Report No: AUS0000659 Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review Skills and Innovation for Growth © 2019 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: “World Bank. 2019. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review: Skills and Innovation for Growth. © World Bank.” All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Graphics and layout design: Mohammad Inamul Shahriar Print: Progressive Printer Pvt. Ltd. Report No: AUS0000659 Skills and Innovation for Growth BANGLADESH TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR REVIEW Tashmina Rahman, Shiro Nakata, Yoko Nagashima, Md. Mokhlesur Rahman, Uttam Sharma, and Muhammad Asahabur Rahman March 31, 2019 Education Global Practice South Asia Region ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This report was prepared by a team comprised of Tashmina Rahman (Education Specialist), Shiro Nakata (Senior Education Economist), Yoko Nagashima (Senior Education Specialist), Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (Senior Operations Specialist), Uttam Sharma (Consultant) and Muhammad Asahabur Rahman (Consultant) under the overall supervision of Cristian Aedo (Practice Manager). Research assistance was provided by Jeje Moses Okurut (Consultant), Farzana Shams (Consultant) and Mustahsin-Ul-Aziz (Consultant). The report benefited from useful inputs and feedbacks from World Bank colleagues, including Tekabe Ayalew Belay (Program Leader), Sereen Juma (Country Program Coordinator) and Bushra Binte Alam (Sr. Health Specialist). The authors particularly thank D.H.C Aturupane (Lead Economist); Xiaonan Cao (Senior Education Specialist) and Jason Allen Weaver (Senior Education Specialist) for their insightful review and thoughtful comments as peer reviewers. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank ADP Annual Development Program AIF Academic Innovation Fund BAC Bangladesh Accreditation Council BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Education and Informational Statistics BCPS Bangladesh College of Physicians and Surgeons BdREN Bangladesh Research and Education Network BNMC Bangladesh Nursing and Midwifery Council BTEB Bangladesh Technical Education Board BSMMU Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology CEDP College Education Development Project DGHS Directorate General of Health Services DME Directorate of Madrasa Education DSHE Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education DTE Directorate of Technical Education EHS Education Household Survey FCPS Fellow of College of Physicians and Surgeons FMRP Financial Management Reform Project FYP Five-Year Plan ii GB Governing Body GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrollment Rate GoB Government of Bangladesh GPI Gender Parity Index HEQEP Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project HSC Higher School Certificate ICT Information Communication Technology IT Information Technology IQAC Institutional Quality Assurance Cells IP Intellectual Property LASI Learning Assessment of Secondary Institutions LMS Learning Management System MCPS Member of College of Physicians and Surgeons MDG Millennium Development Goal MoE Ministry of Education MoF Ministry of Finance MTBF Medium-Term Budgeting Framework NAEM National Academy of Educational Management NEP National Education Policy NSDA National Skills Development Authority NSDP National Skills Development Policy NSQAS National Skills Quality Assurance System NTRCA Nongovernment Teacher Registration and Certification Authority NTSC Nongovernment Teachers Selection Commission NTVQF National Technical and Vocational Qualification Framework PBF Performance-Based Funding PFM Public Financial Management PSC Public Service Commission R&D Research and Development RMG Ready-Made Garments SDG Sustainable Development Goal SHED Secondary and Higher Education Division STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics STEP Skills and Training Enhancement Project TEI Tertiary Education Institution TIB Transparency International Bangladesh TMED Technical and Madrasa Education Division TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UDL University Grants Commission Digital Library UGC University Grants Commission UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization VC Vice Chancellor WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | iii CONTENTS ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12 INTRODUCTION 13 1.1. Background 14 1.2. Study Objectives and Approach 15 1.3. Study Methodology 18 TERTIARY GRADUATE SKILLS AND EMPLOYABILITY 19 2.1 Job Market Outcomes of Tertiary Graduates 21 2.2 Relevance of Tertiary Education: Employers’ and Graduates’ Perception 22 ACCESS AND EQUITY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 23 3.1 Background 25 3.2 Key Issues in Access and Equity in Tertiary Education in Bangladesh 29 3.3 Policy Options for Promoting Equity in Tertiary Education 31 Bibliography 32 33 34 42 44 QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 4.1 Background 4.2 Key Issues in Quality and Relevance in TEIs in Bangladesh 4.3 Policy Options for Improving Quality and Relevance in TEIs Bibliography 46 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 47 5.1 Background 47 5.2 Status of Research in Bangladesh 50 5.3 Key Issues in Research and Innovation in TEIs in Bangladesh 53 5.4 Policy Options for Promoting Research and Innovation in Tertiary Education 55 Bibliography 56 GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 57 6.1 Background 59 6.2 Institutional Governance and Management 61 6.3 Key Issues in Governance and Management of Tertiary Education 6.4 Policy Options for Promoting ‘Good’ Governance and Management in Tertiary 65 Education in Bangladesh 67 Bibliography 68 FINANCING OF TERTIARY EDUCATION 69 7.1 Background 70 7.2 Status and Issues of Financing in Tertiary Education in Bangladesh 75 7.3 Policy Options for Better Financing in Tertiary Education 76 Bibliography 78 ANNEX LIST OF FIGURES 15 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 19 Figure 2: Unemployment Rates by Education Level (Left); Employment Status of Graduates after 1–2 Years of Graduation (Right) 21 Figure 3: Skills Employers Feel Polytechnics (left), Colleges (right), and Universities (below) should Train Graduates More On 21 Figure 4: Perception on Skills Relevant for Jobs among Employed Graduates (1 = Not Important; 4 = Highly Important) 24 Figure 5: Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) for Selected Countries and Region, 2016 (in percent) 25 Figure 6: Tertiary Education Enrollment Projection till 2040 25 Figure 7: GPI by Type of TEI in 2010 and 2015 26 Figure 8: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Education Cycle 26 Figure 9: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Institution Type 27 Figure 10: Students’ Family Background among University and College Students 27 Figure 11: HSC Exam Performance (GPA) among Public University and College Students 35 Figure 12: Satisfaction Rating among Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary Students (out of 4-point scale) 39 Figure 13: Employers’ Perception of Skills Importance and Skills Sufficiency among Professional Workers in Bangladesh (Share of respondents, percentage) 48 Figure 14: Number of Citable Documents Published per Year by Bangladeshi Researchers, 1990–2015 49 Figure 15: Top 10 Research Areas by Volume of Citable Documents Produced in Bangladesh in 2015 51 Figure 16: Share of Funding Sources for Researches Published by Bangladeshi Researchers, 2015 58 Figure 17: Simplified Organogram of MoE for Tertiary Education LIST OF TABLES 20 Table 1: Average Current Gross Salary in BDT 23 Table 2: Number of Students and Institutions across TEIs in 2010 and 2017 in Bangladesh 24 Table 3: Proportion of Enrollments in STEM Courses in 2015 28 Table 4: Some of the Support Programs Available to Students in Public Tertiary Institutions 36 Table 5: Average Teacher-Student Ratio across the TEIs 37 Table 6: Computer and Internet Access across Tertiary Colleges 40 Table 7: Good Practices of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills and Soft Skills Training in Bangladesh 48 Table 8: H-Index for Selected Countries, 2015 49 Table 9: Number of Research Publications by Type of University in Bangladesh 2013 50 Table 10: Ranking of Patent Filing for Various Countries, 2013 51 Table 11: MoE Budget to Public University and Allocation to Research in Bangladesh (BDT, millions) 69 Table 12: Rate of Return to Additional Year of Education at Different Levels in Bangladesh 71 Table 13: Trend in Public Expenditure on Education in South Asia Countries 71 Table 14: Trend in Share of Tertiary Education in Total Education Expenditure (%) 72 Table 15: Annual per Student Education Expenses in Bangladesh (in nominal BDT) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vi INTRODUCTION 1. Bangladesh is recognized globally for its remarkable track record of socioeconomic development and potential for becoming an economic powerhouse in the region. The economy has sustained impressive economic growth over the past three decades despite incidences of political conflict, natural calamities, and financial shocks. The country met the Millennium Development Goals ahead of time and reduced the poverty level substantially over the past decades. Progress in human development, education, and health has been equally impressive and produced a healthier and better-educated working population. More women are joining the workforce while gender gaps in pay are gradually narrowing. Moving forward, the country aspires to reach the stage of a developed economy in the next two decades. 2. Bangladesh needs to prepare its workforce for the emerging challenges for a dynamic economy in an increasingly globalized world. The economy is undergoing structural changes on several fronts. First, Bangladesh has transitioned from a largely traditional, agriculture-based economy to an industry and service-driven economy. Industry sector has been the main driving force for economic growth. Second, more recently, technological progress is rapidly changing the production and service modality. Firms need to not only constantly adjust their business and production modality with these technological changes but also have highly skilled manpower who can enable such change processes. Third, a growing and youthful workforce in Bangladesh provides a window of opportunity to improve productivity and accelerate economic growth. Equipping the young generation with the skills needed for jobs remains crucial. 3. Tertiary education sector in Bangladesh is at crossroads. On one hand, employers are demanding higher-skilled professionals for technical and managerial positions to support the growing industry and service sectors. On the other hand, tertiary education institutes (TEIs) are struggling to produce employable graduates for the job market. Unemployment rates are consistently high among tertiary graduates, causing prolonged and frustrating joblessness for many. At the same time, the culture and practice of collaborative research to promote industry competitiveness and innovation has been largely missing in the country’s tertiary education landscape, undermining Bangladesh’s competitiveness ranking in the global knowledge economy. There is urgent need to identify and address the challenges in the sector and orient tertiary education toward the demands of the economy and labor market to help realize Bangladesh’s full economic development potential. 4. This sector review aims to provide a holistic knowledge of the tertiary education sector in Bangladesh and identify key challenges and policy recommendations to support policy dialogue and future operations. Building upon a conceptual framework, the review takes a holistic approach in assessing the challenges across three tertiary education providers—university, college, and polytechnics —across five areas of interest: access and equity, quality and relevance of education, research and innovation, governance and management, and financing. The main findings and key policy options across these five themes are summarized in the next section. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | vii MAIN FINDINGS AND POLICY DIRECTIONS ACCESS AND EQUITY education, mostly in prestigious preparedness of secondary public institutions. students from poor and rural family Key Findings backgrounds; adjusting teacher pay • Participation in science, parameters and teacher deployment technology, engineering, and • Tertiary education enrollment regulation to render preferential mathematics (STEM) is low. This is growing rapidly, and benefits for teachers and schools in is particularly the case for tertiary private education providers, rural and disadvantaged areas; and colleges, which account for more than especially colleges, play a key promoting household investment half of the tertiary enrollments. Just role in absorbing much of the in tertiary education through around 9 percent of college students expansion. A significant part of the awareness for parents. are found to be enrolled in STEM expansion has occurred through courses. This would likely lead to an • Diversifying academic enrollments in the tertiary college oversupply of graduates in humanities pathways by gearing access to sector, which accounts for over 60 subjects and skills shortage for postsecondary education in favor percent of all tertiary enrollments. technology and engineering of enrollment in technical track Universities account for 30 percent professionals in the industry sector. and reducing the concentration of of enrollments while polytechnics students in social subjects of less have the lowest share at 8 percent. Policy Options economic priority under the general Overall, there has been a growth in education stream. the enrollment in private providers, To improve access and equity, which account for 45 percent of all the Bangladesh government may tertiary enrollments. Nonetheless, Bangladesh’s participation in consider the following policy QUALITY AND RELEVANCE options: tertiary education in terms of gross enrollment rate (GER) (17 percent • Setting up a student loan scheme Key Findings in 2016) is still quite low compared in partnership with public and • The teaching and learning and to neighboring countries such as private financial institutions to assessment systems largely follow India and Sri Lanka and not up to support meritorious low-income the traditional and rigid approach the average of lower-middle-income students, especially females, and that impede effective student countries (24 percent). other marginalized groups to pursue learning. Classroom teaching higher education. • Access to tertiary education is mainly involves rote learning, non- not equitable across gender and • Expanding poverty-targeted creativity, and passivity of students income groups, with females and scholarship and tuition support that impedes higher-order critical students from poor families at a for students to encourage low- thinking and soft skills development. disadvantage. The female share of income secondary school graduates, Assessment of learning is conducted enrollments across the TEIs stood especially females, who are proven mainly through written exams, at around 38 percent in Bangladesh, meritorious to continue with higher providing little scope for feedback considerably lower than other South education in the universities and to students other than conventional Asian countries such as India (46 colleges. grades. Some universities have percent) and Sri Lanka (60 percent). taken proactive steps to implement • Strengthening support for more active learning practices, which has Moreover, tertiary education in equitable learning outcomes been associated with higher student Bangladesh has been dominated by in secondary education, for satisfaction with teaching-learning. students from the richest segment example, through using digital Yet, such practices are completely of society—the richest two income tools for disseminating high-quality missing in the tertiary colleges and quintiles accounted for 75 percent programs to raise higher education polytechnics. of the total enrollment in tertiary viii • Inadequate and outdated colleges and polytechnics, especially inclusion of higher-order cognitive teaching and learning facilities in district towns and rural areas. skills and soft skills development in pose a significant challenge for The government adopts a central the curricula and use of a learning the delivery of quality education. teacher recruitment process for public management system for tracking Student-teacher ratios are generally colleges and polytechnics, which can student learning outcomes. high across the TEIs, especially take up to two years, and turnovers • Increasing investments in among public institutions. Without during this time further exacerbate teaching and learning and proper classroom facilities, such the vacancy situation. On the other ICT facilities, possibly through as speakers and multimedia, the hand, universities exercise autonomy partnerships with private sector and delivery of lecture is hindered, making in teacher recruitment; however, fundraising and outreach programs. teaching and learning less effective. concerns remain on the transparency To attract private investments in Especially in the provision of STEM, in teacher selection and recruitment education and collaboration, the the quality of practical learning is process. Moreover, professional government may consider special hampered when students have little development opportunities are scarce incentives (for example, tax rebate, or no access to raw materials and and only intermittently provided for recognition) for industry. lab facilities. Furthermore, access to a small number of teachers in tertiary high-quality Internet connectivity and education. • Attracting highly qualified digital resources is lacking especially teachers and increasing • Quality assurance in tertiary in the tertiary college and polytechnic opportunities for teachers’ education is still at a nascent sector. Even where there is a good professional development through stage. Noteworthy progress has provision to these facilities, digital developing teacher competency been made in pushing the quality literacy remains low among teachers requirements across subject areas and assurance agenda in higher and students, leading to less uptake introduction of structured in-service education through the passing of the of digital facilities in teaching and professional training programs. There Bangladesh Accreditation Council learning. is a need to review the government Act in 2017. Several universities also teacher recruitment and promotion • Higher-order cognitive skills and took up internal quality assurance process for colleges and polytechnics soft skills are largely missing from mechanism and conducted self- to ensure teachers are attracted and the curriculum. A growing body of assessments involving student, motivated in the teaching profession. evidence suggests that employers teacher, and employers’ feedback. feel that the TEIs need to do more While quality assurance has been • Forging partnership with on improving higher-order cognitive advancing in the university sector, renowned foreign universities skills of graduates, especially in areas it has been largely missing in the through twinning or joint of critical thinking, problem-solving, tertiary colleges and polytechnics. programs is an effective means communications, and information to raise the quality of teaching and communication technology (ICT) Policy Options and learning in Bangladeshi skills, among others. While some universities. Activities that promote private universities have explicitly Key policy options to enhance knowledge transfer, exchange incorporated such modules in their quality and relevance in tertiary of experience, and capacity curricula, most TEIs still remain far education include the following: development could be explored. behind. • Implementing modern practices • Implementing the quality • Qualified teachers are in short in teaching, learning, and assurance mechanism in all TEIs supply and have little opportunities assessment through implementing through the implementation of the for professional development. active learning in the classroom and BAC Act and introduction of quality Teacher vacancy is high in the tertiary a system for feedback to students— assurance effectively across all TEIs. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | ix RESEARCH AND competitive innovation funds shows GOVERNANCE AND INNOVATION high potential for collaborative MANAGEMENT research between academia and Key Findings industry through the emergence of Key Findings innovation in the fields of medicine • Bangladesh has been placing and agriculture. Despite this progress, • The governance structure of a firm foot in research and Bangladesh ranks poorly and remains tertiary education in Bangladesh innovation over the past decade. at the bottom tier (131 out of 140 is distinctly different across Research outputs from Bangladesh countries) for university-industry subsectors with administrative have progressively increased between collaboration in R&D, behind other and academic authorities divided 1995 and 2005. However, in terms of South Asian counterparts such as across multiple central agencies. global research standing, Bangladesh India and Sri Lanka. Primarily, tertiary education is under lags behind most South Asian the jurisdiction of the Ministry of countries, indicating that the strength Policy Options Education (MoE). The MoE has two of research produced by Bangladeshi divisions, Secondary and Higher academics is yet to be fully cultivated. Key policy options to promote Education Division (SHED) and research and innovation in tertiary Technical and Madrasa Education • Research at universities has education: Division (TMED), each headed by a been grossly underfunded, • More and smart investments to permanent Secretary. The SHED is undermining their capacity to support research and innovation responsible for secondary education conduct knowledge work even in higher education are necessary. and higher education, while the when many have a good number This would require an increase TMED looks after technical and of faculty trained with advanced in public spending on enhancing vocational education training (TVET) degrees and research experience. research capabilities, including and Madrasa (Islamic religious There is a large pool of Bangladeshi provision of scientific lab and education). The University Grants academics with PhDs, many trained facilities and research skills training Commission (UGC), established in abroad and mostly concentrated in in the universities. Furthermore, 1972,1 is responsible for supervising the established public universities, collaborative research with industry and coordinating public and private indicating the presence of untapped and foreign institutes should also be universities, maintaining the quality research potential in Bangladesh. promoted to further supplement the standard of university education, However, the share of research shortfall of public research spending managing the allocation of grants in public funding to and support knowledge transfer and government funding to universities, universities remained stagnant, well research capacity building. and advising the government on below 1 percent. Research facilities, issues related to higher education. including modern lab, equipment, • Building enabling environment and digital facilities, remain for commercialization of • The legislative backbone and inadequate, making it challenging innovations through promoting coordination mechanism of the for academics to carry out and academia-industry research tertiary education are fragmented. produce high-quality research. and development and setting up Various legislative frameworks intermediate organizations for govern the three subsectors creating • Industry collaboration and commercialization of research, governance structures, roles, and private sector participation including Technological Transfer responsibilities of the various in promoting research and Offices. In addition, intellectual entities. Moreover, a large number development (R&D) work and property (IP) policy and of entities, complex governance supporting commercialization of management needs to be introduced structure, and an underdeveloped research output is at a nascent for the tertiary education sector. management capacity make stage. The experience of the effective administration and 1 The 1973 President’s Order No. 10 defines the role of the UGC as the lead coordinating agency in all matters of university education related to fund allocation, planning, development, and implementation of higher education and research programs in public universities as well as the monitoring of public and private universities. x coordination challenging at the polytechnics in academic, scholarship/stipend and waiver of fees. central and institutional level. personnel, and financial • The potential for income management. Granting some • Poor transparency and weak generation by TEIs has been autonomy with clear objectives and accountability mechanisms are underexplored, and the budget monitoring system may enhance such responsible for irregularities in major processing system of tertiary flexibility in responding to emerging areas, including teacher recruitment, education is not incentivizing demands from local situations. student enrollments, and student performance improvement in assessments in the TEIs. In the absence • Delinking teachers and students’ the TEIs. In the absence of a policy of proper accountability systems, state affiliation with political parties or mechanism to support income- controls create rigidity in institutions’ and working as the latter’s front generation activities by TEIs in capacity to be responsive and flexible organization in universities through Bangladesh, the main income source to human resource needs and allowing students union to function for most of public TEIs, other than academic program changes. Except on the campus only on a nonpolitical grant funding from the government, for public universities, government platform. is fees charged to enrolled students in tertiary colleges and polytechnics lack the form of registration, tuition, and the autonomy to take and implement examination. Moreover, the budget FINANCING critical academic, human resource, processing system largely follows and financial decisions. Moreover, the traditional funding method of highly politicalized environment in Key Findings incremental budgeting across fixed TEIs often lead to student and teacher line items, with no mechanism for • Public spending in education has protests and disruption that adversely performance-based allocation. not been necessarily prioritized affect the academic calendar. toward tertiary education. However, most recent data show a gradual shift Policy Options Policy Options toward greater resource allocation Key policy options to support to tertiary education. Bangladesh’s Key policy options to support enhanced governance and allocation of public expenditure enhanced governance and management system in tertiary for tertiary education in the total management system in tertiary education: education expenditure had been in the education: range of 10–13 percent over the past • Exploring performance-based • Bringing an umbrella legislation decade, rising to 20 percent in 2015. approach to financing TEIs, especially covering the different subsectors for the university sector to promote • Private education expenses and institutions to confirm the the core principles of efficiency, incurred by the households have governance structures, roles, and effectiveness, and accountability in been playing a significant role in responsibilities, as well as recognize the utilization of financial resources, funding tertiary education. On quality assurance mechanism. and driving the development of TEIs average, tertiary education costs in alignment with the overall sector • Strengthening management households 1.26 times more than development objectives. capacities at the ministry and higher secondary education does, institutional levels through proving to be an expensive investment • Granting more financial professional development for most families. Students in autonomy to high-performing TEIs opportunities for tertiary education postsecondary often rely on borrowing with good financial management managers and administrators and use from families and relatives to pay for capacities, especially to operate of a management information system various private out-of-pocket expenses. income-generating activities, to improve monitoring and tracking of There is currently no national student explore innovative approaches to the three subsectors. loans scheme in Bangladesh to help finance their plans, and promote students enrolled in tertiary education. creative ways of utilizing the financial • Increasing autonomy for Financial support to students are resources at their disposal. high-performing colleges and mostly provided in the form of Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | xi 1 INTRODUCTION 12 1.1. BACKGROUND 1. Bangladesh economy exhibited noteworthy progress in poverty reduction supported by sustained economic growth and human capital development. The national poverty rate declined from 44.2 percent in 1991 to 13.8 percent in 2017, lifting millions of people out of extreme poverty. This progress was underpinned by an impressive average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth of above 6 percent over the past decade. At the same time, human development outcomes have also improved. Bangladesh has experienced the fastest decline in child and infant mortality rates among developing countries, attained near universal access to primary education, achieved gender parity in access at the primary and secondary education levels, and improved access to tertiary education for both males and females. Furthermore, women’s participation in the workforce has also increased while the gap in wage differentials has declined. 2. In an era of global knowledge economy, workforce skills and productivity are crucial to Bangladesh’s quest to accelerate economic growth and move up within the middle-income bracket. Economic growth is expected to continue with the creation of more jobs in rapidly growing sectors, including ready-made garments (RMG), export-oriented manufacturing, light engineering, shipbuilding, agribusiness, information and communication technology (ICT), and pharmaceuticals (World Bank 2018). Market expansion across these sectors will demand more and better-skilled professionals in managerial, technical, and leadership positions. As modern technologies change the way of work, Bangladeshi workers would need to adapt to these advancements for meeting the needs of a rapidly changing production environment and remain competitive. 3. Bangladesh will need to focus on the development of the tertiary education sector in building the critical supply of high-skilled workforce and knowledge. In Bangladesh, tertiary education is provided through three entities: diploma programs in polytechnics under the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) system, and graduate and postgraduate programs in universities and tertiary colleges under the general education system. Tertiary education institutes (TEIs) are the main entities for preparing the workforce with relevant skills and expertise needed to meet the changing technology and skills demands of the economy. Moreover, universities and in some cases, polytechnics, are also knowledge hubs for creating and disseminating new knowledge through cutting-edge research and innovation. 4. There is growing pressure on the tertiary education system to rise to the needs of the economy in Bangladesh. Demographic and economic changes have led to a gradual increase in the demand for postsecondary education, which in turn, is placing an increasing pressure on the system to meet access and quality demands. On the other hand, economic changes prompt employers to demand graduates with better skills and relevance to adapt to the needs of an evolving workplace environment, which creates an additional layer of pressure among the TEIs to meet quality standards. However, TEIs in Bangladesh still have a long way to go to become competitive in the global standards. International rankings of higher education institutions are an increasingly accepted indicator of the overall quality of universities in a country and to some extent, determine graduate reputation in the international job market. Bangladeshi universities are Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 13 performing below the average of global higher education Higher Education in Bangladesh 2018–2030 lay out the rankings which may undermine the employability of strategic development plan and approaches for TVET and graduates in local and global job markets. As of date, no university sectors, respectively. The government is now in university in Bangladesh has made it to the top 100 world the process of developing a sector development strategy universities’ lists of well-accepted international rankings. for tertiary-level colleges. The goals of these sector These rankings are generally based on quality-based strategies are consistent with the national development criteria such as learning environment, research output, goal stated in the National Education Policy 2010 as industry collaboration, and international outlook. well as in the current Five-Year Plan (FYR) (2016–2021). Achieving the development objectives of the national 5. