52098 Discrimination in Latin America AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE Edited by Hugo Ñopo Alberto Chong Andrea Moro With a foreword by Alejandro Toledo Discrimination in Latin America Discrimination in Latin America AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE Edited by Hugo Ñopo Alberto Chong Andrea Moro a copublication of the inter-american development bank and the world bank © 2010 The Inter-American Development Bank 1300 New York Avenue, NW Washington DC 20577 Telephone: 202-623-1000 Internet: www.iadb.org E-mail: res@iadb.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 13 12 11 10 A copublication of the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank. The Inter-American Development Bank The World Bank 1300 New York Ave, NW 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20577 Washington, DC 20433 The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Inter-American Development Bank. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. 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ISBN: 978-0-8213-7835-9 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8082-6 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-7835-9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Discrimination in Latin America : an economic perspective / Hugo Ñopo, Alberto Chong, and Andrea Moro, editors. p. cm.--(Latin American development forum series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8213-7835-9--ISBN 978-0-8213-8082-6 (electronic) 1. Minorities--Latin America--Economic conditions. 2. Minorities--Latin America--Social conditions. 3. Discrimination--Economic aspects--Latin America. 4. Sex discrimination against women--Economic aspects--Latin America. 5. Race discrimination--Economic aspects--Latin America. I. Ñopo, Hugo. II. Chong, Alberto. III. Moro, Andrea, 1967- F1419.A1D57 2009 305.80098--dc22 2009035875 Cover design by Ultra Designs. Latin American Development Forum Series This series was created in 2003 to promote debate, disseminate information and analysis, and convey the excitement and complexity of the most topical issues in economic and social development in Latin America and the Carib- bean. It is sponsored by the Inter-American Development Bank, the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, and the World Bank. The manuscripts chosen for publication represent the highest quality in each institution's research and activity output and have been selected for their relevance to the academic community, policy makers, researchers, and interested readers. Advisory Committee Members Alicia Bárcena Ibarra, Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations Inés Bustillo, Director, Washington Office, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations José Luis Guasch, Senior Adviser, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, World Bank; and Professor of Economics, University of California, San Diego Santiago Levy, Vice President for Sectors and Knowledge, Inter-American Development Bank Eduardo Lora, Principal Adviser, Research Department, Inter-American Development Bank Luis Servén, Research Manager, Development Economics Vice Presidency, World Bank Augusto de la Torre, Chief Economist, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, World Bank v Titles in the Latin American Development Forum Series Discrimination in Latin America: An Economic Perspective (2010) by Hugo Ñopo, Alberto Chong, and Andrea Moro, editors The Promise of Early Childhood Development in Latin America and the Caribbean (2010) by Emiliana Vegas and Lucrecia Santibáñez Job Creation in Latin America and the Caribbean: Trends and Policy Challenges (2009) by Carmen Pagés, Gaëlle Pierre, and Stefano Scarpetta China's and India's Challenge to Latin America: Opportunity or Threat? (2009) by Daniel Lederman, Marcelo Olarreaga, and Guillermo E. Perry, editors Does the Investment Climate Matter? Microeconomic Foundations of Growth in Latin America (2009) by Pablo Fajnzylber, Jose Luis Guasch, and J. Humberto López, editors Measuring Inequality of Opportunities in Latin America and the Carib- bean (2009) by Ricardo de Paes Barros, Francisco H. G. Ferreira, José R. Molinas Vega, and Jaime Saavedra Chanduvi The Impact of Private Sector Participation in Infrastructure: Lights, Shadows, and the Road Ahead (2008) by Luis Andres, Jose Luis Guasch, Thomas Haven, and Vivien Foster Remittances and Development: Lessons from Latin America (2008) by Pablo Fajnzylber and J. Humberto López, editors Fiscal Policy, Stabilization, and Growth: Prudence or Abstinence? (2007) by Guillermo Perry, Luis Servén, and Rodrigo Suescún, editors vii viii titles in the series Raising Student Learning in Latin America: Challenges for the 21st Cen- tury (2007) by Emiliana Vegas and Jenny Petrow Investor Protection and Corporate Governance: Firm-level Evidence across Latin America (2007) by Alberto Chong and Florencio López-de- Silanes, editors The State of State Reform in Latin America (2006) by Eduardo Lora, editor Emerging Capital Markets and Globalization: The Latin American Expe- rience (2006) by Augusto de la Torre and Sergio L. Schmukler Beyond Survival: Protecting Households from Health Shocks in Latin America (2006) by Cristian C. Baeza and Truman G. Packard Natural Resources: Neither Curse nor Destiny (2006) by Daniel Lederman and William F. Maloney, editors Beyond Reforms: Structural Dynamics and Macroeconomic Vulnerability (2005) by José Antonio Ocampo, editor Privatization in Latin America: Myths and Reality (2005) by Alberto Chong and Florencio López-de-Silanes, editors Keeping the Promise of Social Security in Latin America (2004) by Indermit S. Gill, Truman G. Packard, and Juan Yermo Lessons from NAFTA: For Latin America and the Caribbean (2004) by Daniel Lederman, William F. Maloney, and Luis Servén The Limits of Stabilization: Infrastructure, Public Deficits, and Growth in Latin America (2003) by William Easterly and Luis Servén, editors Globalization and Development: A Latin American and Caribbean Perspective (2003) by José Antonio Ocampo and Juan Martin, editors Is Geography Destiny? Lessons from Latin America (2003) by John Luke Gallup, Alejandro Gaviria, and Eduardo Lora About the Editors Hugo Ñopo, a Senior Research Economist on Education at the Inter- American Development Bank (IDB), is based in Bogota, Colombia. He received his PhD in Economics at Northwestern University. Before join- ing the IDB, he was an Assistant Professor at Middlebury College and a Research Fellow at GRADE. He has also been professor at different uni- versities in Peru. He is a Research Affiliate at the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), in Bonn, Germany. He has served on the editorial boards of various journals, and his research has been published in such journals as the Review of Economics and Statistics, Economics Letters and Economic Development and Cultural Change, among others. Alberto Chong is a Principal Research Economist at the IDB. Before he joined IDB, he taught at Georgetown University, and worked at the World Bank, the IRIS Center at the University of Maryland at College Park, and the Ministry of Finance of Peru. His research interests cover very broad areas in development economics. His most recent interests include issues related to post-privatization, corporate governance, institutions, trust, and income inequality. He has published extensively in such academic journals as the Review of Economics and Statistics, the Journal of Public Econom- ics, the Journal of International Economics, Economics and Politics, and several others. His recent books include Costs and Benefits of Privatization in Latin America and Investor Protection in Latin America, both co-edited with López-de-Silanes. Andrea Moro is an Associate Professor of Economics at Vanderbilt Uni- versity. He received his PhD in Economics at the University of Pennsylva- nia. He taught at the University of Minnesota and was Senior Economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. He has written widely on race and gender labor market inequality in the presence of asymmetric infor- mation. His research has been published in such journals as the American Economic Review, the Journal of Economic Theory, and the Journal of Public Economics. ix About the Contributors David Bravo is with the Centro de Microdatos, Departamento de Economía Universidad de Chile. Natalia Candelo is with the University of Texas at Dallas, Department of Economics. CBEES ­ Center for Behavioral and Experimental Economic Science. Juan-Camilo Cárdenas is with the Universidad de los Andes in Bogotá. Marco Castillo is with the Georgia Institute of Technology. Julio Elías is with the Banco Central de la República Argentina and the Universidad del CEMA. Víctor Elías is with the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Eduardo Gandelman is with the Universidad ORT Uruguay. Néstor Gandelman is with the Universidad ORT Uruguay. Alejandro Gaviria is with the Universidad de los Andes in Bogotá. Ragan Petrie is with Georgia State University. Giorgina Piani is with the Departamento de Economía, Universidad de la República Oriental del Uruguay. Sandra Polanía is with the Università degli Studi di Siena. Lucas Ronconi is with the Universidad Torcuato Di Tella. Máximo Rossi is with the Departamento de Economía, Universidad de la República Oriental del Uruguay. Julie Rothschild is with the Universidad ORT Uruguay. Claudia Sanhueza is with the Instituto Latinoamericano de Doctrina y Estudios Sociales (ILADES), Universidad Alberto Hurtado. Rajiv Sethi is with Barnard College, Columbia University. Ximena Soruco is with the Fundación Sur (Cuenca, Ecuador). Máximo Torero is with the International Food Policy Research Institute. Sergio Urzúa is with the Department of Economics and the Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University. x Contents Foreword xix Alejandro Toledo Acknowledgments xxiii Abbreviations xxv 1 What Do We Know about Discrimination in Latin America? Very Little! 1 Hugo Ñopo, Alberto Chong, and Andrea Moro 2 Ethnic and Social Barriers to Cooperation: Experiments Studying the Extent and Nature of Discrimination in Urban Peru 13 Marco Castillo, Ragan Petrie, and Máximo Torero 3 Discrimination in the Provision of Social Services to the Poor: A Field Experimental Study 37 Juan-Camilo Cárdenas, Natalia Candelo, Alejandro Gaviria, Sandra Polanía, and Rajiv Sethi 4 Discrimination and Social Networks: Popularity among High School Students in Argentina 97 Julio Elías, Víctor Elías, and Lucas Ronconi 5 An Experimental Study of Labor Market Discrimination: Gender, Social Class, and Neighborhood in Chile 135 David Bravo, Claudia Sanhueza, and Sergio Urzúa 6 Ability, Schooling Choices, and Gender Labor Market Discrimination: Evidence for Chile 185 David Bravo, Claudia Sanhueza, and Sergio Urzúa xi xii contents 7 What Emigration Leaves Behind: The Situation of Emigrants and Their Families in Ecuador 229 Ximena Soruco, Giorgina Piani, and Máximo Rossi 8 Gender Differentials in Judicial Proceedings: Evidence from Housing-Related Cases in Uruguay 277 Eduardo Gandelman, Néstor Gandelman, and Julie Rothschild Index 299 Figures 2.1 Distribution of the Sample in Comparison with Population with Complete or Incomplete Higher Education, Lima, Peru 18 2.2 Contributions to the Public Good, First Sequence, by Type of Treatment 25 2.3 Contributions to the Public Good, Second Sequence, by Type of Treatment 26 3.1 Offers and Expected Amounts of Money in the Dictator, Ultimatum, Trust, and Third-Party Punishment Games 51 3.2 Rate of Rejection in the Ultimatum Game 54 3.3 Amount Returned by Player 2, Trust Game 55 3.4 Punish Rate in Third-Party Punishment Game 56 3A.1 Lab Setting for the Ultimatum Game 81 3A.2 General Lab Setting 82 3A.3 Recruitment of Players 1 in Bogotá, Colombia, by Geographical Location 84 4.1 Average Student Ranking and Standard Deviation of the Student Ranking Pooled Sample, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 122 5.1 The Design of the Fictitious CVs 140 5.2 Number of Days before a Callback 149 5A.1 Example of a Scanned Ad 173 7.1 Percent of Households That Receive Remittances, by Monthly Income 234 7.2 News on Emigration by Theme/Issue Typology 242 Tables 2.1 Descriptive Statistics 24 2.2 Percent of Endowment Contributed to the Public Good (Sequence 2), by Type of Treatment 27 contents xiii 2.3 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment 28 2.4 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment and Gender 30 2.5 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment and Race or Ethnicity 31 2.6 Probability of Being in the Top Four, by Type of Treatment 32 2.7 Probability of Being in the Bottom Four, by Type of Treatment 33 3.1 Summary of the Sessions 50 3.2 Correlations between Offers and Expected Values 53 3.3 Dictator Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) 59 3.4 Ultimatum Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) 63 3.5 Trust Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) 68 3.6 Third-Party Punishment Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) 72 3.7 Punishment Rates by Players 3 in Third-Party Punishment Game 76 3A.1 Stages of the Field Sessions 79 3A.2 Stages for One Field Session 80 3A.3 Information for the Players 83 3A.4 Geographical Location of Participants' Households 85 3A.5 Players Who Attended the Sessions by Role 86 3A.6 Players 1 by Groups 86 3A.7 Players 2 by Groups 87 3A.8 Players 3 by Groups 87 3A.9 Players' Monthly Household Expenditures by Role 88 3A.10 Welfare Benefits of Target Population (Players 2) 88 3A.11 Players 2 Characteristics Observed by Players 1 89 3A.12 Players 1 Characteristics Observed by Players 2 90 3A.13 Frequency of Payments by Game 91 3A.14 Earnings by Role 91 3A.15 Social Efficiency and Equity in the Dictator, Ultimatum, Trust, and Third-Party Punishment Games 92 4.1 Descriptive Statistics, Buenos Aires 103 4.2 Descriptive Statistics, Tucumán 106 4.3 Wealth, Parental Education, School Performance, Race, and Beauty According to Student's Average Ranking, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 110 xiv contents 4.4 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 111 4.5 Matrix Correlation of Different Measures of Beauty, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 115 4.6 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking Using Different Measures of Beauty: Mixed Schools, Whole Sample 116 4.7 Probit Model for the Probability of Being Chosen by at Least 50 Percent of the Class, Tucumán and Buenos Aires 117 4.8 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking for Mixed and Single-Sex Schools, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 118 4.9 The Effect of Beauty and Academic Performance of the Rater on Her/His Valuations of Student's Individual Characteristics, Tucumán and Buenos Aires 120 4.10 Average Grade, Beauty, and Average Parental Education of Matched Students and Not Matched Students, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 124 4.11 Correlations between Student Characteristics and the Characteristics of Her or His First-Choice Student to Form a Group: Average Grade, Beauty, Average Parental Education, and Gender, Buenos Aires and Tucumán 125 5.1 Demographic Cells for the Analysis of Discrimination 139 5.2 Selected Municipalities, by Income Level 141 5.3 Selected Surnames, by Social Origin 142 5.4 Assignment of Previous Labor Market Experience, by Skill Level 144 5.5 Distribution of Responses, by Week 145 5.6 Number of CVs Sent, Number of Calls, and Response Rate, by Week and Type of Employment 147 5.7 Days before Callback, by Type of Job 150 5.8 Days before Callback, by Method of Contact 151 5.9 Callbacks by Gender, Social Class, and Income 152 5.10 Callbacks by Municipality, Social Class, and Gender 154 5.11 Callbacks by Surname, Income of Municipality, and Gender 156 5.12 Regressions for the Probability of Receiving a Callback 158 5.13 Number of Days to Receive a Callback 159 contents xv 5A.1 CVs Sent in (Unskilled) 161 5A.2 CVs Sent in (Professional) 161 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) 162 5A.4 Number of Days before a Callback, by Type of Job 167 5A.5 Number of Days before a Callback, by CV Submission Method 170 6.1 Means of Schooling and Labor Market Outcomes by Gender from SPS02 187 6.2 Descriptive Statistics from SPS02 by Gender 189 6.3 The Gender Gap in Hourly Wages from SPS02 194 6.4 The Gender Gap in Monthly Hours Worked from SPS02 196 6.5 The Gender Gap in Employment from SPS02 198 6.6 The Gender Gap in Accumulated Experience from SPS02 200 6.7 The Gender Gap in Schooling Decisions from SPS02 201 6.8 The Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 203 6.9A Variables in the Empirical Implementation of the Model Outcome Equations 210 6.9B Variables in the Empirical Implementation of the Model Auxiliary Measures 211 6.10 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hourly Wages, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experience from SPS02 212 6.11 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hours Worked, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experience from SPS02 216 6.12 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Employment Status, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experience from SPS02 219 6.13 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Accumulated Experience, by Schooling Level from SPS02 220 6.14 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Schooling Decisions from SPS02 221 6.15 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 222 7.1 Typical Case of Multiple Land Property, Chumblín, San Fernando 2005 237 7.2 Percentage of the Population, Aged Five Years and Older, by Highest Level of Education Attained and Urban/Rural Area 239 xvi contents 7.3 What Do You Think Are the Two Main Problems Currently Facing the Population of [Cuenca/San Fernando]? 247 7.4 Overall, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . 247 7.5 And for the Migrants Themselves, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . 247 7.6 And for Their Immediate Family Members Who Stay in Ecuador, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . 248 7.7 Do You Think a Child of an Emigrant Will Have the Same Performance at School as a Child of a Non-Migrant, a Poorer Performance, or a Better Performance? 249 7.8 Is Any Member of Your Family Currently Living and Working in a Foreign Country? 249 7.9 Is Your [Family Member] Currently Living and Working Abroad? 249 7.10 Do You (or Other Family Members) Receive Remittances from Relatives Who Live in a Foreign Country? 250 7.11 How Frequently Do You (or Other Family Members) Receive Remittances? 250 7.12 How Do You Think Migrants' Family Members Spend the Money They Receive from Abroad? 250 7.13 How Is the Money Spent? 251 7.14 How Much Discrimination Is There against Family Members of People from [Cuenca/San Fernando] Who Go to Live and Work in Another Country? Would You Say There Is a Lot of Discrimination, Some, Only a Little, or None at All? 252 7.15 What Is a Migrant's Child Most Likely to Do as an Adult? 252 7.16 Agreement with the Following Statements 252 7.17A Models of Discrimination in Cuenca 254 7.17B Marginal Effects of Discrimination in Cuenca 255 7.18A Models of Social Integration in Cuenca 256 7.18B Marginal Effects of Social Integration in Cuenca 257 7.19A Model of Happiness in Cuenca 258 7.19B Marginal Effects of Happiness in Cuenca 259 7.20A Models of Discrimination in San Fernando 262 7.20B Marginal Effects of Discrimination in San Fernando 263 7.21A Models of Social Integration in San Fernando 264 contents xvii 7.21B Marginal Effects of Social Integration in San Fernando 265 7.22 Pattern of Discrimination against Emigrants 266 7A.1 Sample Design, Size 272 7A.2 Sample Design, Selection in Cuenca 272 8.1 Basic Statistics, by Status of Case 283 8.2 Basic Statistics by the Presence of Women 284 8.3 Extensions of Terms by the Presence of Women 285 8.4 Amount of Days of Extension by the Presence of Women 285 8.5 Summary Regression Results 286 8A.1 Regression Analysis 291 8A.2 Regression Analysis (Montevideo) 293 8A.3 Regression Analysis (All Male vs. All Female) 295 Foreword Social Inclusion: Let's Give Social Capital a Chance In addition to posing a profound moral problem, social exclusion produces a tremendous inefficiency that is detrimental to the economy, democracy, and the whole of society. Discrimination leads to a very unequal distribu- tion of opportunities, which in turn prevents society from benefiting from a greater human capital, independent of race, that could contribute to higher rates of production, productivity, and competitiveness. Therefore, discrimination impedes economic growth and poverty reduction. I was born into a country where discrimination has recently been estimated to explain nearly 60% of the labor-earnings gap between indige- nous and non-indigenous men. Across Latin American countries, indigenous peoples--as well as other marginalized groups--receive lower rates of income return for each year of schooling. It is exceedingly difficult to quan- tify the damage to a nation's GDP from the deprivation of quality educa- tion and the distortion of incentives that arise from social exclusion. I can, however, imagine the waste of my own human potential that could have so easily occurred had I not been able to escape from extreme poverty. I was born in a small, remote village in the Peruvian Andes at 12,000 feet above sea level. As one of sixteen siblings, I had to work in the street from the age of six, shining shoes and selling lottery tickets to supplement the family income. Through the result of a statistical error, I have had the chance to study and teach at some of the world's most prestigious universi- ties, to work as an economist in a number of multilateral institutions, and to become the first South American President of indigenous descent to be democratically elected in 500 years. Despite my good fortune, I can never forget the millions of my brothers and sisters in Latin America who remain trapped in extreme poverty. As the cruel sisters of social exclusion, poverty and inequality rob them of their freedom, steal their human dignity, and deny them the right to provide their children with a better future. My own escape from poverty arose from an accidental opportunity to access education. In order to help others make this same journey to free- dom, I decided to pursue graduate degrees in education and economics, and to work as a professor during a large part of my career. xix xx foreword Thus, it is a great honor for me to preface this collection of new research that seeks to educate us on the current state of discrimination in Latin America. I congratulate and express my gratitude--which I think would also