8 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality 9 Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................ 11 Acronyms................................................................................................................................................ 13 Overview..............................................................................15 Key Findings........................................................................................................................................... 15 Education in Oman: The Drive for Quality Summary.............................................................................21 Report’s Objectives and Coverage.............................................................................................. 23 Background............................................................................................................................................ 23 .............................................................................. 25 Progress and Achievements in Education. Major Challenges for Education................................................................................................... 29 ............................................................................................................................... 37 The Way Forward. .............................................................................................................................................. 43 Conclusion. Appendix 1 Matrix of Policy Recommendations ........................................47 for the Ministry of Education (MOE). ........................................................................... 55 References. 10 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Summary 11 Acknowledgments This report reflects the results of many months of collaboration between the Oman Ministry of Education (MOE) and the World Bank with assistance from many stakeholders. The Omani Study Team was led initially by H.E. Dr. Madiha Al-Shaibani, Minister of Education (formerly Secretary General, Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science) and then by Dr. Ahmed Mohammed Al-Hinai (Advisor to the Minister), H.E. Yahya bin Saud bin Mansoor Al-Sulaimi (former Minister of Education) and Dr. Muna bin Salim Al-Jardania (former Undersecretary for Education and Curriculum) provided leadership and valuable input to this study. The Omani Study Team included Dr. Maryam Al-Nabhani (Deputy Director of the Technical Office for Studies and Development) the head of the technical team of the study, Dr. Amal Al-Busaidi (former DG of Curriculum Development), Dr. Zuwaina Al-Maskari (DG of Educational Evaluation), Dr. Sana Al-Balushi (DG of the National Career Guidance Centre), Yahya Al-Harthi (DG of Human Resources Development), Dr. Masooma Al-Ajmi (Expert/Minister’s Office), Aqeel Al-Lawati (Ministry of National Economy [MONE]), Fatma Noorani (DG of Private Schools), Waleed Al-Hashmi (Director of Quality Control), Dr. Rashid Al-Hajri and David Griffiths (Experts, the Technical Office for Studies and Development), Tahira Al-Lawati (Director of Statistics), Maryam Al-Riyami (Director of Planning), Intisar Ambusaidi (Director of Educational Supervision), Abduljaleel Al-Manthari (Director of Budget), Majid Al-Abri (Deputy Director of Current Budget), Asma Al-Balushi (Curriculum Development), Ahmed Al-Hinai (Educational Evaluation), Salim Al-Harthi (Educational Evaluation), Sultan Al-Wadhahi (Deputy Director for Archive Management and E-services), Rabab Al-Lawati ( Director of Educational Programmes for Private Schools), and Abudulla Al-Ruhaili (Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science). The World Bank team was led by Lianqin Wang (Task Team Leader, Senior Education Specialist) and included Vincent Greaney (Education Assessment Specialist), Laura Gregory (Education Specialist), Hiromichi Katayama (Education Specialist), Sam Mikhail (Education Specialist), Benoit Millot (Education Economist), and Aidan Mulkeen (Teacher Education Specialist). Guidance was provided by Farrukh Iqbal (Country Director), Mourad Ezzine (Education Sector Manager), and Marcos Ghattas (Program Manager, Reimbursable Technical Cooperation). Ms. Larisa Marquez (Operations Analyst) and Ms. Hida Haddad (Senior Executive Assistant) provided substantial operations support. World Bank peer reviewers for the draft report were Harsha Aturupane (Lead Education Specialist), Nathalie Lahire (Senior Education Economist), and Jee-Peng Tan (Education Adviser). Peer reviewers at the Concept Note stage were Robert Prouty (Head of Education Fast Track Initiative), Harsha Aturupane, and Juan Manuel Moreno (Senior Education Specialist). Many officials and technical staff from Oman’s education system participated in the focus group discussion and surveys related to this study. Support was also provided by MOE officials and staff, including H.E. Dr. Saod Al-Belushi (Undersecretary for Planning and Human Resources), Hana Al-Ghasani (School Performance Development), Salim Al-Habsi (Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science), Mahfoodha Al-Wahaibi (Statistics Department), Azza Al-Harthi, (Educational Evaluation Department), and Hunaina Al-Barwani (National Career Guidance Centre). Special thanks go to Fatma Al-Hinai (Senior International Relations Expert, Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science) for the coordination of mission activities. This report was edited by Barbara Catherwood. 13 A C R ON Y MS CA Continuous assessment CDD Curriculum Development Directorate ECE Early childhood education EFA Education for All GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GER Gross enrollment ratio HEI Higher education institution MENA Middle East and North Africa MOE Ministry of Education MOF Ministry of Finance MOH Ministry of Health MOHE Ministry of Higher Education MOM Ministry of Manpower MONE Ministry of National Economy MOSD Ministry of Social Development MTEF Medium-term expenditure framework NCGC National Career Guidance Center NQF National qualifications framework OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PETS Public expenditure tracking survey RO Omani Riyal STR Student-teacher ratio SQU Sultan Qaboos University EED Educational Evaluation Directorate TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund VTC Vocational training center Summary 15 O V E RV I E W Since the 1970s, public education provision in Oman has flourished. Almost all Omani children of basic education age are now enrolled in schools, along with a high proportion (86 percent) of those of post-basic education age. The Government of Oman has turned its attention to ensur- ing that the achievements made to date are not only maintained but also further enhanced to achieve a high-quality, efficient and relevant education system. This report is the result of an education sector study undertaken collaboratively by the Government of Oman and the World Bank to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the system and to provide recommenda- tions to continue to improve education outcomes in Oman. Drawing on evidence and information from a wide variety of sources, this report concentrates on pretertiary education and examines aspects of access to education, quality of learning, teachers and teaching methods, relevance of education to the labor market, and the financing and manage- ment of the education system. The report offers some policy recommen- dations on the way forward. A summary of the report’s key findings follows. K E Y F I N D I NGS Oman’s recent successes in expanding education provision are impressive. School enrollments have grown from 900 in 1970 to over 600,000 in 2008/09, and repetition and dropout rates have decreased considerably. The result is that education participation levels in Oman are equal to or above other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In particular, young women in Oman have high levels of tertiary education completion similar to levels in top performing countries, such as Singapore and South Korea. The Government has now moved its focus to the quality and relevance of teaching and learning. The results of the analysis from this education sector study confirm that the key challenge facing the education sector in Oman is to improve the quality of student learning outcomes and that enhancing quality should be the Government’s main priority in education. Recent endeavors to improve quality include the introduction of revised systems of basic education (grades 1–10) and post-basic education (grades 11–12). While these initiatives are still new and their results will not be entirely apparent for several years, recent national and international assessments of learning achieve- ment highlight the need for a concerted effort to improve quality. There are many factors that influence the quality of educational outcomes. The Ministry of Education (MOE), in particular, has a central role to play in opti- mizing education system performance. There are two broad priorities suggested by this report: (1) creating a culture of high standards; and (2) developing the pedagogical capacity of the teaching force. These priorities, along with policy recommendations, are outlined as follows. 16 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Establish a Culture of High Standards Current Situation: From young children’s work in the classroom to teachers and administrators and beyond schools to the home environment, high standards of performance and learning should be expected. A disconnect was observed between the perception of learning achievement among students, teachers and parents and the students’ actual learning achievement. National and international assessments of learning show that students are performing below the Government’s expectations and below many countries in the world. In particular, the underachievement of boys is striking: of all 48 participating countries in the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 2007), Oman had the largest gender difference with boys scoring significantly lower than girls in all content areas. The amount of actual time spent on learning activities in Oman’s public schools is less than in many other countries. School graduates lack some critical skills, particularly in English, which necessitates a foundation year in higher education institutions. In addition, employers express concerns about the job readiness of gradu- ates. For Oman’s education system to continue to improve, standards need to be raised and measures put in place to ensure that these new standards are met. Specific Areas to Address: n To increase the time students spend on meaningful learning tasks, it will be important to meet the official target of 180 days in the school year, which is close to international norms. Currently days are lost due to examinations, special events and other closures. Reducing the grade 12 examina- tions to one session at the end of the year and keeping classes for grades 1–11 operating as usual during these examinations would help to meet the target. In addition, schools could be asked to extend the term to make up days lost for festivals or other reasons. Furthermore, teachers should be encouraged to prioritize the curriculum over other activities. n Setting clear and realistic learning targets for each grade and publicizing these widely to teachers, students and parents can help to raise the quality of learning. Teachers should be encouraged to monitor learning regularly and give realistic feedback to students and parents. The development of higher-order thinking skills should be encouraged across the grades with increasing emphasis on higher-order thinking in the examinations. More use could be made of examination results to identify common areas of difficulties in each subject and to adapt in-service teacher training to improve teaching in these areas. n The significant underachievement of boys should be examined and addressed systematically. As a first step, parents should be made more aware of the gender gap and encouraged to set higher expectations for boys. As key issues affecting boys’ low performance are not well understood, a