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) recognizes education policy and sector strategies will help propel the need for continuous investment into education economic growth and shared prosperity, as well as and skills development as a key strategy to boost the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Workforce productivity. To foster high-level skills development, development requires collaborative investments by investment in postsecondary education is of critical different actors operating in the country (for details of the importance. To guide investment efforts toward policy guidance in these key government policies, refer to postsecondary education, the government has made it a Annex 1). priority to implement key policy strategies. The National Skills Development Policy 2011 and the Strategic Plan for 1.2. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH 6. Despite the growing importance of tertiary financing. Responding to changes in the socioeconomic education in Bangladesh, available data and context (such as economic growth, technological information about the sector have been scarce and transition, globalization, demographic transition, and scattered, and little attempt has been made to review increased labor mobility), Bangladesh is witnessing all the tertiary education subsectors holistically. growing demands for high-level skills and adaptable Against this backdrop, this study was commissioned to skills to cope with new technologies. Such skills are (a) provide a holistic sectoral review on three tertiary chiefly supplied by graduates of TEIs. The level and education and training systems (that is, universities, quality of supply of TEI graduates are determined by the tertiary colleges, and tertiary TVET) in Bangladesh and five key contributing factors—access and equity, quality (b) to lay out key policy recommendations aimed at and relevance of education and training, research and addressing the identified challenges and opportunities. innovation to contribute to the knowledge economy, It is the expectation of the study that the identification of the adequacy and efficiency of financing, and efficacy challenges and opportunities and actionable policies will of management and governance. Policy soundness and inform the government and development partners for the implementation performance of each of the five key preparation of development action plans for the tertiary thematic areas are important determinants of the quality education sector. of skills supply from the TEIs—universities, colleges, and polytechnics. Each chapter of this study is dedicated 7. Using this conceptual framework (figure 1), this to one of the five thematic areas and consists of a brief review focuses on the five key thematic areas which description of background and current situation, followed influence the quality of graduates from TEIs: (a) access by discussion on challenges and opportunities and finally, and equity, (b) quality and relevance, (c) research and policy options and recommendations. innovation, (d) governance and management, and (e) 14 FIRMS (skills demand side) TEIs (skills supply side) CONTRIBUTING SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS FACTORS More and 1. Access and equity GRADUATES FROM Economic high-level skills growth 2. Quality and relevance Universities Technological JOB MARKET Colleges progress 3. Research and innovation Polytechnics Demography Adaptable skills to Globalization changing 4. Governance and technologies management 5. Financing Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 15 1.3. STUDY METHODOLOGY 8. The study is conducted primarily based on a underwrite their degrees. Polytechnics are tertiary-level range of existing household, education, and skills technical and vocation education entities that offer surveys, relevant literatures, and lessons learned diploma-level training programs. It had been typically the from the World Bank-supported projects in the case that sector analyses were done individually for those tertiary education space in Bangladesh. The review three subsectors. However, from the perspective of skills includes policy, plans and strategies, existing studies, and supply capacity analysis, it would be imperative to view pertinent records related to the higher education and the subsectors as an integrated system which collectively skills training sector in Bangladesh. The study also draws strives to meet the demands of economy for highly skilled on information from several national surveys, including manpower. Moreover, as the study will discuss, there are the labour force survey (2010, 2015, 2017); enterprise- a range of commonalities across the subsectors in terms based skills survey; and three tracer studies of graduates of the strengths, challenges, and opportunities, especially from university, colleges, and polytechnics to provide in areas such as quality and relevance, and access and analysis on the job market outcomes of tertiary graduates equity. The holistic analysis would be useful to ensure and employers’ perception of graduate skills. In addition, that cross-cutting issues are systematically identified, and the Education Household Survey (EHS) (2013) was used shared policy options and approaches are generated to to analyze access and equity issues by individual and address those. institute characteristics, while the household income 10. The study also made a preliminary attempt, in and expenditure surveys (2003, 2010, 2015) were used for the annex, to analyze economic sector-specific skills analysis of education financing. The study also utilized the development issues by looking into the postsecondary database of Web of Science and Scimago to analyze the vocational education and skills training aspects of research standing of Bangladesh. In addition, the work the health sector as a case study. Skills development is has been supplemented by the analysis of administrative multisectoral by nature and highly relevant for most of the data and lessons learned from ongoing World Bank- economic sectors spanning way beyond the traditional funded operations in the postsecondary education sector confines of the education sector as a skills supplier.3 in Bangladesh and around the world.2 However, multisectoral analysis through the lens of skills 9. The study assesses the tertiary education sector development has rarely been conducted. It is an intention holistically by covering all three subsectors that of this study, though limited in scope, to offer a template are universities, colleges, and polytechnics. In of cross-sectoral analysis on skills development agenda, Bangladesh, the tertiary education can be broadly which would ultimately lead to a comprehensive view of subdivided into three sections: (a) universities, skills development landscape of the country. Gaining such (b) colleges, and (c) polytechnics. Universities are a comprehensive understanding is an urgent necessity in autonomous entities that provide higher education and the light of the need for promoting greater coordination undertake research and innovation activities. Colleges in skills development and establishment of sectorwide are typically less autonomous teaching-oriented higher approach for the skills development sector that the GoB is education entities that are affiliated academically and envisioning. administratively to one of the affiliating universities which 2 The World Bank financing supports the GoB to implement three projects in postsecondary education in Bangladesh: Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP), Skills and Training Enhancement Project (STEP), and College Education Development Project (CEDP). HEQEP targets universities, while STEP and CEDP, respectively, target TVET and tertiary-level colleges. 3 For instance, in Bangladesh, it is estimated that around 22 ministries are offering various types of vocational education and skills training. 16 Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 17 2 TERTIARY GRADUATE SKILLS AND EMPLOYABILITY 18 2.1. JOB MARKET OUTCOMES OF TERTIARY GRADUATES 11. Tertiary graduates in Bangladesh are struggling to find jobs. According to the Labour Force Survey 2016–2017, the unemployment rate among those with tertiary education qualifications stood at 11.2 percent, much higher than the national average of 4.2 percent in 2017 (Figure 2). There is also a stark gender disparity in the sector. The unemployment rate for females stands at 21.4 percent, which is nearly three times as high as that for males (8.3 percent). Recent graduate tracking surveys also confirm the challenging job market environment for tertiary education graduates (see Figure 2). Regardless of the type of institution, more than a third of graduates are found to remain unemployed one or two years after graduation. Many are still on further studies to gain more skills and qualifications. It seems evident that graduate unemployment, possibly with a long-spell of joblessness, has become a fact of life for many tertiary education graduates in Bangladesh. Also, some important differences are observed across the types of institutions. Graduates from colleges appear to be particularly faring worse. Only 19 percent of college graduates are found to be employed full-time or part-time, while nearly half of them remain unemployed. Employment outcomes of tertiary-level technical education graduates appear somewhat better as polytechnic graduates are more likely to be employed than graduates from universities and colleges. Their advanced technical knowledge and skills may have helped them to be more attractive to employers. 49% 46% 11.2% 39% 39% 34% 32% 6.4% 19% 18% 4.2% 15% 2.7% 1.5% Polytechnics University Tertiary No Primary Schooling Some or completed primary Secondary or postseconday Tertiary National College Employed Unemployed Further studies Figure 2: Unemployment Rates by Education Level (Left); Employment Status of Graduates after 1–2 Years of Graduation (Right) Source: Labour Force Survey 2016–2017 for unemployment rates (left); Graduate Tracer Studies (2016, 2017, 2018) for employment status (right). Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 19 12. The majority of employed tertiary education Table 1: Average Current Gross Salary in BDT graduates work in professional jobs in the private sector and education institutions. The graduate All Male Female GPI tracking survey revealed that more than two-thirds of Polytechnics 10,843 11,088 8,308 0.75 employers of tertiary graduates are private enterprises Colleges 11,814 12,819 10,166 0.79 or individually owned businesses. Most polytechnic University 29,932 29,950 29,354 0.98 graduates work in the manufacturing sector (29 percent) Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective sectors (2016, 2017, 2018). followed by construction (15 percent). Education Note: GPI = Gender Parity Index. institutions (that is, primary and secondary schools, colleges, and training institutes), both private and public ones, employ large portions of tertiary education graduate earns on average around BDT 29,932 per month graduates. Female polytechnic graduates are more with no significant gender wage gap.4 On the other hand, concentrated in the education sector (32 percent) gender wage gaps are significant among employed where they are hired as instructors and trainers. For graduates from college and polytechnics, especially university and college graduates, education institutions among those who are not full-time permanent employees. employ the largest share of graduates. Around 23 percent of university graduates and 43 percent of 14. Long spells of unemployment are common among college graduates are working in the education sector. unemployed tertiary graduates and cast serious The next largest employer of university and college doubts about job readiness and relevance of skills of graduates is the manufacturing sector with around 17 graduates from tertiary education. Graduate tracking percent of university and college graduates employed. surveys found that around 75 percent of polytechnic Within the manufacturing industry, RMG, food products, graduates, 30 percent of college graduates, and 20 percent agroprocessing business, and pharmaceuticals are the of university graduates have experienced joblessness that main employers. lasted more than a year. While most graduates continue to look for jobs, many opt for attaining higher levels 13. Employed tertiary education graduates generally of education in hopes of better credentials leading to make decent earnings, with university graduates and jobs. More education does not also seem to mean more male graduates generally faring significantly better. diversified learning experience and in some cases, not Most of tertiary education graduates make at least around necessarily finding a job. For example, most of college BDT11,000 per month within one or two years after graduates who opted for higher education such as a graduation (Table 1). This level of income is comparable master’s degree would end up being enrolled in the same to the average national monthly earnings. The value college from which they graduated for undergraduate of qualification does not seem uniform, however. programs and also, in the same subject area that is Unsurprisingly, university graduates earn significantly directly related to the area of their undergraduate study. more than graduates from colleges or polytechnics. On Such high incidence of prolonged unemployment among average their earnings are three times as high as that of graduates raises grave concerns about the job readiness tertiary college or polytechnic graduates. A university and relevance of skills that TEIs in Bangladesh impart to their students. 4 The national average monthly income for people of ages between 25 and 34 was around BDT 12,800 in 2016, according to the Labour Force Survey. 5 Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 2018. Tracer Study of University Graduates. Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project. Dhaka. Bangladesh. 20 2.2. RELEVANCE OF TERTIARY EDUCATION: EMPLOYERS’ AND GRADUATES’ PERCEPTION 100% 83% 78% 76% 74% 72% 72% 71% 71% 70% 68% 80% 67% 67% 63% 61% 59% 58% 51% 48% 60% 40% 20% 0% Use of ICT Communication Skills English Skills Problem Solving Skills Team Work Technical Skills Problem solving skills Use of ICT Practical Technical Training Communication skills Theoretical Knowledge English Skills Communications ICT Practical Skills Team Work Problem Solving English Figure 3: Skills Employers Feel Polytechnics (left), Colleges (right), and Universities (below) should Train Graduates More On Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in the respective sectors (2016, 2017, 2018). 15. Employers emphasize that the skills of tertiary 3.61 3.58 3.57 3.5 3.5 graduates, especially higher-order cognitive and soft skills, are not sufficient. Employers rank three higher- order cognitive and soft skills as top three skills that are relevant for current work environment: (a) problem solving and independent thinking, (b) work attitude, and Computer Skills Work Ethics Time Management Critical Thinking & Analytical Skills English Communication Skills (c) positive personality (BIDS, 2018)5. However, employers are struggling to find graduates with these skills. For example, around 80 percent of employers of polytechnic graduates felt that problem-solving skills is a key area where polytechnics need to do more to train students (Figure 3). Similarly, employers would like universities and colleges Figure 4: Perception on Skills Relevant for Jobs among to strengthen skills training on ICT, English language skills, Employed Graduates (1 = Not Important; 4 = Highly and key higher-order thinking skills such as communication Important) skills, problem-solving, and team work skills. Source: University Graduate Tracer Study, 2018. 16. Graduates also realize the importance of higher- order cognitive and soft skills for success in jobs. The through further education and training. Sixty-seven graduate tracking surveys asked graduates about the percent of university graduates were interested in taking types of skills that they see as most important for the work up further training on computer skills while another that they do. Out of 22 skills, university graduates rank one-third were interested in trainings to improve computer skills, work ethics, time management, critical communication skills. There is clearly a need to upgrade thinking and analytical skills, and English communication the academic programs to support the development of skills as the top five important skills for their jobs (Figure these critical job-demanded skills and respond to fill the 4). At the same time, most graduates felt that they lack perceived skills gap among graduates. in these important skills and wanted to acquire these Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 21 3 ACCESS AND EQUITY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 22 3.1. BACKGROUND 17. Enrollment in tertiary education is growing rapidly in Bangladesh, and private education providers, especially colleges, play a key role in absorbing students. The total number of tertiary education students increased from 1.57 million in 2010 to 2.92 million in 2017 (Table 2). An increasing pool of higher secondary school graduates has led to more students pursuing tertiary education (World Bank 2014). Pressure to expand access to tertiary education will likely only grow for the foreseeable future. At the current rates, it is predicted that this demand will continue to grow as the share of youth population with tertiary education increases from 11 percent in 2010 to 20 percent in 2035 (World Bank 2017). In the meantime, the number of TEIs has also grown by over 40 percent since 2010 to over 2,800 institutes by 2017. Among them, colleges account for around 65 percent of the tertiary education institutions (TEIs) and the majority (around 60 percent) of student enrollment in tertiary education—the reality that has not changed fundamentally since 2010. This is largely due to the relatively high number of colleges distributed all over Bangladesh that makes access to these institutions easier for students. Private education providers are increasingly playing an important role in tertiary education in Bangladesh. The share of private enrollments in total tertiary student enrollments has increased, and as of 2017, close to half (44 percent) of the tertiary education students are enrolled in private institutes. Also, private education providers continue to account for much of the TEIs. 18. Among the three subsectors, enrollments in technical education is still low. The share of polytechnic enrollments in tertiary education stands at only 8.5 percent. Unlike university and tertiary colleges under the general education stream, the technical education sector suffers from additional challenges of low perceived social value and inadequate awareness on technical degrees among students and families. As a result, secondary school graduates are more likely to enroll in general education under a college than in a technical diploma program under a polytechnic (CAMPE Table 2: Number of Students and Institutions across TEIs in 2010 and 2017 in Bangladesh Student Enrollments Institutions 2010 2017 2010 2017 Subsectors millions) millions) Total (in Total (in Private Private Private Private Total Total % of % of % of % of Universities 0.46 43 0.86 39 82 62 135 70 Colleges 1.01 39 1.81 45 1,388 85 1,862 85 Polytechnics 0.10 33 0.25 57 205 72 835 92 Total 1.57 40 2.92 44 1,675 83 2,832 86 Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) (2010, 2017). Note: (a) Polytechnics include tertiary-level professional training courses offered by noneducation line ministries, which collectively enrolled 0.04 million students in 2017; (b) in addition, the religious education (‘Madrasah’) in Bangladesh has its tertiary equivalent courses (‘Fazil’ and ‘Kamil’) which enrolls 0.16 million students in 2017. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 23 2012). Tertiary colleges have a bulge in enrollments, especially in humanities, leading to an oversupply of graduates in sectors of less economic priority. On the other hand, the job market is demanding more technical 44% workers to support industry and service sector expansion. 35% This is further substantiated by tracer studies that show 27% 25% 24% that employment outcomes for polytechnic graduates are 19% 17% relatively better compared to tertiary college graduates (World Bank 2018a and 2018b). 19. Despite the progress, Bangladesh remains behind other countries in the global and regional comparisons Bangladesh Sri Lanka India East Asia and the Pacific South & West Asia Lower MIC MIC in tertiary education enrollment. Bangladesh’s enrollment in tertiary education stands at around 17 percent in 2016 trailing behind neighboring countries such as India (27 percent) and Sri Lanka (19 percent) and not up to the average of lower-middle-income countries (24 percent) (Figure 5). Figure 5: Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) for Selected Countries and Region, 2016 20. Across academic disciplines, overall participation Source: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Institute for in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Statistics (UNESCO UIS) database. (STEM) is low. There is a good balance of STEM and non- STEM enrollments in the public and private universities; however, STEM enrollment in tertiary colleges is in a dire situation. Table 3 shows that STEM enrollments as 21. Tertiary education enrollment is estimated to a share of higher education enrollments stands at 21 continue to grow especially over the next five years. percent, lower than other South Asia Region countries Under all different hypothetical scenarios of tertiary GERs, such as India (40 percent) and Sri Lanka (28 percent).6 tertiary education enrollments are expected to grow over While tertiary colleges account for nearly two-thirds the next two decades (Figure 6). Due to the demographic of all tertiary enrollments, only around 9 percent of transition, however, under every GER assumption, all college students are studying STEM. According to a the total tertiary enrollment is estimated to reach its survey on tertiary colleges, high costs of offering STEM maximum in the next five years at around 3.2 to 4 million programs is one of the prime reasons, among others, for students. Beyond that point, the total tertiary enrollment which colleges, specifically private ones, prefer providing will likely start to decline or at least remain constant due humanities or business programs (World Bank 2014). to demographic shifts in younger school-age generations. Table 3: Proportion of Enrollments in STEM Courses in 2015 Public University Private University Tertiary Colleges Total Tertiary Total enrollment (in millions) 0.49 0.38 1.7 2.75 Enrollment in STEM (in millions) 0.24 0.17 0.16 0.56 Enrollment in STEM (%) 48 44 9 21 Source: UGC Bangladesh, 2016. 6 University Grants Commission (UGC) of India, 2016; University Grants Commission (UGC) of Sri Lanka, 2014. 24 4.5 4 3.2. KEY ISSUES IN ACCESS AND EQUITY IN TERTIARY EDUCATION Enrollment in Millions 3.5 3 IN BANGLADESH 2.5 2 3.2.1. Gender: Females are disadvantaged in 1.5 access to tertiary education 1 0.5 23. Access to tertiary education is not equitable across gender, with females at a disadvantage. Female share 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 of enrollments across the TEIs stood at around 38 percent in Bangladesh, considerably lower than other South Pessimistic Scenario: No improvement in Asia Region countries such as India (46 percent) and Sri tertiary enrollment rate Lanka (60 percent).8 Across the three segments of tertiary education in Bangladesh, tertiary colleges are faring Medium Case Scenario: 2 percentage point improvement every 5 years better in terms of closing the gender gap as indicated by the GPI of 0.77 (Figure 7). Universities and polytechnics Optimistic Scenario: 5 percentage point have exhibited only slight improvements in GPI between improvement every 5 years 2010 and 2015 (Figure 7). Societal norms often restrict mobility among young girls to metropolitan cities or district towns, where most universities and polytechnics Figure 6: Tertiary Education Enrollment Projection till 2040 are located. Tertiary colleges, on the other hand, are Note: The estimates are based on the official population projection and hypothetical tertiary GERs. The population projection is from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics distributed down to the subdistrict level (upazila), which data. The base tertiary GER is 17 percent as of 2016. make these institutions the only accessible higher education provider for girls, especially those from rural areas (World Bank 2015). The share of female enrollment 22. Rapid expansion of access to tertiary education has risked the suboptimal allocation of resources and 0.77 prevalence of poor quality service in tertiary-level 0.68 0.62 education. Much of the expansion in tertiary education 0.54 0.49 has already occurred without significant investments for 0.39 raising quality in the sector. While student enrollment increased by nearly 75 percent, the public allocation 0.17 0.12 to tertiary education grew by only 52 percent between 2010 and 2015.7 The major share of this public funding increase was spent on nondevelopment purposes, leaving University Tertiary Polytechnic Total College very little investments for quality-enhancing activities essentially needed to keep up with the enrollment pace. 2010 2015 With tertiary enrollments predicted to continue to rise over and reach a peak over the next few years, it will be Figure 7: GPI by Type of TEI in 2010 and 2015 critical to increase investments for enhancing the capacity Source: BANBEIS, respective year. and quality of providers. Note: GPI is calculated as female enrollment/male enrollment. GPI of 1.0 means perfect gender parity. 7 In 2010, the allocation to tertiary education in the national budget was BDT 102 billion, which increased to BDT 156 billion in 2015. 8 All India Survey on Higher Education 2015–2016; UGC Sri Lanka Higher Education Statistics, 2015. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 25 in the final year of higher secondary education (Grade 12) was 49 percent (GPI 0.96) in 2016. Female students 100 outperform their male peers in Higher School Certificate 90 (HSC) national examination results almost every year. As Cumulative Enrollment (%) 80 such, the considerable drop in GPI in tertiary education suggests the existence of strong social and economic 70 barriers against females’ higher studies. 60 50 3.2.2. Family background: Well-off students are 40 hugely overrepresented in tertiary enrollment 30 24. Students from the richest segment of the 20 population are overrepresented in tertiary education, 10 and even more so at more prestigious institutions. 0 Tertiary education in Bangladesh has been dominated 0 20 40 60 80 100 by students from the richest segment of society. It is Income Percentile significantly more unequal than secondary education Equality Primary Secondary Tertiary which is also hard to attain for low-income students. In fact, a household survey reveals that the richest two Figure 8: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, income quintiles accounted for 75 percent of the total by Education Cycle enrollment in tertiary education, and even more strikingly, Source: Author’s calculation based on EHS 2013. students from the richest households capture over half of the entire tertiary enrollment in Bangladesh (Figure 8). cater to the greater shares of students from less-affluent Furthermore, not only are richer students gaining more households. As such, knowledge and skills that students admission to TEIs, they are also enjoying greater access to can gain out of tertiary education, and by extension, prestigious institutions. Enrollment in public universities employment opportunities after graduation and return on are more strongly skewed toward the rich as 85 percent education investment, are most likely severely unequally of those studying in public universities are from the distributed. Moreover, the fact that poorer groups richest two quintiles and around 65 percent are from the are more concentrated in private institutions further richest households. Enrollment in public colleges are exacerbates the equity problem not least because public also greatly in favor of the richer groups (Figure 9). On the tertiary education in Bangladesh is highly subsidized by other hand, private colleges, which are often deemed less the government, while private institutions enjoy little prestigious and equipped with poorer learning facilities, government subsidies. 60% 65% 57% 36% 28% 25% 26% 20% 16% 19% 9% 2% 5% 5% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 3% Government College Private College Public University Private University Poorest 20% Lower Middle Income Middle Income Higher Middle Income Richest 20% Figure 9: Distribution of Enrollment across Income Groups, by Institution Type Source: Author’s calculation based on EHS 2013. 26 25. In terms of other family background, university 26. University admissions are highly competitive, students tend to come from more educated and urban practically reserved for the top performers of families, while college students have more humble family secondary education, while colleges mostly cater backgrounds. Around two-thirds of university students to academically average performing secondary come from urban families, and their parents have completers. Figure 11 shows the distribution of HSC exam considerably higher levels of educational qualifications— results of public university and college students at the around 50 percent of their fathers have a bachelor’s point of entry in tertiary education. University entrance degree or higher (Figure 10). In comparison, around 60 is extremely competitive. For instance, among the entire percent of college students are from rural families, and HSC examinees, only 6 percent managed to receive only 17 percent of their fathers hold a tertiary degree. GPA-A+ in 2015. However, as much as 66 percent of public Even though parents of college students are considered university students are GPA-A+ achievers at their HSC better educated by Bangladeshi general population exam. Admission to tertiary colleges are open to average standards, it is in a staggering contrast with those of performers. It is no surprise that prestigious institutions university students. It is obvious that the intergenerational admit only academically most qualified students. educational mobility, especially for university education, From the equity perspective, however, it is alarming as has been a constraint in Bangladesh. If one is born into a academic performance of students is strongly correlated family with parents having only primary education or less, with their socioeconomic background in Bangladesh as which is the case for many of the Bangladeshi population, in most countries,9 and the prevailing practice of private one would not stand a reasonable chance to enroll in a tutoring in secondary education exacerbates it. Previous university. Such a lack or limitation of intergenerational studies also found that enrollment into universities, social mobility is a grave concern and danger to the especially public universities, is highly competitive realization of inclusive development in Bangladesh. and often considered less accessible for students from low-income rural families (World Bank 2017). In other words, inequality of access to university education across socioeconomic backgrounds has its roots primarily 59% 50% 49% 42% 66% 34% 34% 33% 32% 51% 24% 45% 18% 17% 30.7% 29% 9% 23% 23% 20% 2.5% 0.8% 6% University College University College 3% Metropolitean No education/Primary Public University College All HSC 2015 Urban/Semi-urban Secondary Rural Diploma/Bachelor/ A+ A A- B+ or less Higher Figure 11: HSC Exam Performance (GPA) among Public Figure 10: Students’ Family Background among University University and College Students and College Students Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective subsectors (2017, 2018); BANBEIS (2015) Source: Graduate Tracer Studies in respective sectors (2017, 2018). for all HSC 2015. 9 Learning Assessment of Secondary Institutions (LASI) 2015 report shows that socioeconomic factors such as parental education and urban residence have significant positive impact on students’ academic competencies. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 27 in earlier education cycles especially in secondary students to attain a postsecondary degree faster than education, during which richer urban students tend to get going to colleges, and thus offers a more affordable ahead academically. education option for students who cannot afford to forgo earnings for too many years. 27. On the other hand, polytechnics provide a more affordable pathway to academically strong 3.2.3. Financial support for tertiary education students from modest family backgrounds to attain students are available on a limited scale a postsecondary educational qualification. A survey 28. Financial support to students enrolled into public shows that polytechnic students are generally high TEIs in Bangladesh comprises conditional stipends performers in secondary education.10 Around 70 percent and scholarships (national and international). Stipends of polytechnic students achieved grade A or higher and nationally initiated scholarships are available in which can be considered as a good result in the terminal public TEIs. In addition, students enrolled in universities exam. In addition, more than half of them are from the may have access to international scholarships. The science stream of secondary education. However, their international scholarships are from different parts of background is usually humble and more so than that the world, that students can compete for, depending of college students. Most of these students (around 67 on whether they fit the eligibility criteria or not. The percent) come from families living in rural areas who nationally initiated stipends and scholarships are aimed have fathers working in agricultural, forestry, and fishery at helping students enroll and complete their respective sectors. Around 44 percent and 58 percent of fathers and courses/degree programs. Table 4 illustrates some of the mothers have only primary educational qualification or support programs currently available to students enrolled less.11 The diploma engineering courses in Bangladesh into public TEIs. take four years to complete after Grade 10. It allows Table 4: Some of the Support Programs Available to Students in Public Tertiary Institutions Targeted Subsector Student Support Programs Remarks University TVET College 1. International scholarships X For master’s and PhD programs For talented students who cannot afford tertiary 2. Prime Minister’s Trust Fund X X X education 3. Merit-based stipend X X X Awarded to students who excel academically 4. Poverty Fund X X X Targeted to socioeconomically disadvantaged students Stipend for Children of For children of liberation heroes to attend tertiary 5. X X X Liberation Heroes education Tuition waivers for For children of freedom fighters, disabled students, 6. X X X underserved population and minorities For religious and ethnic minorities, physically disabled, 7. Stipend for special population X X blind, and other marginalized groups For females enrolled in a three-year bachelor’s degree 8. Female Stipend Project X X X program in the national and Islamic universities Offered to university students who are visually 9. Blind stipend X impaired Source: UGC, DTE, and DSHE (2017). 10 According to Polytechnic Graduate Tracking Survey, 2016. 11 According to the Labour Force Survey 2015, 38 percent of the population have no education qualification, while 29 percent hold only primary education, 14 percent hold junior secondary, and 13 percent have secondary education. 28 29. The Private University Act 2010 mandates private institutions to support meritorious low-income students, universities to allocate scholarships/stipends, to especially females, and other marginalized groups to offer tuition fee waivers and to allot admission quota pursue higher education. Subsidized interest rates would to ensure equitable access. The tuition fees in private be provided to low-income students. Given the high universities, on average, are more than five times that of returns to tertiary education in Bangladesh, providing public universities, as discussed later. Private universities such loans would make economic sense to both students provide fully or partially waivered tuition fees for students and the government. The scheme needs to be designed who are meritorious but unable to afford the cost of carefully with in-depth analysis of lessons learned from higher education. They also offer scholarships/stipends to the international experience and taking account of the children of freedom fighters. About 20 percent of private country’s social context to build in an effective incentive school students were eligible for stipends (Boye and system and efficient collection mechanism for better Mannan 2014). This has contributed to the expansion of repayment. Success of the student loans program equitable access to tertiary education, especially in the ultimately hinges upon repayment. From that perspective, context of university education. rocky school-to-work transition and prolonged BOX 1 30. There is currently no national student loans scheme in Bangladesh to help students enrolled into tertiary education. Financial support to students are mostly provided in the form of scholarship/stipend and waiver of fees. In fact, the National Education Policy envisions the provisions of interest-free or low-interest Good Practices in student loans to the poor to meet the challenges of Government-supported access and equity to tertiary education, especially among Student Loan Schemes socioeconomically disadvantaged groups and females. Many countries have introduced government- funded loan schemes to support access to higher 3.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR education for students from modest family PROMOTING EQUITY IN TERTIARY backgrounds. The South African government EDUCATION administers a student loan program which uses a means test to identify only needy students. 31. Despite improvements in enrollments, The size of the loan differs by income levels, considerable gains are yet to be made regarding where students from low-income families will access to tertiary education, especially for females get higher loan than those from high income. and students from socioeconomically disadvantaged The loan is also tied to academic performance, families. Access to quality tertiary education to all whereby loans are converted to grants for deserving students is now important more than ever successful students, while those with poor in the age of rapid technological advances because academic performance do not receive loan for technologies may well replace or push down the wage repeating courses. On the other hand, countries of many of those low-skilled routine jobs. The following like Ghana, Sweden, and Australia use ability-to- policy options could be considered to improve equitable pay principle, whereby repayments are capped access to tertiary education in Bangladesh. between 2–4 percent of graduate income and the rate applied depending on how much the 32. Establishing a subsidized student loans program graduate earns. Australia has proven success with for meritorious low-income and other marginalized the scheme by introducing cost sharing in higher groups. Student loans programs have been introduced in education while also increasing enrollments by many developing and developed countries with an intent 30 percent in five-year period. to alleviate financial constraints of poorer families (Box 1). The GoB should consider setting up a student loan scheme in partnership with public and private financial Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 29 joblessness among graduates can imperil the viability of of higher levels of education would also be important to loans provision for students in the medium to long term. promote household investment in education. 33. Expanding poverty-targeted scholarship and 35. Focusing on ‘quality’ for equitable access to tuition support for students. Scholarship and tuition good programs, especially for academically average support have been a popular demand-stimulating students in tertiary colleges. As tertiary enrollments instrument for vocational and technical education in are expected to rise over the next few years, affiliated Bangladesh as well as secondary education. For example, colleges will likely absorb the majority of this demand, stipends conditional upon student attendance and especially students from academically average- performance helped increase female participation in performing groups. With already low-quality environment technical diploma programs from less than 5 percent in in the colleges, it becomes of utmost importance to 2010 to 14 percent in 2017. This can also be tested and increase investments in improving teaching-learning in expanded to encourage low-income secondary school these institutions to ensure equitable access to quality graduates, especially females, who are proven meritorious programs and effectively manage expansion. Teaching to continue higher education in universities and colleges. and learning culture of colleges must be transformed In addition to expanding public support for needs-based from an examination-centric one to an employability- scholarships, private universities should be further oriented one, especially through priority investments encouraged and incentivized to provide poverty-targeted in programs catering to jobs in high-demand economic scholarships who meet the background characteristics. sectors. Moreover, reformation of governance and quality The Private University Act mandates private institutions to assurance mechanisms would need to be in place to offer scholarships to its students. Scholarship and tuition support equitable access to quality college education.12 waiver practices of private universities can be analyzed to The government is currently drafting a sector strategic identify strategies on how to promote more needs-based plan for the affiliated colleges which would lay out action scholarships and tuition waivers. plans for improving quality of this expanding system of mass higher education. 34. Strengthening support for more equitable learning outcomes in secondary education. More needs to be 36. Diversifying academic pathways toward more done to raise learning outcomes of poorer segments of technical avenue. The technical and vocational secondary students, so more students from poorer and education track of postsecondary education has been less rural areas have a fair shot at higher education in reputed popular among secondary students. From the viewpoint institutions. Use of information technologies and digital of more balanced human capital development, it would tools for disseminating high-quality programs to this make sense to gear access to postsecondary education population could enhance access to quality teaching in favor of enrollment in the technical track and reduce contents and improve preparedness for admission the concentration of students in social subjects of less into top institutions among aspiring disadvantaged economic priority under the general education stream. students. Adjusting teacher pay parameters and teacher It is also the government’s policy to increase enrollment deployment regulation to render preferential benefits in technical and vocational institutions to meet the job for teachers and schools in rural and disadvantaged market demands. More awareness raising would be areas would positively affect learning experience in those important to encourage secondary students to study in areas. Sensitizing less-educated parents about the value diploma-level technical courses. 12 Detailed discussion in Chapter 6. 30 BIBLIOGRAPHY ADB. 2012. Access without Equity? Finding a Better Balance in Higher MoE (Ministry of Education). 2010. National Education Policy (NEP). Education in Asia. Asia Development Bank. ———. 2011. National Skills Development Policy (NSDP). ———. 2016. Innovative Strategies in Higher Education for Accelerated Münich, D., E. Plug, G. Psacharopoulos, and M. Schlotter. 2012. Human Resource Development in South Asia - Sri Lanka. Equity in and through Education and Training: Indicators ADB, and Australian Aid. 2014a. Innovative Strategies in Higher and Priorities. European Expert Network on Economics of Education for Accelerated Human Resource development Education (EENEE) Analytical Report No. 12. in South Asia. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). ———. 2014b. Innovative Strategies in Technical and Vocational 2012. 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Bordoloi, R. 2012. “Accessibility and Equity: A Challenge for Higher Vincent-Lancrin, S. 2008. “What is the Impact of Demography on Education in India.” Journal of Economics and Sustainable Higher Education Systems? A Forward-looking Approach Development 3 (4). for OECD Countries - Chapter 2.” Higher Education to 2030 Volume 1: Demography. Boye, E. and M. A. Mannan. 2014. Bangladesh: Public-Private Partnership in Higher Education. Asian Development Bank. World Bank. 2006. The Bangladesh Vocational Education and Training System: An Assessment. Human Development Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE). 2012. Education Watch: Unit South Asia Region Skills Development in Bangladesh: Enhancing the Youth Skills Profile, Dhaka. ———. 2013. Bangladesh Education Sector Review. Seeding Fertile Ground: Education That Works for Bangladesh. Report No. Chowdhury, I. U. 2009. “Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: 80613-BD. Human Development Sector, South Asia Region. A Study of Bangladesh.” Working Paper Series Volume III, ———. 2014. A Study on National University and Affiliated Colleges Indian Institute of Dalit Studies, New Delhi. in Bangladesh. South Asia Human Development Sector. European Union. 2015. “Action Document for Skills 21 - Empowering Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 65. Citizens for Inclusive and Sustainable Growth.” ———. 2015. How Does the Short-Term Training Program Contribute GoB (Government of Bangladesh). 2012. Perspective Plan of to Skills Development in Bangladesh? A Tracer Study of Bangladesh 2010 - 2021. Making Vision 2021 a Reality. the Short-Term Training Graduates. South Asia Region, ———. 2012. Draft National Strategy for Promotion of Gender Equality Education Global Practice. Discussion Paper Series, Report in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in No. 82. Bangladesh. ———. 2016a. Bangladesh College Education Development Project ———. Seventh Five-Year Plan (2016–2020). Accelerating Growth, (CEDP). 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Graduate Tracking Survey Enrolment Behaviour.” BRAC University Journal VI (2). on Affiliated Colleges of Bangladesh National University. Luoach, T. O. 2014. “The Impact of Remedial English on English Washington DC: World Bank. Proficiency: The Case of United States International University - Africa.” Social and Behavioral Sciences 152 (2014): 1178–1188. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 31 4 QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 32 4.1. BACKGROUND 37. There has been a growing concern over the quality and relevance crisis of tertiary education and poor employability of graduates in Bangladesh. Quality concerns on tertiary education have intensified with the sector’s dramatic expansion over the past two decades, further exacerbated by inadequate resource allocation and limited capacity for quality assurance to guide this growth. As discussed in the preceding chapter, the tertiary education sector in Bangladesh experienced unprecedented expansion in terms of student enrollments with greater roles played by private education institutions. Much of this growth has occurred unsystematically amid weak enforcement of quality assurance mechanisms. For example, the National University has only a small inspection unit to conduct quality inspections in over 2,000 affiliated colleges spread across Bangladesh. The longstanding lack of quality assurance practice in public and private universities has led to ineffective monitoring of quality standards. It is only recently that a quality assurance and accreditation mechanism for higher education was introduced. 38. Evidences show a growing and alarming disconnect between what students are studying and the skills demanded by the employers and job market.13 Unemployment remains high among new graduates, many of whom remain jobless up to two to three years of completing degrees in Bangladesh.14 Paradoxically, employers have expressed strong concerns over the increasing difficulty in finding high-skilled candidates to fill their vacant positions. Modernization of economic structure and technological advances in industries have been increasing the demand for highly skilled workers.15 A skills survey, however, reports that over two-thirds of employers reported lack of skilled applicants for professional, technical, and managerial positions across different occupations (Murshid 2016, as cited in Rahman, Haque, and Taposh 2016). In the absence of adequate high-skilled professionals in local job market, some sectors such as the RMG industry fill the skills gap through recruitment of foreign expertise. 39. Comprehensive analysis and documentation of the challenges to quality tertiary education in Bangladesh has been scarce. The following section investigates into some of the quality challenges across the TEIs in Bangladesh based on available data, reports, and scholarly works as well as experience and lessons learned from the World Bank-supported projects in tertiary education in Bangladesh. It also attempts to highlight some of the good practices of TEIs in Bangladesh for delivering quality education. 13 Some include EIU 2013 and 2014; World Bank 2013 and 2017. 14 Forthcoming tracer study conducted by the World Bank finds that current unemployment among tertiary colleges is around 71 percent following three years of graduation. Another tracer study finds that around 25 percent of graduates were unemployed following two years of diploma graduation. 15 See World Bankb. 2018. Skills for Tomorrow’s Jobs. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 33 4.2. KEY ISSUES IN QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TEIS IN BANGLADESH 4.2.1. Teaching and learning and assessment may take a smaller share of the marking allotment. systems are traditional and rigid Tertiary college students are least exposed to diversified assessment methods as the colleges rely almost 40. Pedagogical methods used in TEIs largely follow entirely on written examinations and opportunities to the traditional mode of didactic teaching. Students are evaluate students’ practical learning is largely missing.17 taught mainly through set texts, dictation of notes, and Furthermore, as public university teachers are engaged in written assessments in tertiary education in Bangladesh setting questions for colleges but are often unaware of the (EIU 2014; World Bank 2014). The traditional teaching college curriculum, the effectiveness of the examination method often promotes rote learning, non-creativity, and contents is also a concern. No systematic review of the passivity of students who reproduce what was dictated National University examination is carried out regularly. to them with no effort to go beyond what is taught in In general, TEIs provide little feedback to students other the classroom (EIU 2014). Without active participation, than the conventional grades on tests, which makes it students’ ability to develop higher-order critical thinking difficult for the assessment process to provide students and problem-solving skills is likely to be impeded. scope for improvement. Nonetheless, private universities 41. Rigid updating of curriculum and lack of practical and some disciplines of public universities are now learning in academic programs are another challenge increasing the share of marks for practical assessments to improving teaching and learning in tertiary through presentations and research work and internships, education programs. Many public tertiary education in evaluating student performance. programs do not periodically update curricula, which may 43. Teaching at tertiary colleges is overshadowed lack new concepts and ideas in the field and undermine by the responsibility of undertaking numerous relevance and functionality of the degree (EIU 2014). For examinations. The National University’s centralized tertiary colleges and polytechnics, curricula are developed examination system creates challenges in ensuring centrally by the National University and Bangladesh adequate teaching hours at colleges. The holding Technical Education Board (BTEB), respectively, with of examinations by the National University is a huge inadequate involvement of the institutions or industry. undertaking involving over 300 days in a year. The process This gives little flexibility to institutions to quickly adapt is prolonged due to the sheer number of subjects, courses, curriculum to local industry needs. Furthermore, except and examinees and by a lack of examination space at for some university and polytechnic programs,16 most the colleges.18 As examinations are held continually tertiary education academic programs do not provide year-round, constantly taking up teachers’ time and students with the opportunities to gain practical exposure classrooms, teaching hours are often sacrificed, which to their fields through internships, industry projects, inevitably lowers the quality of teaching and learning. or research work. As a result, students often complete degrees with limited knowledge and experience of 44. Session jams and disrupted academic schedule practical applications of their theoretical learnings. are taking tolls on the efficiency of tertiary education and hampers transition to jobs. Public universities 42. Student assessments in tertiary education and colleges often are unable to follow the academic heavily relies on written examinations. Public and calendar which hampers students from timely private universities conduct their assessments at the graduation. A study on the public university examination department level by the teachers. The major part of system finds that several institutions were unable to assessment generally involves written exam while a viva adhere to the academic calendar and this delays the voce and practical laboratory test (for science disciplines) commencement of classes for new students and holding 16 The curriculum of polytechnics has a total of 45 days of mandatory ‘Industry Attachment’ program, in which students undergo apprenticeship experience in partnering companies in their localities. However well intended, this program is often criticized for poor quality and lack of supervision. 17 Students in science disciplines participate in practical lab examinations—however, anecdotal evidence suggests that these practical assessments often are not conducted appropriately due to lack of lab facilities, raw materials, and lab instructors at the colleges. 18 The National University has the task of holding 97 exams in 382 subjects and 1,952 courses in a single year for around 2 million students. 34 of final examinations (UGC 2015). These delays are often the result of ad hoc student or teacher protests, political unrest, and lengthy and extensive paper-based bureaucratic administrative processes involving different entities of the institution (UGC 2014). This leads to time 3.73 3.35 3.72 3.47 3.59 3.09 3.08 3.06 lags or ‘session jams’ in public universities. Another study shows that sessions jams occur on average up to 20 months in general universities, 17 months in engineering universities, and 16 months in science and technology Teaching & Learning Industry Support universities (Sarkar and Hossain 2016). Similarly, tertiary Learning Infrastructure Interactions Services colleges suffer from session jams of up to 24 months.19 These time lags in the public higher education institutions Beneficiary Non-Beneficiary have considerable financial and practical implications for all stakeholders, including graduates having to delay Figure 12: Satisfaction Rating among Beneficiary and Non- entering the job market and lose earning opportunities Beneficiary Students (out of 4-point scale) (Sarkar and Hossain 2016). Source: World Bank 2017 45. Some progress has been made to support active 4.2.2. Students’ readiness for higher education learning in tertiary education in Bangladesh. Research is weak shows that active learning improves student focus and attention, develops higher-order critical thinking, and 46. Student readiness for university education is supports better learning outcomes.20 However, teachers’ an often overlooked but growing concern in the competence and resourcefulness would have to be university community in Bangladesh and could derail addressed to support active learning in classrooms. Most the effort for quality higher education. Concerns on the TEIs in Bangladesh are at a disadvantage in offering active quality of incoming students to TEIs have been voiced by learning arising from inadequate availability of modern the higher education community in Bangladesh over time. technological media and teachers’ training on the use of For example, while the pass rates in the HSC exam have these facilities in pedagogy (Chowdhury 2016; Mazumder been on the rise, most of the candidates fail to obtain the 2014). Nonetheless, several universities in Bangladesh pass mark in entrance exams in top public universities in are gradually moving toward student-centered active Bangladesh.21 Due to weak foundational skills, especially learning. For example, the Government’s higher education in English and mathematics, universities often find that project supported around 130 subprojects across first-year students struggle to comprehend lectures.22 different public and private universities to upgrade According to the national student learning assessment at teaching learning facilities and curricula geared at more secondary education level, only around 48 percent and active student learning experiences. Student satisfaction 41 percent of Grade 8 students meet the grade equivalent surveys showed that university students participating in competency standard in English and math subjects, classroom learning involving technological media, work- respectively.23 Some private universities provide remedial based seminars, and workshops were more satisfied with noncredit courses in English, mathematics, and IT skills the teaching-learning environment than those with less in the first year of study for students who need extra access to such resources in Bangladesh (Figure 12). support in preparing them for the rigorous undergraduate 19 In 2012, students of the National University scheduled for Honors final exam in 2009 attended the exams in 2011. Further delays in results publications create an indecisive situation where students can neither enroll in master’s program or apply for jobs. http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-232579. 20 Some literature on the benefits of active learning include Fisher (2010); Freeman et al. (2014); Sivan et al. (2010). 21 In 2016, around 90 percent of applicants failed to secure the pass score in the Dhaka University entrance exams. http://www.theindependentbd.com/post/65605. 22 Studies find that as Bangla is the main language of instruction up to higher secondary education for most students, their proficiency in English is often not fully developed. As a result, students’ comprehension of lectures and materials weakens when the mode of instruction becomes English at the universities (Abedin, Majhlish, and Akhter 2009; ADB 2014). 23 LASI 2013. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 35 program (Box 2). However, such programs to support Table 5: Average Teacher-Student Ratio across the TEIs underprepared students are largely missing from public TEIs, where resources to introduce remediation efforts are Public Private Total unavailable. BOX 2 University 1:40 1:27 1:33 College 1:77 1:12 1:24 Polytechnic 1:61 1:26 1:35 Good Practices in Source: BANBEIS 2015. Improving Student Readiness for Higher 48. Quality teaching-learning becomes challenging Education with inadequate provision of modern learning facilities in the TEIs. Most TEIs have limited development funds to improve teaching-learning facilities. This compels The Asian University for Women conducts the them to operate without adequate teaching aids, modern Access Academy program to bring students from labs, equipment, and information technology (IT) facilities diverse backgrounds onto a common learning needed for conducive teaching-learning environment platform and improve learning gains in university. (World Bank 2014). Especially in the provision of STEM, The curriculum focuses on raising students’ practical learning is hampered when students have English, quantitative reasoning, and general little or no access to raw materials and lab facilities. academic skills to levels that will enable them to Employers specifically have expressed discontent with succeed in the university’s rigorous undergraduate available training facilities at technical institutions—the program. lack of quality facilities are considered to hinder technical Private universities including North South graduates’ competency and familiarity of machineries and University, East West University, and BRAC tools needed for industry jobs (World Bank 2006). University also offer remedial noncredit courses in 49. Universities have made good progress in English and mathematics which are compulsory provision of access to computers and Internet for for students with deficiencies in these skills. students and teachers. The government has made significant investments to establish a dedicated high- connectivity network in the university sector through the establishment of the Bangladesh Research and Education 4.2.3. Teaching and learning facilities and Network (BdREN). Till date, around 38 institutions have equipment are inadequate and outdated been connected to BdREN and are using the connection to support collaborative research works and virtual 47. The quality of learning environment suffers from teaching learning with universities and institutions within large classes, specifically in government universities, and outside of Bangladesh. Additionally, 15 universities colleges, and polytechnics. Teachers in universities, have set up campus networks (another 19 in process) colleges, and polytechnics face large classes, which may utilizing the BdREN connection. The establishment of the make it challenging to deliver lectures with due attention. campus networks would facilitate university-wide Internet Student-teacher ratios are generally high in all types of connection for all students and teachers, significantly TEIs, especially among public institutions (Table 5). Some improving the quality of digital connectivity across these departments have larger numbers of students enrolled institutions. in classes. Anecdotal evidence shows that in public universities, some departments have over 150 students 50. However, the quality of Internet connectivity and per class. Without proper classroom facilities, such as adequacy of computer facilities remain a challenge speakers and multimedia, the delivery of lecture is often for many TEIs. Most universities outside the BdREN hindered, making teaching and learning less effective. connectivity continue to rely often on low bandwidth 36 BOX 3 Quality Teaching Learning Facilities to Support STEM in Tertiary Education in Bangladesh The Government has supported two projects—the Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP) and the Skills and Training Enhancement Project—to overhaul the quality of teaching and learning in the university and the TVET sector, respectively. Established in 2009, the HEQEP has supported over 300 subprojects through three rounds of academic innovation funds (AIFs) across public and private universities in upgrading teaching-learning facilities. These subprojects involved 455 subject curriculum upgradations, 310 laboratories established or revamped with scientific instruments, 1,119 classroom modernizations with multimedia devices, 5,800 computers/laptops purchases, and around 29,000 books acquisitions among other quality enhancing facilities. These investments have significantly supported STEM learning as the beneficiary universities could support around 318 postgraduate and PhD students for scientific research projects and publish around 250 scientific studies in peer-reviewed national and international journals. On the other hand, STEP provided institutional development grants to 33 public and private polytechnics to upgrade classroom and labs with multimedia technologies, machineries and tools, and software essential to carry out practical learning in the science and engineering fields. Another 23 polytechnics are expected to receive grants for improving their teaching and learning facilities and supporting STEM education. Internet through limited broadband or wifi connections. reduced (on average, 1 Internet-connected computer for Low availability of computers further deteriorates access 49 students) as almost 24 percent of private university to Internet, especially in the public universities. A survey computers are not connected to the Internet while shows more than two-thirds of department heads from another 60 percent are used only for management and public universities felt the availability of computers to administrative purposes. be insufficient while another 60 percent reported that 51. Tertiary colleges and polytechnics are less likely Internet access was available for only teachers and to have access to computers and Internet connection; administrators at the department level (UDL 2016). Even masters colleges are in a relatively better condition. most of the private universities24 struggle to provide Government development efforts have supported most adequate Internet-enabled computer access to students. tertiary colleges to gain Internet connectivity—the latest On average, only 383 computers are available in the statistics shows that around 98 percent of all tertiary 85 private universities. The availability of computers colleges are connected to the Internet (Table 6). However, and access to Internet for students’ learning are further the scarcity of computers for students’ use remains a Table 6: Computer and Internet Access across Tertiary Colleges College Type No. of Colleges No. of Computers Per College Computer Availability % of Colleges connected to Internet Degree pass 1,178 7,804 6.6 97 Degree honors 445 4,561 10.2 99 Masters 136 4,539 33.4 99 Total 1,759 16,904 9.6 98 Source: BANBEIS 2015. 