express the gratitude of millions of excluded people--to all of the authors for their innovative use of new methodologies and data sources applied to the study of discrimination. These researchers have studied a wide range of groups, defined by gender, ethnic origin, socio- economic status, occupation, stature, parental education, nationality, and migration status, among other traits. I consider it prudent of the researchers to have taken a cautious approach to the interpretation of their data, since many challenges con- front research on social prejudice. For example, discrimination and its vic- tims can sometimes exist in a vicious cycle where causality is not entirely clear. Specifically, some parts of society might discriminate against a par- ticular group, thereby contributing to this group's educational and eco- nomic disadvantage; on the other hand, although other elements of society do not discriminate against the defining trait of this group, the group's members might nevertheless find themselves marginalized as the result of their lower level of education and consequent poverty. It is revealing, then, that questionnaire respondents in all of the 18 Latin American countries surveyed reported that they believe poverty-- more than any other group characteristic--is the root cause of discrimi- nation. It is worth noting, though, that in the Andean region poverty is highly correlated with ethnicity. In addition to the difficulty of knowing how and when poverty is the cause or the effect of discrimination, respondents can easily feel ashamed or embarrassed to reveal stigmatized views. For example, in one nation covered in this book (Ecuador), more than six times as many people reported the existence of racism in their country, compared with those who actually admitted to having racist attitudes themselves. Although discrimination has become better disguised, the depth of discrimination has perhaps not been significantly reduced. To complicate the problem further, our political perspectives can color the lens through which we understand the problem of discrimination, the extent to which we perceive the multiple causes of marginalization, our value judgment regarding the distribution of resources across society, and the accessibility of opportunities for attaining these limited resources. There are many politicians who manipulate the prejudicial forces between groups for their personal benefit or for that of their group; a true leader, however, strives to unite people for the common good of all groups and individuals. Whatever the origin of traditional prejudices, our increasingly global- izing world demands that we reflect, as objectively and dispassionately as possible, on the enormous costs of social exclusion. Although some pay this price more directly than others, there can be no doubt that all of foreword xxi society suffers from systematic failures to engage the full human poten- tial of all groups. After all, a country that neglects half of its renewable natural resources would be acting irrationally, and it would be at a disad- vantage with respect to an equivalent country that makes full use of these resources. Today, as our economies move away from a dependence on exporting raw materials, it is becoming more and more crucial to invest in our full human capital. There is no better economic investment that a community or a nation can make than investing in the minds of its people. As for the political soul of a nation, democracy and freedom cannot be defined by the single day of an election; they are living values at the core of a culture of equal opportunity and meritocracy. Can the poor afford democracy? Or perhaps we should ask whether democracy can withstand the existing high levels of poverty and social exclusion. A truly healthy democracy requires more from us than merely doing business with other groups in the virtual marketplace of the Internet; rather, we must look into each other's eyes and recognize our common humanity. The strength of a globalized world lies in direct human contact, and in a mutual knowledge and a mutual respect for our cultural diversities. This book testifies that there is indeed a close connection between knowledge and respect; experiments show that providing information on an indi- vidual's performance is a powerful antidote to irrational discrimination. It is the responsibility of society's leaders--and indeed, of all of us--to provide equal levels of healthcare, nutrition, and education to the millions of socially excluded and impoverished people in our countries; thus, we will ensure that their ability to maximize their human potential, and that society's ability to recognize their worth and contribution, does not depend on a statistical error. Alejandro Toledo, PhD President of Peru (2001­2006) President, Global Center for Development and Democracy Consulting Professor, Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies; Stanford University Distinguished Fellow, Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences/Stanford University xxi Acknowledgments This book was written with the support of the Latin American Research Network at the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Created in 1991, this network aims to leverage the capabilities of the IDB's Research Department, improve the quality of research performed in the region, and contribute to the policy agenda in Latin America and the Caribbean. Through a competitive bidding process, the network provides grant fund- ing to leading Latin American research centers to conduct studies on the economic and social issues of greatest concern to the region today. The network currently comprises nearly 300 research institutes in the region and has proven to be an effective vehicle for financing quality research to enrich the policy debate in Latin America and the Caribbean. Many individuals provided comments and suggestions: Eduardo Lora, Gustavo Marquez, Jacqueline Mazza, Claudia Piras, and Laura Ripani. The editors also want to thank the Bank and colleagues who participated in formal and informal discussions and workshops on background papers, and who provided comments during the revisions. Bruno Chong, Marco Chong, Miski Ñopo, Maria Ñopo, Anna Serrichio, Irma Ugaz, and Luisa Zanforlin provided inspiration and guidance. Valuable input was also provided in the production of this book by Patricia Arauz, Sebastian Calonico, Rita Funaro, Raquel Gomez, Lucas Higuera, Alejandro Hoyos, and John Dunn Smith at the Inter-American Development Bank. Book design, editing, and print production were coordinated by Susan Graham and Denise Bergeron in the World Bank's Office of the Publisher. The views and opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the IDB, its Board of Directors, or the Advisory Committee. xxiii Abbreviations 3PP third-party punishment game Col$ Colombian peso CV curriculum vita DDG distributive dictator game DG dictator game ECV Encuesta de Calidad de Vida ENAHO Encuesta Nacional de Hogares MCMC Markov chain Monte Carlo methods NGO nongovernmental organization OLS ordinary least squares SISBEN A composite welfare index used to target groups for social programs in Colombia SPS02 Chilean Social Protection Survey 2002 TG trust game UG ultimatum game xxv 1 What Do We Know about Discrimination in Latin America? Very Little! Hugo Ñopo, Alberto Chong, and Andrea Moro There is a strong belief that Latin American societies are highly discrimina- tory. According to the conventional wisdom, the more diverse the society, the more discrimination there is. This is considered to be particularly true in the case of race. According to this long-held perception, it is believed that the fairer the skin of the individual, the higher the social status. In turn, social status is typically highly correlated with the economic power of the individual. In fact, Latin America has often been regarded as a region with deep ethnic and class conflicts. Although there is plenty of anecdotal evi- dence that Latin American societies do indeed behave in a highly discrimi- natory fashion, social sciences have crafted almost no scientific evidence to back up this perception. Behind this problem is the lack of solid, unbiased, and systematic data necessary to provide convincing empirical evidence on this issue as well as the lack of empirical methods that can help to identify any specific discriminatory behavior as opposed to related behavior that appears to be discriminatory but might not be. For example, the fact that Afro descendants and peoples of indigenous descent have, on average, lower earnings than mestizos or whites in Latin American cities may well be the result of differences in endowments of human capital and not necessarily due solely to discrimination, as the collective tends to think. Recently, social scientists have begun using innovative techniques and new data sources to explore the extent to which ethnicity and class con- structions may have an impact on socioeconomic outcomes. For instance, 1 2 ñopo, chong, and moro Latinobarómetro is a relatively new survey that helps to shed light on discrimination from previously hard-to-tackle angles. This 18-country opinion survey of the region explores perceptions about broad political and socioeconomic aspects of Latin America, including discrimination. A simple question from this regional survey--Which groups do you think are the most discriminated against, or do you think that there is no discrimination?--yields a remarkable response, not only for what the question explicitly says, but, more important, for what the responses actu- ally imply. For instance, in the survey of 2001, when asked to indicate the group most discriminated against, 27 percent of the respondents indicated the poor, only 16 percent indicated the indigenous population, and 9 per- cent indicated blacks. About 4 percent indicated that there is no discrimi- nation. All of the 18 Latin American countries surveyed indicated that poverty is the main driver of discrimination. Other socioeconomic factors, such as education or social networks, were also indicated as explain- ing unequal treatment. Only 5 percent of the respondents indicated that demographic factors, such as race and gender, are a cause of discrimina- tion. Taken at face value, this finding is truly remarkable: the factors typically believed to be crucial in explaining discrimination in the region appear to be of little or no relevance to individuals' perceptions. Furthermore, academic economic research has explored the roots of discrimination in developed countries on the basis of both race and gender; the Latinobarómetro survey indicates that race and gender are not particu- larly relevant for Latin America. According to this evidence, societies in Latin America may not discriminate on the basis of observable phenotypic traits. However, respondents may confuse factors that lead to socioeco- nomic inequality with discrimination. In other words, poverty and educa- tion can well be regarded as the effect of discrimination rather than the cause, and individuals tend to tangle causes and effects. For example, in countries that are relatively homogeneous in terms of race, the perception of poverty as a key factor in discrimination is relatively low. This is the case in Uruguay, where only about 20 percent of Latinobarómetro respon- dents linked discrimination with poverty. By the same token, in countries that have more racial diversity, Latinobarómetro respondents indicated that poverty is a crucial issue with regard to discrimination. This is the case in Peru, for example, where nearly 41 percent of Latinobarómetro respondents cited poverty as the most important reason for unequal treat- ment. Moreover, the perception of discrimination appears to be stronger in poorer countries. All in all, the perception of poverty as a driver of discrimination is stronger in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. It is lower in Costa Rica, Mexico, and Uruguay. Ad hoc surveys measuring perceptions of discrimination reveal a com- plex picture. For instance, 88 percent of a representative sample of Peru- vians reported having experienced at least one instance of discrimination (Demus 2005). The results of the First National Survey on Discrimination about discrimination in latin america 3 in Mexico (Sedesol 2005) show that 9 out of every 10 individuals who have a disability, an indigenous background, or homosexual orientation or who are elderly or members of a religious minority think that discrimination exists in their country. The Survey of Perceptions of Racism and Discrimi- nation in Ecuador (Secretaría Técnica del Frente Social 2004) reveals that 62 percent of Ecuadorians accept that there is racial discrimination in their country, but only 10 percent admit to being openly racist. Afro descen- dants are perceived to suffer the greatest discrimination in Ecuador. Perception surveys, besides providing an avenue for prima facie explo- rations, have serious limitations for analytical work, as the measurement error with which these variables are captured is correlated with an individ- ual's characteristics and behaviors (Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004b). An additional concern arises from the result that most people believe that the "poor" are an object of discrimination. Wage or employment discrimina- tion, in general, makes the targeted groups poorer than they would be with- out the racial animus held against them. To what extent are people poorer because of discriminatory practices or because of a smaller endowment of skills? If the interviewees are not capable of making such a distinction, their perception might be biased. In other words, only with additional evidence can the researcher conclude that the lower economic condition of the poor is due to discrimination as opposed to lower human capital endowment. The Economic Literature on Discrimination In order to analyze the sources, behaviors, and effects of discrimination, the economic literature has developed tools to improve our understanding of the mechanisms beyond the answers provided by opinion surveys. While those approaches may suffer from different types of biases and limitations, they inform more transparently the conditions under which differential outcomes may be interpreted as originating from discriminatory behavior. Discrimination is a process that may take place under different cir- cumstances or markets and be based on different discriminatory charac- teristics such as race, ethnicity, or gender. Altonji and Blank (1999) define discrimination as "a situation in which persons who provide labor market services and who are equally productive in a physical or material sense are treated unequally in a way that is related to an observable characteristic such as race, ethnicity, or gender. By `unequal' we mean [that] these per- sons receive different wages or face different demands for their services at a given wage." This is the unequal treatment for the same productivity definition, which outside of labor markets would indicate unequal treat- ment for the same characteristics. Additionally, it is useful to distinguish between preference-based discrimination (people treating members of cer- tain groups differently simply because they do not like them) and statisti- cal discrimination (people using group membership as a proxy measure 4 ñopo, chong, and moro for unobserved characteristics). The latter corresponds to the popularly held notions of stigmatization or stereotyping. In an attempt to classify the methodological tools, we briefly sum- marize next the advancements of the profession using regression analysis, market tests, experiments, audit studies, and structural methods. Regression Analysis The most important and widely used tool in investigating group-based inequality remains regression analysis (see, for example, the surveys by Donohue and Heckman 1991 or by Altonji and Blank 1999). This is typi- cally performed by regressing the variable measuring the discriminatory out- come (wage, job acceptance, mortgage acceptance) on a set of explanatory variables, including a group (gender, race) dummy. A significant coefficient on the group dummy is usually interpreted as evidence of discrimination. Some researchers prefer to adopt a different specification by regressing sepa- rately each demographic group on a set of explanatory variables. Then, the estimated coefficients can be used to decompose the average group differ- ential into a component that measures group inequality due to differences in the average value of the explanatory variables and a residual component that is interpreted as discrimination (the so-called Blinder-Oaxaca decompo- sition; see Oaxaca 1973 and Blinder 1973). While the decomposition is not unique, it can suggest how much inequality there would be if groups were identical, on average, in their observable characteristics. There are two principal concerns regarding regression analysis. The first is omitted-variable bias. For example, if, in trying to measure wage discrimination, the explanatory variables do not include all the factors that determine the wage, then the residual cannot be an adequate measure of discrimination. The second problem is that, even if the procedure fails to find evidence of discrimination, group differences in the explanatory variables may still be the outcome of discriminatory practices that the econometric model is trying to take into account. Market Tests A second approach tries to detect evidence of discrimination by looking at market outcomes implied by a theory of discrimination that the researcher implicitly or explicitly posits. This approach has been advocated by Gary Becker in a Business Week article (Becker 1993) criticizing the "Boston- Fed" study of mortgage discrimination (Munnell and others 1996). Becker views discrimination as motivated by racial animus: "An employer dis- criminates when he refuses to hire applicants from a group even though they would produce more profit than those who are hired. Employees discriminate if they refuse to work alongside members of a group even though they can earn more by doing that. The corollary here is that if a about discrimination in latin america 5 company chooses not to hire members of a group, its decisions may not be discriminatory if hiring others who are cheaper or more productive results in more profits." The suggestion, therefore, is that discriminatory firms should be less profitable. Hence, if wage discrimination exists against minorities, firms employing minorities should be more profitable. Similarly, if banks dis- criminate in lending against minorities because they adopt stricter standards in granting loans to minorities, minorities should have lower default rates. Other market test studies of discrimination include Smart and Waldfogel (1996), which studies discrimination against articles written by minorities by comparing citation rates by race; Ayres and Waldfogel (1994), which studies discrimination against black defendants by judges in setting bond by looking at flight probabilities; and Knowles, Persico, and Todd (2001), which studies discrimination against minorities in motor vehicle searches. Experiments Another possibility is to use experiments, either in laboratories or in the field. Holt, Anderson, and Fryer (2006) use this methodology to test for the presence of racial stereotypes. Some lab experiments use dictator games, or "investment games," in which subjects only know each other's last name. The idea is to see, for example, whether a subject will behave differently if he or she knows that his or her opponent belongs to a given demographic group.1 The main criticism of this approach is that the spe- cial environment in which experiments are conducted may cast doubts on the generalizability of the results. Experimental games are, by their nature, very special, and their monetary rewards sometimes are of limited impor- tance compared with marketplace incentives. Audit studies try to place comparable members of different demo- graphic groups into the same socioeconomic setting in an attempt to mea- sure differences in their economic outcomes. For example, a male and a female of similar characteristics and ability may be sent for a job interview to detect whether the male is more likely to get the job. Early examples of this methodology are Newman (1978) and McIntyre, Moberg, and Pos- ner (1980). One advantage of audit studies is that the investigator can, to the extent that the appropriate pair of individuals can be chosen, control for more characteristics than what can be achieved using survey data. In addition, audit studies allow the researcher to investigate discriminatory behavior that does not directly affect market outcomes. For example, they allow for a direct examination of the hiring process, while survey data can only detect employment segregation and wage inequality. Field experi- ments such as the one in Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004a) use a similar methodology. In order to exert additional control on the pair characteris- tics, they avoid using human subjects. Instead, they send fictitious résumés to help-wanted ads found in newspapers. 