comprehensive empirical study should be conducted to identify factors and to inform an action plan to address them. n There are several areas in which school curricula could be improved. In particular, given that a lack of English language proficiency is one of the main reasons students require a foundation year at most public and private universities, reviewing the English curriculum and teaching methods may be necessary. In addition, given the objective evidence suggesting that achievement levels in mathematics and science are low, a curricula review in these areas is warranted. Furthermore, “soft skills� development, such as team work, public speaking, problem solving, critical thinking and a strong work ethic, were seen as lacking by some employers. A reduction in the number of subjects that post-basic students are required to take may be necessary to ensure a deeper understanding of concepts. Since few staff at the MOE’s Curriculum Development Directorate (CDD) have benefited from training in curriculum development or evaluation, a professional development program in these areas should be undertaken. Summary 17 Develop Strong Pedagogical Skills Current Situation: Of all the factors affecting student learning that can potentially be influenced by public policy, teaching quality is the single most important one. An effective teaching force with strong pedagogical skills is the key to increasing education quality. Oman has a large teaching force with sufficient qualifications, but new teachers’ skills are not developed adequately in preservice teacher training due to the lack of emphasis on pedagogical skills and the limited use of practical training. Currently teacher trainers do not have sufficient classroom experience or practical teaching skills. In-service training should be more practical and responsive to teachers’ needs. In school, teachers’ work needs to be refocused with more time devoted to teaching and less to reporting and administrative requirements. Specific Areas to Address: n Teacher education courses are not well matched to the curriculum that new teachers are expected to teach or to teaching realities in Omani classrooms. In addition, courses lack a suitable emphasis on practical training, and the teacher trainers tend to have limited practical classroom experience themselves. Regulating teacher education courses would help to ensure that pedagogical skills are prioritized suitably and that newly qualified teachers are prepared to teach the curriculum. n Teachers need to be focused on the quality of teaching and student learning. Even though teaching loads are low in Oman compared to other countries, teachers cite an overload of administrative tasks, such as reporting and recording, which takes their focus away from classroom perform- ance. Rebalancing teachers’ work to prioritize teaching quality and to reduce paperwork may be necessary. In-service training should focus on teaching skills for quality learning and teacher-peer activities should be supported, such as the formation of regional teacher subject associations. n Ensuring an adequate supply of Omani teachers by forecasting need and supporting domestic provision will be necessary in the long term. The current teacher oversupply, which has contrib- uted to the closure of some teacher education courses, has left little domestic capacity to train teachers for the first cycle of basic education. This poses a risk for the future and may increase reliance on non-Omani teachers. There are currently imbalances across subject specializations with a teacher oversupply in some areas and an undersupply in others. This unsatisfactory situ- ation can be addressed by requiring teacher education institutions to be guided by long-term national needs as they select students for each specialization. n Retaining teachers in remote areas is a challenge in Oman. Remote areas have a greater propor- tion of non-Omani teachers and significantly more turn over than urban areas. Providing an appropriate additional allowance for teachers in carefully targeted remote areas, extending the duration of stay in a school before a transfer can be requested, and giving preference to students from remote areas for teacher training may be options to consider. 18 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Other Challenges In addition there are a number of specific areas in which access to education should be addressed in order to reach the Education for All (EFA) goals and contribute to education quality enhancement: n Expanding the provision of publicly financed early childhood education (ECE) should be a priority given the current low participation rate and the substantial evidence of ECE benefits, particularly for school readiness. Private preschools, which have become popular in Oman and grown in number, are only accessible to families who can afford to pay for them. Initially in public ECE expansion, areas of poor educational performance should be prioritized and encouragement of private provision of ECE continued. n Oman currently lacks adequate mechanisms for identifying and evaluating children with special needs, and it is likely that the true requirement for special needs education provision is greater than what is currently available. A national strategy for special needs education should be devel- oped, involving all of the responsible ministries. Reliable data on the demand for educational facili- ties for children with special needs will be essential. Teachers who are responsible for integrating children with special needs into the classroom should receive appropriate training. n While adult literacy rates have improved significantly in Oman, there is a need to review the literacy program’s curriculum and delivery methods and to conduct an assessment of the literacy education needs of potential learners, particularly males who are currently under-represented in the programs. The quality of the literacy program could be enhanced by providing more centers, improving the curriculum and supporting materials, and developing a policy to attract, train and retain suitable teachers. These recommendations have management and financial implications. In particular, reaching the goal of improved education quality will require all relevant ministries to unite their efforts and to plan together, for example through the development of a national strategy for education. Guiding the planning of the education sector could be the responsibility of a high-level body established with representation from the relevant ministries, including the MOE, the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), the Ministry of Manpower (MOM), the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD), the Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Ministry of Finance (MOF), and other stakeholders including the private sector. Within the MOE, a management training program could be established to enhance the leadership and planning skills of senior officials. Resources should be shifted toward quality-related inputs and to support teaching and learning initia- tives. This resource shift could be achieved by reviewing the remuneration system for teaching and administrative staff. In particular, the review should focus on student-teacher and teacher-administrator ratios, which are currently low. Consideration could be given to the use of allowances to link remunera- tion to performance or acceptance of hardship posts rather than to seniority alone. Other management and finance initiatives aimed at improving quality include (1) granting more financial autonomy and management responsibility to the governorates, regions and schools to make decisions more relevant to local contexts; (2) conducting a tracking study of public finance for education to identify possible inefficiencies in resource allocation; and (3) ensuring that the data required to make sound informed policy decisions in education are produced in a timely manner and are valid and reliable. This report acknowledges the tremendous achievements that Oman has made in education provision to date, and the capacity and political will that has facilitated the remarkable accomplishments. The challenge of improving education quality is not insurmountable for Oman, but it will require a shared vision, careful planning, focused use of resources and collaborative work involving all relevant stakeholders. Summary 19 21 Summary Education in Oman: The Drive for Quality Through a series of development plans initiated in the early 1970s, Oman has achieved a rapid social and economic transformation under the leadership of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said. Major developments in the education sector include a dramatic increase in the number of education institutions and student enrollments at all levels and a major modernization of the education system. Looking to the future, the Government of Oman seeks to build on these successes and continue economic and social development. Equipping its young population with the required knowledge, skills and attitudes is seen as a cornerstone in the strategy to move the country to even higher levels of achievement. 22 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Summary 23 R E P O R T ’ S O B J E C T I V ES AND COVERAGE This report is an analysis of the education sector in Oman, focusing mainly on pretertiary education. It is intended as a resource for policy makers, providing an analysis of the cur- rent state of the sector and highlighting some of the key priorities for the next phase of development. The analysis draws on a range of information sources, including data from the Ministry of Education (MOE) and other ministries, interviews with key stakeholders in the sys- tem, and information drawn from earlier studies and reports. This report covers multiple issues: access to education, quality of student learning and achievement, teachers and teaching methods, education’s relevance to the labor market, and the education system’s financing and management. While recognizing that education plays a strong social and societal role, the report focuses particularly on the linkage between the education sector and the labor market and on education’s contribution to Omani goals for economic development. This report summary presents (1) the main findings of the analysis, (2) the main challenges facing the sector, and (3) suggested policy measures to address those challenges including a detailed matrix of policy recommendations (appendix 1). BACKGROUND Young Omanis and working-age non-Omanis make up a large proportion of Oman’s population. Population estimates from the Ministry of National Economy (MONE 2010), indicate that Oman has a high proportion of young people in its population. In 2009, 27 percent of its population of 3.2 million were under the age of 20, and 48 percent of Omani nationals were under the age of 20. This, however, is likely to change over the coming decades because of the recent drop in crude birth rates, which fell from 44.7 births per 1,000 Omani nationals in 1990 to 24.0 in 2004 (but rose to 29.5 in 2009); the population pyramid in figure 1 shows this effect (MONE 2010). Over one-third of the population is non-Omani, the majority of whom are male expatriate workers (in the 25–39 year age group) who are single or have families outside of Oman. Between 2008 and 2009, the population of Oman increased significantly — from 2.9 to 3.2 million — due largely to a 28 percent rise in the number of non-Omanis. After many years of relying almost exclusively on oil receipts, the Government is now pursuing a diversified economy through industrialization and privatization. Oman is a high-income country with a gross national income per capita of US$17,890 in 2008.1 During the 2000s, growth averaged 4.6 percent per year (MONE 2010). The Government aims to reduce reliance on the oil sector from 40.6 percent of gross domestic product in 2009 (MONE 2010) down to 10 percent by 2020 (MONE 2007). Youth unemployment is a growing concern, and the country’s “Omanization� policy has had mixed success so far. Oman has been ranked relatively highly in measures of human development in recent years. In the Human Development Index (UNDP 2009), Oman ranked 56th among 182 countries. This composite index measures average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development (a long healthy life, access to knowledge and decent standard of living). 