24 Except for a few established private universities, most are new and have limited facilities, including computers. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 37 huge challenge as on average only nine computers are computers and Internet (World Bank 2014). The study available per college. This shows that most students and notes that college teachers did not have the necessary IT institutions, especially those in degree pass colleges, skills and digital literacy needed to use Internet-enabled complete their programs without the opportunity for computers at the institution. This challenge is more IT skills development (World Bank 2014). Among the prominent in the college and polytechnic sectors, where polytechnics, around 56 have established computer classroom learning is largely traditional and modern labs and multimedia facilities through the government ICT facilities are generally low, reducing teachers’ need program. However, around 80 percent of polytechnics to learn and use such tools in pedagogy.26 On the other were out of this government program and still have hand, most universities recruit high-skilled teachers inadequate computer facilities in most cases. with good ICT skills which allow them to develop and continue using facilities in the classroom when made 52. Universities provide good access to learning available.27 However, low digital literacy continues to be a resources such as books and journals through challenge among university students arising mostly from physical and digital library facilities, while tertiary a lack of exposure to IT-based learning during secondary colleges and polytechnics lag far behind. Currently, schooling. A pilot introducing a Learning Management 72 public and private universities are members of the System (LMS) for non-engineering students at a private UGC digital library that has enabled increased access university in Bangladesh showed that less than 10 to online journals and books. The monthly average percent of students accessed the system for additional download of e-journals steadily increased over the past learning materials (Khalid 2009). To improve e-readiness five years showing a good demand for online resources. of incoming students, several universities, mostly private However, access to online resources could be better universities, include basic IT skills training for new improved through providing e-resource use orientation, students as a compulsory module of the program to increasing subscriptions to high demand-based resources develop digital literacy skills. Significant scope remains to and increasing membership to different TEIs. Tertiary improve ICT use in learning at the TEIs, especially for the colleges and polytechnic institutions still remain outside tertiary colleges and polytechnics, where most institutions of any digital library services. A survey shows that on lack modern ICT facilities. average, colleges have less than 20,000 books and less than 25 journals in their collection (World Bank 2014). As 54. Nonetheless, the uptake of ICT use in tertiary government colleges receive some steady fund allocation education is gradually improving. Multimedia for books and journals, they have double the average classrooms support teachers and students to visualize number of books available in nongovernment colleges, difficult concepts enriching the learning experience. which operate with a minimum book collection (World In Bangladesh, established private universities and Bank 2014).25 several public universities are increasingly moving to multimedia classroom learning, delivering lectures 4.2.4. Digital literacy among teachers and through presentations, videos, and online content and students are low maintaining class communication through email and 53. Teachers’ ICT skills are poor and there is low web-based platforms (HEQEP 2017). Virtual classrooms willingness to use technology in the classroom, have been established in 34 universities where online especially in colleges and polytechnics. Mere access to classes are conducted connecting students and teachers technology does not ensure that students learn ICT skills. across Bangladesh as well as with foreign institutions A case study on a rural tertiary college finds that students (Box 4). did not develop basic IT skills despite the availability of 25 National University regulations stipulate that a minimum of 3,000 books needs to be held in colleges which run Honors programs with 2,000 as minimum in Degree level colleges. 26 The same challenge of ICT skills and digital literacy among teachers is noted across other schooling levels in Bangladesh as well as other parts of the world (British Council 2015; PISA 2015). 27 For example, BRAC University conducts basic IT learning during library orientation for teachers to make them familiar with accessing online resources. 38 BOX 4 Virtual Classroom Teaching in Bangladeshi University Under AIF support, the Department of Pharmacology of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Medical University (BSSMU) established the first-ever virtual classroom system for medical college students in Bangladesh. The subproject piloted innovative use of information technology in medical education by establishing a virtual classroom environment. Under the pilot, medical college institutions across Bangladesh are connected to the virtual classroom allowing senior medical professors in Dhaka and even international experts from abroad to deliver their lectures to students in medical colleges in different regions. Students can attend real-time online classes, download teaching materials, and assess their competence in self-administered tests. 4.2.5. Opportunities for training higher-order literacy) as important work-related skills for success cognitive and soft skills are missing among professionals. However, more than one-third of all employers reported inadequacy of these important 55. Employers are placing greater emphasis on skills among professional workers (Figure 13). This the value of higher-order cognitive and soft skills indicates that professionals are entering jobs with limited among employees for effectiveness in work in exposure to cognitive and soft skills development. The Bangladesh. Yet, most graduates enter the job market low availability of these traits among employees creates with inadequate development of these skills. An high demand for these skills as studies find employers enterprise-based survey finds that employers ranked compensating higher-order cognitive skills and soft skills three soft skills (responsibility, communication, problem with higher pay (Nomura and Adhikari 2017; World Bank solving) followed by two cognitive skills (numeracy and 2013b). How important How Sufficent 69% 67% 64% 58% 58% 58% 56% 53% 47% 43% 40% 38% 37% 38% 36% 37% 36% 35% 35% 27% 25% 18% 16% 15% Responsibility Communication Problem Solving Numeracy Literacy Customer Care Team Work Motivation Creativity ICT English Vocational Skills Figure 13: Employers’ Perception of Skills Importance and Skills Sufficiency among Professional Workers in Bangladesh (Share of respondents, percentage) Source: World Bank 2014. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 39 56. A few higher education institutions and centers 4.2.6. Teachers are in short supply and lack in Bangladesh are experimenting with courses that professional development opportunities explicitly incorporate higher-order cognitive and soft skills development among students. Several private 57. There is an acute shortage of regular teachers, universities in Bangladesh have developed learning especially in tertiary colleges and polytechnics. modules or established training centers within the Most government colleges, especially those outside the institutions focused on enhancing cognitive and soft skills capital, have high numbers of vacant teachers’ positions of students (Table 7). These efforts are aimed to improve that reduce the capacity at these institutions to deliver graduate employability, which remains a critical aspect for high quality programs (World Bank 2015). Government attracting student enrollment in the private universities. polytechnics also suffer from regular teacher shortages On the other hand, there are very few examples of and are currently running on contractual teacher activities undertaken to improve nontechnical skills of supported under a government development project. graduates in public TEIs. Public TEIs have limited funds, Both government college and polytechnic teachers resources, and flexibility compared to private counterparts are recruited centrally by the MoE through the public for conducting additional skills development training for service system. The long bureaucratic process results students. in lags of up to two years, and turnovers during this time further increase vacancies. Even private TEIs face teacher shortages often cited because of lack of qualified Table 7: Good Practices of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills and Soft Skills Training in Bangladesh Programs and Institution Residential Semester aims to develop a range of soft skills and personality qualities among undergraduate students. The residential semester focuses on four areas of development: (a) Residential Semester improving communication skills, (b) creating strong sense of responsibility, (c) developing Program firm principles to guide students in decision making and action, and (d) providing holistic education through academic and extracurricular activities. Professional Skills Development Program Professional Skills Development Program is a 13-week modular course designed to improve BRAC University students’ employability, in response to employers’ increasingly BRAC University diverse and sophisticated needs. It focuses on enhancing the all-round development of students, by building a variety of skills sets that increase their appeal to employers and improve their ‘on the job’ performance. Center for Cognitive Skills Center for Cognitive Skills Enhancement aims to build higher-order cognitive skills through Enhancement engaging undergraduate students in logic, rationalization, problem solving, and decision making experiences using digital tools like games and apps as well as active learning Independent University experience such as research activities. Bangladesh Bangladesh Youth Leadership Center’s training programs provide face-to-face and online Leadership Program training courses focusing on the development of higher-order cognitive skills, including leadership, problem-solving, and critical thinking, communications skills and pre- Bangladesh Youth employment/professional development training for undergraduates, graduates, and Leadership Center professionals. The online job search platform provides a range of training workshops and certificate Bdjobs.com programs to support technical and soft skills development of job seekers and professionals. 40 candidates along with limited staffing funds (World Bank universities (UGC 2015). On the other hand, around 2014). As a result, most private universities recruit part- one-fifth of all private university teachers had a PhD, time teachers to run regular programs. With almost one- the majority of whom (around 40 percent) belonged to third of private university teachers working as temporary five most prestigious private institutions (UGC 2015). faculty, the quality of learning suffers as teachers do not In government colleges, most teachers have a master’s receive the professional development opportunities or are degree but only a few—around 5 percent—have a PhD or not involved in the long-term development objectives of advanced qualification in their discipline. The situation is the institution.28 worst in the polytechnics where a recent survey finds on average, only about a quarter of teachers has a master’s 58. Teachers’ recruitment qualification and incentive degree, while around a third have only diploma degree system is not conducive to attract and retain top (World Bank 2017). Very few TEI teachers have advanced talent. The UGC Teacher Recruitment Policy requires research training which reduces their ability to fully candidates for entry-level teaching posts to have a engage and produce high quality research work often with minimum of a master’s degree in the teaching field. No reports of plagiarism incidences surfacing.29 prior research or teaching experience is sought that would otherwise indicate the knowledge and pedagogical 60. Professional development opportunities are skills of candidates. For higher teaching posts, the policy scarce and only intermittently provided for a small requires candidates to have a minimum post-master’s number of teachers in tertiary education. Universities degree along with teaching experience and publications. and colleges around the world are increasingly investing Qualifications needed for teaching in colleges and in continuous professional development training to polytechnics are even less stringent. Lecturer posts are ensure quality and relevant learning throughout the filled through the Public Service Commission recruitment faculty’s service period. Except for a few cases, almost all system, which requires candidates to have at least a TEIs in Bangladesh do not have any structured in-house bachelor’s degree. Promotions in public universities teachers’ orientation and training programs.30 The MoE are not automatic but follow the procedure of fresh provides some basic training to government college and recruitment while considering some competency and polytechnic teachers through the National Academy performance indicators such as post-master’s degree, of Educational Management (NAEM). The NAEM offers years of experience, and number of publications. There nine courses to around 1,200 government principals and is also a provision of internal promotion by which a teachers of colleges and polytechnics each year on areas candidate is automatically promoted to the higher post including, education administration and management, if he/she fulfils certain criteria. Private universities also ICT, and research methodology (NAEM 2017). Other tie internal promotion to higher teaching positions to important training such as pedagogical and andragogic indicators such as post-master’s degree and research training occur on a limited scale on ad hoc basis, mostly publications. On the other hand, the government college through government development projects for college and polytechnic teachers’ promotions basically depends and polytechnic teachers. on years of service completed, that is, seniority, with no consideration of performance-related criteria. 4.2.7. Accreditation and quality assurance mechanism are at a nascent stage 59. Most TEI teachers fulfill the minimum criteria of 61. Quality assurance has made significant progress holding a master’s degree, but very few have more in the higher education sector. At the national level, advanced qualifications or training in research the Accreditation Council, Bangladesh (ACB) Act was and teaching. Around one-third of the total public enacted.31 Under the Act, the Accreditation Council university teachers hold a PhD with most PhD-holding would be established as an independent autonomous teachers (around 60 percent) working in five established 28 As of 2015, around 33 percent of total 15,058 private university teachers are working as temporary faculty in 85 private universities. 29 Daily Star report on DU teachers, http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/09/28/five-du-teachers-accused-plagiarism/. 30 The Independent University Bangladesh—private university—set up the Center for Pedagogy which offers pedagogy training to new and existing teachers of the university. Six public universities opened Center of Excellence in Teaching and Learning under a GoB-British Council project to offer professional development for teachers and senior administrators. 31 The ACB Act became effective on March 21, 2017, with its publication in the Bangladesh Gazette. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 41 body responsible for overseeing the quality of higher and effectiveness of the program. Based on the self- education at the institutions against the benchmark assessment reports, the faculties subsequently develop given in the National Qualifications Framework. The improvement plans to address quality issues. The self- Council is also tasked with accreditation of programs assessment and improvement plans are also externally at the initial stage and later of institutions and will peer-reviewed to ensure quality of the process. The conduct external assessments of the quality of teaching self-assessment exercise offered university students, and learning in the higher education institutions. At the especially those from public institutions, the first-time time of commissioning of this study, the Accreditation opportunity to provide feedback on teaching and learning Council is yet to be operationalized causing delays in the environment, which has been largely missing in the higher implementation of quality assurance for higher education. education sector (Quddus and Rashid 2000).32 62. Universities have initiated institutional-level 63. Other TEIs however are yet to conduct any quality assurance programs. Around 69 public and institutional-level quality check of their programs. private universities have established institutional quality In the college sector, the National University conducts assurance cells (IQAC) to monitor and report on the ‘inspections’ to ensure affiliation requirements are met quality of teaching-learning across different programs. at the colleges. However, quality aspects of teaching and In each university, the IQAC provide technical support learning, especially student and teachers’ feedback, are and coordinate across different faculties for undertaking missing from these audits. The polytechnic subsector is self-assessments. The self-assessments involve surveys yet to start any institutional quality assurance activities. to collect student and teachers’ feedback on the quality Quality reviews of diploma programs are urgently needed. 4.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING QUALITY AND RELEVANCE IN TEIS 64. Implementing modern practices in teaching- 65. More investments in teaching and learning learning and Assessment. One means to overhaul the facilities and information technologies. Provision of traditional teaching learning system is through promoting modern computer and science labs, technological media, active learning in the classroom. Active learning would books, and journals among other learning materials are require equipping teachers with the necessary classroom essential inputs to quality learning. Required investments resources and training in pedagogy to adopt the new to upgrade teaching-learning facilities across TEIs is huge. approach. Greater emphasis on fostering practical and Though the government has been the main investor in hands-on skills should be built into STEM education and public TEIs, both public and private institutions need to training. Public TEIs, especially the National University, tap into new resources of funding. Partnerships with the are required to review the examination practice and private sector, especially in research and development ensure assessments are geared toward measuring (R&D) work, is one means to acquire investments in labs practical knowledge rather than rote learning and to and modern equipment in exchange for supporting incorporate a system of feedback for improving student development of technology. Such practice has been competencies. Introduction of LMSs can support introduced under the AIF university-industry collaboration teachers and administrators track and evaluate student window and could be expanded as well as replicated progress provided adequate training is offered using such to other TEIs in time. To attract private investments systems. Moving forward, there is a need to design and in education and collaboration, the government may implement learning modules aimed at developing higher- consider special incentives (for example, tax rebate, order cognitive and soft skills among graduates. These recognition) for industry. Access to computers and high- skills need to be recognized in National Qualification quality Internet for TEI students is critical to develop IT Frameworks, incorporated in curriculum and measured as skills for the modern workplace. Expansion of the BdREN part of learning gains in the TEIs. connection and establishment of campus networks in 32 Except for some private universities which included student evaluation of courses as part of regular quality review. 42 the remaining universities, colleges, and polytechnics are and promotion process for colleges and polytechnics to ways to ensure high-quality Internet coverage for students ensure teachers are attracted toward and motivated to and teachers. Digital literacy training for teachers and take up the teaching profession. Other than monetary students to support the use of technology for learning and incentives, good teachers can be attracted through the ensure IT skills are developed. provision of opportunities for growth and recognition, for example, more scholarships and research funds, teaching 66. Improving readiness for tertiary education. excellence awards, and performance-based incentives. Despite the quality of incoming students linked with basic education schooling, TEIs nonetheless need to 68. Partnership with renowned foreign academic take this issue head on to improve graduate learning institutions. Forging partnership with renowned foreign and employability. Studies show that remedial courses universities through twinning or joint programs is an for underprepared university students may be one effective means to raise the quality of teaching and means to improve student readiness and performance learning in Bangladeshi universities. Already some for higher education (Bettinger and Long 2009; Luoch progress has been made through existing academic 2014). While most private universities in Bangladesh are partnerships with renowned foreign TEIs for teachers’ offering remediation, public TEIs have by contrast are professional development in the TVET and tertiary college yet to implement such programs. Public TEIs should sector. Additionally, the Chittagong Veterinary and Animal also be provided the resources and scope to introduce Science University was able to initiate student exchange similar remedial programs to raise the foundational skills program with the U.S. universities following upgradation and quality of incoming students. For example, blended of teaching-learning facilities funded by the government’s learning modules where the teaching is delivered online higher education project. More TEIs in Bangladesh should and final assessment through sitting exam could be used be supported in initiating academic partnerships that for only remedial modules. This would also reduce the support knowledge transfer, exchange of experience, and pressure on teachers and scarce resources which is often capacity development. These partnerships could focus considered a barrier to introducing such programs in the on faculty and student exchange, joint conferences, and public TEIs. management leadership training. 67. Enhancing teacher competencies through 69. Implementing the quality assurance mechanism professional development. Continuous professional in all TEIs. The MoE needs to take the necessary steps development training for TEI teachers are critical to implement the ACB Act and quality assurance system inputs to quality learning. There is a need to develop effectively across all universities and tertiary colleges. teacher competency requirements across subject areas, Institution-level quality assurance activities need to be considering both technical (subject expertise, curricula strengthened and regularized at universities and colleges. development, pedagogy, and so on) and non-technical Polytechnics remain outside the scope of the ACB Act. aspects (management, leadership, socioemotional skills, There is a need to initiate quality assurance activities, and so on) and inform the development of structured for example, self-assessments, in the polytechnics to in-service professional training programs. There is a motivate and create awareness in TVET stakeholders on need to review the government teacher recruitment the importance of quality assurance. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 43 BIBLIOGRAPHY Chowdhury, F. 2016. Employment of Active Learning at HEIs in Sarkar, S. H., and S. Z. Hossain. 2016. “Utilization of Higher Bangladesh to Improve Education Quality. International Education Budget: Study on Public Universities in Education Studies; Vol. 9, No. 10; 2016. Bangladesh.” IOSR Journal of Business and Management 18 (8) version III: 01–13. EIU. 2013. Higher Education in South Asia: Trends in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Sivan, A., R. W. Leung, C. Woon, and D. Kember. 2010. An Economic Intelligence Unit. Implementation of Active Learning and its Effect on the Quality of Student Learning; Innovations in Education ———. 2014. High University Enrollments, Low Graduate and Training International. Pp.381–389. Employment. Analyzing the paradox in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. EIU. UDL (University Grants Commission Digital Library). 2016. “UGC Digital Library Survey: An Overview of Key Findings.” Fisher, K. 2010. “Technology-Enabled Active Learning Presentation. Dhaka: Bangladesh. Environments: An Appraisal”, CELE Exchange, Centre for Effective Learning Environments (2010) 07: OECD UGC (University Grants Commission). 2015. Report on Publishing, Paris. Examination System in Public and Private Universities in Bangladesh. Draft. UGC: Bangladesh Freeman, S., S. L. Eddy, M. Mcdonough, M. K. Smith, N. Okoroafor, H. Jordth, and M. P. Wenderoth. 2014. “Active Learning World Bank. World Bank. 2006. The Bangladesh Vocational Increases Students Performance in Science, Engineering, Education and Training System: An Assessment. Human and Mathematics.” PNAS 11 (23): 8410–8415. 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College Education Development Project. Project Skills on Wages within and between firms: Evidence from Appraisal Document. Bangladesh’s Formal Sector. Washington, DC: World Bank. ————. 2018a. Employability of Postsecondary TVET in Bangladesh: Tracking Survey of Graduates in Programme for International Student Assessment. PISA. 2015. Polytechnics. Washington DC: World Bank Group. Students’ use of ICT outside the school. Paris: OECD ————. 2018b. Skills for Tomorrow’s Jobs: Preparing Youth for Quddus, M., and S. Rashid. 2000. “The Worldwide Movement in A Fast-Changing Economy. Washington DC: World Bank Private Universities.” The American Journal of Economics Group. and Sociology 59 (3): 487–516. 44 Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 45 5 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 46 5.1. BACKGROUND 70. Research and innovation have been generating knowledge and solutions to tackle development challenges and spur economic growth and poverty reduction in Bangladesh. For example, R&D has been playing a crucial role especially in the development of agriculture sector in Bangladesh (Ahmed, 2014). Over the past two decades, research activities carried out by agricultural universities and research institutions are known to have played a critical role in finding and disseminating new technologies and innovative solutions that have increased rice yields in Bangladesh. These innovations have been instrumental in helping the country achieve food self- sufficiency against the backdrop of a surging population (Ahmed, 2014). 71. Public TEIs, along with specialized research institutes, are drivers of research and innovation in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, the degree of involvement in research and innovation varies widely across the type of TEI. Universities are mandated for leading knowledge generation and innovation, for which most advanced researches have been mainly conducted in these institutions, particularly in public ones. For instance, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is the leading university in engineering researches, and Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) has been playing a central role in agricultural researches. Private universities also produce a small volume of research documents, but these are mostly essays and periodicals which generally have not undergone peer review (UGC 2014). On the other hand, the polytechnics and tertiary colleges are mandated as purely teaching institutions, remaining out of the research and innovation culture. However, these institutions exhibit potential for greater engagement in R&D, especially in the polytechnics where teachers and students are gradually engaging in innovative work. 72. This section will examine the status of research and innovation among the TEIs in Bangladesh and discuss the key challenges and strategies to the development of an effective research and innovation system in the subsector. 5.2. STATUS OF RESEARCH IN BANGLADESH 73. Bangladesh’s research outputs, though still at a low level internationally, have increased dramatically over the past decade. The total number of research publications33 produced each year increased remarkably from just 165 in 1995 to over 3,000 in 2015 (Figure 14). Despite the improvement, the size of research outputs per population remains quite small for Bangladesh, standing at only around 20 publications per million people in 2015. All other South Asian counterparts sustain much higher volumes of research output per population, for instance, India (79), Sri Lanka (62), Nepal (31), Bhutan (77), Maldives (61), and Pakistan (56). The H-index34 for Bangladeshi research publications is also quite low compared to developed countries as well as 33 Citable documents include articles, reviews, and conference papers. 34 The H-index here is a country-level metric that attempts to measure both the productivity and citation impact of the publications of a country for the given year. The higher the H-index, the greater the strength/impact of the research produced. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 47 3004 with advanced research capabilities in Bangladesh, and there is a large pool of university faculty who possess PhD qualifications in the tertiary education sector in Bangladesh. As of 2014, around 43 percent of the 12,047 public university teachers in Bangladesh held a PhD degree (UGC 2015). The majority of PhD holders are concentrated 1179 mostly in the established public universities, in particular, Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, BAU, BUET, 629 Jahanginagar University, and the Bangabandu Sheikh Mujib 451 Medical University. Put together, these 6 public universities 328 165 alone (out of 33 public universities) account for a half of the total teaching staff and around two-thirds of the 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 total academics with PhD degrees in the public university subsector. On the other hand, around 19 percent of the Figure 14: Number of Citable Documents Published per 14,219 teachers in the 80 private universities held a PhD, Year by Bangladeshi Researchers, 1990–2015 while the majority (around 35 percent) of the PhD holders Source: Web of Science, 2016. belonged to five established private universities (UGC 2015).35 By contrast, colleges have few human resources for neighboring ones, indicating that the strength of research research. The share of academics with a PhD is less than 5 produced by Bangladeshi academics is yet to be fully percent in government tertiary colleges (World Bank 2014). cultivated (Table 8). 