6 ñopo, chong, and moro Heckman and Siegelman (1993) and Heckman (1998) criticize these studies because it is hard and expensive to find partners who are good matches. In addition, they claim that audit studies undersample the main avenues through which people get jobs, since only job openings adver- tised in newspapers are audited and not jobs obtained through social net- working. They also point out that such methodology is not exempt from omitted-variable bias. When employing audits to analyze discrimination, the implicit assumption is that analysts know which characteristics are relevant to employers and when such characteristics are sufficiently close to make them indistinguishable to the employer. If an omitted character- istic is relevant to the employer, the audit method works only if the mean of the unobserved variable is the same for the two groups. If the included and omitted characteristics are correlated, then making the included char- acteristics as identical as possible may accentuate differences in the omit- ted characteristics, increasing the bias. Field studies are not immune to such criticism. Structural Methods Another set of studies tries to model explicitly the decision process that generates discriminatory outcomes. The model's prediction is then matched with the data in order to provide estimates of the fundamental parameters of the model, including those that determine preferences or technologies that are gender or race biased. Bowlus and Eckstein (2002) and Flabbi (2009), for example, estimate a search model of the labor market where employers have gender animus. The distribution of wages and unemployment duration of females and males identifies the bias that employers may have against female workers. Moro (2003) estimates a model of statistical discrimination in order to detect whether racial wage inequality is partly an effect of the labor market adopting a "bad," more discriminatory equilibrium. Structural methods of equilibrium models are capable of performing meaningful counterfactual policy analysis that can- not normally be done using standard reduced-form coefficients obtained from standard regressions (the reduced-form coefficients being sensitive to the policy that is under study). However, they are sometimes criticized for sensitivity to the model chosen by the investigator and, in some circum- stances, for reliance of the econometric identification on the assumptions of functional forms. This Volume The chapters presented in this volume adopt a variety of these method- ological tools in order to explore the extent to which discrimination against women and demographic minorities is pervasive in Latin America. For about discrimination in latin america 7 instance, in chapter 2, Castillo, Petrie, and Torero present a series of experi- ments to understand the nature of discrimination in urban Lima, Peru. They design and apply experiments that exploit degrees of information on performance as a way to assess how personal characteristics affect how people sort into groups. Their results show that behavior is not correlated with personal socioeconomic and racial characteristics. That is, if discrimi- nation exists in urban Lima, this cannot be explained by rational expecta- tions theories of statistical discrimination. However, their results show that people do use personal characteristics to sort themselves into groups. Height is a robust predictor of being desirable, as is being a woman. Look- ing indigenous makes one less desirable, and looking white makes one more desirable. The experiments also show that, once information on per- formance is provided, almost all evidence of discrimination (or preferential treatment) vanishes. This leads Castillo and his co-authors to conclude that there is evidence of stereotyping or preference-based discrimination, but that clear information trumps discrimination. Along similar lines, in chapter 3, Cárdenas and his research team use an experimental field approach in Colombia to better understand pro-social preferences and behavior of both individuals involved in the provision of social services (public servants) and potential beneficiaries of those services (the poor). They conducted field experiments using dictator, ultimatum, trust, and third-party punishment games, as well as a newly designed dis- tributive dictator game, in order to understand the traits and mechanisms that guide pro-sociality, including altruism, reciprocal altruism, reciproc- ity, trust, fairness, aversion to inequity, and altruistic (social) punishment. To do this, they recruited more than 500 public servants and beneficiaries of welfare programs associated with health, education, child care, and nutrition in Bogotá, Colombia. The overall results replicate the patterns of previous studies using these experimental designs: that is, individuals show a preference for fair outcomes, positive levels of trust and reciproc- ity, and willingness to punish, at a personal cost, unfair outcomes against either themselves or third parties. By using more information about the participants, these researchers are able to explain the observed variations in these behaviors. The results provide evidence that the poor trigger more pro-social behavior from all citizens, including public servants, but public servants show more strategic generosity by controlling their pro-social behavior toward the poor, depending on attributes of the beneficiaries or the recipients of offers in these games. They show favorable treatment toward women and households with more dependents, but discrimina- tory behavior against particularly stigmatized groups in society, such as ex-combatants from the political conflict and street recyclers. Similarly, in chapter 4, Elías, Elías, and Ronconi try to understand social status and race during adolescence in Argentina. They asked high school students to select and rank 10 classmates with whom they would like to form a team and use this information to construct a measure of popularity. 8 ñopo, chong, and moro They then explore how students' characteristics affect their popularity, find- ing that physically attractive students are highly ranked by their peers. The effect is only significant in co-ed (boys and girls) schools, suggesting that the result may be driven by mating. Other traits such as skin color, nation- ality, and parental socioeconomic background do not affect popularity among peers, although ethnic origin and parental education are statistically significant in some specifications. Their findings are informative about dis- crimination in the school system. In particular, it appears that the unequal treatment based on race and nationality found in other social environments in Argentina is not present among adolescents attending school. In chapters 5 and 6, Bravo, Sanhueza, and Urzúa present two studies covering different aspects of the labor market using different method- ological tools. Based on an audit study by mail, their first study attempts to detect gender, social class, and neighborhood-of-residence discrimina- tion in hiring practices by Chilean firms. They sent fictitious curriculum vitae (CVs) for real job vacancies published weekly in the newspaper El Mercurio of Santiago. Strictly equivalent CVs in terms of the applicant's qualifications and employment experience were sent out, only varying in gender, name and surname, and place of residence. The study allows dif- ferences in call response rates to be measured for the various demographic groups. Their results, obtained for more than 11,000 CVs sent, show no significant differences in callback rates across groups, in contrast with what is found in other international studies using the same tool. In a second study, they use a structural model to analyze gender differ- ences in the Chilean labor market. They formally deal with the selection of the individuals into level of schooling and its consequences for gender gaps by allowing for the presence of heterogeneity in both observables and unobservables, where the latter are linked to unobserved scholastic ability. They show that statistically significant gender differences exist in several dimensions of the Chilean labor market. They also show that these gaps depend on the level of schooling of the individuals considered in the analysis. For example, their results indicate that there are no gender dif- ferences in labor market variables among college graduates (except in the case of hourly wages). They interpret their results with prudence. Instead of interpreting their findings as decisive evidence of the existence of dis- crimination in the Chilean labor market, they argue that future research based on better information might indeed explain some of the unexplained labor market gaps. Their results represent a new and important attempt to provide a full understanding of the structural causes of gender gaps in the Chilean labor market, but they are not conclusive. In chapter 7, Soruco, Piani, and Rossi measure and analyze possible discriminatory behaviors against international emigrants and their fami- lies remaining in southern Ecuador (the city of Cuenca and the rural canton of San Fernando). Through a combined methodological approach (ethnographic, in-depth interviews, media analysis, and two surveys), about discrimination in latin america 9 they seek new insights into this, up to now, hidden type of discrimina- tion in the country. Their findings suggest some channels through which discrimination against these families may take place, as emigrant families are seen as "economically irrational" (they do not invest the remittances they receive in productive and sustainable activities and, therefore, do not contribute to the national economy) and as "irresponsible" (they abandon their families in search of better living conditions); their chil- dren are perceived as poor performers in school. The general perception is that the children of emigrants do not have a future in the country and that they will most probably (try to) leave the country as their parents did. These discriminatory perceptions and attitudes toward emigrants and their families are the first step in the development of discrimina- tory behavior. The discriminatory attitudes follow a cultural pattern: the closer a person is to the dominant culture (urban, adult, married, well educated, with high income, fully employed), the more probable he or she is to discriminate against emigrants and their families. Women show more discriminatory attitudes than men, which could be related to the "family sin" charged to emigrants when they abandon their children, family, and home country. In chapter 8, Gandelman, Gandelman, and Rothschild use micro data on judicial proceedings in Uruguay and present evidence that female defen- dants receive a more favorable treatment in courts than male defendants. This happens in the form of longer foreclosure proceedings and higher probabilities of being granted an extension in evictions and dispossessions. This form of positive discrimination may have general equilibrium effects, the authors speculate, that adversely affect female access to mortgage credit and, in turn, homeownership. The chapters in this volume present a variety of attempts to detect and measure discrimination and to identify some of the mechanisms through which discrimination occurs. In sum, the panorama of evidence presented here is mixed. While many results seem to agree with popular beliefs and perceptions of the average Latin American, others challenge these views and suggest different avenues through which discrimination may occur. The extent to which some of this scientifically crafted evidence challenges popular perceptions creates an opportunity for a fruitful discussion of discrimination and its mechanisms in Latin America. We hope that this volume will contribute to such a discussion. Note 1. See, for example, the study by Gneezy and Rustichini (2004) on differences in competitiveness by gender or an experimental study by Hoff and Pandey (2004) on India's caste social structure. There is also a psychology literature using experi- ments (see, for example, Siegel and Steele 1979). 10 ñopo, chong, and moro References Altonji, Joseph, and Rebecca Blank. 1999. "Race and Gender in the Labor Mar- kets." In Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3C, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Ayres, Ian, and Joel Waldfogel. 1994. "A Market Test for Race Discrimination in Bail Setting." Stanford Law Review 46 (May): 987­1047. Becker, Gary. 1993. "The Evidence against Banks Doesn't Prove Bias." Business Week, April 19. Bertrand, Marianne, and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2004a. "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination." American Economic Review 94 (4, September): 991­1013. ------. 2004b. "Do People Mean What They Say? Implications for Subjective Survey Data." American Economic Review 91 (2, May): 67­72. Blinder, Alan S. 1973. "Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Esti- mates." Journal of Human Resources 8 (fall): 436­55. Bowlus, Audra, and Zvi Eckstein. 2002. "Discrimination and Skill Differences in an Equilibrium Search Model." International Economic Review 43 (4): 1309­45. Demus (Estudio para la Defensa de los Derechos de la Mujer). 2005. National Survey on Exclusion and Social Discrimination. Lima: Demus. Donohue, John, and James Heckman. 1991. "Continuous vs. Episodic Change: The Impact of Affirmative Action and Civil Rights Policy on the Economic Sta- tus of Blacks." Journal of Economic Literature 29 (4, December): 1603­43. Flabbi, Luca. 2009. "Gender Discrimination Estimation in a Search Model with Matching and Bargaining." International Economic Review (forthcoming). Gneezy, Uri, and Aldo Rustichini. 2004. "Gender and Competition at a Young Age." American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 94 (2, May): 377­81. Heckman, James J. 1998. "Detecting Discrimination." Journal of Economic Per- spectives 12 (2): 101­16. Heckman, James J., and Peter Siegelman. 1993. "The Urban Institute Audit Stud- ies: Their Methods and Findings." In Clear and Convincing Evidence: Mea- surement of Discrimination in America, ed. Michael Fix and Raymond Struyk. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. Hoff, Karla, and Priyank Pandey. 2004. "Belief Systems and Durable Inequali- ties: An Experimental Investigation of Indian Caste." Policy Research Work- ing Paper 3351 (June 25), World Bank, Washington, DC. http://ssrn.com/ abstract=610395. Holt, Charles, Lisa Anderson, and Roland Fryer. 2006. "Discrimination: Experi- mental Evidence from Psychology and Economics." In Handbook on Econom- ics of Discrimination, ed. William Rogers. Cheltenham, U.K.; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Knowles, John, Nicola Persico, and Petra Todd. 2001. "Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence." Journal of Political Economy 109 (1): 203­29. McIntyre, Shelby J., Dennis J. Moberg, and Barry Z. Posner. 1980. "Discrimina- tion in Recruitment: An Empirical Analysis; Comment." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33 (4, July): 543­47. about discrimination in latin america 11 Moro, Andrea. 2003. "The Effect of Statistical Discrimination on Black-White Wage Inequality: Estimating a Model with Multiple Equilibria." International Economic Review 44 (2, May): 457­500. Munnell, Alicia, Geoffrey Tootell, Lynn Browne, and James McEneaney. 1996. "Mortgage Lending in Boston: Interpreting HMDA Data." American Eco- nomic Review 86 (1, March): 25­53. Newman, Jerry M. 1978. "Discrimination in Recruitment: An Empirical Analy- sis." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 32 (1, October): 15­23. Oaxaca, Ronald L. 1973. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Mar- kets." International Economic Review 14 (October): 673­709. Secretaría Técnica del Frente Social. 2004. Survey of Perceptions of Racism and Discrimination in Ecuador. Quito: Secretaría Técnica del Frente Social. Sedesol (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social). 2005. First National Survey on Discrimi- nation in Mexico. Mexico City: Sedesol. Siegel, Judith M., and Claude M. Steele. 1979. "Noise Level and Social Discrimina- tion." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 5 (1): 95­100. Smart, Scott, and Joel Waldfogel. 1996. "A Citation-Based Test for Discrimination at Economics and Finance Journals." NBER Working Paper 5460, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. 2 Ethnic and Social Barriers to Cooperation: Experiments Studying the Extent and Nature of Discrimination in Urban Peru Marco Castillo, Ragan Petrie, and Máximo Torero Trust plays an important role in our choice of personal interactions. Trust is reflected in where we choose to live, whom we choose to befriend, and the groups to which we belong. While many choices are made with information on the qualities or reputations of others, some choices may be made with little more information than the impressions we form by driving through a neighborhood or viewing the clientele of a store. Lack of information can therefore hinder economic exchange if people misperceive the trustworthiness of others. People may withdraw from or never enter into interactions with certain segments of the population because of super- ficial perceptions, and initial perceptions might persist even in the face of evidence contradicting them. In the long run, society may suffer persistent losses due to exclusion if enough sorting takes place. Marco Castillo is with the Georgia Institute of Technology, Ragan Petrie is with Georgia State University, and Máximo Torero is with the International Food Policy Research Institute. This paper was undertaken as part of the Latin American and Caribbean Research Network Project "Discrimination and Economic Outcomes." The authors would like to thank the Inter-American Development Bank for fund- ing as well as Kevin Ackaramongkolrotn, Jorge de la Roca, David Solis, and Néstor Valdivia. 13 14 castillo, petrie, and torero How important are these types of misperceptions in determining group composition and therefore economic outcomes? In this chapter, we explore the salience of both performance and observable characteristics in how people sort into groups. We conjecture that people use observ- able characteristics, such as gender or race, to choose group members because they lack better information on future performance. However, even if people use personal characteristics only as a way to gauge infor- mation, if performance and characteristics are highly correlated, then we cannot tease apart which of the two is most salient in group mem- bership. We use a series of experiments that break this correlation and allow us to assess which of the two criteria--personal characteristics or performance--is more salient. Furthermore, we use a cross section of the population as a way to reach a more diverse population of subjects than is normally found in standard laboratory experiments with college students. Discrimination and social exclusion in the form of racial or ethnic dis- crimination seem to be critical in a multiracial and multilingual country such as Peru, where indigenous groups and ethnic minorities are more likely to be poor than other groups. Previous work has shown that social exclusion in access to different markets--labor, credit, education--is a crucial issue in Peru. Discrimination and exclusion related to ethnicity, culture, physical appearance, and religion take place in ways both obvious and subtle. Moreover, as shown by Castillo and Petrie (2007), using data collected from the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission, some patterns of human rights violations are difficult to reconcile with theories of statistical discrimination. If exclusion in Peru combines statistical and preference-based discrimination, it is important to identify the extent of each and to devise institutions that diminish both. Group membership may have important economic benefits, such as the benefits from belonging to a trade association or investment group. If the composition of the group dictates the benefits, then we may need to be care- ful about whom we choose to be in our group or to which group we choose to belong; such sorting could have important consequences for which groups do well economically and which groups do not. If certain groups are unfor- tunate enough to have, for example, weak social networks and are perceived as having an untrustworthy appearance, they may be excluded from high- performing groups and only be able to find membership in low-performing groups. Also, people conscious of discrimination might exclude themselves from groups as a way to avoid being discriminated against. In this chapter, we use the results of repeated linear public goods game experiments to explore these issues. Repeated public goods experiments are a natural environment in which to study trust, as they offer participants an opportunity to engage in reciprocal behavior. Level of cooperation, or reciprocity, has been found to depend on the initial propensities that people in the group have to cooperate (Andreoni and Petrie 2006). People will ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 15 therefore sort themselves into groups of high performers. If people are not altruistic, then trust becomes important in this environment. Without trust in others' willingness to contribute to the public good, social benefits will not be achieved. Since identification of discrimination for other than statistical reasons requires breaking the correlation between actions and appearances, we conducted several experimental treatments that manipulate the correla- tion between behavior and appearances. Subjects were shown digital pho- tographs of others in the experiment and information on past performance and then were asked to choose whom they would like to have in their group. Our approach is novel in that it manipulates the equilibrium at the experiment level to identify sources of discrimination. A policy implica- tion of this study is therefore to identify the changes in incentives necessary to reduce the prevalence of discrimination. Our results show that people discriminate based on appearance and socioeconomic characteristics despite the fact that there is no correlation between those characteristics and performance. That is, discrimination in urban Lima cannot be reconciled with theories of statistical discrimina- tion. While the evidence is consistent with the presence of stereotyping or taste-based discrimination, we also show that providing information on previous performance makes evidence of discrimination disappear almost completely. While this is encouraging, there also is evidence of preference- based discrimination since stereotyping is no longer a reasonable explana- tion once information on performance is revealed. Appearance and Information Why might we think that appearance and information will interact to affect decisions? Previous research supports the notion that the social context of decisions can affect outcomes. Research in experimental eco- nomics has shown that being able to identify one's partner increases levels of altruism in dictator games (Bohnet and Frey 1999; Burnham 2003) and that combining identification and information on past actions increases cooperation in public goods games (Andreoni and Petrie 2006). Also, people may have mistaken perceptions of behavior, expecting women to be more trusting than they actually are (Petrie 2004). Identification alone can increase cooperation, but specific characteris- tics of a partner, such as gender and beauty, can affect decisions. People are more cooperative and trusting with attractive people (Andreoni and Petrie 2006; Eckel and Wilson 2002; Petrie 2004), and attractive people make more money (Hammermesh and Biddle 1994; Mobius and Rosenblatt 2005). Decisions are also affected by the ethnic composition (Cummings and Ferraro 2003) and the gender and age composition of the experimen- tal group (Carter and Castillo 2003). 