1 World Bank Atlas method (World Bank Data Development Platform, December 2010). 24 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Figure 1 Composition of Oman’s Population by Age Group, Gender and Nationality, 2009 (thousands) Age Male Female 65+ 6 0 -6 4 5 5 -5 9 5 0 -5 4 4 5 -4 9 4 0 -4 4 3 5 -3 9 3 0 -3 4 2 5 -2 9 2 0 -2 4 15-19 10-14 5 -9 0 -4 3 4 0 3 0 0 2 6 0 220 180 140 100 60 20 20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300 340 Population (thousands) Omani Non-Omani Source: MONE 2010. Table 1 Public Recurrent and Investment Expenditure in the Education Sector, 2005, 2007 and 2009 All (Recurrent + Investment) Recurrent Investment 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 2005 2007 2009 Expenditure 545.9 746.2 948.2 493.2 651.1 823.8 52.7 95.1 124.4 (current RO millions) As a % of Total Government 13.0 12.7 12.8 15.4 15.6 17.5 5.3 5.5 4.6 Source: MONE 2008 Expenditure and 2010. Note: Includes As a % of All Civil expenditures by MOE, 26.3 27.3 24.6 32.2 34.3 37.2 9.7 11.3 7.6 MOHE, MOM and Ministries’ Expenditure SQU. Figure 2 Number of Grade 1–12 Enrollments, 1970/71 to 2008/09 700,000 603,039 600,000 569,931 500,000 400,000 Public, private and 300,000 international schools 200,000 Public and private schools Public schools 100,000 900 Source: MOE Statistical 0 Department. 3 7 1 5 9 Notes: Data for 9 9 0 0 0 / / / / / international schools 0 2 6 0 4 8 7 9 9 0 0 0 are only available for 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2008/09. Summary 25 P R O G R E S S A N D A C HIEVEMENTS IN EDUCATION Over the past 40 years, the profound transformation of Oman’s education system has been marked by a number of notable achievements. First, the Government’s commitment to education has been strong and well supported, enabling initiatives to be developed and realized. Second, children’s access to education has increased dramatically, allowing unprecedented numbers of citizens to attain a school-level education. Education for All (EFA) has been virtually achieved. Finally, having achieved overall increases in access to education, Oman is now turning its attention to the quality of education, making a serious effort to focus on this critical area. Strong Government Commitment The Government’s strong commitment to education is evident in its planning and strategies. The Long-term Development Strategy 1996–2020: The Vision for Oman’s Economy (MONE 2007) reaffirms that human resources are a central pillar of the country’s development strategy. In terms of financing, Oman has committed a large proportion of its civil ministries’ recurrent budgets to education, 37.2 percent in 2009 (table 1). The Government restructured its education system in 1998/99 with the aim of improving learning outcomes. As part of this reform, the previous general education structure was replaced by basic education organ- ized into cycle one (grades 1–4) and cycle two (grades 5–10). Basic education is followed by a two-year post-basic education cycle, comprising grades 11–12. Improvements have been made in physical facili- ties, curricula, teachers’ qualifications and school management. Increased Access Building on a long tradition of family and community education, Oman moved rapidly to increase enrollment in a modern education system. Enrollment grew from 900 students in 1970 to over 600,000 in 2008/09 (figure 2). Participation in education for Omani nationals is almost universal in basic education (grades 1–10): in 2008/09, the gross enrollment ratio (GER) was 97 percent. For post-basic education (grades 11–12), the GER was also high at 86 percent for Omani nationals. This growth was achieved largely through the increased provision of public schools: in 2008/09, 1,047 public schools served 89 percent of the enrolled students. For both Omani and non-Omani students, retention from grade 1 to grade 12 has improved. The survival rate to grade 12 (for Omanis and non-Omanis) was 86 percent in 2008/09, up from 64 percent in 1998/99. Repetition rates have decreased considerably over this time period: currently there is no repetition in grades 1–4 and for grades 5–12 the repetition rates ranged from 1 to 6 percent for each grade in 2008/09. Dropout rates are also low (2 percent or less) with the exception of grade 10, the final grade before the transition to post-basic education, in which rates were 5 percent for females and 7 percent for males. 26 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Transition rates between educational levels have considerably increased. From the end of basic education to the start of post-basic education, the transition rate was 89 percent in 2008/09 (up from 73 percent in 1998/99). Meanwhile, a small but increasing number of basic education graduates has entered technical education and vocational training programs. For example, the number of students in vocational training centers (VTC) increased from 2,000 in 2005/06 to 2,929 in 2008/09, which represents 3 percent of the Omani population aged 16–17 (2 percent in 2005/06). In parallel, the capacity of the higher education sector has grown rapidly. Capacity has increased substantially with the opening of the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in 1986 and the growth of colleges of technology, colleges of applied sciences and other public higher education institutions, as well as private universities. Currently more than half (54 percent) of grade 12 graduates progress to higher education of whom 92 percent study in Oman. In 2008/09 the GER for tertiary education in Oman reached 36 percent. As a result of this rapid expansion, education participation in Oman is now at levels equal to or above other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The achievements are particularly notable for females: by the year 2000, 55 percent of Omani women aged 25–29 had completed tertiary education — a proportion similar to Singapore or South Korea. For Omani men, however, only 17 percent had completed tertiary education. Greater Focus on Quality With the success of expanded access to education, there has been increased focus on education quality. The MOE has conducted a series of national assessments to monitor learning outcomes for grades 4, 7 and 10. In addition, Oman has participated in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 2007), which provides international benchmarks against which learning outcomes for grade 8 can be gauged. The current examinations system has many positive features. The Educational Evaluation Directorate (EED) has responsibilities for public examinations, which have significant impacts on the quality of teaching and learning. The staff and internal administrative proce- dures for EED are regarded as objective and fair. Positive features of the present examination system include (1) an appropriate technical approach to examination development; (2) a correction system assesses scorer reliability; (3) careful preparation of scoring guides; and (4) an appeals process. The many reforms undertaken in basic and post-basic education are testimony to the willingness to improve the quality of education. The reforms include the introduction of a student-centered approach in teaching and learning, emphasis on life skills and real-life applications in the curriculum, implementation of continuous assessment, and reduction of class size. A school-based management process has been implemented, and a program to evaluate overall school performance has been in operation for some years. The MOE has also raised the initial teacher qualification standard and increased the official number of instruction days. Summary 27 Increasing the pool of qualified Omani teachers has been at the core of the MOE strategy and is further evidence of the Government’s objective to strengthen quality, given the importance of teachers in achieving this objective. In addition, the Omanization policy is critical because the dependence on an expatriate workforce has serious long-term political, economic, social and cultural consequences. Good progress has been made in recruiting and training Omani teachers. In 1981/82, the education system was mainly dependent on expatriate teachers, who accounted for 92 percent of the teaching force. By 2008/09, the balance had been reversed, and 89 percent of teachers were Omani. There has been a marked improvement in the level of teacher qualifications; currently 83 percent of teachers have a degree-level qualification up from only 8 percent in 1972. 28 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Summary 29 M A J O R C HA L L E N G E S FOR EDUCATION Achieving Education for All With the achievement of high enrollment rates in basic education, the remaining EFA goals, to which Oman is committed, are the provision of (1) early childhood education; (2) education for children with special needs; and (3) adult literacy education. Early childhood education: While early childhood education (ECE) provision in Oman has expanded, enrollment rates are still comparatively low. The total ECE enrollment of 41,482 in 2008/09 represents approximately 39 percent of the population of 4–5 year olds and is lower than the enrollment rate in other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. International evidence suggests that ECE is important in developing learning skills, results in a significant improvement in school-readiness, and ultimately has substantial economic and social benefits for children’s future lives. The majority of ECE provision has been outside of the MOE, often in fee-charging private centers, which may constrain access for the poorest families. In 2008/09, 77 percent of ECE enrollment was in private centers: 35 percent in private Qur’anic schools, 29 percent in private kindergartens and 13 percent in international schools. There have been moves to expand public provision. The Child Growth Houses (supervised by the Ministry of Social Development) and the Child Corners (operated under the auspices of the Omani Women’s Association) accounted for 17 percent of all ECE enrollments, and the Royal Oman Police and Royal Armed Forces preschools and public Qur’anic preschools accounted for 3 percent. In addition, in 2005/06 the MOE introduced a pilot program by establishing ECE “preparation classes� in basic education schools to address the shortage of ECE opportunities in rural and remote areas. By 2008/09 these preparation classes accounted for 3 percent of ECE enrollments. In collaboration with UNICEF and the private sector, in 2008 the MOE launched a national awareness campaign with the aim of increasing participation in ECE. Special needs education: Education provision for children with special needs is still quite limited in terms of total enrollment and geographical coverage. All three schools that offer specialized programs for students with hearing, intellectual or visual impairment are based in Muscat, the capital and largest city in Oman. In 2005/06 the MOE initiated a program to integrate students with hearing disabilities and the mentally challenged into basic schools, and 56 schools across all regions are now participating. At present, however, the total number of students in special needs programs represents approximately 1 percent of the basic- school-age population, which is considerably lower than the 10 percent international average proportion of children with special needs (World Bank 2003). The MOE has made an effort to extend the services to rural areas; however, services provision for students with special needs in the remote regions is still very limited. Development of services is hampered by the lack of adequate data on the numbers of children with special needs who are either in schools (without receiving special education intervention) or kept at home (without access to education). Adult literacy: Literacy levels have improved considerably. The MOE has taken initiatives to provide literacy programs for adults and school dropouts, but there is further scope for development. The MOE has launched several new initiatives. The Cooperative School Project, launched in 2003/04, aims to provide literacy programs for adults at public schools. The community-based Learning Villages Project was initiated in 2004 to provide literacy education programs for rural adult illiterates. Participation, however, is particu- larly low among males, and very few students who complete the three-year literacy programs continue in further education. There is scope to enhance program quality. In addition, teachers in literacy programs are paid at a low rate, resulting in difficulties attracting and retaining suitable teachers. 