75. Engineering and science are the leading 74. A large pool of Bangladeshi academics with PhDs, research fields producing the major part of research many trained abroad and mostly concentrated in the publications and attracting the most research established public universities, indicates the presence interest in Bangladesh. The highest number of of untapped research potentials in Bangladesh. citable documents in Bangladesh was available under University academics are the core group of professionals engineering, accounting for almost one-third of the total citable research documents in 2015 (Figure 15). This is Table 8: H-Index for Selected Countries, 2015 also common for other South Asian countries where similarly the volume of engineering research publications Countries H-Index was the highest, such as India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan, in 2015. Other research areas which produced a high United States of America 1,783 number of publications are computer science (430), United Kingdom 1,099 telecommunications (226), science technology (152), Japan 797 physics (149), and environmental sciences and ecology China 563 (148). Engineering and these science fields are probably India 426 the areas most demanded by today’s Bangladeshi economy and society. On the other hand, far fewer Pakistan 166 researches are being produced in areas of literature, Bangladesh 134 psychiatry, women studies, orthopedics, and geography. Sri Lanka 120 76. Research output generation is still weak in Nepal 94 the majority of universities. Many universities have Afghanistan 36 minimal research outputs. As many as half of public and Bhutan 27 private universities reported to not have produced any Maldives 21 publications in 2014. Even among public universities, more Source: Scimago, 2016. than 40 percent did not produce any research publications 35 These five private universities are North South University (449), BRAC (177), East West University (118), South East University (111), and Stamford University (94). 48 engagement is also found across the private universities. Half of all private universities did not produce any research publications in 2014, while around 40 percent produced 980 less than 40 publications per 100 faculty members, which comprised mostly of non-peer reviewed essays and periodicals (UGC 2014). The low volume of publications in many of the universities reconfirms that there is still a long 430 way to go in building up the research capacity in the tertiary education sector. 226 152 149 148 146 146 112 108 77. The TVET subsector shows good potential for R&D activities with signs of emerging local R&D capacity in the sector. R&D work with industry, though not mandated, Engineering Computer Science Telecommunications Science Technology Physics Enviromental Sciences Ecology Chemistry Public Enviromental Occupational Health Plant Sciences Agriculture is nonetheless important for polytechnics for developing graduates who are familiar with the industry environment and latest technology through practical learning. Compared to universities, the polytechnic institutions are quite behind in terms of labs and facilities, public funding, teaching and research capacity and suffer from reputational issues Figure 15: Top 10 Research Areas by Volume of Citable associated with low quality of teaching and learning. Documents Produced in Bangladesh in 2015 This can make them less preferable by industry for R&D Source: Web of Science, 2016. work compared to universities, as noted by international experience (Beise and Stahl 1999). However, recent in 2014 according to the UGC annual report (Table 9). The development efforts by the government are gradually majority of these are newly established universities with diffusing innovation into the polytechnic system and results low academic staffing and where research infrastructure are being observed. For example, the government’s STEP is yet to be developed. Of those public universities with has been working to promote R&D in the polytechnics research outputs, the volume is still quite low with through efforts such as institution-industry partnerships around 30 percent (10 universities) producing less than 20 and upgrading laboratories for local research works. Several publications per 100 faculties. Similar trend of low research local innovations have emerged from these efforts including technology to reduce carbon pollution from brick fields, Table 9: Number of Research Publications by Type of machine to alert boats operating at over-capacity, and a University in Bangladesh 2013 central nebulizer and suction machine that supports multiple patients instead of a single patient, among others (STEP Publications per 100 faculty No. of Universities 2018). A global case study of a leading global polytechnic (Box members Public Private 5) indicates that for Bangladeshi polytechnics to strengthen 0 16 40 industry-linked R&D activities, greater investments in facilities, and capacity building are warranted. 1 to 19 10 15 20 to 39 2 16 78. The commercialization of research outputs 40 to 59 5 4 is still at a nascent stage, picking up some highly successful cases.36 One measurement of the extent of 60 to 79 0 3 transforming research results into applied products and 80 to 99 1 0 services is the volume of patenting filed by researchers. 100+ 1 2 Worldwide, universities and research institutes are Total 35 80 increasingly keen on protecting their intellectual Source: UGC Annual Report, 2014. 36 Several innovations in biological and agricultural sciences that emerged from research funded under the HEQEP have applied for patents in Bangladesh. These include improved methods for foot and mouth disease diagnosis and prevention technology, mycoplasma and salmonella antibody detection method, soil testing kits, development of herbal product in the use of fish disease recovery, and alternative sugar supplements, among others. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 49 rights and revenue generation on their inventions that Table 10: Ranking of Patent Filing for Various Countries, 2013 will help raise additional funds for future researches. Bangladesh is also slowly catching up with this trend. World Rank Patents Countries (out of 160 per Million In 2013, Bangladesh filed 84 patents, which is an overall countries) Inhabitants 20 percent increase compared to that in 2000, reflecting gradual improvements in R&D and innovation over the Japan 6 3,716 past decade (WIPO 2016). However, the scale at which Singapore 21 1,014 innovation and patenting is occurring in Bangladesh is Hong Kong SAR, China 37 243 still limited compared to other countries (Table 10). For Malaysia 57 77 example, Bangladesh ranked 137 out of 160 economies, Sri Lanka 85 22 producing less than 1 patent per million of the population, India 92 17 much lower than India (17), Sri Lanka (22), Malaysia (77), Vietnam 108 5.5 and Singapore (21). Bangladesh still has a long way to go in promoting high-quality researches with greater Indonesia 114 3.0 emphasis on generating IP to boost quality researches Pakistan 125 1.1 and spur future start-ups and new business solutions. Bangladesh 137 0.5 Source: World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) statistics, 2016. BOX 5 Case Study - Nanygang Polytechnic in Singapore The Nanygang Polytechnic in Singapore is one of the leading examples of excellence in R&D and innovation in technical education. The Centre for Innovation, Research, and Impact under the polytechnic serves as a one- stop technology transfer service center for all research, innovation, and enterprise-related activities, bringing together staff, students, and industry partners in translating impactful ideas to the market. The Centre focuses on innovation and enterprise-related training and development for staff and student through support for acquiring R&D grants, managing intellectual property (IP) rights, and commercialization of innovation, and enhancing applied R&D work with industry for keeping teachers and students relevant to market needs. The availability of modern labs and equipment along with continuous capacity building and strengthening of industry partnerships have supported Nanygang Polytechnic in developing a range of innovations in life sciences, IT and computer, engineering, and nanotechnology. 5.3. KEY ISSUES IN RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TEIS IN BANGLADESH 5.3.1. Resource allocation for research is allocation for research has increased over the past years inadequate from BDT 36 million (US$0.45 million) in 2009/10 to BDT 87.5 million (US$1.09 million) in 2015/16 (Table 11). In terms of per 79. Researches at universities have been grossly university average, the allocation was a mere BDT 2.4 million underfunded by the government for many years. Public (US$30,000) in 2015/16—an insignificant amount of money spending has historically been low for tertiary education (see for any research project. The share of government grants Chapter 6) and negligible for research funding. The grant to public universities that goes to research also remained 50 severely low at well below 1 percent despite an increase in 21% the number of institutions over this period.37 Compared to Foreign Government Bangladesh, the average share of research allocations in public funding to universities in other South Asian countries, 3% Multinational Donor including Sri Lanka and Pakistan, is slightly higher at 2 percent (MoF 2016; Thornton 2016). The UGC has a key role to 8% play in distributing government funding to support research Govt of Bangladesh and the publication of research in the public universities. In 2015–2016, the UGC slated 13 percent of its budget (US$0.34 10% Local institute million) to support faculty development in research across different disciplines of public universities. However, the share 58% Foreign Institute of UGC budget to support research in the public universities has been declining over the past years. Other than these two Figure 16: Share of Funding Sources for Researches sources, the MoE has a small allocation in its own budget to Published by Bangladeshi Researchers, 2015 support research work in the different institutions under its Source: Web of Science, 2016. purview, including the public universities. In 2014, the MoE directly allocated around US$656,000 for research.38 governments funded around 20 percent (Figure 16). 80. Against the backdrop of low public spending on On the other hand, less than 20 percent of all research research, most researches in Bangladesh have been published by Bangladeshi researchers were funded by financed by research funding from foreign institutions the Bangladesh government or Bangladeshi institutions. and governments. Foreign governments and institutes With foreign entities as the main source of funding, the are a major source of research funds in Bangladesh. major share of publications (around 60 percent) authored In 2015, foreign institutes39 funded more than half of by Bangladeshi researchers were produced through all research publications in Bangladesh, while foreign international collaboration in 2015 (Scimago 2016). 5.3.2. Physical and human resources for Table 11: MoE Budget to Public University and Allocation to research are limited Research in Bangladesh (BDT, millions) 81. There is a considerable need to increase in-country Total Grant % of PhD enrollments to boost the research capacity in the Fiscal Allocation to HEIs. Public universities are the only approved institutions to Public Research Year Research Universities Allocation by the UGC to offer PhD programs in Bangladesh. As of 2009–10 8,514.8 36.0 0.4 2013, around 7,092 students were enrolled in PhD programs across the 33 public universities.40 In terms of total graduate 2010–11 10,912.2 46.0 0.4 enrollments per million of population, Bangladesh fares 2011–12 11,790.3 57.0 0.5 well compared to most South Asian countries (Afghanistan, 2012–13 12,336.0 56.0 0.5 Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan) but remains behind others 2013–14 15,425.0 63.5 0.4 (India, Nepal). Developed countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America tend 2014–15 17,426.0 86.5 0.5 to have in-country PhD enrollments as a share of tertiary 2015–16 18,860.0 87.5 0.5 enrollments above 2.0 percent, whereas Bangladesh’s Source: UGC Annual Report 2016. share is around 0.3 percent. This would indicate a need Note: Total grant allocation includes both revenue and development; research to improve access to in-country postgraduate programs, allocation includes allocation as part of grant to universities and allocation through UGC budget; US$1 = BDT 80 (as of June 2018). especially PhDs, in improving the research capacity. 37 The MoE provides a consolidated budget to all the public universities through the UGC according to each university’s requisition. The UGC allocates and distributes the budget amounts to each university individually. 38 The MoE provides this fund based on research proposals received from the different institutions. 39 Foreign institutes include public and private universities, research institutes, think-thanks, NGOs, and nonprofits belonging to countries other than Bangladesh. 40 There is a tendency/preference for Bangladeshi academics to undertake PhD programs in foreign countries, which may contribute to lower in-country enrollments. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 51 82. Underdeveloped research facilities in the TEIs are posing substantial challenges for academics. Inadequate investment in contemporary research infrastructure remains a common issue in the TEIs. The absence of modern scientific BOX 6 labs, equipment, and availability of raw materials makes it UGC Digital Library challenging for academics to carry out and produce high- The UDL was established in 2012 under the quality research (World Bank 2014). Some of the faculty government’s HEQEP with the aim to promote members of public and private universities were fortunate research and innovation in Bangladesh through enough to upgrade labs and acquire equipment through access to scholarly e-resources to all member the competitive AIF provided by the government under the institutions at subsided subscriptions. As of HEQEP. According to a recent satisfaction survey, the level 2017, UDL is providing access to around 35,000 of satisfaction among university teachers on the ability to e-resources to 72 member universities (33 public, conduct research increased by around 42 percent due to the 38 private, 1 international). facilities availed under the AIF (HEQEP 2016a). However, a large share of faculties are yet to receive the grant, including those in young universities established in recent years. 83. Internet connectivity and access to journals and promoting R&D work and supporting commercialization publications also remain underdeveloped or entirely of research output. Bangladesh ranks poorly and missing across the different TEIs in Bangladesh. The remains at the bottom tier (131 out of 140 countries) for university sector is gradually progressing to improve digital university-industry collaboration in R&D, behind other connectivity, especially due to major development work carried South Asian counterparts such as India (50) and Sri Lanka out by the government through its higher education operation (109). Studies show that industry-institution collaboration over the past few years. Around one-third of all universities in in the universities is generally low due to (a) inadequate Bangladesh are now connected to a dedicated high-speed laboratories and infrastructure to conduct industry research; Internet connectivity network, known as the BdREN, for online (b) absence of mechanisms to facilitate collaboration teaching and learning, academic collaboration, and knowledge betwee industry and institution; (c) low commercialization sharing. Access to e-resources, such as journals, books, and potential of university research; (d) low knowledge among databases are subscribed through the UGC Digital Library by academics on commercialization of research; and (e) a lack 72 public and private universities since 2012 (Box 6). Despite of awareness among industry on university expertise (World the progress, utilization of these digital library services is yet Bank 2016b). Absence of motivation and drive among the to pick up among university users (HEQEP 2016b). This is university management for fostering research collaboration likely due to a lack of technical know-how and awareness on with industry may also be added to this list. These challenges e-resource use among potential users against the backdrop are common to most of the Bangladesh higher education of a low-productivity research environment at the universities sector and have been blamed for impeding the process of (UGC 2015). On the other hand, the polytechnics subsector generating innovations from research outputs of TEIs. is yet to avail services such as dedicated high-speed Internet connection or digital library resources, mainly as these 85. In recent years, TEIs in Bangladesh have been institutions have remained out of mainstream R&D work. gradually developing strategic partnerships with In the tertiary college subsector, efforts are under way to industries for research and teaching. Collaboration improve connectivity and access to e-resources through the with industries would strengthen TEIs’ capacity to deliver Government’s ongoing development operation in the sector. quality teaching and undertake impactful researches. Until recently, only a select few TEIs in Bangladesh had 5.3.3. Industry-institution partnerships for formal industry partnerships or collaboration.41 In efforts to research and teaching are scarce promote university-industry engagement, the government provided funds to TEIs through development initiatives. 84. There are strong needs to strengthen industry In the university sector, around 10 public and private collaboration and private sector participation in universities are conducting research to develop products to 41 With the exception of a few specialized universities such as the BUET and the BAU which have been providing research and industrial testing services to the industry for some time. 52 be commercialized and used by partner industries under the knowledge on IP management and patenting can facilitate higher education project. In addition, 33 public and private revenue generation from inventions, which in turn, polytechnics have used institutional development funds to incentivizes greater engagement in R&D work at universities facilitate over 400 industry partnerships for workplace visit, and research institutions (WIPO 2016). In Bangladesh, faculty guest lectures, and apprenticeships (World Bank 2018). and management across TEIs remain largely unaware of the techno-legal aspects of R&D outputs, which may deprive 86. Limited knowledge regarding management of IP, them from payoff of public research for innovation. This patenting, and copyright procedures in the TEIs is is likely due to an absence of IP policy and management hampering commercialization of innovation. Proper frameworks for the higher education sector in Bangladesh.42 5.4. POLICY OPTIONS FOR PROMOTING RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 87. The preceding section highlights several key capabilities among academics can work to promote challenges to research and innovation in the quality research in the TEIs. The overall scarcity of research tertiary education sector. This section will draw on grants and presence of research potentials would warrant best practices to promote research and innovation in the an increase in research allocations for academics at the tertiary education sector focusing on two objectives: first, universities. The share of research allocation in the total to improve capabilities among academics to engage in budget for public universities may be increased to at least 5.0 high-quality research and second, to support development percent43 (from the current 0.5 percent). Private universities of ‘innovation ecosystem’ in maximizing the benefits from should also be eligible for receiving research grants. Policies research through commercialization of the research outputs. for promotion of collaborative research with local and foreign entities need to be strengthened to further supplement the 88. More smart investments in research and innovation. shortfall of public research spending. Properly designed Improved access to funds for enhancing research BOX 7 Promoting Research and Innovation in Universities in Bangladesh The HEQEP offered 345 competitive academic innovation grants, out of which 132 grants that supported exclusively research projects have been awarded to 27 public and 9 private universities. Grants for research projects-financed activities to improve research capabilities in the supported universities, including the upgradation of laboratories and purchase of equipment needed to carry out the work. One such innovation funded by the project is the invention of technology for detection of cancer using nonlinear optics by a research group led by Professor Yasmeen Haque at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST) in Bangladesh. With 9.6 million deaths in this year, cancer is a deadly disease with global effects. The research team is also in the process of developing a prototype device for the optical detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of the disease with great accuracy and without the need of chemical reagents. This novel technique will reduce the price of cancer diagnosis from US$120 to under US$10. With approximately 70 percent of deaths from cancer occurring in low- and middle-income countries, this technology will prove to be a game-changer in the field of health care. 42 Under the HEQEP, an IP Policy and Management framework has been drafted for the university sector. These are yet to be institutionalized. 43 There is no standard yardstick for appropriate ratios of research expenditure; however, universities worldwide are increasingly spending more on researches. For instance, universities in Australia allocated 39 percent of universities total operating revenue on R&D expenditure in 2012, whereas the share was 31 percent in 2002. (Universities Australia, 2015) Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 53 and executed competitive funding mechanisms should be in information network which involves a variety of stakeholders place to ensure the efficient allocation and use of research (for example, researchers, academics, industries, business grants. In this aspect, the AIF competitive funding model of developers, financiers, and policy makers) as well as the higher education project in the universities provides a institutions and rules for regulation and coordination.44 The good example (Box 7). Universities were grouped according government’s recent efforts to promote mechanisms for to academic capacities, and research proposals were university-industry collaboration provides the right direction evaluated transparently and awarded based on merit. The for the development of innovation ecosystem in the sponsored research projects have generated research outputs universities. Competitive public grants (AIF) to universities in agriculture, medicine, environment, among others and with specific requirement for R&D collaboration with industry produced over 200 high quality research papers published in is one instrument noted to be working well under the GoB’s international and national peer reviewed journals. higher education project (HEQEP 2016b). Under the AIF program, an amount of US$8.1 million has been allocated for 89. Enhancing access to and use of Internet and universities to partner with an industry in R&D of commercial digital resources for education and research. Further products and services. Through this effort, 10 public and strengthening of access to Internet and quality publications private universities were awarded AIFs to implement is critical to support research in the TEIs. Today, access to collaborative research an commercialization projects the Internet plays an important role in determining quality of with local industry partners. Additionally, intermediate tertiary education and research. Investments in promoting organizations, such as Technology Transfer Offices, are being access to the Internet and use of online resources needs to established to facilitate the process of commercialization be further strengthened building on significant achievements and transfer of research outputs from the universities to the made in the past several years. At the same time, there is high industry.45 These initiatives together have supported the potential to support local innovations in the polytechnics development of a nascent stage ‘innovation ecosystem’ in and colleges that have limited or low-quality Internet the beneficiary universities. The government should scale up access. Greater investments should be made to increase the these efforts to build up a functioning innovation ecosystem. availability of computers and improve access to high-speed Internet connection in these TEIs to encourage and support 91. Promoting more and high-quality international research and knowledge generation. With regard to online collaboration for research. International collaborations libraries, access to research publications and digital books in research can provide funding support and research should be expanded through expanding membership to the capacity building among academics in Bangladesh. UDL to a greater number of TEIs and enriching the accessible Greater collaboration with foreign entities is a prospective contents of the digital library. Capacity and awareness of means to overcome weak research capacity, both in students and faculty on effective e-resource utilization need terms of funding and skills, which persists among the to be enhanced through training programs to maximize the Bangladeshi research community (British Council 2015). use and benefits of these online academic facilities. International partnerships are noted to have a number of positive impacts such as improved likelihood of scientific 90. Building enabling environment for innovations and breakthroughs, knowledge and resource sharing, and promoting greater industry collaboration in research. The cost-saving benefits, as well as improvements in diplomatic commercialization of research outputs would be facilitated relations46 (British Council 2015). Much of the current by strengthening of an ‘innovation ecosystem’ around international partnerships are based on individual relations universities, which is at a nascent stage in Bangladesh. and initiatives. More systematic, sectorwide efforts would Conducive environment for commercialization of research be needed to promote and match research potentials in outputs from universities involve a complex process and Bangladesh to prospective partners abroad. 44 According to World Bank (2014), there are seven critical steps for building a world class innovation system: (a) generation of high-quality research; (b) building of strong and diverse academia relationships; (c) establishment of technology transfer offices; (d) establishment of university commercial arm, that is, a company structure (not-for-profit to start with) may be allowed for the commercialization of research but only for those select high-potential universities; (e) development of an IP management system; (f) government policy reforms which foster greater involvement of key stakeholders; clarify obligations of each stakeholder and spell out rules on the creation and exploitation of property rights, conflict of interests, and the establishment of policy safeguards; and (g) inclusion of incentives and rewards systems to encourage researchers and institutions toward R&D and innovation. 45 Since 2014, the AIF under the higher education project in Bangladesh has supported the establishment of three Technology Transfer Offices in three public universities: Dhaka University, BAU, and BUET. 46 Positive impacts are often made on both sides of the partnership. The impact evaluation of International Strategic Partnership in Education and Research (known as ‘INSPIRE’) Project in Bangladesh funded by the British Council, highlighted the mutuality of benefits in international research collaboration. It has been identified that the collaborations with Bangladesh academics have brought about many benefits to British academics, some of which include access to indigenous data/researchers, training of high-quality research students, catalyst for further project funding, and sense of worth (McGovern 2017). 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed, S. 2014. Searching for Sources of Growth in Bangladesh. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Bangladesh Economists’ Forum. BEF Conference. Dhaka: Development). 2012. “Innovation for Development.” Bangladesh. Discussion Paper, OECD. Beise, M., and H. Stahl. 1999. “Public Research and Industrial Scimago Journal and Country Rank, 2016. https://www. Innovations in Germany.” Discussion Paper No. 98-37, scimagojr.com/. Centre for European Economic Research & University of Karlsruhe. STEP (Skills and Training Enhancement Project). 2015. “The Effectiveness of TVET Teachers’ Training under STEP in Bell, J., M. Dodgson, L. Field, P. Gough, and T. Spurling. 2015. Bangladesh.” Draft. STEP: Bangladesh. Translating Research for Economic and Social Benefit: Country Comparisons. Australian Council of Learned Thornton, G. 2016. Public Expenditure Tracking Survey. Higher Academies. Education Commission Pakistan: Islamabad. Bilbao-Osorio, B., and A. Rodriguez-Pose. 2004. “From R&D to Universities Australia. 2015. Higher Education and Research: Innovation and Economic Growth in the EU.” Growth and Facts and Figures. Canberra: Universities Australia. Change 35 (4): 434–455. UGC (University Grants Commission) 2014. 41st Annual Report British Council. 2015. A Mighty Web: How Research Collaboration 2014. UGC: Dhaka. Can Foster Growth in South Asia. British Council: United World Bank. 2014. Critical Steps for Building a World Class Kingdom. Innovation System in Bangladesh. World Bank: Cresenzi, R., and A. Rodriguez-Pose. 2013. “Socio-Economic Washington DC. Changes, and Regional Innovation in the US.” Growth and ———. 2016a. South Asia’s Turn: Policies to Boost Change 44 (2): 287–320. Competitiveness and Create the Next Export HEQEP. 2016a. Satisfaction Survey on Teachers and Students Powerhouse. World Bank: Washington, DC. 2016. Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka. ———. 2016b. Promoting University-Industry Collaboration in Sri ———. 2016b. Mid-Term Review Report of HEQEP. Government of Lanka. Status, Case Studies, and Policy Options. World Bangladesh: Dhaka. Bank: Washington, DC. McGovern, John. 2017. “INSPIRE Project Closing Event.” ———. 2018. Employability of Postsecondary TVET in Bangladesh: Presentation, Dhaka. Tracking Survey of Graduates in Polytechnics. Washington DC: World Bank Group. MoF (Ministry of Finance). 2016. Budget Book. Government of Sri Lanka. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 55 6 GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 56 6.1. BACKGROUND 92. What do we mean by ‘good governance’ for tertiary education? Good governance is an indispensable foundation for quality education. Simply put, good governance in tertiary education implies that the system and institutions perform service delivery effectively and efficiently with transparency and accountability to stakeholders. Improved governance has therefore become an entry point for raising institutional performance and overhauling weak education systems. Specifically, good governance in tertiary education improves the educational institutions’ capacity to make informed and rational decisions contributing to organizational efficiency and effectiveness that foster the development of high quality education and research (World Bank 2010; Lewis and Petterson 2009). Literature suggests some key areas to consider such as system and institutional governance and regulations, institutional autonomy, and quality assurance and performance management.47 This section will focus on these critical aspects of governance and management for Bangladesh’s tertiary education system followed by a discussion on the key issues and policy options available, considering best practices. 