16 castillo, petrie, and torero Sorting, or preference for individuals with certain observable character- istics, may reflect preference-based or statistical discrimination. Previous research using audit studies and field experiments has shown that there is evidence of both. Audit studies suggest findings consistent with prefer- ence-based discrimination (Riach and Rich 2002), but List (2004) suggests that audit studies cannot distinguish this from statistical discrimination. List uses a sequence of field experiments at a sports card market to show that differentiated behavior is more likely due to statistical discrimination than to pure discrimination. To our knowledge, our work is the first to present evidence consis- tent with taste-based discrimination in the experimental literature. The research shows the advantage of experimental methods in tackling dif- ficult identification issues. It also shows the importance of measurement of personal characteristics and sampling in the study of race and height in experiments. Theoretical Motivation Standard economic reasoning implies that the way people sort into groups reveals their incentive to form coalitions. People sort into the groups that maximize expected future gains, and observable characteristics of participants are important insofar as they reveal information on likely strategies to be played. In equilibrium, people play their best responses to their expectations of others' behavior and others' expectations of their behavior. This means that people will adjust their behavior according to their beliefs of what others are likely to do. Observable characteristics are likely to be more salient and to affect play in games in the absence of information on the likely play of others. This is the basis of statistical discrimination. Also, behavior toward oth- ers might be due to preferences for or against certain others, regardless of beliefs. If people have preferences for the composition of the group, how people sort into groups no longer reflects solely the incentive to maximize expected future gain. Since one's quality as a partner is private information, there might be incentives to signal quality or to obtain information on the quality of oth- ers, and people would have an incentive to form reputations. In order to avoid any reputation effects, we need to eliminate the incentive to form a reputation in early rounds of the game. This suggests a natural test of theories explaining sorting into groups. Theories of statistical discrimination suggest that appearance affects sort- ing only because it provides information on expected behavior. Once information on behavior is provided, the role of appearance must be muted. But what if behavior is correlated with appearance? For example, ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 17 what if Caucasians are indeed more cooperative? If this is the case, then we cannot determine whether sorting along social characteristics in the pres- ence of information on past behavior is evidence of pure discrimination or statistical discrimination. This identification problem can be resolved if this correlation can be broken, so that any subsequent sorting along social characteristics is due to pure discrimination. Our experimental design allows us to observe whether people engage in statistical discrimination or pure discrimination when choosing groups. The Sample The site for our experiments is urban metropolitan Lima in Peru. This site lends itself to Internet-based experiments that draw from a larger popula- tion because Internet cabins are common in Lima and a high proportion of the population has expertise in using the Internet. According to a survey conducted in 2003, there were 476 Internet cabins distributed across all districts of Lima. This amounts to around 1 computer per hour per 10 people (assuming 10 computers per cabin, 12 hours of service, and an urban population of 5,681,941, according to the census of 1993). This characteristic allowed us to conduct Internet-based experiments with non- college student populations--an important distinction, given that students belong to a potentially highly unrepresentative segment of the population, thus reducing the external validity of the results and preventing us from drawing clear policy implications. By drawing on this broader population, we are able to look more accurately at the extent of discrimination. Our sampling strategy was twofold. First, we wanted to create an environment in which people of various social distances who might not normally interact with one another could. Second, we wanted to have a sample that was representative of the young working population in met- ropolitan Lima. To this end, eligible subjects were 20­35 years of age, lived in metropolitan Lima, had labor market experience, were currently working, knew how to use the Internet, and had an e-mail account. In addition, we sought to keep a gender and income balance so that sub- jects would be distributed homogeneously across gender and income lev- els. To ensure a diverse population in our sample, we worked with two companies that specialize in conducting surveys and recruiting subjects.1 We also drew samples from clusters of owners of small, medium, and microenterprises.2 The protocol used for the experiments was simple enough to include large segments of the population. The interface was graphical and required simply that the subjects knew how to use a computer mouse. However, because our experiments relied on Internet protocols and the ability to use a computer, we likely excluded some segments of the population that might 18 castillo, petrie, and torero suffer more marked patterns of discrimination. Therefore, our results give a lower-bound estimate to the extent of discrimination. According to the population census of 1993, our sample covers most of the districts in metropolitan Lima and is highly correlated with the dis- tribution of the population with complete or incomplete higher education (see figure 2.1).3 To investigate the comparability of our sample to the population in other dimensions, we compared our experimental subjects to a subsample from the Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) 2004. The subsample complies with the eligibility criteria for all of our subjects. The advantage of using the ENAHO as a comparison group is that it is representative of metropolitan Lima and therefore useful in helping us to identify any selection bias in our sample. Our experimental subjects and the ENAHO comparison group have a similar distribution among almost all the variables (age, gender, monthly income, average education, and language), but our experimental subjects are slightly more educated. This comparison gives us confidence that the subjects in our experiment are a good representation of the larger population in metropolitan Lima. As noted, because our experiments relied on Internet protocols and the ability to use a computer, we likely excluded some segments of the Figure 2.1 Distribution of the Sample in Comparison with Population with Complete or Incomplete Higher Education, Lima, Peru b. Percentage of population with complete or incomplete a. Sample population higher education Percent of population with complete or incomplete Number of subjects: higher educaton: 1­3 6 ­ 16 4­6 17 ­ 25 7­9 26 ­ 35 10 ­ 12 36 ­ 44 Source: Population Census 1993. ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 19 population that might suffer more marked patterns of discrimination. Previous experience by the researchers in rural areas in South Africa and Central America shows that illiterate subjects are able to understand experimental procedures presented in a graphical manner. The experi- ments in this research required simply that the subjects knew how to use a computer mouse. Experimental Design We used a linear public goods game to explore discrimination in group formation, a design first developed and used by Castillo and Petrie (2006). Each subject was given a 25-token endowment and told to decide how to divide the endowment between a private investment and a public invest- ment. Each token placed in the private investment yielded a return of 4 céntimos to the subject.4 Each token placed in the public investment yielded a return of i to the subject and every other member of the group. The return to the public investment, i, was 2 céntimos in three of the four treatments. There were 20 subjects in each experimental session. Subjects were randomly assigned to a five-person group and played 10 rounds with that same group. At the end of each round, subjects learned their payoff, i, and the total number of tokens contributed to the public investment by the group, G. Subjects made decisions privately on a computer and did not talk to one another. They did not interact with other subjects in any way other than through decisions on the computer. In total, subjects played three 10-round sequences, and each 10-round sequence was with an assigned group. At the end of the first 10-round sequence, subjects were again randomly assigned to a new five-person group, and at the end of the second 10-round sequence, subjects were asked to choose their group for the final 10 investment decisions. Subjects did not know that they would be asked to choose their group before this point in the experiment. This was a surprise. This design element was important to avoid biasing subject behavior. No personal or individual contribution information was revealed in the first 20 rounds of the game. In order to create an incentive for people to reveal whom they would prefer to have in their group, we created the following procedure. Subjects ranked all of the other 19 subjects in the session from 1 (most preferred) to 19 (least preferred). We provided subjects with some information on the other subjects in the room to use for ranking. The information was either the average amount contributed to the public investment during the second 10-round sequence, the subject's photo, or both. Subjects used that information to create a list from most preferred to least pre- ferred. Digital photographs of subjects were taken at the beginning of the experiment, and photographs were head shots, similar to a passport or identification photo. 20 castillo, petrie, and torero Once all subjects had submitted their lists, groups were formed in four steps. First, one person was chosen at random. A group was formed that included the randomly chosen person and the top four people on his or her list. Second, one person from the remaining 15 people who had not been assigned to a group was randomly chosen. A group was formed with that person and the first four people on that person's list from the remaining people who had not previously been assigned to a group. Third, one per- son from the remaining 10 people who had not previously been assigned to a group was randomly chosen. The first four people on that person's list among the remaining people were put in a group with that person. Fourth, anyone not already assigned to a group was put in a group together. Once groups were formed by this procedure, subjects then saw a screen with information corresponding to the subjects in their new group. Subjects played the last 10 rounds with that group. During these last 10 rounds, at the end of each round, they saw the same information they saw during the previous 20 rounds: their payoff, i, and the total number of tokens con- tributed to the public investment by the group, G. No other information was revealed either when making decisions or at the end of each round. This sorting mechanism is similar to the one suggested in Bogomolnaia and Jackson (2002). The mechanism is incentive compatible if preferences over groups are additive in the preferences over its members. Additivity in this context means that if Pablo prefers María's company to Gabriela's company, then Pablo always prefers a group that exchanges Gabriela for María, regardless of who the other members of the group are. Under these conditions, revealing the ordering of others is a weakly dominant strategy for Pablo. If Pablo is not chosen, he is indifferent in the ranking he reveals, but if he is chosen, he is better off by revealing his true rankings. Since preferences over others' company is additive, it does not matter whether he is chosen first or last. Some may argue that additivity of preferences over others' company may be a strong assumption. Some combinations of people might be less successful than others. For instance, women might be very cooperative with other women, but less cooperative with men. Therefore, a woman might be chosen to be part of a group when other women are available, but not when mostly men are available. There is another mechanism that is incentive compatible, regardless of preferences over groups. If people are able to rank all possible groups that one could be paired with, we would not need to be concerned with the additivity assumption. Unfortunately, this option would be impractical since the number of groups to be ranked would be exceedingly large.5 For this reason, we opted for the mechanism described above, which is easy to explain to subjects and can be implemented quickly once subjects have submitted their list of rankings. There were four experimental treatments: contribution only, photo only, contribution and photo, and two types. Treatments differed in the i ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 21 assigned to each person and the information that was shown to subjects when they were asked to rank the other subjects. In the contribution-only, photo-only, and contribution-and-photo treatments, all subjects were assigned i = 2 céntimos, so the price of contributing to the public good was 2. It is in the group's interest for everyone to contribute their full endowment to the public investment, but each individual in the group maximizes his own payoffs by putting all of his tokens in the individual investment. In the contribution-only treatment, when subjects were asked to rank others, they saw the average amount contributed to the public good in the second 10-round sequence by all other subjects in the room. Because groups were randomly assigned in the first and second sequences, all subjects had an equal probability of being assigned to any given group. Therefore, while contributions in a public goods game are a function of preferences, learning, and group behavior, no subject is any more likely to be in a "good" or "bad" group. Average contribution behavior in the second sequence should reflect average performance in a public goods game and minimize the effects of learning. In the photo-only treatment, when subjects were asked to rank oth- ers, they saw the photos of all other subjects. And in the contribution- and-photo treatment, subjects saw the photo and the average amount contributed to the public good in the second 10-round sequence. The average was listed below each subject's photo. In the two-types treatment, as in the contribution-and-photo treat- ment, when subjects were asked to rank others, they saw the photo and average contribution to the public good in the second 10-round sequence. In the two-types treatment, however, i {0.5, 5.0} céntimos. Half of the subjects were randomly assigned a value of 0.5, and half were randomly assigned a value of 5.0. Subjects kept the same value for all 30 rounds of play. All subjects knew this information before making decisions. A subject with i = 5.0 has a price of contributing to the public good of 0.8. If he is selfish or altruistic, he should invest his entire endowment in the public good. If he is not altruistic or is inequality averse, however, he might not contribute his full endowment, despite the low price of giving.6 A subject with i = 0.5 has a price of contributing to the public good of 8, so investing in the public good is very expensive. We would expect subjects assigned the low i to invest little to nothing in the public good. In all cases, we expect there to be a clear separation in the contribution behavior between those assigned a low and those assigned a high price of giving. Complete separation is not necessarily expected due to the asymmetry faced by subjects within a group. Because subjects were randomly assigned incentives, however, performance and appearance should not be correlated. The two-types treatment is important to our ability to identify whether appearance or performance affects sorting. 22 castillo, petrie, and torero Each treatment was run twice, and each experimental session had 20 subjects. An experimental session lasted at least two hours. In total, 160 subjects participated in the four treatments. Each session ended with an extensive questionnaire. The experiments were conducted on computers in two computer labs at Pacific University in Lima. Two treatments were run at the same time, so subjects were randomly assigned to treatments. Since most subjects worked full time, the experiments were conducted on weekend afternoons. In the contribution-only, photo-only, and contribution-and-photo treatments, average payoffs were $19.65 (standard deviation $1.36). In the two-types treatment, average payoffs were $33.75 (standard devia- tion $6.87).7 Race and Height Classifications We were interested in knowing whether people sort into groups based on physical characteristics. While a person's sex is easy to determine, a person's race is not. We wanted to develop an independent measure of the race of a person that reflects the general perception of that person. There- fore, we used raters--people who did not participate in the public goods experiment but who were drawn from the same cohort as subjects in the experiment--to rate the photos of the subjects in terms of race as well as height. A rater only rated the photo in terms of one characteristic--race or height--not both. For race ratings, because the most popular self-classification of race in Peru is mestizo (mixed race), it was important for us to have a measure of race that could adequately capture this mixing. For this reason, we used the race classification method developed by Torero and others (2004) and Ñopo, Saavedra, and Torero (2004). Instead of classifying a subject along one dimension of "white" or "mestizo," we evaluated subjects on their racial intensity in four categories: white, indigenous, black, and Asian, which are readily recognized as distinct racial groups. This gave a more nuanced measure of race and more accurately captured racial mixing in Peru. To obtain these ratings, we had 20 persons not involved in the public goods experiment (10 women and 10 men) rate each subject along each of these four dimensions. Each dimension was rated from 0 to 10, with 0 being complete absence of the dimension and 10 being the most intense. Raters were instructed to choose whichever number between 1 and 10 best described the person for each of the four racial dimensions. The four numbers did not need to add up to 10. The raters were told that if they thought that a person belonged to only one racial group, they should give that person a 10 for that racial dimension and a 0 for all other dimensions. Raters were shown the photos one by one on a computer screen and asked ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 23 to choose the intensity of each dimension by clicking a button. Raters could easily move back and forth between the photos to check or change their answers. Ratings took about one hour, and each rater was paid $9.67 for his or her time. For estimated height, we followed the same procedure as with race. The only difference is that the 10 men and 10 women were asked to guess the height, in centimeters, of each person in the photo. Raters were free to choose any number for the height. In terms of agreement among raters, there was usually a high degree of agreement regarding race. Along the white dimension, pairwise correla- tions among raters range from 0.31 to 0.76, with an average of 0.57. For the indigenous dimension, correlations range from 0.02 to 0.64, with an average of 0.41. For the black dimension, correlations range from 0.19 to 0.82, with an average of 0.50, and for the Asian dimension, correlations range from -0.02 to 0.81, with an average of 0.37.8 While the rating scale ranged from 0 to 10 for race, some raters did not use the full range of the scale. For example, for race, some used intensities up to 10 and some only up to 6. To be able to make comparisons across raters, we standardized each rater's rating by his or her own mean and standard deviation. This allowed us to take an average across all 20 raters' standardized ratings for race or height to obtain the final ratings we use to analyze the data. For race, the most likely intensities in the subject population are white and indigenous. While some subjects displayed intensities in the dimen- sions of black and Asian, the majority of subjects displayed the greatest intensities in the dimensions of white and indigenous. This is in line with the general population in Peru, where blacks make up 2 percent of the population and Asians make up 3 percent. Average intensity is 2.83 for white, 3.91 for indigenous, 1.89 for black, and 1.31 for Asian. Because the majority of our subjects identified themselves primarily as a mix of white and indigenous, in the next section we concentrate on these two dimensions in our analysis of contributions and ranking. A per- son is considered white if her average racial intensity rating in the white dimension is above the median and her average racial intensity rating in the indigenous dimension is below the median. A person is considered indigenous if her average racial intensity in the indigenous dimension is above the median and her average racial intensity in the white dimension is below the median. Results and Discussion Table 2.1 presents descriptive statistics of the experimental subjects.9 Three out of five subjects are men, and the average age is 26 years. As mentioned, our sample is slightly more educated than the population at 24 castillo, petrie, and torero Table 2.1 Descriptive Statistics Standard Variable Number Mean deviation Minimum Maximum 1 = male 160 0.61 0.49 0 1 Age (years) 160 26.28 4.23 20 35 Education (years) 160 15.07 1.72 10 19 1 = college degree 160 0.29 0.46 0 1 1 = incomplete college degree 160 0.32 0.47 0 1 European grandparents (number) 157a 0.17 0.60 0 4 Indigenous grandparents (number) 157a 0.31 0.89 0 4 Height (meters) 160 1.69 0.08 1.52 1.94 a Family size 156 4.95 2.24 1 13 1 = religious high school 160 0.44 0.50 0 1 Source: Authors' calculations. a. Self reporting by individuals. large. On average, participants have three or more years of postsecond- ary education, and 29 percent have a college degree. The sample also reflects the ethnic and cultural makeup of Lima's population. Among the sample, 17 percent has at least one grandparent whose mother tongue is neither Spanish nor any other Peruvian indigenous language. In addi- tion, 31 percent of the sample has at least one grandparent whose mother tongue is indigenous to Peru. While stature is a self-reported variable, we