30 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Data issues affect the accurate assessment of achieving EFA goals: The Government has high quality data on Omani children; however, the data on non-Omani children are less reliable (particularly for population estimates), making it difficult to monitor their participation in education. Since the EFA goals target all children in the country, including non-Omani children, Oman’s progress towards these goals cannot be accurately monitored and evaluated without the availability of accurate, detailed population data on non-Omani children. Quality of Student Learning Outcomes As Oman seeks to develop a strong internationally competitive economy by building on the skills of its people, it is important that access expansion is matched by high education standards achievement. At present, there are a series of challenges to learning quality: (1) national assessments have shown unsatisfactory learning outcomes with many students not reaching the expected standards, particularly in mathematics; (2) international assessments reveal that learning outcomes in Oman lag behind those in many competing economies; and (3) Oman has a significant gender gap with boys lagging behind girls. Evidence of the low level of student achievement includes the following: 1. National assessments indicate learning performance below expectations. A series of sample-based national assessments of grades 4, 7 and 10 carried out by the MOE indicated low student achievement at all grades tested. The grade 7 assessment, for instance, found that most students did not reach the standard expected by the MOE. 2. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 2007) shows that Omani students fall far behind students in most other participating countries. Oman participated in the TIMSS 2007, which provided an international comparison of students’ learning achievement at grade 8. Omani students performed better than students in some of the other GCC and MENA countries, but their performance was well below that of East Asian and the majority of the other participating countries. For example, in mathematics a student on the 90th percentile in Oman (meaning she or he scored better than 90 percent of students in Oman) would be on the 15th percentile in Singapore (meaning she or he scored below 85 percent of students in Singapore). Given the unsatisfactory learning outcomes, both students and teachers seem to be overconfident about the quality of their learning. On the TIMSS 2007 measures of self confidence in learning mathematics and science, Oman’s students scored higher than the averages of participating countries. Furthermore, grade 8 teachers in TIMSS 2007 felt confident that they were familiar with the concepts covered in the assessments. The poor quality of student achievement causes difficulties at the point of entry to higher education, where the majority of students are required to take a foundation year to bring them up to the necessary standard to complete their studies successfully, particularly in English language. Girls consistently outperform boys on measures of student learning outcomes. Over the last 30 years, the position of girls has moved from being underrepresented in education to substantially outscoring boys on all measures of student achievement. There are significant gender differences: (1) in the 2009 grade 12 examination, 92 percent of Omani girls achieved a pass compared with 83 percent of boys; (2) on each of the grade 7 national assessment subjects, girls outperformed boys in Arabic, mathematics, science and life skills, in most instances by very substantial margins; and (3) Oman had the largest gender difference (in favor of girls) of all 48 participating countries in TIMSS 2007 mathematics (and the third largest for science). For boys, there is little use of out-of-school time for educational purposes. The TIMSS 2007 survey revealed that less than half of boys spent an hour or more each evening on homework, and they tended to spend relatively little time reading for enjoyment. By contrast, 69 percent of girls spent an hour or more on homework. Summary 31 Assessment, Curricula and School Year Time on task is limited by the relatively short school year. While the official target of a 180-day school year is consistent with international norms, in reality the school year is attenuated by examinations, special events and other closures. Examinations are held twice a year, resulting in lost learning time. These examinations have an impact even on junior classes, as teachers from basic education cycle one are taken out of the classroom to be examination enumera- tors. The cumulative effect of absences and time lost due to the public examination is hard to quantify, but some estimates indicate that the actual school year was as short as 110 days for boys and 126 days for girls in grade 12. Consequently the actual school year can be less than two-thirds of the expected contact time. Greater emphasis should be placed on teaching and assessing higher-order thinking skills. The EED is making efforts to increase emphasis on promoting higher-order thinking skills. However, as in many other countries, the content and format of test items in previous examination papers tends to have a strong impact on instruction, and often “teaching to the test� is the result. The two-semester grade 12 examination system may also encourage students to concentrate on a specific portion of the curriculum over a relatively short period for each subject. The relatively high subject load in grade 12 — eight core subjects, three electives and a project — is not likely to encourage a deep understanding of key subject concepts. To facilitate a deeper engagement with the subjects, it may be necessary to reduce the number of subjects that each student studies, allowing each student to specialize in a smaller number of subjects chosen to match their individual needs and aptitudes. In the long term, it may also be desirable to introduce a broader range of subjects, allowing students a wider menu of choices. Continuous assessment (CA): A system of continuous assessment has been introduced to reduce the dominance of examinations, allow scope for more formative assessment use, and allow greater focus on higher-order thinking skills. While some progress has been made, these aims have not all been achieved. A national survey found that the use of continuous assessment for formative purposes was infrequent, and 90 percent of teachers answered that they seldom looked back at what they had written in the report card. Although teachers generally supported the principle of continuous assessment, 70 percent complained that they found continuous assessment involved a heavy work burden, and one-half of teachers claimed that they had not received training in continuous assessment. Teachers and Quality of Education Teacher supply: Oman has a large and well-qualified teaching force, and its achievement in Omanization is impressive. There is a need for ongoing monitoring and forecasting of teacher requirements to ensure an adequate domestic provision of new teachers. The closure of some teacher education courses in response to oversupply has left Oman with little domestic capacity to train categories of teachers, particularly teachers for cycle one of basic education. In the long term, this poses a risk to quality and may result in a resumption of the reliance on expatriate teachers or teachers trained abroad. Furthermore, the requirement for new teachers seems likely to rise in the medium term, as 13 percent of teachers will complete 20 years of service and become eligible for a full pension in the next 5 years. 32 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Dependence on non-Omani teachers: While teachers of general science, Arabic and Islamic Studies are almost all Omanis, there are short- ages in specific subjects. There are shortages, for example, of qualified male Omani teachers in English and biology, and of female Omani teachers in physical education, arts and music in 2008/2009. As a result, 64 percent of male English teachers, 45 percent of male art teachers, 44 percent of male biology teachers, and 48 percent of female physical education and arts teachers are non-Omanis. Teachers in remote regions: The current system of teacher deployment results in the remote regions having proportionally more inexperienced teachers and expatriate teachers. Teachers posted to remote areas tend to transfer out as quickly as possible, for example, 59 percent of teachers in Al-Wusta and 42 percent of teachers in Dhofar have less than 5 years experience compared with 26 percent nationally. Expatriate teachers fill the vacancies in remote regions: one out of four teachers in Al-Wusta and Dhofar is non-Omani. The high level of staff turnover and inexperience is likely to have detrimental effects on the quality of student learning achievement. Initial teacher education: Teacher preparation is not adequately focused on pedagogical skills development. In order to teach for understanding, teachers need a repertoire of pedagogical skills, which can be developed and refined with practice. Teaching practice in initial teacher education is limited, and a relatively high proportion of the content is theoretical. School principals interviewed expressed concern about knowledge, English language proficiency and teaching skills of newly qualified teachers. In focus groups, student teachers expressed concern that they were not well prepared for classroom realities. For example at SQU, teaching practice accounts for only 6 percent of the total credits for the course, and it is not offered during the first three years of the course. In addition, many of the academic staff in teacher education institutions have little school teaching experience. In-service training: The Human Resources Development Directorate of the MOE provides a range of in-service short courses for teachers, but there is no systematic data on the impact of training on classroom practice. In a 2009 survey of 150 teachers in five regions, respondents asserted that (1) training was overly theoretical; (2) courses were delivered in a didactic manner and did not respond to the needs of the participants; and (3) trainers were not sufficiently expert in the content. Refocusing teachers on teaching: At present, teaching time is relatively low by international standards, yet teachers complain of an over- load of paperwork and reporting. Reporting and evaluation systems are considered overly complicated. Teacher contact time is proportionally low relative to the time devoted to nonteaching tasks, such as preparing written narrative lesson plans for each lesson, updating assessment information, and fulfilling other reporting and administrative requirements. Relevance Progression to higher education: Most entrants to higher education in Oman are required to complete a “foundation year� before they commence their course. This foundation year is deemed necessary by the higher education institutes because grade 12 graduates lack skills, particularly in English proficiency. English is the medium of instruction in most public and private higher education institutions. While there are high expectations that the new basic and post-basic education programs will start to improve this situation in the coming years, it would still be beneficial for the MOE and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) to analyze the Summary 33 main weaknesses of grade 12 graduates, to share the responsibilities for improved higher education readiness, and