93. The governance structure of tertiary education in Bangladesh are distinctly different across subsectors with administrative and academic authorities divided across multiple central agencies. Primarily, tertiary education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MoE). The MoE has two divisions, Secondary and Higher Education Division (SHED) and Technical and Madrasa Education Division (TMED), each headed by a permanent Secretary. The SHED is responsible for secondary education and higher education, while the TMED looks after TVET and ‘Madrasa’ (Islamic religious education). Central-level organizational structures and regulatory settings for governance and management in tertiary education are as follows. In terms of legislative framework, there has been no comprehensive legal framework48 to provide regulatory directives in the education sector as a whole. Meantime, the National Education Policy (NEP) 2010 to some extent defines the overall formation of the higher education sector. The NEP 2010 defines the MoE as the apex body for policy direction and management of the higher education sector in Bangladesh while the various attached departments and institutions are its auxiliary agencies that carry out the government policies at the field level, implement various nondevelopment and development programs and projects. 94. Higher education. The SHED of the MoE manages the higher education sector through a directorate (the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education [DSHE]) and one attached body (the UGC). The UGC, established in 1972,49 is responsible for supervising and coordinating public and private universities, maintaining the quality standard of university education, managing the allocation of government funding to universities, and advising the government on issues related 47 These include Lewis and Pettersson 2009; Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014; World Bank 2010. 48 The draft Bangladesh Education Act 2016 was endorsed by the Cabinet and disclosed for public opinion on the MoE website. 49 The 1973 President’s Order No. 10 defines the role of the UGC as the lead coordinating agency in all matters of university education related to fund allocation, planning, development, and implementation of higher education and research programs in public universities as well as the monitoring of public and private universities. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 57 to higher education. The public universities are fully 95. TVET. The TMED of the MoE manages the TVET sector autonomous academically and administratively, and through the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) and governed by the provisions of their own acts or the the BTEB. The DTE is the primary administrative authority President’s Order. The private universities are also with the responsibility of human resource management, autonomous entities and subject to the provisions of the development activities, and academic supervision in the Private University Act 2010. Tertiary colleges do not enjoy sector. The BTEB is primarily an academic regulatory body autonomy for their academic affairs, and the majority of responsible for managing the academic contents and them are affiliated to the National University50—one of the standard settings, and certification of TVET graduates. public universities—which provides oversight of academic Polytechnic institutions have little autonomy in deciding affairs of the tertiary college subsector.51 The DSHE is their academic program as it is the BTEB’s responsibility responsible for the administrative affairs of government to design academic programs of polytechnics. Other colleges such as teacher recruitment and funding while than the MoE, 22 ministries operate various skills training a locally elected entity called the governing body (GB) is programs for a diverse range of target groups. responsible for the administration of the nongovernment colleges. MoE SHED TMED DSHE UGC DTE BTEB DME (Attached) National University University Colleges Polytechnics Madrasa HIGHER EDUCATION TECHNICAL RELIGIOUS Figure 17: Simplified Organogram of MoE for Tertiary Education 50 The 1992 Act No. 37 authorizes the National University as the only higher education institution for the affiliation and academic responsibility of all colleges providing postsecondary general education. 51 For instance, the National University controls curriculum contents, examinations, student registration, and teacher professional development in the affiliated colleges. Colleges do not possess authority to develop or revise curriculum. In parallel, there are some tertiary colleges affiliated to other major public universities. Affiliating universities oversee academic affairs of the affiliated colleges. For instance, six government colleges were reaffiliated to Dhaka University from the National University in February 2017. 58 96. Tertiary-level Madrasa education. Tertiary-level equivalence with university education degrees. Apart from religious education also falls under the mandate of the these, there is a huge Madrasa education stream outside TMED. The TMED supervised madrasas known as Aliya the government’s management structure and purview, madrasa through its Directorate of Madrasa Education known as the Qawmi Madrasa system. The Qawmi (DME). For educational affairs, those tertiary-level Madrasa system has its own independent management madrasas are affiliated with the Islamic Arabic University. body known as Befaqul Madarisil Arabia, Bangladesh The Aliya madrasa or Islamic Arabic University conferred (known as the BMAB) and it maintains organizational degrees for graduate and postgraduate programs have setup from the primary to postgraduate levels. 6.2. INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT 97. The institutional governance of the different public 99. The VC has the central role in the university and private TEIs varies across different hierarchical governance structure as the “whole time principal entities as described in the following paragraphs. academic and administrative executive officer” of the university and ex officio Chairman of the Senate, the 98. University. In the public university sector, the Syndicate, the Academic Council, the Finance Committee, governance structure and system revolve around Vice and the Planning and Development Committee.52 The VC, Chancellor (VC), Pro-VC, Treasurer, the Senate, the as the chief executive, is authorized to take measures for Syndicate, the Academic Council, the Finance Committee, implementation of decisions of the Senate, the Syndicate, and the Planning and Development Committee (see and the Academic Council. The VC is empowered to Annex 1 for organogram). The Syndicate is the main appoint lecturers on an ad hoc basis, to be subsequently executing body within the university which holds, approved by the Syndicate. The VC can also hire officers controls, and administers the property and funds of the and employees on a temporary basis for a period of not university as well as regulates and determines all matters more than six months and s/he must regularize such concerning the university as laid out in the various legal appointments by the Syndicate. The VC, Pro-VC, and the frameworks (the orders, the statutes, and the university Treasurer are appointed by the Chancellor, who is the ordinances). The Senate is responsible for endorsing the President of the Republic and they hold the office at the statutes on the proposals of the Syndicate; considering pleasure of the President. and passing resolutions on the annual report, the annual accounts, and the financial statement (Budget) 100. The governance structure in private universities presented by the Syndicate; and performing other duties is defined by the Private University Act 2010, with as indicated by the university order or the statutes. the Board of Trustees of each university playing the The Finance Committee supervises the income and central role in its management and administration. expenditure of the university and advises the Syndicate The governance structure revolves around the university on all matters relating to accounts, property, and funds Charter, Act, Board of Trustees, and officers. Each of the university while the Academic Council is the private university is given a provisional approval by the academic body of the university, with the control and MoE in an Office Order subject to fulfillment of certain general supervision responsibilities for the maintenance conditions which is a temporary approval granted by of standards of instruction, education, and examination the government to enable it to function as a full-fledged within the university. university as provided under the Private University Act 2010. The formal approval is issued when the university In the old four, that is, Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, Chittagong University, and Jahangir Nagar University, the Pro-VC chairs the Finance Committee. In all other public 52 universities, the VC is the chairman of the Finance Committee. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 59 fulfills all conditions given in the provisional approval, the GB is supposed to be in place at each government college most important of which is functioning in a permanent to provide administrative and management advisory campus. Each university has a ‘Board of Trustees’ to the Principal, none of the government colleges have registered under the Trusts Act of 1882 (Act No. II of a GB. On the other hand, the nongovernment colleges, 1882) and Societies Registration Act (Act XXI of 1860) and once certified by and affiliated to the National University, the ‘Board of Trustees’ which consists of a minimum would principally be governed by their GBs under certain of 9 and a maximum of 21 members constituted as per rules. Both the National University and the DSHE would Articles 15, 16 of the Private University Act 2010. This have representation on the committee to recruit teachers Board oversees the Syndicate and other bodies involved in the nongovernment colleges from a pool of teachers with the management of operations of the university. recertified by the Nongovernment Teacher Registration The President of Bangladesh is the Chancellor and and Certification Authority (NTRCA). As in government exercises his authority to appoint the VC, Pro-VC, and colleges, the Principal follows the academic regulations the Treasurer, based on the recommendation from the of the National University while administrative decisions Board of Trustees. The VC is the chief executive officer of are followed based on GB consultations. The National all academic and administrative affairs and reports to the University supervises the academic management of all Board on a regular basis. colleges and exercises the power to affiliate and de- affiliate the colleges. 101. Colleges. At the colleges, the Principal is the main authority for administering the academic and institutional 102. TVET. The public polytechnic sector is also management of the college by applying the rules and administered through the public service rules similar to regulations determined by the MoE and supervised by the the management system for government colleges. The Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education and the Principal of the polytechnic reports and implements National University. In government colleges, the Principal the administrative decisions of the institutions as is the chief executive who reports to and implements the determined by the DTE. All teachers and staff, including policies, rules, and regulations formulated by the MoE the Principal, are recruited by the DTE through the Public and administered by the Directorate of Secondary and Service Commission and receive salaries according to Higher Education. The academic programs, discipline, government pay scale. By contrast, the administration curriculum, and standards including admission and of private polytechnics is led by the Principal under the holding of examination, assessment, and results for guidance of a Board of Advisors. However, the government both government and nongovernment colleges are set does, to a degree, influence institutional management as and organized centrally by the National University. The the DTE and BTEB rules and regulations on the academic government colleges are administered through the public system are followed by the private polytechnics, which service rules applicable to the employees of the Republic eventually have implications for governance and quality whose salaries and allowances are paid out from the issues in service delivery. Treasury. Although under the National University Act, a 60 6.3. KEY ISSUES IN GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF TERTIARY EDUCATION 6.3.1. Legislative backbone and coordination recruitment also remains questionable with instances mechanism of tertiary education are of appointment of teachers with lower qualifications fragmented than required for the position and over-recruitment of temporary teachers (TIB 2016a). Government 103. Various legislative frameworks coupled with teachers’ recruitment in colleges and polytechnics is weak coordination capacity in tertiary education are also politicalized as candidates with strong political eroding the ground for concerted and systematic affiliations and recommendations remain at an advantage effort for sectoral improvement. Different laws that irrespective of qualifications or performance. In case of apply to the different subsectors and institutions in nongovernment colleges, GBs largely influence teacher tertiary education create inconsistencies on governance recruitments with preferred candidates hired despite structures, roles, and responsibilities of the various not having the required qualifications (World Bank entities (World Bank 2017). Moreover, a large number 2014). Teacher absenteeism remains a longstanding of entities, complex governance structure, and an issue in the tertiary education sector, especially in the underdeveloped management capacity makes effective public universities, with no system in place to hold them administration and coordination challenging at the accountable.54 Academic integrity is further at risk with central and institutional levels. Especially, the skills reports of question leaks, exam fraud, and academic sector being involved with multiple ministries53 and their malpractice, in both public and private sectors.55 affiliated institutions raises concern among policy makers Unethical behavior of faculty and noncompliance of on the capacity to ensure harmonized development admission standards, including sales of leaked exam efforts in the sector (GoB 2011). The management and questions, acceptance of illegal payments, and nepotism supervision of institutions at the service delivery level are reported to occur in entrance examinations of are conducted largely through ad hoc and paper-based universities (TIB 2016b). In the private university sector, communication between central and local government issuance of ‘fake certificates’ and illegal payments to agencies and the education institutions. Without proper increase marks or pass exams have also been found (TIB monitoring mechanism in place, rules and regulations 2016b). governing institutions often remain weakly enforced which have in turn significant implications for the 105. In the absence of proper accountability provision of the quality of education. systems, state controls create rigidity in institutions’ capacity to be responsive and flexible to evolving 6.3.2. Poor transparency and accountability are social and economic needs. With the exception of straining the effectiveness and efficiency public universities, government tertiary colleges and 104. Lack of transparency and weak accountability polytechnics lack the autonomy to take and implement mechanisms are responsible for irregularities in critical academic, human resource, and financial major areas, including teacher recruitment, student decisions. For instance, it can take up to two to three enrollments, and student assessments. A Transparency years for colleges and polytechnics to introduce a International Bangladesh (TIB) report finds teacher new education program involving a long approval recruitments to be highly politicalized, often involving process which goes up to the BTEB and the National illegal payments made by candidates for lecturer University, respectively. Long bureaucratic processes positions in several public universities. Private university and limited access to funds often deter these institutions 53 A skills mapping survey finds that 22 ministries are involved in skills training. 54 Public universities do not have teacher management manual to ensure academic and teaching discipline among the faculty. Politicization prevents the authority to hold them accountable for nonperformance, absenteeism, and open indulgence in political activities. 55 Only when directed by the MoE, UGC investigates into complaints of management malpractice and corruption and submits its findings to the MoE. The MoE takes decision on necessary action. The UGC has no power to initiate and take disciplinary action against universities. At the institutional level, public universities often set up investigative bodies against allegations of academic malpractice, who report to the Syndicate for taking action. The findings and outcomes of these reports are seldom publicly available. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 61 from pursuing innovative academic, cultural, and 108. The institution-level quality assurance process infrastructural development activities. Additionally, incorporates the cycles of student feedback which limited autonomy leads to underdeveloped management is expected to serve as a platform to reflect student and decision-making capacity at the institutional level. voices in institutional governance. Student feedback to inform institutional governance and management 106. Student political bodies have strong influence has been recently introduced in the university sector on the institutional governance and management through the establishment of an institutional quality of public TEIs, often creating adverse impacts on assurance mechanism in 69 public and private the teaching learning environment. Student politics universities. As part of self-assessments, the universities in the government TEIs is deeply rooted in the system receive feedback from teachers, students, staff, and not least because of the significant role it played in the employers on teaching-learning aspects to incorporate country’s independence. However, it is a commonly into the institutional development action plan (Box 8). held belief that student politics of the present state and Previously, there had been few official attempts made in nature are adversely affecting the transparency and universities in Bangladesh to consider students feedback efficacy of institutional governance, particularly in terms in institutional management. The student feedback of administration of examinations and actual number of class days. Recurring episodes of violence and havoc during examinations as well as disrupted teaching periods are reported to have a negative impact on the academic environment of the government TEIs (World Bank 2014). BOX 8 6.3.3. Quality assurance system is yet to be fully developed Examples of Use of Student Feedback in 107. Quality assurance in the tertiary education sector, a relatively new concept in Bangladesh, has Higher Education in been picking up quickly in public recognition and Bangladesh policy priority. Quality assurance in the higher education sector will be governed by the recently enacted56 Student feedback from self-assessment was Bangladesh Accreditation Council (BAC) Act, which lays used to bring several improvements in teaching the foundation for ensuring quality education delivery learning and program administration. For in the higher education institutions, including public example, some departments of public universities and private universities and tertiary colleges. Under such as Dhaka University and Khulna University the BAC Act, an Accreditation Council is in the process created more enabling mechanisms to support of being established. The BAC will be an independent students participating in extracurricular activities, autonomous body responsible for overseeing the quality for example, flexible class exam system and of higher education delivered at the institutions and participation in inter-university competitions. assess it against the benchmark given in the National On the other hand, private universities such as Qualifications Framework. It would receive applications North-South University, South East University, for accreditation of programs at the initial stage and later, and United International University undertook institutions, and conduct external assessments of the curriculum revision based on outcome-based quality of teaching and learning in the higher education education model, established or revamped institutions. The BAC is also assigned to support the IQAC alumni association, allocated dedicated library at all universities through the development of standards, space for group work, and expanded medical and guidelines, and code of good practices and assist to transportation facilities for students. develop their own procedures, techniques, and modalities for self-assessment. 56 BAC Act became effective on March 21, 2017, with its publication in the Bangladesh Gazette. 62 mechanism in the quality assurance system would create develop their own curriculum and teaching processes at a platform for students’ voices to be officially heard by the department level in the universities. However, before institutions’ leadership to enable greater transparency offering any new academic program, establishing a new and accountability and more participatory institutional department, and increasing the number of teaching improvement efforts. As of 2018, tertiary colleges are yet to positions, the universities require approval from the UGC start implementation of the institutional quality assurance according to the institutional legal frameworks. This mechanism. allows UGC to conduct quality assurance reviews for the proposed program and in the case of public universities, 109. In the TVET sector, the National Skills Quality to assess the requirement of additional funds for opening Assurance System (NSQAS) was established under of the department and salary of new staff. In case of the NSDP 2011 as a regulatory framework for quality admissions and examination recesses, all universities assurance across the subsector. The NSQAS is a have their own institutional rules and regulations for comprehensive system covering all entities engaged in setting admission requirements, conducting admission the acquisition of skills, including graduates, teachers, tests, determining the seat availability across programs, training courses, workplaces, training organizations, and selecting candidates. Drafting of curricula, student and industry. The NSQAS includes (a) accreditation of assessments, and degree awarding are conducted by each nationally recognized units of competency, qualifications, program offering entity, that is, department through their and course specifications; (b) registration of public and examinations committees where an external member is private training providers; (c) accreditation of learning and included. assessment programs leading to nationally recognized units of competency and qualifications; (d) auditing 111. Tertiary colleges and polytechnics strictly follow of training providers for compliance against quality centrally developed academic programs. The tertiary standards; and (e) validation of assessment tools against colleges and polytechnics follow centralized educational units of competency. To implement quality assurance standards for curriculum and teaching processes and accountability of technical education and training approved respectively by the National University and programs, the government has established the National the BTEB. The National University holds the authority Technical and Vocational Qualification Framework over curriculum design, administration of examinations, (NTVQF) in which competency-based skills standards awarding of degrees, and student admission in the tertiary are defined for a variety of technical and engineering college. Tertiary colleges have to apply for opening of a specialties and at multiple levels. All the TVET institutions new academic program and department, staffing pattern are expected to design and implement their skills training which are examined and approved by the National programs based on the NTVQF, and students are expected University following its regulations. Similarly, the BTEB to be assessed against its competency standards. BTEB is holds responsibility for the development of all programs the custodian of the NTVQF system. However, as of 2018, and curriculum for technical diploma education, the implementation progress of the NTVQF in Bangladesh administration of national examinations, and awarding has been less than satisfactory due to capacity constraints of degrees for all public and private polytechnics. In at the central and institutional levels. case of admissions, the BTEB centrally carries out the admission process for all public polytechnics, while 6.3.4. Academic, financial, and personnel private polytechnics administer independently. All management systems are generally rigid polytechnics have to apply to the BTEB for setting up of especially in colleges and polytechnics new academic programs and get its approval. The lack of 6.3.4.1. Academic Management academic autonomy in the government tertiary colleges and polytechnics constrain flexibility to quickly respond 110. Universities have to go through a lengthy to the skill demands of the job market and to adapt to the process to adjust their course contents or create rapidly changing economic environment. new programs. Though universities enjoy the fullest amount of academic autonomy, they still have to follow 6.3.4.2. Human Resource Management procedures given in the governing legal frameworks 112. Teacher recruitment is strictly regulated by which often take significant amount of time. Universities the government for public tertiary colleges and Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 63 polytechnics. The government tertiary colleges and and work to ensure competitive and purely merit-based polytechnics have no authority in faculty and staff selection process for recruitment of nongovernment recruitment. Government colleges and polytechnics college teachers. The MoE has already amended the annually provide their staff deployment needs to NTRCA rules and set up a drafting committee for framing the DSHE and the DTE, respectively, who then place of the NTSC Act to move forward toward reforming requisition needs to the MoE. In case of new recruitments, the system. In case of nongovernment polytechnics, the MoE reviews the need for teachers’ positions and recruitment responsibilities rest fully with the polytechnic places the requisition order to the Ministry of Public management, with no provision for quality checks by the Administration (MoPA). However, the number of all government. teaching and non-teaching staff positions in each 114. Universities enjoy full autonomy in faculty and government institutions has to be prior approved by staff recruitment though there are governance and the MoPA and the Finance Division. Additionally, any quality concerns over teacher recruitment at private increase in the agreed number of staff positions in an universities. Unlike other government TEIs, the public institution has to be approved afresh by the Finance universities have the power to create teaching posts, Division for budget allocation implication. On the open new programs and departments, and recruit approval of sanctioned positions, the MoPA initiates and promote teachers based on needs, subject to the teachers’ recruitment through the Public Service the concurrence of the UGC and the Finance Division. Commission (PSC). The entire process involving call for The recruitment of university teachers is conducted applications, written assessments, and interviewing by a selection committee headed either by the Pro- and selection of candidates occurs through the PSC VC (academic) or the VC, depending on the position.57 and the MoPA and can take up to one to two years with Private universities generally follow the same recruitment backlogging of recruitments. As a result, government procedure of the public universities whereby the VC heads colleges and polytechnics suffer from a chronic shortage the selection committee for all positions and external of qualified teachers as vacant posts are not filled up on members come from the public universities. However, time. This problem is compounded by over-staffing at the here too the overbearing influence of the Trustee Board metropolitan city institutions, depriving the district-level and its Chairman and Directors plays the dominant colleges of teachers, where large number of positions role. A large number of temporary teachers teaching at remain vacant. the universities has been a contentious issue, raising 113. Quality concerns remain in teacher recruitment governance concerns on the proper human resource for nongovernment colleges and polytechnics. In management as this population is generally found to case of nongovernment colleges, teacher recruitment have lower satisfaction levels with their jobs compared is done through their GBs (GBs have representatives of to permanent colleagues (Hossain and Hossain 2016). On the National University and DSHE as members) from a average, temporary teachers account for around one-third pool of teachers precertified by the NTRCA. However, of all teachers in the private universities, indicating a large serious concerns remain over the transparency of dependency on them for ensuring regular teaching at the nongovernment college teacher recruitment. The GBs universities. are entitled to recruit teachers of their choosing as 115. Promotions in public universities are based on long as they are NTRCA-certified teachers. This gives some competency and performance considerations, GBs a leeway to exercise their influence and recruit while college and polytechnic teachers are promoted certified but less competent candidates who may be primarily based on seniority. Government teachers are well-connected or have approached GB members in paid salaries according to the government pay scale and nontransparent manners. To overcome this challenge, the their career path is guided by the promotion rules framed MoE has been in the process of reforming the system by by the MoE regulated under the provisions of government establishing a new Nongovernment Teachers Selection service rules.58 Promotions to higher posts in public Commission (NTSC), which would replace the NTRCA 57 Pro-VC heads the committee for lecturers and assistant professor positions, while it is the VC for associate professor and professor positions. 58 This is known as Bangladesh Service Rules (also known as BSR). 