find great variation in height. On average, a male subject reported being 1.73 meters tall and a female subject reported being 1.63 meters tall. Finally, experimental subjects live in households with an average of five persons. What Did People Do in the Experiment? Figures 2.2 and 2.3 show the aggregate behavior in all experimental sessions. Across all rounds of the first sequence of the experiment, contributions to the public good range from 23 percent of subjects' ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 25 Figure 2.2 Contributions to the Public Good, First Sequence, by Type of Treatment 100 90 80 % in public investment 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Round Contribution only Photo only Contribution and photo Low type High type Source: Authors' calculations. endowments for low type in the two-types treatment to 46 percent of subjects' endowments in the contribution-only treatment. As commonly observed (see Kagel and Roth 1995), contributions tend to decline with time. Contributions decline to 22 percent for low type in the two- types treatment and to 22 percent in the contribution-only treatment. A similar pattern is observed in the second sequence of the experiment, shown in figure 2.3. Contributions in the first round of the second sequence of the experiment range from 23 percent in the photo-only treatment to 75 percent for high type in the two-types treatment. Contri- butions in the last round of the second sequence decrease to 14 percent in the photo-only treatment and to 23 percent for low type in the two- types treatment. Moreover, the incentives of the two-types treatment successfully induce a separation in behavior between high and low types. High type contrib- utes 50 percentage points more to the public good than low type. The figures also show convergence toward the play of dominant strategies by high type. 26 castillo, petrie, and torero Figure 2.3 Contributions to the Public Good, Second Sequence, by Type of Treatment 100 90 80 % in public investment 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Round Contribution only Photo only Contribution and photo Low type High type Source: Authors' calculations. A basic premise in theories of statistical discrimination is that people of different backgrounds might behave differently; therefore, in the absence of better information, ethnic or cultural background can be used as a proxy of behavior. For instance, migrants might experi- ence unfavorable market conditions, causing them to behave selfishly. Conversely, more-affluent subjects can afford to be more altruistic or to take more risks. Table 2.2 shows a series of regressions aimed at deter- mining whether different people do behave differently. All regressions include group-level fixed effects in order to control for the fact that dif- ferent levels of contributions might be due to social interactions within a particular group. The regressions also include random effects at the individual level to control for the fact that the same person's decisions are correlated.10 The regressions in table 2.2 show that behavior is not correlated with personal characteristics. On average, contributions decrease by 10 percent from round 1 to round 10. There is a slight effect of taller people giving more in the two-types treatment. It is further instructive to compare the column showing results from the combination of the contribution-only, photo-only, and contribution-and-photo treatments with the column showing the results for all treatments. ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 27 Table 2.2 Percent of Endowment Contributed to the Public Good (Sequence 2), by Type of Treatment Contribution only, photo only, and contribution All Variable and photo Two types treatments 1 = male 4.62 -3.03 3.19 (0.21) (0.75) (0.37) Age (years) 0.10 -0.81 -0.13 (0.78) (0.40) (0.70) Education (years) 0.55 -2.74 -0.57 (0.56) (0.14) (0.51) Height (meters) ­1.56 117.36 27.78 (0.95) (0.03) (0.21) 1 = white > median; -0.16 -2.90 -0.96 indigenous median (0.96) (0.74) (0.77) 1 = white median; -1.55 4.09 -0.30 indigenous > median (0.68) (0.70) (0.94) 1 = religious high school -1.72 5.99 1.16 (0.58) (0.48) (0.70) 1 = low type n.a. n.a. -13.44 (0.72) 1 = high type n.a. 48.01 30.37 (0.00) (0.42) Round -1.19 -0.12 -0.93 (0.00) (0.73) (0.00) Constant 26.49 -113.41 n.a. (0.51) (0.19) Individual random effects Yes Yes Yes Group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Within R2 0.0360 0.0003 0.0209 Number of observations 1,200 400 1,600 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. Table 2.2 shows that personal characteristics are of little help in pre- dicting the behavior of others. This result is useful in interpreting the results presented in the following section. Ethnic background, measured as intensity of a racial characteristic, is not correlated with behavior at all. 28 castillo, petrie, and torero How Were People Ranked? The previous section shows that there is little evidence supporting the hypothesis that personal characteristics correlate with behavior. This sec- tion investigates whether personal characteristics are used when choosing groups. The regression is based on a few covariates due to the fact that results are not altered significantly by the inclusion of additional ones. Ethnicity is measured by the average standardized intensity variable of white and indigenous described in the section on racial classification. We use these aggregated racial intensities to create a discrete variable deter- mining whether a person is white or indigenous. Table 2.3 reports the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression for rank- ings separately for each treatment.11 The dependent variable is the rank that a person is given. That is, a person with a rank of 1 is ranked high- est, and a person with a rank of 19 is ranked lowest. Given how rank is defined, the interpretation of the sign of coefficients must be adjusted Table 2.3 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment Contribution Variable Photo only and photo Two types Age (years) 0.06 0.03 -0.02 (0.28) (0.32) (0.67) 1 = male 2.89 0.09 -0.00 (0.00) (0.81) (0.99) Height (meters) -10.37 -0.85 -1.10 (0.00) (0.65) (0.66) Expected rank n.a. 0.83 0.64 (0.00) (0.00) 1 = white > median; 0.19 ­0.06 -0.71 indigenous median (0.73) (0.86) (0.14) 1 = white median; 1.47 -0.34 -0.19 indigenous > median (0.00) (0.28) (0.68) Constant 23.48 2.30 6.17 (0.00) (0.46) (0.13) R2 0.05 0.70 0.43 Number of observations 760 760 760 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Highest = 1; lowest = 19. Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 29 accordingly. If a coefficient is positive, then the variable associated with it tends to lower the person's rank. If a coefficient is negative, the presence of the covariate tends to improve the person's rank. Two covariates require extra explanation. Expected rank is a variable indicating the rank that a person should have if only contributions to the public good are used to rank others. The expected coefficient on this variable should be 1 if information on others' behavior is the only relevant information in creating ranks. Participants seem to have understood that having high contributors in the group is the best strategy. For instance, expected rank alone explains 67 percent of the variance of ranks in the contribution-only treatment (not shown in table 2.3). Expected rank remains a strong predictor of rank in all treatments where information on previous contribution was provided. Despite the fact that personal characteristics have no bearing on what people did in the experiment, they tend to predict how people are ranked. In the photo-only treatment, men are ranked, on average, 2.89 ranks lower than women. Height also has a strong effect on how people are ranked: 10 extra centimeters of height increases rank by 1. Tall women are there- fore ranked rather high. Due to the fact that people only saw the picture of other participants, the result for height is puzzling. Height might be correlated with other characteristics captured in a photo and therefore might not measure the impact of height per se. However, as mentioned, we collected data from independent people to see whether people are able to guess the height of others correctly by looking at head-shot pictures. Indeed, the average estimated height reported by independent raters is highly correlated with real height even after controlling for sex and eth- nicity. That is, we cannot discard the hypothesis that height itself explains how people are ranked. Relevant for the question of racial discrimination, the regression on rankings made in the photo-only treatment also shows that people who look indigenous are ranked 1.47 ranks lower. Table 2.3, however, shows that discrimination based on race is present only when no information on past performance is available. Rankings made in the treatment with both contributions and photos show that race indicators are no longer signifi- cant. That is, the regressions are consistent with stereotyping, but not with preference-based discrimination. Who is doing the discriminating? Table 2.4 shows how men and women rank others. In the photo-only treatment, both men and women rank tall women higher, but men rank people who look indigenous lower. Women react more strongly to tall women than do men. In the contribution-and- photo treatment, women rank people who look indigenous lower. Men do not react to racial characteristics. Table 2.5 shows how white and indigenous people rank others. Both groups rate tall women higher, but only whites rate indigenous-looking 30 Table 2.4 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment and Gender Photo only Contribution and photo Two types Variable Men Women Men Women Men Women Age (years) 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.07 -0.10 (0.31) (0.63) (0.68) (0.22) (0.21) (0.03) 1 = male 2.76 3.12 0.05 0.07 0.26 -0.25 (0.00) (0.00) (0.89) (0.93) (0.69) (0.62) Height (meters) -9.17 -12.56 -1.08 0.41 -2.95 0.79 (0.03) (0.03) (0.75) (0.92) (0.46) (0.80) Expected rank n.a. n.a. 0.86 0.73 0.55 0.73 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 1 = white > median; 0.39 -0.23 -0.11 0.12 -1.09 -0.41 indigenous median (0.58) (0.81) (0.75) (0.86) (0.16) (0.49) 1 = white median; 1.84 0.74 0.01 1.34 -0.42 -0.03 indigenous > median (0.00) (0.42) (0.97) (0.06) (0.56) (0.96) Constant 21.06 27.85 2.93 -0.53 7.96 4.27 (0.00) (0.00) (0.39) (0.94) (0.22) (0.66) R2 0.05 0.04 0.74 0.61 0.32 0.55 Number of observations 494 266 551 209 361 399 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Highest = 1; lowest = 19. Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. Table 2.5 OLS Regression on Individual Ranking, by Type of Treatment and Race or Ethnicity Photo only Contribution and photo Two types Variable White Indigenous White Indigenous White Indigenous Age (years) 0.03 0.13 0.02 -0.01 0.10 -0.09 (0.71) (0.13) (0.55) (0.87) (0.04) (0.12) 1 = male 4.08 2.58 0.73 -0.01 -0.12 0.40 (0.00) (0.00) (0.07) (0.99) (0.82) (0.56) Height (meters) -10.89 -11.99 -2.07 -0.32 -2.60 1.71 (0.07) (0.03) (0.31) (0.93) (0.45) (0.67) Expected rank n.a. n.a. 0.92 0.73 0.80 0.69 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 1 = white > median; -0.63 1.20 -0.35 0.25 -0.42 -1.39 indigenous median (0.51) (0.18) (0.27) (0.70) (0.52) (0.07) 1 = white median; 1.97 0.91 0.21 0.83 -0.09 -0.53 indigenous > median (0.03) (0.28) (0.56) (0.19) (0.88) (0.48) Constant 24.21 24.43 3.28 3.16 3.73 3.33 (0.00) (0.00) (0.33) (0.62) (0.50) (0.66) R2 0.12 0.03 0.90 0.54 0.68 0.48 Number of observations 247 304 228 266 228 266 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Highest = 1; lowest = 19. Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. 31 32 castillo, petrie, and torero people lower. When information on contributions is known, this is a strong predictor of rank. Whites do rank men lower in the contribution- and-photo treatment, and they also rank older people lower in the two- types treatment. But this effect is rather small. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 show OLS regressions that further investigate the presence of discrimination across treatments.12 Table 2.6 shows a linear probability model of the likelihood of being in the top four of any list. As mentioned, being a man decreases the probability of being among the top four, and height increases the probability of being among the top four. Table 2.7 shows the likelihood of being in the bottom four of any list. Both of these tables confirm previous results. Finally, the results for the two-types treatment are interesting because subjects were induced to behave quite differently regardless of their looks or background. Despite this, we find that looking white increases the likelihood of being named among the top four. Also, looking indigenous increases the likelihood of being named among the bottom four. Table 2.6 Probability of Being in the Top Four, by Type of Treatment Contribution Variable Photo only and photo Two types Age (years) -0.01 -0.00 0.00 (0.14) (0.39) (0.21) 1 = male -0.17 -0.02 0.05 (0.00) (0.57) (0.18) Height (meters) 0.60 -0.19 -0.19 (0.02) (0.27) (0.32) Expected to be in group n.a. 0.68 0.52 (0.00) (0.00) 1 = white > median; -0.00 0.00 0.15 indigenous median (0.92) (0.97) (0.00) 1 = white median; -0.11 0.02 0.04 indigenous > median (0.00) (0.61) (0.27) Constant -0.49 0.43 0.20 (0.22) (0.14) (0.50) R2 0.04 0.52 0.34 Number of observations 760 760 760 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Highest = 1; lowest = 19. Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 33 Table 2.7 Probability of Being in the Bottom Four, by Type of Treatment Contribution Variable Photo only and photo Two types Age (years) -0.00 0.01 -0.01 (0.72) (0.01) (0.01) 1 = male 0.14 -0.04 0.02 (0.00) (0.24) (0.58) Height (meters) -0.62 -0.03 -0.34 (0.02) (0.86) (0.12) Expected to be in group n.a. 0.74 0.48 (0.00) (0.00) 1 = white > median; 0.13 0.09 0.01 indigenous median (0.00) (0.00) (0.72) 1 = white median; 0.15 0.12 0.08 indigenous > median (0.00) (0.00) (0.05) Constant 1.10 -0.14 0.82 (0.01) (0.59) (0.01) R2 0.03 0.63 0.28 Number of observations 760 760 760 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: Highest = 1; lowest = 19. Numbers in parentheses are p values. n.a. = not applicable. Conclusions and Policy Implications We have presented a series of experiments aimed at determining the nature of discrimination in urban Lima, Peru. Subjects played a linear public goods game and were allowed to sort into groups. Our experiments sys- tematically manipulated the information available about others when sorting into groups. This allowed us to examine what is more relevant to group formation: information on past performance or physical character- istics. We recruited a diverse sample of individuals currently working in the labor market to participate in the experiments. Our experiments show that subject behavior is not correlated with per- sonal characteristics, including ethnicity and socioeconomic standing. That is, there is little room for statistical theories of discrimination. However, our experiments also show that people do use the personal characteristics of others when given the opportunity to choose partners. Our research finds evidence of preference-based discrimination or stereotyping. Moreover, 34 castillo, petrie, and torero evidence of discrimination or stereotyping vanishes almost completely once information on others' behavior is provided. Nonetheless, subjects tend to prefer groups of tall people, women, and white-looking people. While evidence of discrimination is almost completely eliminated by revealing information on others' behavior, there is still evidence that race is an important factor even when information is revealed. Intriguingly, while tall women are preferred in the absence of information, they are less likely to be selected for the top ranks when information is revealed. The effect of race, however, is constant. This effect even survives when subjects are given incentives that make their behavior orthogonal to their personal characteristics. The fact that not everyone uses others' characteristics in ranking in the same way provides further evidence of stereotyping or taste-based dis- crimination. While there is agreement across genders and ethnicities that taller people and women are more desirable partners, the effect of race on rankings is basically explained by the behavior of men and white partici- pants. Since our experiments show that discrimination can be erased when information on performance is available, we conclude that these results are an expression of prejudice. Our research has important policy implications. People seem to have preconceptions of the behavior of others that create a barrier to access. That is, if people are excluded based on their appearance, those being excluded are denied the opportunity of showing what they are capable of doing. Given that once information is revealed most discrimination goes away, creating opportunities for people to interact with one another is advisable. While our experiments show that information on others' performance is quite useful in solving initial stereotypes, it is clear that, in practical terms, it is difficult to provide precise and reliable measures of a person's performance. That is, it is not clear that policy makers have the tools to make signals clearer or to make measurement of performance in the workplace better. It is also entirely possible that, while discrimination in the workplace is diminished through public intervention, other avenues such as marriage or neighborhood sorting survive. Overall, our research shows that carefully designed experiments are useful for identifying the nature of discrimination. Notes 1. This mechanism ensured that the opportunity to participate in the experi- ment was distributed equally across the population. From these databases, we sampled all of the potential subjects that complied with all of our criteria. From the resulting subsample, we performed a random lottery and selected the individuals to be part of the experiment. 2. We also recruited from Gamarra (an industrial area in metropolitan Lima). We drew on a pre-census of all the establishments in Gamarra, and this allowed us ethnic and social barriers to cooperation 35 to randomly select buildings from which to invite subjects. This area is one of the largest clusters of small- to medium-size enterprises in metropolitan Lima and rep- resents a rich mix of population with regard to place of origin and socioeconomic background. 3. This includes the following categories: incomplete non-university tertiary, complete non-university tertiary, incomplete university tertiary, and complete uni- versity tertiary. 4. There are 100 céntimos in 1 nuevo sol (the Peruvian currency). At the time of the study, US$1 = S/.3.2. 5. With 20 subjects, each subject would need to rank 3,876 groups. 6. Palfrey and Prisbey (1997) show evidence consistent with subjects not con- tributing their full endowment, even when it is payoff dominant to do so. 7. The minimum wage in Peru is about US$1 per hour. 8. The Cronback alpha for inter-rater reliability is another measure of agree- ment among raters. The coefficient is 0.9565 for the white dimension, 0.9285 for the indigenous dimension, 0.9451 for the black dimension, and 0.9113 for the Asian dimension. 9. Three post-experiment surveys are missing from the sample. 10. Results are robust to different specifications. 11. The results in tables 2.3 and 2.4 are similar if using rank-ordered logit or robust standard errors. The reported results do not use robust standard errors. The results are also similar if using racial intensities of trained raters. 12. The results in tables 2.5 through 2.7 are similar if using probit or robust standard errors. References Andreoni, James, and Ragan Petrie. 2006. "Beauty, Gender, and Stereotypes: Evi- dence from Laboratory Experiments." Experimental Economics Working Paper 2006-2002, Georgia State University, Atlanta. Bogomolnaia, Anna, and Matthew O. Jackson. 2002. "The Stability of Hedonic Coalition Structures." Games and Economic Behavior 38 (2): 201­30. Bohnet, Iris, and Bruno Frey. 1999. "The Sound of Silence in Prisoner's Dilemma and Dictator Games." Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 38 (1): 43­57. Burnham, Terence C. 2003. "Engineering Altruism: A Theoretical and Experimen- tal Investigation of Anonymity and Gift Giving." Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 50 (1): 133­44. Carter, Michael, and Marco Castillo. 2003. "An Experimental Approach to Social Capital in South Africa." Agricultural and Applied Economics Staff Paper 448, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Castillo, Marco, and Ragan Petrie. 2006. "Discrimination in the Lab: Experiments Exploring the Impact of Performance and Appearance on Sorting." Andrew Young School of Policy Studies Research Paper 07-17, Georgia State University, Atlanta. ------. 2007. "Discrimination in the Warplace: Evidence from a Civil War in Peru." Andrew Young School of Policy Studies Research Paper 07-37, Georgia State University, Atlanta. Cummings, Ronald, and Paul Ferraro. 2003. "Inter-Cultural Discrimination in the Ultimatum Game: Ethnic Bias and Statistical Discrimination." Environmental 36 castillo, petrie, and torero Policy and Experimental Laboratory Working Paper 2003-02, Georgia State University, Atlanta. Eckel, Catherine, and Rick Wilson. 2002. "Conditional Trust: Sex, Race, and Facial Expressions in a Trust Game." Working Paper, Rice University, Houston. http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~rkw/RKW_FOLDER/PC_2002_RKW.pdf. Hammermesh, Daniel, and Jeff Biddle. 1994. "Beauty and the Labor Market." American Economic Review 84 (5): 1174­94. Kagel, John, and Alvin Roth. 1995. Handbook of Experimental Economics. Princ- eton, NJ: Princeton University Press. List, John. 2004. "The Nature and Extent of Discrimination in the Marketplace: Evidence from the Field." Quarterly Journal of Economics 119 (1): 49­89. Mobius, Markus, and Tanya Rosenblatt. 2005. "Why Beauty Matters." American Economic Review 96 (1): 222­35. Ñopo, Hugo, Jaime Saavedra, and Maximo Torero. 2004. "Ethnicity and Earnings in Urban Peru." IZA Discussion Paper 980, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany. Palfrey, Thomas R., and Jeffrey E. Prisbey. 1997. "Anomalous Behavior in Public Goods Experiments: How Much and Why?" American Economic Review 87 (5): 829­46. Petrie, Ragan. 2004. "Trusting Appearances and Reciprocating Looks: Experimen- tal Evidence on Gender and Race Preferences." Unpublished mss., Georgia State University, Atlanta. Riach, Peter A., and Judith Rich. 2002. "Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place." Economic Journal 112 (483): F480­518. Torero, Maximo, Jaime Saavedra, Hugo Ñopo, and Javíer Escobal. 