ultimately to phase out the foundation year. The skills of school leavers: Each year approximately 20,000 young people finish school in Oman and do not progress to further education. The MOE’s challenge is to ensure that schools offer these young people more relevant and appropriate learning experiences to prepare them for life after school. While there is anecdotal information that many of these school leavers have skills that are poorly matched with labor market requirements, there is little systematic data on which to base changes to the system. Career guidance: The National Career Guidance Center (NCGC) was created in 2008 to provide counseling and informa- tion for students about the work world. To date, its overall effectiveness has not been evaluated formally. The NCGC created career guidance resource rooms in all schools that offer grades 5–12. Its work has been supported by collaboration with the Ministry of Manpower (MOM), Ministry of Civil Services, SQU and private firms. Labor market in transition: The labor market in Oman is in transition from predominantly public sector employment to a more mixed economy with a vibrant private sector. In 2003, the public administration and education sectors together accounted for 38 percent of the labor force, while manufacturing employed only 9 percent. In the transition to a more competitive economy, the importance of private employment in the manu- facturing and service sectors is likely to increase. This transition will have an impact on the skills profile required from employees. Dependence on expatriate labor: Expatriate workers dominate the private sector in Oman. In 2009, non-Omanis made up over one-third of the population, but comprised 75 percent of the workforce. In the private sector, only 15 percent of employees are Omani (compared to 86 percent of employees in the public sector). The expatriate labor force in the private sector has a bi-modal educational-level distribution: (1) a pool of unskilled laborers and (2) a group of highly educated professionals. Expatriates dominate all categories of employment in the private sector with the exception of clerical occupations, which are overwhelmingly held by Omanis. Female participation in the labor market: While girls outnumber and outperform boys in the education system, female workers are underrepre- sented in the labor market. In 2003, only 25 percent of females over the age of 15 were active in the workforce compared with 77 percent of males. One-fifth of job seekers, particularly females, stated that they were not willing to accept work in the private sector due to unsuitable working conditions. Employers’ perspectives: Employers in the private sector have expressed concerns about the job readiness of graduates in Oman. Some employers prefer to employ expatriates or Omanis educated overseas rather than domestically educated Omanis because of their preparedness for work. Omani graduates from local universities are seen as insufficiently prepared in soft skills, such as team work, public speaking, problem solving and critical thinking, and they lack a strong work ethic and willingness to take responsibility. Job creation: There is an imbalance between education system output and job creation. Annually almost 60,000 young people reach working age, but the total number of jobs created during the 7th Five Year Plan was approximately 21,000 each year. In addition to the private sector employers’ preference for 34 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality expatriate workers and foreign-educated Omanis, this imbalance will make it more difficult for young locally educated Omanis to find employment opportunities. Costs and Financing Recurrent expenditure on education: Oman allocates a high proportion of its civil ministries’ resources to the education sector. In 2009, recurrent expenditure on education (including the MOE, MOHE, MOM and SQU) accounted for 37 percent of all civil ministries’ recurrent expenditure or 18 percent of total government recurrent expenditure. Education spending has increased at a faster rate than student numbers, resulting in rising unit costs. Given that Oman already allocates a high proportion of civil ministries’ funds to educa- tion, further developments may have to rely more on efficiency gains and on private financing. Staff remuneration and utilization: The proportion of government education spending that goes to staff remuneration in Oman is high by international standards. Staff costs account for over 90 percent of recurrent education expenditures in Oman, compared to the 2007 average of 64 percent in OECD countries for recurrent expenditure on teachers’ salaries (OECD 2010). Consequently little is left for nonsalary recurrent expenditures directly impacting quality of education, such as teaching materials or initiatives to improve quality. High staffing levels in the education system drive the high total salary bill in the budget; there are large numbers of teachers relative to students and large numbers of administrators relative to teachers. The numbers of teachers and administrators have increased over time, despite the relatively stable number of classes, schools and students. As a result, in 2008/09 Oman’s average student-teacher ratio (STR) was lower than the OECD average (10.6 for basic education in Oman compared to 16.4 for primary education in OECD countries), but the average class size (27) in Oman was greater than the OECD average (21). Limited discretionary power at the school level: The bulk of discretionary funds available at the school level come from revenues generated by canteens, except for an allocation of petty cash. Only 85 percent of these revenues are kept at the school level, the rest are reimbursed to the regional MOE directorate. School principals have limited power in using the resources allocated to schools, and schools have few incentives to launch specific initiatives relevant to their local contexts. Private sources: Currently private expenditure on education is low, accounting for only 4.3 percent of household expendi- ture in 2007/08. All GCC countries, except Saudi Arabia, have significantly higher rates of private enrollments than Oman. In 2008/09 in Oman, 10 percent of school enrollments were in private Arabic or international schools. In Bahrain, for example, 30 percent of enrollments were in private schools. The rise in private education enrollments at the preschool and university levels demonstrates high demand for education in Oman. While there is scope to increase the share of education expenditure from private sources in higher education, reliance on private finance — if not accompanied by a student aid system — can have socially regressive effects because better-off families are more able to afford costly education services. Budget classification: The MOE budget presentation, which follows the national format, provides a clear picture of how public funds are allocated. However, it is purely input based and is of limited use for planning and monitoring, as resources are not classified by main functions or by education levels. Since there is no clear link between sectoral objectives and resource allocations, it is difficult to conduct a rigorous assessment of spending efficiency and to promote a culture of accountability in the education sector. Summary 35 Governance and Management Interministerial harmonization: The responsibility in the education sector for policy analysis and development, training, and human resource development rests with a number of different bodies. In addition to the MOE, four other minis- tries play roles in the education sector: (1) the MOHE through affiliated universities and other higher education institutions (HEI); (2) the MOM through its VTCs and colleges of technology; (3) the Ministry of Health (MOH) through nursing schools and health science institutes; and (4) the Ministry of Social Development (MOSD) through its ECE programs. Without a central body to coordinate policy develop- ment, it is difficult to harmonize the development objectives and targets and to address systematic issues that require cross-ministerial inputs and consensus. Information management: The MOE has established a new Directorate General for Information Technology, which is in charge of the management and delivery of information through the MOE’s E-Portal. The education data in the E-Portal is based on information obtained from centralized and regional sources, which is detailed basic school-level data and MOE-wide data. This is a significant step forward and should provide more accurate and reliable data for policymakers. Currently, however, data are not commensurate with MOE ambitions to analyze, plan and monitor the education system as a whole and to accurately assess progress in achieving strategic objectives. In particular, the MOE should work with other relevant ministries to strive to improve the quality of demographic and financial data. A comprehensive national qualifications framework: The MOHE has established a qualifications framework for higher education. This framework, however, does not include post-basic or technical and vocational qualifications. As such, Oman lacks a compre- hensive national framework of qualifications to compare educational and training qualifications within a coherent structure and to facilitate movement between courses. The qualifications framework for higher education could provide a starting point for the development of a comprehensive national framework. Decentralization: Recently some selected schools have been granted a degree of limited autonomy. However, with the exception of a small portion of canteen revenues, there is generally little scope at the school level to access resources for local circumstances. With more autonomy, principals and schools will be expected to accept increased accountability. The MOE’s current policy to decentralize more functions to the regions is appropriate, and as the initiative gathers pace, further transfer of authority could be considered, including budgetary implementation; in-service training; teacher recruitment, appointment and transfer; and school design and construction. 36 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Summary 37 T HE WA Y F O R W A R D The above challenges are not insurmountable. Oman has already demonstrated the capac- ity and political commitment to make rapid progress in the education sector. The following sections outline some of the policy measures that could be used to enhance the quality and relevance of education and to develop Oman’s education system to higher levels of perform- ance and efficiency. Focusing on Quality Educational Outcomes Enhancing the quality of educational outcomes should be the priority for the next phase of development, to enable Oman to improve further its competitiveness and assist in attaining its economic goals. In particular, improving the outcomes for those with the least opportunities (for example, in terms of household educational background or income) should benefit the entire society. While improving quality is a complex, multifaceted task requiring a sustained effort, the MOE should give serious consideration to the following actions: Length of the school year: Extending the school year to reach the official target of 180 school days would provide more learning time and would bring Oman closer to international norms. The current loss of teaching and learning time could be reduced by ending the practice of canceling classes during examinations and by eliminating extended periods of absence by grade 12 students in advance of the public examinations. Reverting to one public examination period per year would also reduce time lost and would give the EED more time to improve the overall quality of the public examinations. Using examination results: Currently the EED disseminates examination results to interested MOE Director Generals. As a learning tool, the EED should consider giving detailed feedback directly to teachers on the common mistakes that students make. This could be done in a number of ways, including through in-service courses and the education portal. The EED should enhance its level of technical capacity, which would among other benefits allow it to support a long-term research and evaluation program. Examining the underachievement of boys: Boys’ underachievement could undermine Oman’s competitiveness and productivity. Examining the problem will require dedicated and focused research. Initially a comprehensive empirical study could be conducted to identify the key factors affecting boys’ achievement, followed by the development of a specific action plan to address these factors. Curriculum development and capacity building: More use could be made of the objective data on student achievement in curriculum development. The Curriculum Development Directorate (CDD) — largely staffed by teaching professionals with few formally trained in curriculum development and evaluation — could institute appropriate training programs for its staff members. The CDD should consider a more participatory process for curricula design, working closely with other MOE departments and other educational stakeholders, including teachers and supervisors. 