64 universities are not automatic but follow the procedure do not have the power to raise and spend additional of fresh recruitment while considering some competency funds over the government-disbursed budget amount and performance indicators such as post-master’s while having to strictly adhere to government rules, degree, years of experience, and number of publications. regulations, and directives. Both government colleges and There is also a provision of internal promotion by polytechnics submit operational budget needs across line which a candidate is automatically promoted to the items that are given in a prescribed template and submit higher post if he/she fulfils certain criteria. On the to respective directorates, who review and approve the other hand, the government college and polytechnic budgets and forward to the MoE for fund allocation in teachers’ promotions basically depend on their years of the next year’s budget. On the other hand, funds for service, that is, seniority, not taking into consideration development projects follow a different trajectory. To performance-related criteria. undertake a development project for any public TEIs, the concerning directorate or UGC would submit a draft 6.3.4.3. Financial management development proposal for approval of the government 116. Public colleges and polytechnics have no through a rigorous and often lengthy process of review led financial autonomy and flexibility in income by the Ministry of Planning. generation. Government colleges and polytechnics 6.4. POLICY OPTIONS FOR PROMOTING ‘GOOD’ GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH 117. Setting up an umbrella legislation to support 119. Institutionalizing quality assurance at the the government to overcome the inconsistencies national and institutional levels. The implementation across various dated legislations covering different of the Bangladesh Accreditation Council (BAC) Act subsectors and institutions. Considering the recent would curb quality issues in the higher education sector, changes in tertiary education, such a legislative including universities and colleges. The finalization and framework would be required to confirm the governance adoption of the National Qualifications Framework structures, roles and responsibilities, as well as, recognize involves reforms envisaged in the BAC Act for improving quality assurance mechanism. The strengthening of the quality, accessibility, links, and recognition of anticorruption safeguards in high-risk areas such as graduate qualifications nationally and internationally. teacher recruitment and financial management through However, the NQF would have to be aligned with the review and enforcement of regulations would further qualifications framework developed for technical improve governance in TEIs. education and the NTVQF to support better comparability and articulation between TVET institutions and higher 118. Strengthening management capacities at the education institutions. ministry and institutional levels. Technology-based tools, including enhancing management information 120. Exploring the possibility of increasing autonomy systems in the university, tertiary college, and polytechnic for high-performing government colleges. The sectors, can improve monitoring and management of the government should consider experimenting with some tertiary education sector. Improved Internet connectivity high-performing government colleges and polytechnics across all the TEIs would support speedy information flow to increase their autonomy in academic, personnel, and and decision-making process between the ministry and financial management. For instance, high-performing TEIs. Additionally, continuous professional development institutions may be allowed to establish new academic for tertiary education administrators at all levels would or vocational programs that are demanded by local be required to ensure they are nurtured and prepared to industries or adjust academic contents to keep execute challenging management responsibilities. themselves updated with most advanced knowledge or Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 65 add contents from local economies. Some institutions examination, and issuance of certificates to curb may attempt to adjust program contents to allow incidences of fraud and malpractice. The National for more participatory teaching methods. Some University provides a good example of curbing incidences institutions in industrial areas may venture into forming of tampering of student enrollment papers through collaborative training programs or R&D programs, or conducting the admission process online. With the initiate consultancy works to generate their own stream of aim to check ‘certificate fraudulence’, the UGC took revenue. Granting some autonomy with clear objectives the decision to set up a ‘central database unit’ for all and monitoring system may enhance such flexibility in university graduates; however, the system is yet to be responding to emerging demands from local situations. developed. The government may consider developing an integrated tertiary education student tracking system 121. Institutionalizing student feedbacks and from enrollment to graduation to improve governance in graduate/employer feedback mechanisms to improve student management. accountability in the management of TEIs. Student and teachers’ feedback are important inputs to academic 123. Delinking teachers and students’ affiliation with audit and performance assessment of TEIs. Incorporation political parties and working as the latter’s front of such feedback to inform institutional management organization in universities. While political activism and decision-making process has been introduced of students had a positive influence on the freedom in the university sector through the establishment movement of the country in the past from the 1990s, it has of the institutional quality assurance mechanism in become an impediment for ensuring good governance selected universities. In particular, it is important to in higher education institutions, especially in public institutionalize and regularize student feedback process universities. Often, teachers remain highly fragmented to monitor quality improvement. Every academic course in factional conflicts and feuds, resulting in drastic fall should solicit feedbacks from students about contents, in academic discipline and maintenance of quality in all pedagogy, and structure of the course. The government aspects of education. Though it may not be possible to may consider supporting all types of TEIs, including remain fully immune from the political developments tertiary college and polytechnics, to undertake similar occurring outside the campus, universities may consider academic audit with stakeholder feedback at a regular restricting political activism on the campus to preserve interval. In addition, accountability should not stop the quality of the learning environment. For example, within the institution. There will be considerable gains to the government may consider imposing a temporary be made by tracking former students after graduation, ban on the open participation of national political obtaining feedbacks from their employers, and publishing parties’ programs on the campus, especially by students’ the results to the public. That would give TEIs a real sense organizations affiliated to political parties. At the same of the relevance and benefits of their education programs time, the government may allow students’ unions to and give them more incentives to be accountable to the function on the campus on nonpolitical platform. There needs of the society and economy. are examples of private universities not allowing political programs on their campus and students’ overtly political 122. Leveraging technology-based solutions to party activity. Therefore, this could also be replicated in preserve academic integrity. The government may public universities too. explore technology-based solutions for admission, 66 BIBLIOGRAPHY GoB (Government of Bangladesh). 1973. Dhaka University Order. TIB (Transparency International Bangladesh). 2016a. Recruitment ———. 2010. Private University Act. of Lecturers in Public Universities. Governance Challenges and Way Forward. Dhaka: TIB. ———. 2011. National Skills Development Policy 2011. Dhaka: Bangladesh. ———. 2016b. Private University: Challenges to Good Governance and Way Forward. Seminar Presentation. June 30, 2014. ———. Annual Performance Agreement. 2014–2015. 2015. Dhaka: Ministry of Education. World Bank. 2010. “Governance in Technical Education in India: Key Issues, Principals and Case Studies.” World Bank ———. 2017. Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh Working Paper No. 190, World Bank, Washington, DC. 2017–2030. Bangladesh: University Grants Commission. ———. 2014. A Study on the National University and its Affiliated HEQEP (Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project). 2016. Colleges. Report No. 84428. Washington, DC: World Bank. Mid-Term Project Report. Dhaka: HEQEP. ———. 2015. “Skills and Training Enhancement Project Paper.” Hossain, M. Y., and M. N. Hossain. 2016. “Job Satisfaction of World Bank, Washington, DC. Private University Teachers in Bangladesh.” European Journal of Business and Management 8 (13): 106–113. ———. 2017. Systems Approach to Better Education Results: Bangladesh Tertiary Education. Working Report, Lewis, M., and G. Petterson. 2009. “Governance in Education: Washington, DC: World Bank. Raising Performance.” Draft Working Paper. University of Sussex and the World Bank. Rose, J., T. M. Lane, and T. Rahman. 2014. Bangladesh Governance in the Primary Education Sector: A Systematic Literature Review. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 67 7 FINANCING OF TERTIARY EDUCATION 68 7.1. BACKGROUND 124. The need for a stable and more funding dedicated to tertiary education in Bangladesh is clearly highlighted in the Strategic Plan for Higher Education (2018–2030). Because tertiary education contributes to the development of a critical mass of professionals and experts needed for sound economic development in modern knowledge-driven economies, increased budgetary allocations toward investment in tertiary education are strongly warranted. Despite this, Bangladesh has long been providing relatively low public funding allocations to the education sector in general and tertiary education in particular. Public expenditure on education sector in Bangladesh is relatively low when compared to international standards. Indeed, Bangladesh is ranked 155th among 161 countries, when comparing public spending in education as a share of GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2015). 125. The returns to tertiary education has been consistently high over time in Bangladesh. The private rate of returns to each additional year of education in different levels for 2005, 2010, and 2016 are provided in Table 12. While the rate of returns to additional years in primary and secondary levels are decreasing over time, the rate of returns to tertiary-level education has been consistently over 20 percent between 2005 and 2016.59 Against the backdrop of a growing supply of workers with tertiary education qualifications, this sustained level of return to tertiary education or wage premium would probably indicate that there are equally growing demands from the economy for highly skilled workers that tertiary-level education and training could supply. As the country’s economy is increasingly modernized and globalized, it would not be surprising to see that the trend continues into foreseeable future. This clearly offers a strong rationale for more public and private investment in improving and expanding tertiary education in Bangladesh. The returns to tertiary education being the highest is also consistent with the conclusion derived by Montenegro and Patrinos (2014) comparing returns to schooling globally. Table 12: Rate of Return to Additional Year of Education at Different Levels in Bangladesh Level 2005 2010 2016 Primary (Grades 1–5) 7.5% 5.5% 4.0% Secondary (Grades 6–12) 6.8% 5.4% 4.6% Tertiary (bachelors and above) 20.5% 22.8% 20.5% Source: Authors’ calculations based on Household Income and Expenditure Survey data. Given that very few observations of individuals who have taken technical education in this nationally representative sample, their returns to 59 education are not calculated. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 69 126. This review has taken note of the paucity of data on budgets and expenditures of TEIs available for in- reliable evidences about the situation and issues of depth and systematic analysis. It is evident that a sector- financing tertiary education in Bangladesh. There has specific in-depth public expenditure review for education not been a comprehensive sector-level public expenditure inclusive of tertiary education is critically needed and assessment done for the education sector, except for a would be extremely useful for promoting policy dialogue succinct overview given in the overall public expenditure toward more effective and efficient resource allocation for review in 2010 (World Bank 2010).60 There is hardly any better education outcomes in Bangladesh. 7.2. STATUS AND ISSUES OF FINANCING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH 7.2.1. Public expenditure on tertiary education 128. The overall allocation of government spending on in Bangladesh is in line with global trends education as share of the total expenditure exhibits a mixed trend but is in line with the global target. In the 127. There is a strong rationale for greater public regional context, expenditure on education as a share of investment in higher education in Bangladesh. total government expenditure in Bangladesh between 2010 Investments in tertiary education are likely to improve and 2015 (Table 13) has been lower than that of Nepal but workforce productivity, benefiting the society at large. higher than that of India and Sri Lanka and higher than the At present, tertiary graduates in Bangladesh fill the OECD 2013 average of 11.2 percent. Benchmarked against position of highly technical and skilled professionals in the global target range of 15–20 percent set at the Incheon public and private entities in manufactures, education, Declaration adopted by the World Education Forum in and information communication technologies, among 2015, Bangladesh has been operating within the range. others. Improvements in access and quality of tertiary Given the fact that education expenditure as a percentage education would have considerable benefits beyond of total government expenditure in Bangladesh is within private gains accruing to individual students, contributing the world target, the challenge is to sustain it and ensure to higher skills and productivity demands of the accountability while exploring avenues of increasing the expanding economy. However, this access to higher levels levels toward the maximum level of the world set target. of education is currently biased toward richer segments of the population, indicating unrealized productivity 129. However, as a percentage of GDP, the gains. Moreover, market failures brought by information expenditure level has been stagnant at a low asymmetries are more likely to lead to underinvestment point— at approximately 2 percent. The current level in higher education as individuals do not recognize the of expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP actual gains from the investment. Second, the scientific achieved by Bangladesh is lower than the world target and knowledge outputs from the research that are range of 4–6 percent set at the 2015 World Education developed by universities are important innovations Forum in held in Incheon, Republic of Korea. Compared that propel economic development within and outside with regional member countries, the proportion of GDP a country. Studies have linked technology as one of the dedicated to education in Bangladesh is lower than strongest determinants for sustainable competitiveness that of India and Nepal and relatively equal to that of Sri and long-term growth (Lichang 2011; Sener and Saridogan Lanka (Table 13). Moreover, allocations to education as 2011). However, the high cost and risks associated with a percentage of GDP, in Bangladesh are lower than the research have already led to underinvestment in R&D OECD 2013 average of 4.8 percent. The forum recognized work which generates public good. There is a need for that the proposed SDG 4 for education would not be public financing to facilitate collaboration between achieved without a significant and well-targeted increase universities and firms. in financing as percentage of GDP. 60 The paper was updated in 2015. It provides an analysis of overall public expenditure and brief sectoral reviews. 70 Table 13: Trend in Public Expenditure on Education in South Asia Countries Years Country 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 % of total public expenditure Bangladesh — 16.8 15.6 13.8 — 15.6 India 11.7 13.7 14.1 14.1 — — Nepal 16.0 18.0 17.4 18.2 18.3 17.1 Sri Lanka 8.6 9.1 8.4 9.3 10.8 11.0 % of GDP Bangladesh — 2.1 2.2 2.0 — 2.2 India 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 — — Nepal 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.7 Sri Lanka 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.2 Source: World Bank Data (2015) and UIS Data (2015). 130. Disaggregating expenditure on education by the Notably, in the meantime, the shares of tertiary education level of education reveals a bias against and recent in education expenditure in other countries in the region improvement for tertiary education. Over the past did not increase, if not decreased. decade, Bangladesh’s allocation of public expenditure for tertiary education in the total education expenditure had 7.2.2. Private expenditure on tertiary education been in the range of 10–13 percent, which was lower than is relatively high what India and Sri Lanka allocated to tertiary education 131. Establishing the proportion and level of private and more or less at par with Nepal. This indicates that expenditure on tertiary education is a major challenge the GoB had not necessarily prioritized the investment in facing many developing countries including Bangladesh. tertiary education, relative to the primary and secondary The absence of a policy framework aimed at facilitating and levels of education. However, most recent data show a streamlining private sector engagement in tertiary education gradual shift toward greater resource allocation to tertiary financing makes it difficult to ascertain the proportion of education, which coincides with the surging enrollment private sector expenditure in tertiary subsector. Discussions in tertiary education as discussed in the previous about private expenditure on tertiary education tend to be chapter. In 2015, around 20 percent of the total education limited only to two vantage points: (a) expenditures borne expenditure went to tertiary education, nearly doubling by households and students and (b) expenditures borne by the share from only 10 percent in 2011 and bringing it other private entities such as religious organization, charities, close to the level where Sri Lanka traditionally has been. and business associations. Table 14: Trend in Share of Tertiary Education in Total Education Expenditure (Country wise) Years Country 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Bangladesh — 10.3% 14.7% — — 20.0% India 36.1% 34.7% 32.2% 28.5% — — Nepal 12.7% 11.8% 11.9% 11.3% 11.4% 10.8% Sri Lanka 16.4% 17.8% 18.7% 21.1% 20.2% 19.4% Source: World Bank Data (2015) and UIS Data (2015). Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 71 Table 15: Annual per Student Education Level wise Expenses in Bangladesh (in nominal BDT) Private Spending Public Spending Level 2005 2010 2016 2016 (direct cost) 2016 Primary (Grades 1–5) 1,281 2,500 4,769 747 7,213 Secondary (Grades 6–10) 4,207 7,377 11,549 2,024 6,498 Higher Secondary (Grades 11–12) 9,009 14,122 18,204 4,313 9,598 Bachelors plus 15,138 17,958 22,870 6,805 20,924 Source: Authors’ calculations based on Household Income and Expenditure Survey data for private expenses; BANBEIS 2016 for per student public spending 2016. Note: Figures for 2005, 2010, and 2016 include all the out-of-pocket expenditures for supporting schooling of a child; figures for 2016 (direct cost) include only the expenditures that are paid to the institution (that is, tuition and other fees), for comparison with public spending. 132. The private education expenses incurred by enable children’s study. Over the years, the burdens on the households have been playing a significant role families seem to have increased. The private education in funding the education sector in Bangladesh at expenditure (in real terms) increased significantly for all levels, especially at higher levels of education. primary and secondary levels while remaining more or Families spend a lot of money to cover various out-of- less unchanged for tertiary students.63 This increase may pocket education expenditures of their children.61 The partly be motivated by intensified social pressure on expenditure goes up at higher levels of schooling. For students to achieve high marks at the secondary-level example, on average, the private expenses for secondary- national examinations. level education were double the amount for primary 133. Students in tertiary education often rely on level in 2016. Tertiary education proves to be quite an borrowing from families and relatives to pay for expensive investment for families. On average, tertiary various private out-of-pocket expenses. A recently education costs households 1.26 times more than higher conducted graduate tracking survey of tertiary-level secondary education does. In the local currency, it costs college graduates reveals that around one in six (17 them around BDT 23,000 annually (US$295 at the then percent) college students, especially male students from prevalent exchange rate of BDT 78 per US$1) in 2016, rural areas, borrowed money from families and relatives which is not an insignificant amount of money in a or from nongovernmental organizations, to finance part country with per capita GDP of US$1,358. In comparison of their cost of college study. The share goes up to around with the cost of education service provision borne by the 30 percent among polytechnic students in Bangladesh, government, contributions from households clearly play according to a graduate tracking survey on polytechnic an important part in financing education institutions graduates. This higher incidence of borrowing among in Bangladesh. In terms of per student expenditure, the polytechnic students is probably due to the higher out- ratio of public and private spending in tertiary education of-pocket expenditures among polytechnic students is roughly 75 percent public and 25 percent private.62 and the fact that they tend to be from less-affluent Low level of public education investment as discussed families. In both cases, families and relatives are by far earlier is being compensated by families of students. the main source of loans, followed by nongovernmental The high level of private investment required at higher organizations. It seems quite unusual for postsecondary levels of education is likely to pose challenges especially students and their families in Bangladesh to take loans for economically disadvantaged children, not only in from banking institutions. Borrowing from informal terms of paying for direct costs such as tuitions but also sources like families and relatives is unreliable for many for covering indirect costs like private tutoring costs to 61 Private education expenditures here include fees and expenses for admission, tuition, examination, private tutoring, uniform, textbooks, exercise books, transport, and tiffin/snacks. 62 International experience of private spending on tertiary education can be drawn from the OECD member countries. Available data show that in 2013, the OECD average ratio of public and private spending on tertiary education was 70 percent public - 30 percent private (https://data.oecd.org/eduresource/spending-on-tertiary-education.htm). Some member countries, for instance, Scandinavian countries registered low contributions from the private sector (less than 10 percent of the total). Some member countries such the United Kingdom and New Zealand have stricken a more equal balance (close to 50-50). Proportions of private spending on tertiary education for member countries like the United States (64 percent), Japan (65 percent), Australia (58 percent), and Korea (68 percent) exceeds public spending. 63 The overall prices increased 222 percent due to inflation between 2005 and 2016 in Bangladesh. 72 poor families whose relatives are also likely to be not so faculties of the institutions drawing up their respective rich. This suggests that there may potentially be a large budget estimates (using a prescribed format). The number of meritorious students who are unable to go up budgets are then submitted to the respective finance to postsecondary education because of lack of access to departments for consolidation and reviewed by the loans. finance or budget committee of the institution, before submission to the responsible GB. Budgets from public 7.2.3. Budgeting and accountability mechanism universities are submitted to the UGC for consolidation, follow the traditional system review, and eventual submission to the MoE. Those 134. The government funding system for public from public TVET institutions are submitted to the DTE. tertiary institutions is characterized by the two- In the same vein, public tertiary-level colleges submit envelope model, each envelope following a separate their budgets to the DSHE. All the budgets from the three procedure: (a) Nondevelopment budget, and (b) segments of tertiary education submitted to the MoE Development budget. The nondevelopment budget are then submitted to the Ministry of Finance (MoF). The allocations to public tertiary institutions are dedicated Financing Division of the MoF allocates funds based toward meeting the recurrent costs such as salary and on the projections indicated in the three-year Medium- benefits of teachers and other staff, services, and supplies, Term Budgeting Framework (MTBF). Private TEIs prepare and it is designated in the budget template as revenue budgets based on the receipts of tuition and other fees expenditure. The development budget is allocated for from students and forecasted expenditure in a financial purposes of improving the academic environment and year and get it approved by the Board of Trustees. In physical infrastructure. Expenditures related to building principle, private TEIs do not receive subsidies from the constructions and purchase of textbooks and equipment government for their budgets and operate entirely on the fall under this category. The process of allocating the revenue from tuition and fees. All public and private TEIs development budget is entirely different from the process are mandated to undergo financial auditing respectively for allocating the nondevelopment budget. For requesting by the public and private auditing agencies. development budget allocations, it has to be processed 136. Performance-based financing (PBF)64 is not through the Planning Commission and funds would be currently being practiced under the tertiary subsector disbursed to the institutions in huge tranches through in Bangladesh, although a variant of it is currently being a separate mechanism called Annual Development practiced under primary subsector and performance- Program (ADP). The development budget allocation varies based institutional grant scheme is being implemented across years. During FY2016/17, the share of development by development projects. The idea behind PBF in budget that went to the MoE was 25 percent. Over the last tertiary education is that institutions in this case receive 15 years, this figure has fluctuated widely—it was as high state budgets through incentive-oriented instruments as 29.8 percent in 2004 and as low as 17.6 percent in 2007. like performance agreements or formulas linked with 135. The budgeting process of the tertiary education performance for calculating grants. Experience from sector is based on a traditional funding method of Europe, Australia, and North America, for example, incremental budgeting with line items defined by shows a major shift to PBF all across the education economic codes. In the traditional funding methods, the sector, including tertiary education. Trends like lump- allocation of funds is determined through a negotiation sum budgeting, formula funding, performance, or target between the government and TEIs, by referring to the agreements have been adopted in many countries and input criteria and historical trends. The procedures for have gradually replaced traditional models based on allocating budget are based on the proposal submitted line items and incremental budgeting (Ahmad et al. by the institutions to the government as the starting 2015; Sharma 2004). In the tertiary education sector in point of the negotiations. The method basically involves Bangladesh, such financing models have never been the different units, sections, divisions, departments, or tried. In limited scale, institutional grant programs with 64 In generic terms, results-based financing or PBF is defined as any program where the principal sets financial or other incentives for an agent to deliver predefined outputs or outcomes and rewards the achievement of these results upon verification (Musgrove 2010). In the development cooperation arena, the principal is usually a national or subnational government body of a developing country, and the agent is an implementing agency or institution such as UGC or TEI. https://www.rbfhealth.org/sites/rbf/files/documents/Rewards%20for%20Good%20Performance%20or%20Results%20-%20Short%20Glossary.pdf. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 73 performance contracts have been implemented under government, is fees charged to students in the form the donor-funded development projects for universities, of registration, tuition, and examination fees. The colleges, and polytechnics to channel development funds amount of tuition fees charged in public TEIs are set by to institutions in more accountable and competitive the government and collected by institution. However, ways.65 the tuition levels have traditionally been very low. For example, the average tuition fees per student in public 137. Financial accountability modality for TEIs is universities in 2012 was around US$130 though tuition through monthly expenditure reports. Every month fees have been increasing over time in public universities. expenditure reports are prepared by public institutions The tuition fees charged by private universities are on (universities, TVET institutions, and colleges), which are average more than five times that of public universities then submitted to the UGC, DTE, and DSHE, respectively. (Boye and Mannan 2014). Private universities operate Private institutions submit their monthly expenditure almost entirely relying on fees collected from students reports to their boards. However, the Public Financial and other private incomes. Management (PFM) Performance Report acknowledges the existence of weaknesses in the revenue and 140. Despite the lack of authority and regulatory expenditure controls and in reporting and accountability framework regarding the operation of income- mechanisms. A number of PFM reforms were initiated generating activities, some of the public TEIs do run by the Deepening Medium-Term Budget Framework and a range of revenue-generating ventures. Large and Strengthening Financial Accountability Project, which well-established public TEIs are operating various income- closed in 2014. Building on the reforms under the PFM generating activities, including renting out some of their project, an Integrated Budgeting and Accounting System own properties such as buildings and land. They also earn (iBAS++) is currently being rolled out and when fully from providing consulting services both institutionally implemented, it should strengthen many internal control and individually. Smaller and less well-established procedures and address some of the weaknesses in institutions on their part seem to be lacking the capacity accounting and recording in TEIs as well. to raise revenues internally. The revenues of the public universities are disclosed in their respective budget books 7.2.4. Institution-wise income generation and which also show the sources of the earnings, including the revenue opportunities are limited government grants. 138. First, there is no clear-cut policy or mechanism 141. Private institutions have latitude of exploring to support income-generation activities by TEIs in various avenues for revenue generation. Similar to Bangladesh. Interviews with stakeholders revealed public institutions, the main source of funding in private some confusion and conflicting views among them about institutions is from tuition and other fees charged to policy frameworks for such income-generating activities students. Unlike in public institutions, where government by public TEIs. According to the government officials, regulates the level of fees charged to students, the level of public TEIs are permitted to operate income-generating these fees varies from one private institution to another. activities at their own will. However, the public TEIs on It is worth pointing out that, some institutions are part their part lament the lack of clarity about their authority of a business venture group, which helps in raising and unclear guidance from the government. There is funds for the institution. In addition, private institutions no evidence in the form of formal communication from accept donations from individuals and organizations to the government to the institutions, granting authority to augment their fundraising capacity, which is not the case generate income internally. Such confusion and unclarity with public institutions. Such contributions, however, about authority and requirements have precluded are often irregular and available only to a small number systematic income-generating activities by TEIs. of private institutions, mostly in urban and semi-urban 139. As a consequence, the main income source for areas. Generally, due to fear of disclosure, it is difficult to most public TEIs, other than grant funding from the ascertain exactly what activities private TEIs operate. 65 Primary education in Bangladesh has been using PBF, which was implemented under the Bangladesh Third Primary Education Sector Development Project. The project is supported by 10 development partners, including the World Bank and ADB, with clearly defined disbursement-linked indicators, which need to be met for the development partners to release funds tied to that particular component. 