2004. "An Invisible Wall? The Economics of Social Exclusion in Peru." In Social Inclusion and Economic Development in Latin America, ed. Mayra Buvinic, Jacqueline Mazza, and Ruthanne Deutsch. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. 3 Discrimination in the Provision of Social Services to the Poor: A Field Experimental Study Juan-Camilo Cárdenas, Natalia Candelo, Alejandro Gaviria, Sandra Polanía, and Rajiv Sethi State provision of social services to the poor takes place within an exchange relationship in which a local officer, representing the state's social welfare function, delivers services to the poor, based on limited resources that need to be allocated according to criteria compatible with the state's priorities. In turn, the state's priorities are supposed to reflect the social choice preferences of citizen-voters with respect to redistribution and assistance to the poor. Because of the nature of this relationship, where private information and coordination failures can emerge, the quality and distribution of those services are subject to potential problems of efficiency and equity when local officers deliver services that are not compatible with the social wel- fare function. For instance, providers may include particular groups that should not receive services or may exclude others that should be covered. Further, there is room for corruption and misallocation of resources for private interests. In general, there is a principal-agent problem, and obser- vation of the provider's actions can be costly. Juan-Camilo Cárdenas and Alejandro Gaviria are with the Universidad de los Andes in Bogotá; Natalia Candelo is with the University of Texas at Dallas; Sandra Polanía is with the Università degli Studi di Siena; and Rajiv Sethi is with Barnard College, Columbia University. This paper was undertaken as part of the Latin American and Caribbean Research Network Project "Discrimination and Economic Outcomes." Many people contributed to the execution of this project. 37 38 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi We therefore rely to some extent on the moral, normative, and self- regulatory systems reflected in the individual preferences of the local officer. The (private) decisions of the local officer are mediated by his or her individual social preferences with respect to altruism, reciprocity, trust, and distributive justice toward the beneficiaries of social programs. These traits and mechanisms, we believe, capture most of the important aspects of pro-social behavior that provide the basis of the social con- tract and public policies aimed at helping the most vulnerable groups in society. If the social preferences of the local officers are well aligned with the social welfare function of the policy being implemented, the outcomes will be socially desirable with regard to efficiency and equity. Otherwise, scarce resources targeted at the poor may be misallocated, reducing the effectiveness of the policy. The study presented in this chapter is aimed precisely at understand- ing the micro foundations of the interactions involved in the provision of social services to the poor. In particular, it uses an experimental approach to understand the preferences and behavior of both the individuals who are involved in the provision of social services and the individuals who are potential beneficiaries, the poor. The study draws subjects from the general population of public officials and citizens in the city and not from college students, as usually done in experimental studies. Pro-social preferences are essential for understanding behavior in social exchanges where there is room for strategic use of private infor- mation, which may lead to losses in social efficiency and equity. Such is the case when agents (public officials) have to deliver services to the poor on behalf of the principal (policy makers and citizen-voters). We implemented a battery of canonical experiments used for measuring social preferences (Bowles 2004; Camerer and Fehr 2004) in order to capture a series of components of pro-sociality--namely, distributive jus- tice, altruism, reciprocity, reciprocal altruism, fairness, trust, and social sanctioning. These elements are essential within a social contract that, as in Colombia, expects to deliver social services to the more vulnerable groups of society. In this study, we explore the foundations of pro-social behavior by pub- lic officials as well as the poor in the delivery of social services (education, health services, and nutrition). Dimensions such as altruism, reciprocity, aversion to inequity, trust, distributive justice, and social sanction are all important in understanding the reasons why, as a society, we target resources toward the poor. However, these dimensions might be influenced by factors that should--and others that should not--guide the allocation of resources (for example, level of education or number of dependents as opposed to race or marital status). Discretion on the part of public offi- cials might lead to discrimination against certain groups, creating social losses related to equity and efficiency in the allocation of scarce public discrimination in the provision of social services 39 resources. In addition, the poor who are actual or potential beneficiaries of social programs might also self-discriminate if their expectations about the processes of discrimination affect their expectations of or application for such services. Our experimental strategy emerges from the hypothesis that the allo- cation of resources to the poor is mediated by (a) the social preferences and behavior of the local officials in charge of the provision and (b) the preferences and behavior of the potential beneficiaries that could affect self-selection and self-discrimination. The overall null hypothesis is that public officials will allocate resources according to the constitutional man- date and the objectives of the specific public policy, based on the attributes of the recipients. The null hypothesis also implies that, according to the constitutional mandate, there should be no discrimination against certain groups based on their race, ethnicity, occupation, marital status, or other conditions (such as being displaced--desplazado--by violence from their previous residence to the city). Using the experimental designs and the collection of data on recruited subjects, we were able to capture a significant portion of public officials' motivations when allocating resources, as well as the motivations of the poor when expressing their expectations and observing their realized out- comes both outside our lab and during our experiments. We designed a battery of five two-person games where players 1 repre- sent public officials who allocate resources to provide social assistance or aid to players 2 (the poor) based on the sociodemographic characteristics of the latter. The games designed for the study are a dictator game (DG), a strategy method ultimatum game (UG), a trust game (TG), a third-party punishment game (3PP) and a distributive dictator game (DDG).1 As far as we know, there are no previous experimental studies on other- regarding or pro-social behavior in which both senders and receivers have the characteristics of our sample (actual public officials and actual benefi- ciaries of these programs), except partially the studies by Fong, Bowles, and Gintis (2005) and a new study by Fong and Luttmer (2008) with Katrina victims, both being conducted with U.S. samples. Each of our participants took part in a session with all five games, but interacted with different people in each game, repeating the interaction with the same player on only a few occasions. All games were played as one-shot interactions, with no communication or pre-play interaction among players. In all cases, players had partial information about the sociodemographic characteristics of each other. We recruited both target subjects (actual public officials and actual beneficiaries of social programs) and control subjects (students and employees in the public and private sectors). By target players, we mean people who, in their daily life, face the type of choices the study wants to address. Target participants were recruited in public social service organizations and in welfare programs' waiting lines, on the streets, and 40 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi in various lower-income neighborhoods. Controls were recruited among students and employees. In a fifth game, a third player judged and allo- cated resources to punish behavior considered antisocial. These third play- ers were recruited from the overall population. The target sample participating in the study came from public offi- cials working for different government organizations and from ben- eficiaries of education, health, nutrition, and child care programs in different locations in Bogotá. The set of experimental and survey data contains information on a total sample of 513 subjects who participated in all of the experimental activities. Although we recruited 568 people, for various reasons 55 of them did not show up for the games stage. All recruits were given Col$2,0002 as part of their show-up fee in order to induce credibility and to subsidize the cost of transportation from their home or workplace to the campus site we assigned for the experiments stage. Once they agreed to participate and attended their sessions, they were paid the rest of their earnings based on the decisions in the experi- ments. An additional Col$2,000 was paid to each participant to cover his or her cost of transportation back home. On average, each partici- pant in the roles of players 1 and 2 received Col$16,400 and Col$9,300, respectively. Overall, our results replicate the pattern of similar experiments regard- ing pro-social behavior such as altruism, reciprocity, fairness, altruistic punishment, and social norms across the world (Cárdenas and Carpenter 2008; Fehr and Gachter 2002; Gintis and others 2005; Henrich and others 2004, 2006). However, we explore a particular context of social exchange in which states undertake to help the poor through the decisions of local officials and the individual preferences of those officials may affect out- comes. The data show that vulnerable groups do trigger more pro-sociality on the part of service providers, although some unexpected results, such as less pro-sociality on the part of actual public officials and some variation due to the characteristics of the recipients, should give rise to interesting debates about the distributive justice arising from the discretionary power of public servants. Discretion and Discrimination in the Provision of Social Services Discrimination and social exclusion in various domains of economic life can create losses in efficiency and equity. Particular characteristics of individuals--many of which they do not choose during their lives but which they have acquired for genetic or other reasons--cause them to be excluded from receiving the benefits of certain social exchanges regard- ing the market, the state, or life in the community. Such exclusion creates discrimination in the provision of social services 41 efficiency losses in many cases, and equity problems in general, as credit, land, and labor markets are subject to discrimination and exclusion. The political arena can also exclude people from expressing their preferences and affecting outcomes in their favor. Much of the theoretical and empirical literature can be classified into two major approaches--statistical discrimination (Arrow 1973; Phelps 1972) and the taste for discrimination (Becker 1971)--that focus on imperfect markets where room for discrimination can affect economic outcomes.3 The housing and labor markets are among the most frequently studied domains in the discrimination literature. Experiments, audit stud- ies, surveys, and other methods have been used to explore how workers can be discriminated against in labor contracts and job application pro- cesses. Race and gender have been systematically tested as characteristics where discrimination can occur and create equity and efficiency losses. Housing and credit markets have also been subject to inquiries regarding discrimination. Less studied, however, are issues of discrimination in the provision of social services, particularly to the poor. Social programs aimed at improv- ing access to education, health, and child care for the poor are good examples of these settings. As in imperfect markets, the provision of public goods and social services by the state can also be subject to discrimination, with certain individuals treated in a less favorable way than others with equivalent constitutional rights or under the same provider and location. Unfortunately, being poor often coincides with having some of the char- acteristics for which individuals are discriminated against and excluded. Indigenous and Afro descendants frequently appear among the poorest and most excluded in the Latin American region and therefore are espe- cially vulnerable. Migrants (campesinos) from rural areas additionally suffer various kinds of discrimination when seeking access to the same services that others have received. Latin America, as one of the world's most unequal regions but also one of the most diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, and social background, imposes special challenges with respect to discrimination and social exclu- sion. Furthermore, the region is undergoing a dramatic transformation of urban-rural dynamics that is creating particular problems we have yet to understand in depth. Persistent rural poverty and inequality, economic changes in the agriculture sector, cultural change, political conflicts, and civil wars have created a migration to the cities that is challenging the state's provision of public goods and social services, particularly to the poorest citizens, who are expanding the metropolitan populations of the region. Meanwhile, decentralization and devolution of the state are creating greater challenges to local governments, which are charged with providing these services to the poor in cities that are evolving into worlds within worlds, with both wealthy neighborhoods and slums with severe 42 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi social needs. Thus political tensions in the developing and developed world emerge when the excluded can observe that others have access to public goods and social services that they do not. Governments have responded with systems targeting the very poor, creating survey procedures and algorithms to rank poor households for the distribution of such social services. Many of these targeted programs, labeled as SISBEN4 (Irarrázaval 2004), are in place in the region. These programs target the most vulnerable in an attempt to discriminate in a positive way that achieves redistributive goals. Yet negative discrimination and exclusion remain. Irarrázaval (2004) recognizes that some individu- als remain excluded as a result of the manipulation of information. His estimations suggest that these problems may exist in Chile and Colombia. Some of these could occur because of discrimination, but the evidence does not support this contention. Núñez and Espinosa (2005) also find statisti- cal support from the Encuesta de Calidad de Vida 2004 in Colombia for the existence of errors of inclusion (households that should not be but are receiving subsidies) and errors of exclusion (households that are in need but are excluded), discriminating against households with elderly persons, persons displaced by violence, and household heads with low levels of education. Gaviria and Ortiz (2005) provide statistical evidence for Colombia suggesting that minorities may be asymmetrically assisted, for instance, in the subsidized health program. Using self-reported data for ethnicity, they find that the indigenous have higher likelihoods of being included in the state-subsidized health program5 than Afro descendants, controlling for factors such as location, education, age, consumption, and employ- ment. The causalities, however, are still undefined. One plausible reason is that greater amounts of national government transfers flow to areas with larger fractions of indigenous groups than to areas with Afro descen- dants. Also, the indigenous have a longer tradition of social cohesion and organization for asserting their rights before the government than Afro descendants, who only recently, during the new constitutional process, have engaged in social organization and collective action. Discrimination may explain why Afro descendants are less likely than others to enter the social protection program given the steps involved in targeting, enrollment, and service delivery. Further, there is documented evidence in sentences from the consti- tutional court in Colombia6 using the mechanism of the tutela,7 where individuals who have been classified erroneously argue that their rights and the principle of equality have been violated in their classification into the SISBEN indexing system. In general, behavioral issues are at the core of the problem. For instance, if there is a "taste for discrimination," those who generate discrimination (employers) will have to show it in their other-regarding preferences, which could be validated empirically or experimentally. discrimination in the provision of social services 43 Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) have devised a clever experiment in the field, randomly sending constructed résumés in response to news- paper ads for job postings and observing the probability of being called for an interview, to test for discrimination in the labor market based on prejudices emerging from the names used and without photos or ethnic background. The results are astonishing: not only did being identified as black decrease the probability of getting an interview, but the marginal gains from other characteristics such as education and home location mattered more strongly for résumés with a "white" name. Those results, however, only explain the thoughts and behaviors of those deciding to call applicants for an interview. As for government programs that provide social protection to the poor, rather little has been said about the behavioral aspects of local offi- cials' decision making. We can agree that programs and policies aimed at helping the poor are based on pro-social preferences of the majority who vote and thus elect and appoint the officials who will run those programs. Still, the contract between officials and the electorate is incomplete and subject to asymmetries of information. In addition, the individual pref- erences of those in government and executing the programs are often unobservable. Yet if we recognize that we are in a world of imperfect markets and public goods problems, the role of the state, as evidenced by the behavior and preferences of its representatives, is crucial. As eloquently stated by Bowles and Gintis (2000, 1425), "Many are now convinced that John Stu- art Mill's injunction that we must devise rules such that the `duties and the interests' of government officials would coincide should be shelved, along with the assumptions of the Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics, in the museum of utopian designs." Motivations from the Field Before conducting the experimental sessions, we reviewed at least two important sources of data regarding violations of constitutional rights based on discrimination. One is the constitutional court, and the other is the Defensoría del Pueblo (public ombudsman). Both of these gave us an idea of how to construct our protocols and how to design the recruitment strategy across public agencies and geographic locations of the city.8 These data showed an increase in the number of cases that allege discriminatory actions from the state and provided some clues regarding the kind of characteristics to include in the treatment and control variables for our experiments. In regard to the purpose of this study and based on the results, we introduced into the random sample demographic features that are subject to discrimination. In addition, we included the category of reinsertados,9 44 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi because in the process of this inquiry we found numerous cases in which these individuals experienced social exclusion when they applied for a social service. The experimental strategy for this project emerged from the hypoth- esis that discrimination in the provision of social services to the poor is mediated by (a) the social preferences and behavior of the local officials in charge of the provision and (b) the preferences and behavior of the potential beneficiaries that could affect self-selection and self-discrimina- tion. Therefore, we designed an experiment in which these two players (service providers and beneficiaries) interact and are informed by the characteristics that might affect the strategic behavior in the interac- tion. Some of those characteristics are supposed to guide the decisions of the providers in the correct direction--that is, aligned with a social welfare function that reflects their society's preferences--but other characteristics may bias behavior toward discriminatory outcomes and against the constitutional mandate. The context and frame of the game is rather simple: a government pro- gram, inspired by a constitutional mandate and a policy design, involves a social welfare function that needs to be executed by local officials who aim to improve the well-being of the target population, in this case, the poor, through their privately observed actions. These local officials allocate scarce resources, and that allocation affects the well-being of beneficiaries. In some cases, beneficiaries have room for strategic responses that may affect their own outcomes or even those of local officials. The behavior of any local official is expected to reflect the social wel- fare function of the government plan, but such officials, as agents whose behavior is only partially observable to the principal (the government agency), may not act entirely according to the social objective and may include behavioral responses that reflect their own personal social prefer- ences and biases. In particular, preferences toward social, ethnic, or racial equity, among others, can affect the behavior of local officials during the process of receiving applications from and providing social services to the poor. In various ways, local officials act as bounded dictators who assign resources to beneficiaries of social programs within a certain set of rules but also with some discretion in their