38 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Curriculum development and English: Given the widespread concerns over English standards, the CDD should develop a curriculum frame- work for English following extensive discussions with key stakeholders, including representatives of HEIs, employers and relevant MOE personnel. The discussion process should identify the relative importance of key aspects of English language learning, such as reading skills (including comprehension), writing, oral and aural (listening) skills. Current teaching and assessment approaches would be adjusted to reflect the resulting curriculum modifications. A culture of high standards: The CDD should continue with its plan to set realistic targets or standards for each grade. Teachers should be encouraged to monitor learning levels and provide feedback to students and parents. More attention should be devoted to teaching and assessing higher-order skills both in class and in public examinations. The MOE should take steps to increase parents’ understanding of the standards expected of their children and of ways they can interact with their children and teachers. Monitoring of educational standards: As part of the move to enhance standards, the MOE should strengthen its capacity to monitor student achievement through technically adequate national assessments of education achievement levels and to report these on a regular basis to national policy makers. The MOE should take steps to improve teacher use of current assessment procedures by (1) adopting where possible in-service approaches other than the current cascade model; (2) limiting the amount of record keeping to those aspects which are considered most useful for formative assessment; (3) encouraging regular use of assessment results for diagnostic purposes; and (4) ensuring that teachers use realistic standards (developed in consultation with CDD) for assessing student achievement levels. Expanding Access in Specific Areas While access to education has increased substantially in Oman, with GERs for Omani nationals of approximately 98 percent for basic education and 86 percent for post-basic education, there is scope to improve the rates of access to early childhood education, special needs education and adult literacy education. Early childhood education: It would be advisable for the MOE to seek to expand access to ECE, especially for the poorest sections of society and for rural children. Increased public investment will be needed to ensure equal opportunities for access to ECE. In particular, the MOE should mobilize financial and human resources to expand the number of preparation classes attached to public basic education schools in rural areas. In an effort to improve program quality, these classes should be taught by qualified teachers with appropriate conditions of employment. Initially expansion of preparation classes might be limited to one year prior to grade 1. Alternatively (or in addition) the experience of other countries could be examined to determine a suitable expansion method for Oman, such as the use of a voucher scheme to finance participation in private preschool education at agreed rates — although this mechanism is currently subject to debate in the professional literature. Finally the Government could develop a comprehensive and implementable ECE strategy that links to an overall education vision. Summary 39 Special needs education: The MOE, in cooperation with the MOH and MOSD, should consider developing a coherent national strategy for special needs education. Key initial steps should include (1) establishing mechanisms for identifying and evaluating children with special needs; (2) collecting reliable data on needs; and (3) providing appropriate training opportunities for teachers who are responsible for integrating students with special needs. Adult literacy: Objective evaluations of literacy program curricula and needs of potential adult learners and dropouts from the formal education system would help provide valuable information, which could be used to improve current literacy services. The services should be expanded to include more people in need of literacy programs, particularly males. This expansion will need to be supported by appropriately trained staff with suitable employment conditions. Developing an Appropriate Teaching Force with Strong Pedagogical Skills Teacher supply: To ensure high quality teaching in schools, there is a need to develop an adequate supply of teachers, design an efficient deployment system and make sure that teachers have the appropriate content knowledge and pedagogical skills. This will require monitoring and projecting teacher losses and scaling the initial teacher education capacity to the expected demand for teachers. Teacher deployment: The current policy of deploying teachers could be revisited with a view to reducing reliance on expatriate teachers in remote regions. A more substantial additional allowance could be paid to teachers in care- fully targeted remote schools. The duration of stay in school before requesting a transfer could be extended to improve continuity in these schools. Greater preference could be given to candidates from remote areas at point of entry to teacher education courses and during recruitment. Regulation of teaching: A regulation system for teacher education should be instituted to enhance the quality and consistency of teacher preparation in both public and private institutions. This would help ensure that (1) student teacher preparation is well matched to the curriculum to be taught in schools after graduation and (2) development of pedagogical skills is given appropriate priority within teacher education programs. Measures could be devised to ensure that practical teaching skills are given greater weight and are better integrated into the initial teacher education programs. Quality of teaching: Improving quality will require teachers’ work to be refocused on teaching and learning. To do this, reporting and evaluation systems will have to be simplified, and teacher contact time increased to ensure sufficient amounts of teaching time. Supervision, monitoring and appraisal systems could be rebalanced to prioritize teacher classroom performance over paperwork. Within the classroom, teachers should be expected to prioritize the teaching of curricular topics, and where possible to use after-class time for extracurricular activities. 40 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In-service training: The provision of in-service continuing professional development can be used to enhance the focus on teaching and learning. For in-service training, priority should be given to in-service courses related to teaching and learning, particularly to those involving practical classroom skills. Expert teachers should deliver these courses. International experience suggests that mutual support among teachers is an effective in-service teacher development strategy. Hence, consideration should also be given to encour- aging regional teacher subject associations, where interested teachers of the same subjects have the opportunity to share experiences and discuss practices. Improving the Linkage between Education and the Labor Market Linkage with the work world: To improve the relevance of education, linkages between post-basic education, higher education and employers need to be strengthened. For example, employers and HEIs could clarify the skills and atti- tudes they expect from those leaving schools; these expectations might be communicated to students, parents and teachers. Curricula in education institutions: Revision of the post-basic education curricula and standards are needed to improve labor market rele- vance. In developing more labor market relevant skills into basic education, it will be necessary to find solutions that avoid selection at an early age and allow children to develop a range of skills and compe- tencies matched to their interests and aptitudes. At post-basic level, reducing the separation between academic and vocational streams would help to facilitate the transition to the work world and to equip graduates from both streams with more marketable skills. This may require collaboration among the MOE, MOM and MOHE to increase the value of vocational courses, recognize job-related competencies, establish linkages between post-basic and vocational secondary education, and avoid early selection and specialization. As the Omani economy is modernizing and increasingly competing in a regional and global market, both academic skills and practical skills will be in high demand, particularly the higher- order skills. These include the ability to learn new things quickly, positive work attitude, ability to solve problems, and capacity for team work. Incorporating work experience into school programs could be part of the school curricula adjustment to life skills with a view to improving graduate employability. Flexibility: As the education system seeks to become more responsive to the needs of learners and the labor market, more flexibility will be necessary. Establishing the mechanisms that allow learners to delay specialization into specific tracks, to change track after specialization, and to return to formal learning after work experience can develop a flexible education system. Such a flexible system can facilitate the promotion of lifelong learning and allow individuals to adapt their education to their needs. Extending the concept of the higher education qualifications framework to the entire education and training system would be an essential step to promote this desired level of flexibility. Summary 41 Management and Financial Implications An output-based budgetary approach: The shift from an input-based to an output-based budgetary approach would transform the budget to a management tool and a policy instrument. This would enable the MOE to assess the costs of achieving specific results. In addition, linking the budget to a medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF) could allow an output-based budget to reach its full potential by increasing the predictability of the resources needed to achieve the assigned objectives. Tracking public finance: It would be useful to conduct a study to analyze how the expenditures allocated to the MOE are actu- ally reaching their intended destinations. This could provide an in-depth and accurate profile showing possible inefficiencies and resource bottlenecks in the education sector. In addition to tracking financial resources from the Ministry of Finance (MOF) to the MOE at the central, regional and school levels, human and in-kind resource flows should be mapped to clarify how these resources are channeled to the end users of education services. Review of remuneration: A comprehensive review of the remuneration system for teaching and administrative staff could lead to long-term positive implications for financing the education sector. The review should focus, in particular, on student-teacher ratios and the teacher-administrator ratios (both favorable by international stand- ards). It could lead to a shift of more financial resources to provide quality-related