74 142. Internationally, income diversification strategy has entrepreneurial attitude, and (c) having an outward-looking been favorably advocated for TEIs to enhance financial mindset. A prerequisite to fostering income diversification sustainability and greater resource mobilization for among TEIs is granting sufficient autonomy to institutions, investment in equity and quality improvement. According especially financial autonomy.68 Some of the international to existing literature,66 success in income diversification examples of income-generating ventures operated in among TEIs is dependent on three broad factors: (a) tertiary education are illustrated in Box 9. having a flat management structure,67 (b) having an BOX 9 Institution-wise Income-Generating Activities Operating Internationally (a) Contracts with private partners for both research and teaching (b) Philanthropy from alumni, charities, and foundations (c) Institution-based services/products such as renting out institution facilities/property and selling products/services produced internally (case for TVET institutions) (d) Structured partnerships with business entities, especially large companies (e) Internationalization of student admissions, thus attracting international students (f) Increasing the share of funding coming from households/students in the form of fees 7.3. POLICY OPTIONS FOR BETTER FINANCING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION 143. Exploring performance-based approach to of institutions and the overall sector. One of the key financing TEIs, especially for the university sector. challenges under the performance-based financing The GoB should explore options to include performance- modality is formulating and agreeing upon clear and based approach in the financing of TEIs, given its smart criteria of desired outcomes. success in areas such as Europe, Australia, and North 144. Granting a clear authority to TEIs with adequate America. Performance-based allocations could be used transparency measures to facilitate greater income- in conjunction with the existing traditional budgeting generating activities. Autonomy, especially financial system. Institutions may continue to receive much of autonomy, allows TEIs in Bangladesh to operate income- their budget through a guaranteed budgetary allocation generating activities and explore innovative approaches to ensure funding for their operation while receiving a to financing their institutional development plans. smaller share of their budget through the performance- The authority of institutions for undertaking income- based budget allocation which may fluctuate depending generation activities needs to be better clarified, in the on their performance and other conditions. The approach form of a written framework and guidelines on the extent would avoid putting poor performers at significant of the authority of institutions and responsibilities of disadvantage and could effectively incentivize the core institutions for transparency about such activities. principles of accountability in the utilization of financial resources toward achievement of development objectives 66 http://www.eua.be/Libraries/publications-homepage-list/Financially_Sustainable_Universities_II_-_European_universities_diversifying_income_streams.pdf?sfvrsn=2 67 A flat management structure requires a relatively small number of layers in the institution’s chart, with the exact number of personnel varying across institutions, depending on size and complexity of the institution. 68 http://www.eua.be/Libraries/newsletter/EUDIS_Conference_report.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmad, A. R., N. K. Soon, and N. P. 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Bangladesh College Education Development Project (CEDP). 76 Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 77 ANNEX 78 ANNEX 1 INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT IN TERTIARY EDUCATION President of the Republic CHANCELLOR MINISTRY OF UGC EDUCATION (University Grant Commission) VICE-CHANCELLOR Finance Committee PRO VICE CHANCELLOR Selection Syndicate Academic Treasurer Senate Committee Council Faculty/Dean Faculty/Dean Institute Departments Departments Departments Departments Departments Figure 1.1: Public University Organogram Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 79 President of the Republic CHANCELLOR Board of Trustees Finance Syndicate Committee VICE-CHANCELLOR Academic Council Faculty/Dean Faculty/Dean Institute Departments Departments Departments Departments Departments Figure 1.2: Private University Organogram 80 ANNEX 2 POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR TERTIARY EDUCATION 1. There are four key government policies that guide development priorities and strategies at the tertiary-level education in Bangladesh: (a) Seventh FYP FY2016–FY2020, (b) National Education Policy (NEP 2010), (c) Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh (2006–2026), and (d) National Skills Development Policy (NSDP 2011). Here are the brief illustrations of the propositions of the above policies with respect to the study’s five thematic areas in the context of tertiary education: (a) quality and relevance, (b) research and innovation, (c) access and equity, (d) management and governance, and (e) financing. QUALITY AND RELEVANCE 2. One of the key priorities for Bangladesh’s skills development agenda is to improve the quality and relevance of education to fill the skills gap in the labor market and realize more and better employment for youth. To address this, the Seventh FYP advocates for diversification of technical education programs, including ICT, and modernization of skills training institutions. The NEP calls for urgent adjustment of education and skills qualifications with the labor market demands and requires skills demand surveys to be conducted. In higher education, the NEP calls for stringent application of minimum certification standards for higher education institutions and demands curricula of the international standards at higher education institutions. It draws special attention to the urgent needs of training/retraining teachers of universities and colleges for pedagogical and subject-based knowledge. The Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Bangladesh emphasizes upon creating the culture of teaching quality at higher education institutions and promoting merit-based recruitment, continuous faculty development, and more relevant academic contents. It also prioritizes the establishment of the national framework for quality assurance and accreditation. In TVET, the NEP strongly calls for regular revisions of TVET curriculum in view of job markets at home and abroad and emphasizes on filling teacher vacancies and in-service hands-on teacher training at industries. The NSDP (2011) sets demand- driven, flexible, and responsive TVET at its core and sets out a number of strategies toward that goal. It places particular importance on upgrading the competency-based skills qualifications and recognition system—National Technical and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF)—and advocates for greater involvement of the private sector in standard setting and training provision. It also highlights the criticality of having accurate skills and labor market information system in planning appropriate skills development strategies. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 81 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION ACCESS AND EQUITY 3. The Seventh FYP highlights teaching and research 4. Bangladesh has made significant progress in providing as being the main functions of universities. The GoB equitable access to primary and secondary education prioritizes infrastructural development including during the past decades. However, there are still libraries and laboratories and procurement of scientific challenges regarding access and equity to postsecondary equipment. To foster science and research education, education, especially among socioeconomically the government is investing in establishing new science disadvantaged groups and females. The NEP envisions and technology universities and creating interest among provisions of special stipends and interest-free/low- the young generation to study science and technology, interest student loans to poor and meritorious female especially ICT education. The NEP lends support in students to pursue higher education. The banking sector this direction. It encourages teachers and students of is expected to be persuaded to arrange soft student tertiary education institutions to take part in research loans for higher education students. It also stipulates activities and promises adequate research funding to merit-based scholarships for high-performers of the HSC capable researchers to undertake original researches and examination. The NSDP calls for improvement of access fellowship grants for young researchers. Universities to skills development to under-represented groups, are also encouraged to promote institution-based including the less educated, women, and people with consultancy activities among their faculty members disabilities. It makes provisions for several measures for to strengthen their research capacities and outreach equity, including setting up microcredit schemes for poor activities. Science researches are particularly encouraged trainees, removal of Grade 8 prerequisite from formal by the NEP to undertake researches to find solutions for courses, expansion of female-oriented training courses, the country’s problems, and more resource allocation to awareness raising to communities, and provision of researches in science is envisaged. Science researchers incentives, especially in rural areas. The Strategic Plan for are expected to establish collaborative relationships Higher Education in Bangladesh notes the government’s among universities and industrial organizations. The concerted efforts toward equal opportunity of access to NEP particularly emphasizes on engineering research quality higher education and gender parity and equity, activities by engineering universities and promotes which are being vigorously pursued. them as a means to nurture problem-solving skills of students and resolve engineering problems of local industries. Medical research has also been identified as MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE an important area for improving the health care services 5. Governance and management of the sector and of and the government has decided to establish new public and private institutions need to be improved medical universities outside Dhaka for promoting and to meet the growing demand while at the same time expanding the territory of advanced medical research. ensuring the quality and relevance of tertiary education Importance of access to online knowledge resources in Bangladesh. The NEP advocates for several strategies such as journals through information technologies is to promote accountable, dynamic, transparent, and also highlighted as a way to share and access research corruption-free administration of postsecondary results. Research activities are not confined to universities. education. For overall education sector, it envisions The NEP also encourages tertiary-level colleges to the enactment of the Education Law to ensure proper engage in research activities. The Strategic Plan for implementation of the NEP and formation of autonomous Higher Education in Bangladesh views research and statutory Higher Education Commission as an development as an integral part of modern economic advisory body to education agencies. It also calls for planning both by government and private industry. A establishment of new teacher selection commission closer relationship between industry and university for nongovernment institutions and advocates for must be established so that research carried out in the merit-based competitive promotion process for universities is geared to the needs of the industry and the nongovernment teachers. In higher education, the NEP country. demands the establishment and strengthening of the BAC to accredit the study programs in universities and to 82 examine and evaluate performance of both public and FINANCING private universities against the National Qualifications Framework currently being formulated by the UGC. The 6. One of the education policy priority areas emphasized NEP recognizes that the UGC is the body that coordinates in the education sector review report is the provision and leads matters of higher education in the country. It of adequate funding for education. In the context of highlights the need to resolve inconsistencies of roles postsecondary education, in addition to the increased between universities and the UGC and calls for revision allocations to the sector, the focus should be on the of the UGC Act and further strengthening of the UGC. diversification of financing sources to ensure effective For tertiary colleges, it puts the National University mobilization of the necessary funds. Private financing at the center of administration and strongly calls for and private provision of skills training, supported by decentralization of the National University functions at the public financing, can be one of the main providers of divisional level. Autonomy is seen as a must for higher various TVET programs (the Seventh FYP). The NEP calls education institutions, provided that a proper monitoring for government budget to be allocated on priority basis and accountability system of government on use of funds in the sector of vocational and technical education. is in place. In TVET, the NSDP supports the strengthening Particularly in the TVET sector, considerable emphasis of partnerships with the private sector, especially is placed on private provision of trainings with the through Industrial Skills Councils, so they increase governance and financial supports from public sector. their role in the governance and delivery of skills training. Private entities are strongly encouraged to establish new The National Skills Development Council (known training institutions in partnership with the government. as NSDC), a tripartite forum with representatives from Consistent with the above, the NSDP policy mentions that the government, employers, and workers, is in charge necessary steps should be taken to ensure that additional of overseeing all activities of public and private TVET financing options, including microcredit, are available providers and coordinating with all the stakeholders in for both students and training providers, to increase the skills development. It calls for further strengthening both the scope and amount of skills training. In higher of the BTEB to assume quality assurance and regulatory education, the Strategic Plan for Higher Education in responsibilities, including establishment of a national Bangladesh acknowledges the importance of government qualification framework. To further strengthen the skills contribution; however, it is on the decline and this trend development sector, the government has launched a needs to be reversed. Universities are expected to be National Skills Development Authority (NSDA) to be actively engaged in institutional-level and individual- responsible for overall coordination, for which an Act level resource generation to meet expenditures for is being drafted, and the National Human Resource education and research (the NEP). The NEP hinted that Development Fund (NHRDF) to mobilize additional and tuitions and fees of universities will be determined reliable resources (the Seventh FYP). according to the financial capacity of parents so that universities will be able to make greater use of students’ fees. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 83 ANNEX 3 SECTOR SPECIFIC SKILLS ANALYSIS (MEDICAL EDUCATION SECTOR IN BANGLADESH) BACKGROUND 1. The Bangladesh health sector involves varied levels of skills for service delivery. Service providers constitute about two-thirds of the health workforce and health management and support workers constitute the remaining third in Bangladesh. Service providers comprise super specialists, specialists and teachers of various specialties, graduate physicians, diploma physicians, nurses, midwives, and medical technologists of different disciplines. Besides mainstream allopath, alternative types of medical care (comprising homeopath, ayurved, and unani) are also in practice and thus requires workforce for those types. 2. Medical education at the graduate level has expanded significantly over the past two decades, led mostly by private sector expansion. Private medical institutions are nearly double the number, accounting for almost two-thirds of medical seats. Among prospective medical students, strong preference remains for enrollment in the government medical colleges due to less cost, perceived higher quality of education, and good reputation associated in comparison to the private colleges. Nonetheless, near 100 percent enrollments across medical seats—regardless of public or private institutions—are seen each year, indicating high demand for medical education among higher secondary school graduates in Bangladesh. 3. Gender parity has favored female enrollments in medical colleges in recent years. The medical colleges, including dental education, especially in the government, have seen a good rise in the participation of females. In the early 1990s, less than 30 percent of government medical college graduates were females, which rose to 53 percent as of 2015. Specifically, 62 percent of graduating doctors from government dental medical colleges are female. However, transition to practicing doctors among female medical college graduates remains a concern. Studies have shown that sociocultural factors, such as marriage and child bearing, often lead to female doctors’ discontinuing their practice and higher education. Table 3.1: Number of Medical Colleges and Seat Intake Capacity, by Provider Type Total Number of Private MBBS seats in Government Private Share (%) Medical Colleges Share (%) Medical Colleges 1992 13 0 1,450 0 1996 18 28 1,650 12 2006 40 65 3,396 52 2011 77 70 7,285 59 2016 104 65 9,957 62 Source: ADirectorate General of Health Services (DGHS), MIS various years. 84 4. Postgraduate education,69 which leads to medical professionals is more prominent in rural areas specialization in the medical field, is predominantly due to quality-of-life issues and high turnover rates in public led in Bangladesh. The enrollment capacity of the remote and rural areas (Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014). sector for postgraduate studies has increased sevenfold Doctors and nurses often refrain from postings in remote between 1992 and 2015 (Figure 3.1). Most of the increase areas, due to challenging living and working conditions in enrollment capacity has been from the expansion of the (Rose, Lane, and Rahman 2014). Higher-level doctors are public sector. Out of 34 organizations, the 22 government often deployed for shorter periods—on average a year, organizations affiliated with the public universities indicating that doctors remain in remote area posts for account for 51 percent of seats in postgraduate medical less time (FMRP 2005). programs. Enrollment capacity in the private medical organizations has remained stagnant—only 10 private 6. Nursing and allied skills are also deemed to be providers with less than 200 seats have been involved in huge shortage. A Grade 12 graduate can generally in the delivery of postgraduate medical programs since enroll in the four-year B.Sc. in Nursing or a three-year 2012. Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery. Diploma in Nursing (and Midwifery) completion is the entry qualification for 5. Despite the improvement in enrollment capacities, Post-Basic B.Sc. in Nursing, which is a two-year program. graduate and specialist medical physician skills are in For effective skill mix, internationally recommended short supply in terms of the demand, especially in rural doctor-nurse ratio should be 1:3. Because Bangladesh areas. Annually, Bangladesh produces 3,000 specialist has registered physicians as 4.90 per 10,000 population and super specialist physicians, which is way below what (MIS 2016), nurses should have been 14.7 per 10,000 is needed, especially in certain disciplines. For example, population. However, there are only 2.90 registered shortage of anesthesiologists is considered to be one nurses per 10,000 population in Bangladesh (MIS 2016). of the key reasons for the reduction of comprehensive Government hospitals’ vacancy posts average around emergency obstetrics care services at government upazila 22 percent with some remote districts reporting vacancy health complexes. Another area where skilled physicians rates as high as 70 percent (MIS, 2014). Thus, a huge are in shortage are dental surgeons—in 2016, Bangladesh shortage of nurses remains in Bangladesh, especially in had seats for 1,917 dental surgeons from 34 government rural and remote areas. and private dental colleges. The shortage of skilled 3063 2983 2566 2351 2042 1614 1614 1592 445 425 367 259 1992 1997 2007 2012 2014 2015 Total Government Private Autonomous Figure 3.1: Number of Available Seats across Postgraduate Organizations, by Type Source: DGHS, MIS various years. 69 Postgraduate qualifications are offered by two bodies—Bangladesh College of Physicians and Surgeons (BCPS), which offers Member of College of Physicians and Surgeons (MCPS) and Fellow of College of Physicians and Surgeons (FCPS), and Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), whose offers vary from diploma to master’s (Masters in Surgery - MS, Masters in Public Health - MPH, Masters in Medical Education - MMEd, and so on) to Doctor in Medicine - MD. Depending upon the postgraduate qualification, usually one to five years are required after graduation and internship. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 85 Table 3.2: Graduate Nurse Production Capacity over Years Post-Basic B.Sc. in Nursing Course Basic B.Sc. in Nursing Course Year No. of Institutions No. of Seats No. of Institutions No. of Seats Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total Govt Pvt Total 2011 4 9 13 500 270 770 9 8 17 775 230 1,005 2017 4 37 41 400 1,475 1,875 14 45 59 1,035 2,185 3,220 Source: DGHS, MIS various years. Note: Govt = Government; Pvt = Private. 7. Participation in nursing programs is also likely to be ministries, the BTEB also offers diploma (three-year) and influenced by sociocultural challenges. Between 2011 certificate (one-year) programs in health technology and 2017, seating capacity for undergraduate nursing across various disciplines like laboratory, radiology, and post-basic nursing increased considerably (Table pharma, physiotherapy, dental, medical, patient care, 3.2). However, Bangladesh Nursing and Midwifery Council and integrated medical (Sabur and Huque 2016). Entry (BNMC) had registered 2,436 B.Sc. in Nursing and 4,436 qualification is Secondary School Certificate (Grade 10) Post-basic B.Sc. in Nursing (including 814 post-basic B.Sc. pass. Despite the different skills providers, vacancies of in Public Health Nursing), which is lower than the total medical technologists in government health services are a capacity intake across the sector. This indicates that there regular phenomenon (Figure 3.2). may be demand-related issues to producing adequate nursing skills in the country. KEY CHALLENGES TO SKILLS PROVISION IN 8. Medical technologist are key health support staff MEDICAL AND ALLIED SERVICES supplied by institutions under both the health and education ministries. Medical technologists are 9. Need for coordination between different responsible for technical jobs under the supervision of medical skills providing entities. Institutions medical experts. Different disciplines include laboratory, offering postgraduate courses need to coordinate radiology, physiotherapy, sanitary inspection, dentistry, and streamline their programs because of concerns of pharmacy, radiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech pluralistic qualifications with different equivalencies therapy, optometrist, refraction, ophthalmic assistant, across some disciplines. On the other hand, the BTEB and cath-lab technician. Courses include certificate, under the MoE is also conducting medical technology diploma, bachelor, and master’s degrees. In addition and nursing courses without coordination with other to public and private institutions under the health skills providing institutions in the health sector. There 38 42 40 28 28 33 33 33 22 24 25 21 18 21 15 15 18 11 10 6 7 Pharmacy Laboratory Radiography Radiotherapy Physiotherapy Sanitary Dental Inspection 2013 2014 2015 Figure 3.2: Vacancy Rate across Government Sanctioned Positions for Various Medical Technologists Source: DGHS, MIS various years. 86 are also discrepancies in the examination system and POLICY OPTIONS professional accreditation by the BNMC, State Medical Faculty, Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh, Bangladesh 13. Improve coordination among the different medical Homeopathic Board, and Bangladesh Board of Unani skills providing entities. As suggested in the Fourth and Ayurvedic Systems of Medicine, which likely leads Health Population and Nutrition Health Sector Program to varied levels in the quality of education and skills (HPNSP) 2017–2022, the postgraduate institutions (BCPS development. and BSMMU) need to coordinate and delineate their roles and streamline their programs to avoid confusion among 10. Lack of modern teaching-learning facilities in the people and duplication and wastage of resources. The medical education institutions. The quality of medical roles of other entities, including the BTEB, need to be education is affected adversely due to underdeveloped reviewed and aligned with the needs of the sector. teaching-learning facilities, including access to labs and instruments, medical research journals, and high-speed 14. Increasing teaching strength at the medical colleges/ Internet connectivity, which are important inputs for a institutions and universities through creation of teaching conducive learning environment. posts and opportunities for research and professional development of teachers. A human resource assessment 11. A chronic dearth of qualified teachers undermines in medical teaching is warranted to determine the needs teaching strength in medical education institutions. of the sector for planning and policy purposes. Adequate skilled teachers are one major challenge to increasing the capacity of the sector in producing the 15. Upgrading teaching-learning facilities in the needed skills. Only postgraduate qualification holders medical colleges—using competitive funds based on are considered in Bangladesh as specialist and super institutional development plans to upgrade facilities. specialist physicians and can be recruited as teachers Generation of additional funds through research and in the medical universities, colleges, and other medical development work may be explored through funds institutions. For example, the DGHS reports around 215 allocated to promote collaborative research with medical (35 percent) posts of professors, 214 (23 percent) posts of industry sectors. associate professors, 327 (23 percent) posts of assistant 16. Establishment of medical universities. The professors, 214 (40 percent) posts of senior consultants, Government has established three medical universities and 1,837 (50 percent) posts of junior consultants were and plans to set up another. With the medical universities vacant as of 2016. in place, the past/current affiliation of the medical 12. A culture of research is still underdeveloped in the colleges with the general public universities will be medical education sector in Bangladesh. One of the discontinued. However, not all medical universities have criteria and standards of Bangladesh Medical and Dental developed capacities, including physical facilities. Thus, a Council (BMDC) for recognizing medical colleges requires transitional plan would be necessary. each medical college to establish a research cell with 17. A strategic plan for medical education is needed. adequate provision of various national and international Since the population-physician ratio in Bangladesh literatures and computer facilities to support medical has crossed the minimum recommended threshold research and innovation (BMDC 2009). However, most (4.9 against 2.5) but is very low for nurse, midwife, medical colleges do not have research cells—a study finds technologists, and other para-professionals, expansion of that only in 3 out of 13 medical colleges established such medical and nursing education and training institutions is cell (Abdullah and Sabur 2016). a high priority. A strategic plan which provides consensus- based actions and guidelines for the development of the medical education sector based on skills needs over the short to medium and long term is warranted. Bangladesh Tertiary Education Sector Review | 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdullah, Md., and Muhammod Abdus Sabur. March 2016. Kabir, Md. Humayun, A. K. Mohammad Hossain, and Muhammod Situation Assessment of New Medical Colleges in Abdus Sabur. 2014. Strengthening Stewardship Functions Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ministry of Health and Family of the Regulatory Bodies under MOHFW. Dhaka. Welfare, Government of Bangladesh. MIS (Management Information System). 2007. Health Bulletin. BHW (Bangladesh Health Watch). 2008. The State of Health in Dhaka: MIS. Directorate General of Health Services Bangladesh 2007: Health Workforce in Bangladesh - Who (DGHS). Constitutes the Healthcare System? Dhaka: James P. ———. 2010. Health Bulletin 2010. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate General Grant School of Public Health. of Health Services (DGHS). BMDC (Bangladesh Medical and Dental Council). 2009. Criteria ———. 2011. Health Bulletin 2011. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate General and Standard of Bangladesh Medical and Dental Council of Health Services (DGHS). for Recognizing Medical Colleges. Dhaka: BMDC. ———. 2012. Health Bulletin 2012. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate General BNMC (Bangladesh Nursing and Midwifery Council). Notification of Health Services (DGHS). dated June 28, 2016. ———. 2014a. Health Bulletin 2013. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate ———. Notification No. BNMC/Admn-47/ 2017/361 dated June 11, General of Health Services (DGHS). 2017. ———. 2014b. Health Bulletin 2014. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate Sabur, Muhammod Abdus and Rumana Huque. 2016. Assessment General of Health Services (DGHS). of Selected Health Workforce in Bangladesh. Oxford: HEART (Health & Education Advice & Resource Team). ———. 2015. Health Bulletin 2015. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate General of Health Services (DGHS). FMRP (Financial Management Reform Project). 2005. Primary Health and Family Planning in Bangladesh: Assessing ———. 2016. Health Bulletin 2016. Dhaka: MIS, Directorate General Service Delivery. Dhaka: FMRP. of Health Services (DGHS). GoB (Government of Bangladesh). 2012. National Health Policy MOHFW (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare). 1999. 2011. Dhaka: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation Bangladesh Health Bulletin 1997. Dhaka: MOHFW. (HJKFF). Global Health Facts. ———. 2017. Programme Implementation Plan (PIP). Fourth JLI (Joint Learning Initiative). 2004. Human Resources for Health: Health, Population and Nutrition Sector Programme (4th Overcoming the Crisis. Boston: Global Equity Initiative, HPNSP), January 2017–June 2022. Dhaka: MOHFW. Harvard University. Planning Commission of India. 2011. High Level Expert Group Report on Universal Health Coverage. New Delhi. WHO (World Health Organization). 2006. Working Together for Health. The World Health Report. Geneva: WHO 88 LIST OF GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS OFFERING POSTGRADUATE MEDICAL QUALIFICATIONS 1. Centre for Medical Education, Dhaka 2. Chittagong Medical College 3. Dhaka Dental College 4. Dhaka Medical College 5. Institute of Child and Mother Health, Dhaka 6. Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound, Dhaka 7. Mymensingh Medical College 8. National Institute of Cancer Research and Hospital, Dhaka 9. National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Dhaka 10. National Institute of Chest Diseases and Hospital, Dhaka 11. National Institute of Child Health, Dhaka 12. National Institute of Kidney Diseases and Urology, Dhaka 13. National Institute of Mental Health, Dhaka 14. National Institute of Opthalmology, Dhaka 15. National Institute of Preventive and Social Medicine, Dhaka 16. National Institute of Traumatology and Orthopedic Rehabilitation, Dhaka 17. Rajshahi Medical College 18. Rangpur Medical College 19. Shahid Ziaur Rahman Medical College, Bogra 20. Sher-e-Bangla Medical College, Barisal 21. Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka 22. MAG Osmani Medical College, Sylhet For further queries, please contact: World Bank Office Dhaka Plot- E-32, Agargaon, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka-1207 Bangladesh Tel: 880-2-5566-7777 Fax: 880-2-5566-7778 Email: bangladeshinfo@worldbank.org www.worldbank.org/bangladesh