actions. Their choices--only par- tially observable to the principal--affect how funds are allocated and distributed among different target groups subject to discrimination and biases of various kinds. However, the social preferences of the poor can also influence the possibilities of discrimination. Social groups that expect to be discriminated against may be more tolerant of unfair or unequal allocations. If, in equilibrium, such norms are replicated and widespread, local officials may find it morally acceptable to sustain current levels of discrimination without personal costs. discrimination in the provision of social services 45 An Experimental Design on Distributive Justice, Altruism, Inequity Aversion, Trust, and Reciprocity Various dimensions lie at the core of the social exchange that occurs in the process of providing social services to the poor. These dimensions are critical in the interactions among the government program (the principal), the local official (the agent) in charge of executing the program, and the beneficiary (the recipient) of the social service. These dimensions include altruism, distributive justice, aversion to inequity, trust, and reciprocity. Altruism and aversion to inequity are at the core of pro-poor redistributive programs. Voter preferences are thus reflected in the design of govern- ment programs, and local officials are expected to implement programs that improve the well-being of the poorest and reduce social inequalities. However, that process can be affected by discrimination against certain groups (for example, racial or ethnic groups). Such discrimination, which in theory should not occur if the programs are designed in accordance with the constitutional mandate, can in fact occur because of the dis- cretionary role that local officials have in the application, approval, and provision process. Trust and reciprocity are important mechanisms in a relationship that involves the possibility of gains or losses because of coordination failures, interdependence, or externalities. The provision of public goods, or the co-financing of public projects between the state and the community, depends on mutual trust for the optimization of available resources. Reci- procity can either sustain or destroy cooperation in the provision of public goods that are crucial to the poor. Once again, preferences that involve discrimination against certain groups can limit trust or trigger negative reciprocity, reducing the social efficiency of pro-poor programs. In this study, we conducted standard and modified experiments in the field that have been used widely for detecting and measuring degrees of altruism, inequity aversion, trust, and reciprocity. In treatment and con- trol sessions, we provided information to players about features of their counterparts in the experiment (for example, gender, status, race, ethnicity, origin, occupation, family composition). Through these field experiments, we observed and measured the degrees of discrimination that may affect these dimensions. However, our protocols included a mild framing in every task where players were told that the game situation was similar to that where people request social services at local public agencies. We expected both the pro- viders and the recipients to be familiar with such interactions, although from a different standpoint. Nevertheless, decisions remained private and confidential, maintaining the discretionary nature of allocation decisions on the part of public officials as well as response strategies on the part of 46 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi beneficiaries. The five experiments selected and the reasons for including them are as follows: · Dictator game (Forsythe and others 1994; Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler 1986). Player 1 decides on the distribution of a fixed amount of Col$20 and sends a fraction to player 2, who receives that amount. Player 1 keeps the remaining part. This game provides information about pure altruism--that is, willingness to decrease one's well-being for increasing the well-being of another. · Ultimatum game (Güth, Schmittberger, and Schwarze 1982). Player 1 (proposer) decides on the distribution of a fixed amount and sends a fraction to player 2 (responder), who receives that amount. If the responder accepts, the distribution happens; if the responder rejects, both players receive nothing, and the money returns to the experimenter. The ultimatum game provides information on equity, reciprocal fairness, and reciprocity as mechanisms to enforce social norms. Negative reciprocity and conformism can be critical for un- derstanding the social preferences of both local officers and benefi- ciaries of social programs. · Trust game (Berg, Dickhaut, and McCabe 1995). Both players 1 and 2 are endowed with Col$8. Player 1 (proposer) can send a fraction of his or her initial endowment to player 2 (responder). The amount sent is tripled before it reaches player 2, who then decides how to split the tripled amount plus the initial endowment with player 1. The trust or investment game offers critical information on trust and trustworthiness, which is critical to augmenting efficiency in the provision of public goods. · Third-party punishment (Fehr and Fischbacher 2004). This game is based on the dictator game but includes a third party, player 3, who receives an additional endowment that he or she can keep or use to punish player 1 if player 3 considers the action of player 1 as punishable due to fairness or justice considerations. Player 3 can punish by spending part of his or her endowment to reduce the payoffs of player 1. This game captures preferences for costly pun- ishment of socially undesirable outcomes and willingness to punish unfair actions. · Distributive dictator game.10 Player 1 receives a fixed payment of, say, Col$10 as a salary for performing the following allocation task. Then player 1 ranks five players 2 in the order in which they each will receive a fixed payment or a voucher for Col$10 determined by a random distribution from one to five possible payments. The random number of vouchers between one and five decides the first N players 2 who will receive the Col$10. The remaining players will receive nothing. Player 1 observes a card for each of the five players 2 that includes a picture of his or her face and basic information discrimination in the provision of social services 47 on the player's demographic and socioeconomic condition. This game measures preferences for distributive justice, mediated by the characteristics of the beneficiaries, including those not associ- ated with deservedness, but rather with discrimination. The results of this game are discussed in much more detail in Cárdenas and Sethi (2009). For any pair of players, each of these games was conducted as one-shot (one round), with an exit survey containing demographic, behavioral, and psychological questions to control for the individual behavior observed in the experiments. All players 1 made decisions on all five games, and all players 2 were involved in each of the five games. Players 3 partici- pated only in the 3PP game. In the following section, we describe in detail how the experimental sessions were conducted. An annex to this chapter includes a detailed description of the experimental design of one session, information on the lab setting, and the samples. Protocols are available from the authors on request. Data and Results The experiments provided evidence of certain patterns of behavior that can be summarized as follows. The average participant showed pro- social behavior11 toward vulnerable groups that were potential or actual beneficiaries of social services. In particular, we observe significant pref- erences for distributive justice toward the more vulnerable (favoring the weakest or more in need); we also observe altruism (unselfish transfers toward others at one's own cost) and reciprocal altruism and reciprocity (willingness to treat others as one would expect to be treated). Also we find that trust is followed by reciprocity (people who are trusted show higher levels of reciprocity by attaining positive returns on the initial investment) and that third parties adopt social sanctioning as a strategy to sanction, at a personal cost, unfair allocators. As in most experimental literature with nonstudent samples, the 50/50 split of endowments for the dictator, ultimatum, and third-party punishment games is the most common. However, when our players 1 and 2 were both from target samples 2, such levels of pro-social behavior were statistically larger in favor of the poor, compared with our control samples. Further, when players 2 were from our target sample, pro-sociality increased for all players 1, both target and controls. These differences suggest that our design was successful and internally valid in detecting the increased pro- sociality toward more deserving groups in the players 2 sample compared with the controls. However, when our senders or players 1 were controls and players 2 were targets, offers and pro-social actions in general were even greater 48 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi than when players 1 were from our target samples, namely, public ser- vants. This result raises an interesting question: Why would target players 1 (actual public servants) be less generous than their controls? We do not believe that public officials engaged in providing social services to the poor are less pro-social; instead, we believe that they incorporate more strategic factors into their decisions regarding the recipients of transfers. For instance, public officials reward education and shorter time of unem- ployment among players 2. Further, based on a survey questionnaire for estimating an index of humanitarian-egalitarian preferences and for Prot- estant work ethic (Fong, Bowles, and Gintis 2005; Katz and Hass 1989), we find that our target public officials showed higher levels of these two indicators than their controls. When explaining variation in offers and pro-social actions by players 1, we find a set of attributes from players 2 that triggered or reduced pro-social behavior from the former to the latter. Women who had more dependents, especially if those dependents were minors, received higher altruistic offers than men. Black and indigenous people received higher or equal offers, but never lower offers, than other racial groups.12 Occupation, social condition, and current activity seem to affect offers. The unemployed as well as those with less education were treated with more generosity, but street recyclers and street vendors were often sent lower offers, confirming anecdotal evidence of stigmatization and suspicion toward certain activities. The political conflict manifests itself in the results. People displaced by violence were given higher offers, while ex-combatants were given lower offers, controlling for the rest of the sociodemographic characteris- tics of these particular samples. In fact, we find evidence of discrimination against ex-combatants, not only in the offers sent to them in the dictator and ultimatum games, but also in the reluctance of third parties to pun- ish unfair behavior toward ex-combatants. This behavior is confirmed by the lower expected offers declared by the ex-combatants themselves. Our target group of players 2 showed higher levels of conformism than their controls. First, they were willing to accept more unfair offers in the ultimatum game--that is, their rejection rates are lower for unfair offers. We also find that, on average, expected offers by players 2 from players 1 were slightly, but consistently, lower than actual offers. However, in all games, the expected and actual offers are positively correlated. Sample of Participants We contacted a total of 568 people as players 1, 2, and 3, including both target and control subjects. Of the 568 recruited, 55 people (9.7 percent) did not show up for the game stage, although they had received Col$2,000 as part of the show-up fee, which represented a sign of commitment on the part of the researchers and provided assistance for the cost of trans- portation to the location of the games. We attempted to contact those discrimination in the provision of social services 49 who did not show up and found that some had reported false phone numbers, some could not come at the time because of unexpected fam- ily or work events, and some believed that the study was a hoax.13 In fact, almost 18 percent of the individuals recruited to be players 2 did not show up. These people had to make the longest trips across the city to attend the games and were more likely to have doubts regarding the exercise's credibility. Concerned about the possible presence of selection bias, we examined the final sample and compared it to the recruited sample. As shown in table 3A.5 in the annex, only 9 percent of players 1, 18 percent of players 2, and 2 percent of players 3 did not attend the sessions. For players 1, we considered the transport costs as a determinant of attendance and modified the experimental setup; in the first six sessions 18 people did not attend (attendance rate was, on average, 64 percent). Beginning with the seventh session, five individuals did not attend (only 2.5 percent of the recruits). There are no significant differences between those who did not attend and those who did. We also checked the sig- nificance of the difference between the characteristics of players 2 who attended and those who did not. Players 2 who did not attend were from the target group, were older, had not lived in Bogotá all their lives, were displaced, were living as a couple, had a lower monthly expenditure level, and belonged to a lower stratum than people who attended the sessions. The people who did not want to participate from the beginning reflect a similar type of self-selection bias found in other studies, largely because we employed a similar recruitment strategy, presenting this as a confidential, economically rewarded academic study. Summarizing the samples for the five games, table 3.1 presents the number of observations obtained in our sample, the players involved, and the Nash equilibrium predictions for each game based on backward induction for self-oriented (selfish) players. The "maximum social effi- ciency" in the table corresponds to the maximum amount of money that a pair could earn in a one-shot game, given the feasible action sets. In the case of dictator and ultimatum games, player 1 divides the endowed money (Col$20,000) given to each pair. In the case of the trust game, the maximum efficiency is achieved when player 1 transfers the entire endowment of Col$8,000 to player 2. This amount is tripled and then added to the endowment of Col$8,000 of player 2, yielding the maximum social pie possible for the pair. For the third-party punishment game, the amount corresponds to the amount endowed to the trio of players 1, 2, and 3. Finally, the distributive dictator game yields Col$60,000 if the ran- dom number obtained is 5; then all five recipients obtain the Col$10,000 voucher plus the fixed payment to player 1. Table 3.1 is the benchmark point for each of the games. Depending on the game, the maximum social efficiency is achieved through chance for the DDG--dependent on player 1's choice (TG) or player 2's choice (UG)--but is determined automatically for the DG and 3PP games. Likewise, the level 50 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Table 3.1 Summary of the Sessions Games DDG DG UG TG 3PP Total observations 1,130 729 729 728 486 Players involved in the game 1­6 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 Maximum social efficiency ($Col, thousands) 40 20 20 32 30 Predictions for the offers by player 1a assuming self- oriented maximizing players ($Col, thousands) n.a. 0 1 0 0 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: US$1 = Col$2,490.66 (monthly mean average for May to July, 2006). http://www.banrep.gov.co. DDG = distributive dictator game; DG = dictator game; UG = ultimatum game; TG = trust game; 3PP = third-party punishment game. a. Nash equilibrium. of equality achieved depends on player 1's choice (DG, UG, TG, 3PP) or player 2's choice (UG, TG). Players 3 decide on both efficiency and equity when choosing whether to punish players 1. Based on these benchmarks, in the following section we report the descriptive statistics for the offers sent by players 1, followed by the aver- age behavior of players 2 and 3. Later we explore how the variation in these decisions could be explained by the attributes of the participants in the experiments, using regression analysis. Average Offers: Target versus Control Groups Figure 3.1 compares the results of average amounts offered by players 1 to players 2, in percentage of the initial endowment, by type of subsample (target or control), and across the four games that involve sending an amount from an initial endowment (DG, UG, TG, 3PP). The four panels also include the average amount offered by player 1 and the expected offer that player 2 reported before knowing the actual value. Also included is the average reported for these experiments by several international studies, as reported in Cárdenas and Carpenter (2008). The upper-left panel (target- target) corresponds to the interactions in which both player 1 and player 2 were our target sample of public officials and the poor, respectively. An overview of the amounts offered suggests that for all treatments there is a strong trend toward fairness: in the DG, UG, and 3PP games, player 1 decides how much to send from an initial endowment of Col$20,000. discrimination in the provision of social services 51 Figure 3.1 Offers and Expected Amounts of Money in the Dictator, Ultimatum, Trust, and Third-Party Punishment Games Players 2 : Beneficiaries Target Control 100 100 90 90 % of original endowment % of original endowment 80 80 70 67 70 60 60 54 55 56 54 60 59 51 50 51 50 43 50 46 48 39 Target 40 38 39 39 40 34 40 36 34 31 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Dictator Ultimatum Trust Third-party Dictator Ultimatum Trust Third-party game game game punishment game game game punishment Players 1: Senders game game % offered % expected % offered (international) % offered % expected % offered (international) 100 100 90 90 % of original endowment % of original endowment 80 74 80 69 70 70 64 65 70 60 63 60 60 51 53 48 48 49 51 50 50 44 43 42 39 39 Control 40 38 34 40 34 30 30 26 20 20 10 10 0 0 Dictator Ultimatum Trust Third-party Dictator Ultimatum Trust Third-party game game game punishment game game game punishment game game % offered % expected % offered (international) % offered % expected % offered (international) Source: Authors' compilation. International offers were calculated through data presented by Cárdenas and Carpenter (2008). Offers fell within the range of 40 to 60 percent for these three games. Further, in the ultimatum game, as expected, offers from the dictator were higher given the possibility of punishment by player 2, who could reject the offer and "burn" the entire amount. However, the difference is statisti- cally significant only for the players who were controls (p value = 0.0449), as expected and as seen in the literature, where the fear of rejection of an unfair offer increased the offer made by players 1. When the recipient (player 2) was part of the target sample, the difference is not significant (p value = 0.1519), suggesting that both games were seen in similar ways by target and control players 1: as transfers that express altruistic motiva- tions toward the target players 2. However, both DG and UG offers were 52 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi larger when the recipient was a target player (p value = 0.000 in both cases, supported by the regression analysis later on). The trust game illustrates another dimension of pro-sociality, in which player 1 trusts player 2 and expects the latter to reciprocate, creating a larger and fairly distributed pie. Players 1, on average, sent between 50 and 70 percent of their endowment, depending on the treatment, and target players 2 sent larger offers. Both target and control players 1 sent larger offers to target players 2 than to their controls. This suggests that altruistic motivations may also be involved in the trust game. In the case of the third-party punishment game (3PP), we again observe generosity from players 1, in this case mediated by the possibility that player 3 could punish player 1. If players 1 expect players 3 to sanction their unfair behavior, they should behave in a more generous manner compared to the dictator offers. However, we find an unexpected result. The fear of sanctioning by players 3 decreased the offers from players 1, if compared to dictator offers, by 6 percent (p value = 0.0133) for the entire sample. These differences remain for subsamples, such as only target play- ers 2 (p value = 0.0083) or only target players 1 (p value = 0.0206). The anticipation of punishment may induce players 1 to "save" some earnings to compensate for the expected sanction. In fact, the punishment rates for noncontrol samples reinforce the idea that sanctioning is heavier when players 2 are from the target subsample. In general, the offers observed are higher than the international aver- ages for such games (figure 3.1). Our interpretation is simple: our framing explicitly asked participants to think of familiar situations in which social services are delivered to vulnerable groups, and our nonrandom sample of players 2 (potential or actual beneficiaries of social services) should, on average, trigger greater levels of generosity from players 1, compared with the canonical design of these games, in which the interactions happen among peers and the framing divides a pie between a pair.14 In general, when players 2 belonged to the target group, the amount of money received was higher than the amounts received by the control groups. However, control players 1 sent more money than target players 1 to target players 2. Players 2's expectations also follow this pattern--that is, target players 2 expected more money from control players 1 than from target players 1. This supports the salience of the experimental design and its internal validity--that is, the sampling strategy and the framing used created a dif- ferentiated behavior between target and control groups; therefore, we can assign the differences to the deservedness of players 2 or the pro-sociality of players 2 to certain vulnerable groups. Pro-sociality was higher when players 2 were from the target samples than when they were from the controls. Both control and target players 1 sent higher amounts to tar- get players 2. The experimental protocol, which was framed within the situation of a social service provision program, was successful because discrimination in the provision of social services 53 players 1 were able to distinguish between control and target players 2. Control players 2 had the same expectations as target players 2, since they expected less money from target players 1 than from control players 1. It remains an open question whether lower expected offers by target players 1 were based on pro-social motivations on the part of players 2 or on lower expectations because of lower pro-social motivations by players 2 about players 1. Moreover, offers and expectations in this project are higher than the international offers when target players 2 are involved in the interac- tion. Nonetheless, offers for control players 2 do not differ greatly from international reports. Were Expectations Met Regarding Offers? In general, the expectations of players 2 regarding the amount of money sent by players 1 were lower than the real amount of money sent for most of the games (figure 3.1), showing some kind of pessimism regarding the pro-sociality of society in general. However, the two variables are positively and significantly correlated. Regression analysis available in the annex sup- ports the conclusions that expectations can help to explain the variation in actual choices. Table 3.2 summarizes the correlation coefficients by player between the expected and actual offers, all significant at 1 percent. Reciprocity and Reciprocal Altruism The rate of rejections in the ultimatum game is also a key variable for explaining how social preferences affect behavior. If players 1 expect players 2 to have stronger social preferences toward altruism, fairness, Table 3.2 Correlations between Offers and Expected Values Variables Correlation Dictator game offered by player 1 0.1398*** Dictator game expected by player 2 Ultimatum game offered by player 1 0.1318*** Ultimatum game expected by player 2 Trust game offered by player 1 0.1473*** Trust game expected by player 2 Third-person punishment game offered by player 1 0.1339*** Third-person punishment game expected by player 2 Source: Authors' compilation. *** Significant at 1 percent. 