inputs and support new sector initiatives. Remuneration policies should be reviewed to see if performance incentives could be introduced into the remuneration system, while respecting public service regulations. Some allow- ances, for example, might be linked to the results of staff performance evaluations and could provide a performance incentive, as well as injecting some dynamism into a system where remuneration rates are driven solely by seniority. Consideration might be given also to linking allowances to a post’s hardship level. Financial autonomy of schools: The MOE may consider granting more financial autonomy to schools to promote further decentraliza- tion. The MOE’s regional directors, located closer to the field of operations, may be in a position to make more informed decisions regarding resource allocation. At the school level, providing principals with more discretionary power over larger amounts of resources would make school operations more relevant to local circumstances. Increased financial devolution of power to decentralized levels, provided it is accompanied by strict transparency measures, would contribute to promoting accountability and efficiency in resource utilization. Enhancing interministerial collaboration and developing a national strategy for education: Education is a key national policy and its scope stretches beyond a single ministry. In building a coherent, integrated strategy for education, close cooperation among the relevant ministries, including the Ministries of Higher Education, Manpower, Social Development, Health and Finance, is needed. The establishment of a high-level body with representation from these ministries and a variety of other stakeholders, including the private sector, could guide the sector’s development. Close interministerial and interagency collaboration will be critical in such areas as revising curricula to reflect the changing needs of society and the labor market. 42 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Establishing a management training program: To contribute to improving the management capacity of leaders and senior officials in the education sector, the MOE could consider establishing a graduate-level diploma program for leadership and management studies in collaboration with the Public Administration Institute of Oman and SQU. This management training could be delivered in a variety of flexible modalities, including in-class lectures and discussions, as well as on-line programs. Decentralization and school-based management: The MOE may consider the extension of school-based management to all schools, including basic educa- tion schools in cycles one and two. The decentralization of responsibilities to governorates and regions could be deepened and extended. These changes could be planned and gradually phased in concur- rently with appropriate capacity development and accountability measures. Comprehensive, user-friendly information system: The MOE could expand the E-Portal and use the opportunity of this tool to build a more comprehen- sive system that provides decision makers with a reliable set of data and indicators on the education sector. Such a system would enhance evidence-based decision making; improve the capacity to follow up the progress made within the education system; help to devise mitigating measures in cases where progress is not as planned; and aid in the development of accurate forecasts for planning purposes. Data quality: Collecting and periodically updating more accurate and relevant data, particularly the information regarding non-Omani children, would help monitoring and evaluation of the outcomes of education policies, including the progress towards EFA goals. Summary 43 C O N C L U SI O N The education sector in Oman has made remarkable progress since 1970, particularly in expanding access to education, developing an Omani teaching force, and building an Omani higher education sector. These achievements have been the result of strong government com- mitment, effective policies and consistently favorable resource alloca- tions. There are, of course, challenges remaining, chiefly in raising the quality of learning outcomes to meet the highest international standards. Developing high standards of learning, in particular higher-order skills, is an important step towards Oman’s aim to develop a modern, knowledge- based and globally competitive economy. Achieving a substantial leap in quality will require continued political commitment, careful planning and sustained resourcing, but the achievements of the education sector in Oman over the last 40 years give confidence that the country can meet these challenges.   44 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality APPENDIX 46 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Appendix 47 APPENDIX 1. M A T R I X O F P O L I C Y R ECOMMENDATIONS F O R T HE M I N I S T R Y O F EDUCATION (MOE) In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With A. Focusing on Quality A.1 Increase student time on meaningful learning A.1.1 Meet target of a 180-day school year. To enforce the The official annual target is 180 school Short target, the MOE should days, but the actual number is substantially (a) Require term extension for lost official school days; shorter due to school closures for events and use of teachers as examination (b) Keep grades 1–11 operating before and during invigilators, resulting in class cancellations. grade 12 examinations; (c) Hold grade 12 examinations at school year end; and (d) Ensure teachers prioritize curricular topics, using after-class time for extracurricular activities. A.2 Develop a culture of high learning standards and align with curricula and public examinations A.2.1 Set clear and realistic learning targets for each grade Sharing clear and realistic targets with Short and encourage teachers to monitor learning regularly. stakeholders can raise learning quality. A.2.2 Reform public examination content to increase Predictability of public examinations can Medium/ assessment of higher order skills. encourage rote learning rather than long develop higher-order skills. A.2.3 Provide regular and realistic feedback to parents A disconnect is evident between students’ Short and link appropriate achievement information to actual achievement and their confidence in national norms. their abilities. A2.4 Support further development of regular national Policy makers lack good quality, timely data Medium/ monitoring of student achievement levels to produce on student achievement of key learning long valid, objective data for policy makers. objectives. A.2.5 Analyze examination results to identify and address Interested MOE Director Generals receive Short learning difficulties; determine specific subject areas examination results, but data are not used for in-service teacher education focus. as a learning tool. A.2.6 Support long-term research and evaluation program Few EED staff have technical training in key Medium/ for Educational Evaluation Directorate (EED) staff to aspects of examination paper development, long strengthen examination system quality and to provide research and evaluation. useful feedback to policy makers and stakeholders. A.2.7 Implement a program of activities to improve Moderation is an essential component of Schools/ Short continuous assessment (CA) program by establishing effective CA and currently lacks rigor in teachers moderation review committees. Oman. A.2.8 Consider global trends in curriculum development; The experience of other countries can Short examine national/state curricula and experience enhance curriculum development. of other countries and international/national assessments to identify areas that could improve Omani curriculum quality. A.2.9 Strengthen technical competence of Curriculum CDD staff recruited mostly from teaching Ministry Short Development Directorate (CDD) staff in curriculum profession so lack formal training in of Higher development. Consider a twinning arrangement with curriculum development and evaluation. Education an internationally respected center. (MOHE) Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. 48 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With A.3 Examine and address boys’ underachievement A.3.1 Increase parental awareness of the gender gap and set TIMSS 2007 shows Oman’s gender gap Parents Short higher expectations for boys. is the highest. Reasons for significant and performance gap for boys may lie in use schools of out-of-school time and child-rearing practices. A.3.2 Provide boys and their parents with realistic and valid Despite their poor TIMSS 2007 results, Schools Short performance assessments. boys had unjustifiably high confidence levels and in their academic progress. teachers A.3.3 Undertake a comprehensive empirical study to identify Key issues in boys’ underachievement are Short key factors affecting boys’ underachievement. not well understood. A.4 Increase involvement of parents and community in education A.4.1 Run public awareness campaign to inform parents of Home is a critical factor in overall Schools Short their potential to enhance children’s development and development. Parents can read, monitor and attitudes toward learning and achievement. homework, organize extracurricular activi- parents ties and encourage school attendance. A.4.2 Encourage meaningful parent involvement in school life With involvement, parents can understand Schools Medium/ through parent-teacher committees. schools' expectations and can improve long students’ perception of schoolwork's importance. B. Expanding Participation in Specific Areas B.1 Expand provision of early childhood education (ECE) B.1.1 Expand publicly financed preschool education. International research shows ECE impor- Medium/ tance. Participation in ECE is low in Oman, long but private preschool growth reflects strong demand. B.1.2 Target areas of poor educational performance initially. Benefits of ECE are usually substantial for Short children from the least affluent and least- educated families. B.1.3 Develop an ECE strategy that links with an overall A national strategy coordinating all relevant All Short education vision and includes a diagnosis, long-term stakeholders will ensure expansion and stake- vision, short-medium term strategic plan and improvement of ECE. holders implementation arrangement. B.2 Expand special needs education B.2.1 Develop a coherent national strategy for special needs A national strategy coordinating all relevant MOH and Short education. ministries (including Ministry of Health MOSD (MOH) and Ministry of Social Development (MOSD)) will manage special needs educa- tion issues coherently. B.2.2 Establish mechanisms for identifying and evaluating Oman currently lacks adequate mecha- MOH and Short children with special needs. nisms for identifying and evaluating children MOSD with special needs. B.2.3 Collect reliable data on demand for educational Lack of reliable data hampers the MOH and Short facilities to serve children with special needs. appropriate strategy development. MOSD B.2.4 Provide appropriate training for public school Teachers currently receive little training to MOHE Medium/ teachers responsible for integrating students with adapt teaching methods for class long special needs. integration of special needs children. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. Appendix 49 In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With B.3 Improve adult literacy education quality B.3.1 Evaluate literacy program curriculum and delivery The current literacy program is relatively Short methods; conduct a literacy needs assessment for small, has problems attracting good tutors potential adult learners and dropouts from formal or teachers and has a substantial under- education system, particularly males. representation of males. B.3.2 Enhance the quality of the literacy program by creating Oman's literacy levels have improved Medium/ more centers for literacy courses, improving the considerably but measures exist to reduce long curriculum and supporting materials, and developing illiteracy further and to improve literacy a policy to attract and retain suitable teachers. learning quality. C. Developing an Appropriate Teaching Force with Strong Pedagogical Skills C.1 Develop an adequate supply of teachers C.1.1 Guide teacher education institutions with specific An imbalance exists with shortages in some MOHE Short numbers for each specialty. specializations and oversupply in others. C.1.2 Publish figures on projected teacher requirements. Requirement projections could assist Short students in course selection for future employment. C.1.3 Adjust long-term teacher supply to meet projected Ensuring an adequate supply of teachers MOHE Medium/ demand in each subject area. will reduce reliance on expatriates. Recent long changes have reduced the output of teachers for basic education cycle one and may result in reliance on teachers trained in other countries in the medium term. C.1.4 Staff ECE preparation classes attached to basic educa- Employing qualified staff will ensure high Short tion schools with qualified teachers who have the same quality ECE and help retain staff. employment status as basic education teachers. C.2 Address issues of teacher deployment C.2.1 Provide a substantial additional allowance for teachers Teachers tend to leave remote area Medium/ in carefully targeted remote schools. schools after serving relatively short long periods; these areas are over reliant on expatriate teachers. C.2.2 Extend teacher duration of stay in remote area schools Current duration before transfer request Short before granting transfer. is one year. C.2.3 Give preference to remote area candidates when Teachers from remote areas are more MOHE Short selecting students for preservice teacher education likely to remain than those from urban courses and for subsequent recruitment. areas. C.3 Enhance teacher education quality and consistency C.3.1 Regulate teacher education courses to ensure Teacher preparation courses do not match MOHE Short preparation for curriculum and emphasize practical the current curriculum well, and practical development of pedagogical skills. Increase teaching component of teacher education courses practice hours and enhance the role of the coop- is small. erating teacher. Consider accreditation of teacher education courses that meet required standards. C.3.2 Develop a system of temporary secondment of experi- Many teacher trainers have limited school MOHE Medium/ enced teachers to teacher education institutions. teaching experience. long Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. 50 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With C.4 Focus teachers on quality of teaching and student learning C.4.1 To increase teaching time, simplify reporting and Despite low teaching loads, teachers Short evaluation. Rebalance supervision, monitoring and complain of an overload of time devoted to appraisal to prioritize teacher classroom performance paperwork, recording and reporting. over paperwork. C.4.2 Avoid teacher specialization in early grades. Specialization can impede teachers' ability to Schools Medium/ know students, address individual needs and long integrate learning. C.5 Focus in-service continuing professional development on teaching and learning C.5.1 Give priority to in-service courses related to teaching To focus on education quality, in-service Schools Short and learning, particularly on classroom skills delivered training should prioritize teaching for quality and by experienced teachers. learning. teachers C.5.2 Support teacher-peer activities, including formation of Cascade model of professional develop- Schools and Short regional teacher subject associations. ment delivery is not optimal for changing teachers teachers’ classroom practices. D. Improving Education Relevance D.1 Strengthen links among education system, higher education institutions (HEI) and employers D.1.1 Share information on university and employer There is a lack of information flow between MOHE Short requirements and basic and post-basic education HEIs, employers, government and parents and system expectations. and students on skills required, recruitment National plans, assessments of graduates, and so Career on. Guidance Center (NCGC) D.1.2 Revise curricula and standards to improve labor Employer feedback suggests curricula and Medium/ market relevance. school standards could improve. long D.1.3 Analyze weaknesses of new entrants to higher Most HEIs require entrants to complete a MOHE Short education; work to address identified issues to “foundation year� due to their lack of skills, eliminate need for a foundation year. particularly in English. D.1.4 Reduce the separation between academic and Employers may require a mix of academic, Medium/ vocational streams; increase vocational course value; practical and metacognitive skills. long and avoid early selection and specialization. D.1.5 Incorporate work experience into school programs. Work experience in school could focus Schools Medium/ students on necessary skills and guide and long course choices, aiding transition from employers school to work. D.2 Improve the quality of curricula D.2.1 Clarify necessary aspects of English language learning Most HEIs instruct in English: feedback Short (reading, writing, oral skills or listening skills); modify indicates new entrant English levels are the curriculum; and prioritize appropriate teaching low. Spoken English standards also concern methods. employers. D.2.2 Review mathematics and science curriculum. Evidence suggests unsatisfactory achieve- Short ment in mathematics and science. Improve student learning quality in these subjects highly valued by employers. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. Appendix 51 In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With D.2.3 Reduce the number of subjects required in post-basic To improve post-basic education quality, Short education. reduce required subjects and increase understanding of priority subjects. D.2.4 Improve curriculum development through training and Formal training in curriculum develop- Short professional development for CDD personnel, and use ment and evaluation lags. National and available appropriate objective student achievement international learning assessments provide data. useful information for future curriculum development. D.3 Increase flexibility within the education system D.3.1 Build a flexible system that delays specialization, allows International experience indicates consider- MOHE Medium/ changes after specialization, and offers reentry to able benefits from a flexible education long learning after work experience. system, allowing longer participation, transitions to different levels, and transfers across courses and institutions. D.3.2 Develop a comprehensive national qualifications A comprehensive NQF allows course MOHE Medium/ framework (NQF). comparison and facilitates transitions long among pathways. E. Management and Financial Implications E.1 Strengthen sector vision and planning E.1.1 All relevant ministries collaborate to develop and As a national priority, education's scope MOHE, Short implement a national education strategy. extends beyond the MOE and MOHE. MOM, MOSD and Ministry of Finance (MOF) E.1.2 Establish a high-level education development body A coordinating body can organize priorities MOHE, Short coordinating all relevant ministries, stakeholders and to meet policy goals like revising curricula MOM, the private sector. and aligning teacher training and supply. MOSD, MOF and other relevant agencies E.1.3 Improve data collection and usage for planning. This Currently some key education indicators MOHE Short includes an education management information are not available or inaccurate. This hinders MOM and system based on more accurate, reliable, timely and planning and monitoring progress of MOF publicly available data on all aspects of the education reforms. system. E.1.4 Centralize research and evaluation through a National Numerous bodies do education research Medium/ Education Research and Evaluation Center; support and evaluation but lack key skills for long its personnel through sustained capacity building to research design, statistics and test provide objective evidence on the educational system. development. For future development, evaluate major initiatives such as whole-school evaluation, in-service teacher training and guidance counseling. E.2 Enhance sector management capacity E.2.1 Develop educators' leadership and management skills Many education leaders do not have relevant MOHE Short with systematic training at central, local and school training and preparation for their role. levels, possibly as a postgraduate course. E.2.2 Define clear roles and responsibilities for MOE staff. Reduce duplication and enhance account- Short ability and transparency. E.2.3 Extend school-based management to all schools; Further decentralization to governorates, Medium/ broaden decentralization of responsibility to regions and schools informs decisions based long governorates and regions. on local contexts. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. 52 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality In Collabo- Time Policy Recommendation Rationale ration Frame With E.3 Performance management E.3.1 Consider structures to encourage and reward Current performance management system Medium/ performance of teachers and administrators. has little incentive for excellence. long E.3.2 Consider linking promotion to performance, for Linking promotion to performance could Medium/ example, with a competitive selection system for encourage regular attendance, positive long senior teachers. engagement with professional development and professional attitudes. E.4 Review the financial structure E.4.1 Examine the scope for efficiency gains: improving the A high proportion of civil ministries’ funds MOF Short budget system; reviewing remuneration and staffing are allocated to education, so further policies; and conducting public expenditure tracking development likely to rely on efficiency gains. survey (PETS) to identify bottlenecks. E.4.2 Consider moving from input-based financing to an Linking resource allocations to specific MOF Medium/ output-based approach. outputs and functions provides a trans- long parent financial incentive to promote performance. E.4.3 Review salary bill to improve efficiency in teacher Oman has low student-teacher ratios and Medium/ allocation and utilization and to free more resources high class sizes. Increasing teaching hours long for investment in quality improvement and new could release resources to reduce class initiatives. sizes or expand ECE. E.4.4 Consider diversifying sources of funding while It will be difficult to sustain quality education Medium/ rationalizing expenditures and ensuring equal access; relying solely on public resources. long for example, user financial contributions at post-basic level could be targeted at noncore activities with financial aid for those in need. E.4.5 Increase the scope of private contributions to Opening education to more private Medium/ education. This requires revamping regulatory frame- investment would alleviate the burden long work and strengthening quality control mechanisms. on MOE. Short-term: implemented within five years. Medium/long term: implemented beyond five years. Summary 53 54 Education in Oman The Drive for Quality Refe r e n c es 55 References Ministry of National Economy (MONE). 2010. Statistical Year Book 2010. Issue 38 (November). Muscat, Oman: MONE. 2008. Statistical Year Book 2008. Issue 36 (October). Muscat, Oman: MONE. 2007. Long-term Development Strategy (1996–2020): Vision for Oman’s Economy (Oman 2020). Muscat, Oman: MONE. 2006. Statistical Year Book 2006. Issue 34, (October). Muscat, Oman: MONE. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2010. Education at a Glance 2010. Paris: OECD. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2009. Human Development Report 2009. New York: UNDP. World Bank. 2003. Education for All: Including Children with Disabilities. Washington, DC: World Bank. www.moe.gov.om Published in 2012 by the Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman Ministry of Education Publication No. 2/2012 Ministry of Information Publication No. 69/2012 © Ministry of Education, Sultanate of Oman, 2012