54 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi and equity, players 1 should increase their offers in comparison with the dictator game. Figure 3.2 shows the rejection rates of the ultimatum game for all four treatments. Given that we conducted the game using the strategy method, we were able to capture schedules of decisions by each player 2 for each possible offer from player 1. The average of international rejec- tions is calculated from average data presented by Cárdenas and Carpenter (2008), although it should be compared with caution since data on strat- egy method are scarce. Therefore, we report only the mean rejection for all offers. As in the existing literature, rejection rates are quite high for very unfair offers from players 1. The rejection rate decreases as offers increase, reach- ing the minimum level for the most fair offer of 50/50. The rejection rate increases slightly with offers that are excessively generous (see Henrich and others 2004 for a discussion of hyper-fairness in small-scale societies). We additionally observe a higher level of rejection rates for the treatment where both players 1 and 2 were controls. In other words, when players 2 were the target (poor), we observe lower levels of rejection, that is, higher levels of conformism with unfair outcomes. In our previous result, we show that players' expectations are correlated with actual offers. If players Figure 3.2 Rate of Rejection in the Ultimatum Game 100 90 80 70 Percent 60 50 40 30 20 36% international average 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % sent by player 1 Control 2, target 1 Targets 1 and 2 Control 1, target 2 Controls 1 and 2 Source: Authors' compilation. discrimination in the provision of social services 55 1 think strategically that players 2 are more or less tolerant toward certain offers, the offers in this game will be generally accepted. Trust and Reciprocity In figure 3.3, we show the amounts returned by players 2 as a response to different offers sent by players 1. Both are shown in percentages to allow for comparability. The results once again replicate those found in most of the lit- erature (Berg, Dickhaut, and McCabe 1995; Cárdenas and Carpenter 2008). On average, trust from player 1 is rewarded with higher returns from player 2 to player 1. These percentages show that, for all cases, the rate of return on the investment is greater than unity. However, the controls returned higher amounts to players 1 than to target players 2. This could mean that target players 2 claimed more rights to the transferred amounts, because these transactions were framed to capture the provision of social services to the poor. However, when the amounts were low, players 2 (target) were also more generous than their controls when sending back money to players 1. Third-Party Punishment: Altruistic Punishment Finally, we present the results for the rates of punishment by players 3. Recall that players 3 only played this game and no other. They were shown Figure 3.3 Amount Returned by Player 2, Trust Game 50 45 40 38% international 35 average 30 Percent 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % sent by player 1 Target 1, control 2 Targets 1 and 2 Control 1, target 2 Controls 1 and 2 Source: Authors' compilation. The average of international returns was calculated through data presented by Cárdenas and Carpenter (2008). 56 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi the offers by players 1 to players 2 and then decided whether to punish at a cost. (They could spend Col$2,000 of their Col$10,000 endowment to have the experimenter take Col$6,000 away from player 1). The sample of players 3 was recruited from the overall population, including both students and nonstudents. Figure 3.4 shows the rate of punishment observed for different levels of offers by players 1. These data resulted from playing the game by ask- ing players 3 whether they would punish for each possible level of offers from players 1. The results are also consistent with existing literature on this game (Fehr and Fischbacher 2004; Henrich and others 2006). Third parties were willing to sacrifice their own personal material income to punish unfair behavior by reducing the income of those engaging in unfair actions toward others. The rate of rejection starts at 70 percent when players 1 kept their entire endowment and decreases as offers grew in size. The rate of rejection drops more rapidly for the control-control groups, while remaining steady and higher for the target groups. In fact, even at quite high divisions in favor of players 2, a percentage of players 3 were willing to punish players 1 who would not send most of their endowments. This result completes the overall picture of socially accepted norms of fairness toward the poor and suggests that citizens are willing to reject and even punish unfair behavior. Figure 3.4 Punish Rate in Third-Party Punishment Game 90 80 70 60 Percent 50 40 30 20 60% international average 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 % sent by player 1 General Targets 1 and 2 Control 1, target 2 Controls 1 and 2 Source: Authors' compilation. The average of international punishment rates was calculated through data presented by Berg, Dickhaut, and McCabe (1995). discrimination in the provision of social services 57 Explaining Variations in Pro-Social Behavior The regression analysis that follows is aimed at explaining the variation in the experimental behavior as a function of the attributes of players 2 and also as a function of the attributes of players 1 observed by players 2. We tested as dependent variables the following, measured as a percentage of the total possible amount in each game: · Amounts offered by players 1 to players 2 in the DG, UG, TG, and 3PP, · Punishment rates of players 3, · Average ranking obtained in the DDG by player 2 from the rankings given by all players 1 who ranked that particular player 2, and · The same regressions for the amounts expected by players 2 (re- ported in the annex). The regressions confirm the statistical differences across treatments (combinations of target and control subsamples for players 1 and 2). They also support the notion that some of the characteristics of the recipients matter for the level of pro-sociality, as supported by the significance of some of the coefficients included as explanatory variables. Tables 3.3 through 3.7 include several specifications in order to con- vey how sensitive or robust the results are to different combinations of independent variables. Unfortunately, several of these variables are highly correlated given the high concentration of certain characteristics among vulnerable groups (such as level of education, number of dependent minors, being a female head of household, being displaced). However, we wanted to test whether certain demographic characteristics of players 1 might also play a role in the amounts being offered to players 2. Therefore, we con- ducted the following regression analyses: · Dictator game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control par- ticipants), shown in table 3.3, · Ultimatum game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control participants), shown in table 3.4, · Trust game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control partici- pants), shown in table 3.5, · Third-party punishment game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control participants), shown in table 3.6, and · Third-party punishment game sanctioning rates by players 3, shown in table 3.7. A short discussion of the main results is included. In the annex we include other regressions that were conducted, but not reported in the main text. 58 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Dictator game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control partici- pants). Specifications 1 and 2, which check for the effects of the basic treat- ments and attributes of players 2, confirm that players 2 received higher offers when they were part of the target group, but that such increases were lower if player 1 was also a target--that is, an actual public officer. The level of education of player 1 increased the offers, and employees of the health sector were more generous (see table 3.3). Regarding the attributes of recipients, we find that being female, unem- ployed, less educated, and with a higher number of minor dependents trig- gered higher offers, and this result is robust to different specifications. This is consistent with several public policies targeting the more vulnerable groups (many cash transfer programs, for instance, are aimed at single female heads of household). However, we also find that ex-combatants from the political violence in the country received lower offers than their counterparts, despite the current government and nongovernment social programs aimed at demo- bilizing these young people. This illustrates a personal bias on the part of players 1. A similar result, but less robust statistically, is found for street recyclers, a group of vulnerable households whose income is based on wandering the streets collecting recyclables and reselling them to major warehouses that supply the recycling industry. In the lower parts of the table, we also report the cross-effects of player 2 characteristics when player 1 was a target (actual public official) and also for the case of only target players 1, with some interesting results. Public servants rewarded education on the part of player 2 instead of compensating for the lack of it. At the same time, they punished unem- ployment. These two results might provide some insight into why target players 1 generally offered lower amounts to players 2. As part of their job, these public servants allocate scarce resources to vulnerable groups with a greater purpose, one might think, of bringing these groups out of poverty instead of making purely charitable donations. The latter might be the rationale for the control groups of donors, while public servants would be interested in transferring resources to the poor with the aim of getting them out of poverty (the more educated and currently employed even if under very poor conditions of life). This possible explanation might be reinforced by the fact that public servants made higher offers to target recipients than to controls, showing higher pro-sociality toward vulnerable groups. Ultimatum game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control partici- pants). Once again, the effects of the treatment design with respect to the interaction of target and control players show that target recipients (play- ers 2) triggered higher offers, but that target players 1 (public servants) also made lower offers than control players 1 (see table 3.4). Once again, more educated public officers sent higher amounts. Table 3.3 Dictator Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the dictator game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 1 is a target ­0.055 0.042 ­0.314* 0.021 ­0.450* 1 if player 2 is a target 0.268*** 0.289*** 1 if players 1 & 2 are targets ­0.119* ­0.143** ­0.277 0.160** ­0.293 1 if player is a woman ­0.002 ­0.042 Age ­0.005*** ­0.003* Player's level of education 0.051*** 0.028** Natural logarithm of player's household Sociodemographic expenses per capita 0.031 1 if player works in a health institute 0.120*** Player 1's data 1 if player works in an education institute 0.035 1 if player works in a nutrition institute ­0.070** Player's time worked multiplied by dummy of target player 1 0.007** Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (in Colombian pesos, thousands) 0 0.000** 0.000** 0.000* 0 0 0 0 0.000** (continued) Table 3.3 Dictator Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the dictator game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.075*** 0.065** 0.044 0.084 0.071 0.052 0.062 Player 2's age 0.001 0 0.001 0 ­0.001 0 0 Sociodemographic 1 if player 2 is single 0.029 0.029 0.021 ­0.031 ­0.027 ­0.008 ­0.017 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.018 0.022 ­0.012 0.009 ­0.016 0.042 0.019 Player 2's years of education ­0.029** ­0.040*** ­0.036*** ­0.052*** ­0.075*** ­0.058*** ­0.070*** Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.029*** 0.029** 0.009 0.02 ­0.005 0.025* 0.017 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.056 0.041 0.046 0.226*** 0.232*** 0.223*** 0.247*** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.039 0.045 0.043 ­0.023 0.072 0.037 0.097* Player 2's data 1 if player 2 considers Discriminatory herself indigenous 0.068 0.021 0.012 0 0 0 0 1 if player 2 is displaced 0.062 ­0.033 ­0.037 0.214*** 0.073 0.061 ­0.032 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.069** ­0.041 ­0.031 ­0.105 ­0.128 ­0.072** ­0.025 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker ­0.027 ­0.091* ­0.024 0.041 ­0.012 ­0.032 ­0.086* 1 if player 2 is a street vendor ­0.044 ­0.071 ­0.02 ­0.016 ­0.065 ­0.028 ­0.051 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 Games in the dictator game 0.053 0.135** 0.056 0.002 0.097 0.251*** 0.066 0.118 0.377*** 0.13 Player 2's rank given by player 1 in the distributive dictator game 0.059*** (continued) Table 3.3 Dictator Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the dictator game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.041 ­0.036 Player 2's age 0.002 0.003 1 if player 2 is single 0.072 0.062 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.038 0.071 Player 2's years of education 0.052** 0.069** Player 2's number of Dummy of target player 1 per player 2's data minor people in charge 0.007 0.039 1 if player 2 is unemployed ­0.180** ­0.180** Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000*** 0.000*** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.088 ­0.026 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.097* 0.01 1 if player 2 is displaced ­0.187** ­0.160* 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant 0.051 0.131 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker ­0.069 ­0.096 1 if player 2 is a street vendor 0 0 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the dictator game ­0.123 ­0.196* ­0.1 (continued) Table 3.3 Dictator Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the dictator game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0 ­0.018 Player 2's age 0.001 0.002 1 if player 2 is single 0.041 0.047 Dummy of target player 1 and target player 2 per player 2's data 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.001 0.027 Player 2's years of education 0.050* 0.056** Player 2's number of minor people in charge ­0.001 0.008 1 if player 2 is unemployed ­0.176** ­0.216*** Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000*** 0.000*** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.009 ­0.06 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.075 0.015 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the dictator game ­0.144 ­0.383*** ­0.161 Constant 0.433*** 0.252*** 0.461*** 0.461*** 0.526*** 0.409*** 0.687*** 0.454*** 0.834*** 0.659*** 0.364*** 0.713*** 0.145 Interactions 534 534 534 534 534 487 534 534 534 534 534 534 451 R-squared 0.095 0.189 0.137 0.051 0.151 0.210 0.213 0.100 0.240 0.212 0.080 0.227 0.191 Source: Author's compilation. Note: A cluster with player 1's decisions is included. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 3.4 Ultimatum Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the ultimatum game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 1 is a target ­0.018 0.045 ­0.027 0.110* ­0.056 1 if player 2 is a target 0.206*** 0.209*** 1 if player 1 & 2 are targets ­0.116** ­0.118** ­0.027 0.198*** ­0.04 1 if player is a woman ­0.037 ­0.007 Age ­0.002 0 Player's level of education 0.042*** 0.027*** Natural logarithm of player's household expenses per capita 0.015 Sociodemographic 1 if player works in a health institute 0.024 Player 1's data 1 if player works in an education institute 0.017 1 if player works in a nutrition institute ­0.094** Player's time worked multiplied by the dummy of target player 1 0.005* Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0 0 0 0 0 (continued) Table 3.4 Ultimatum Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the ultimatum game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.039** 0.032 0.003 0.054* 0.049 0.04 0.039 Player 2's age 0 0 0 0.001 0.001 0 0 Sociodemographic 1 if player 2 is single ­0.028 ­0.029 ­0.042 ­0.001 ­0.001 0.011 0.016 1 if player 2 is in common law ­0.037 ­0.044 ­0.063* ­0.037 ­0.03 ­0.03 ­0.015 Player 2's years of education ­0.016* ­0.022** ­0.023** ­0.039*** ­0.045*** ­0.045*** ­0.051*** Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.028*** 0.027*** 0.016* 0.009 ­0.002 0.01 0.01 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.057** 0.059* 0.064* 0.046 0.056 0.04 0.058 1 if player 2 considers Player 2's data herself black 0.017 0.038 0.03 ­0.026 0.048 ­0.014 0.051 1 if player 2 considers Discriminatory herself indigenous 0.056 0.01 0.004 ­0.157** ­0.122 ­0.121 ­0.133 1 if player 2 is displaced 0.067** ­0.024 ­0.043 0.120** 0.05 0.068** ­0.032 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.060** ­0.027 ­0.039 ­0.013 ­0.026 ­0.059** ­0.004 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker 0.022 0.001 0.008 0.067 0.058 0.034 0.017 1 if player 2 is a street vendor ­0.045 ­0.029 0.136 ­0.013 ­0.003 ­0.011 0.015 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the Games ultimatum game 0.002 0.102* 0.005 ­0.001 0.161* 0.282*** 0.129 0.180** 0.376*** 0.177** Player 2's rank given by player 1 in the distributive dictator game 0.024*** (continued) Table 3.4 Ultimatum Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the ultimatum game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.032 ­0.038 Player 2's age ­0.001 0 1 if player 2 is single ­0.032 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.024 0.006 Player 2's years of education 0.034* 0.039* Player 2's number of minor Dummy of target player 1 per player 2's data people in charge 0.023 0.039* 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.02 0.03 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000* 0.000* 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.074 0.002 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.242*** 0.135 1 if player 2 is displaced ­0.063 ­0.117 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.052 0.018 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker ­0.035 ­0.062 1 if player 2 is a street vendor 0 0 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the ultimatum game ­0.266** ­0.313*** ­0.229** (continued) Table 3.4 Ultimatum Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the ultimatum game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.015 ­0.024 Player 2's age 0 0 Dummy of target player 1 and target player 2 per player 2's data 1 if player 2 is single ­0.053 ­0.072 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.014 ­0.016 Player 2's years of education 0.034 0.041* Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.022 0.022 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.027 0.017 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000** 0.000** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.066 0.009 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.193** 0.148 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the ultimatum game ­0.297*** ­0.465*** ­0.302*** Constant 0.482*** 0.290*** 0.554*** 0.501*** 0.586*** 0.568*** 0.590*** 0.437*** 0.619*** 0.606*** 0.385*** 0.622*** 0.271 Interactions 535 535 535 535 535 489 535 535 535 535 535 535 450 R-squared 0.075 0.189 0.143 0.052 0.148 0.168 0.179 0.096 0.193 0.188 0.099 0.198 0.120 Source: Authors. Note: A cluster with player 1's decisions is included. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. discrimination in the provision of social services 67 Likewise, having lower levels of education, being unemployed, having more minor dependents, and being female increased the offers sent by players 1. Displaced recipients saw an extra increase in the offers, and ex-combatants saw a reduction, similar to the dictator game offers. Educa- tion of recipients (players 2) was rewarded by public officials in the same manner as in the previous analysis of DG offers. Given that the offers in the dictator and ultimatum games do not show significant differences and that the effects of the attributes of the players are similar, the interpreta- tions are equivalent to those given in the previous case. Trust game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control partici- pants). The effects of the sampling treatments remain as in the previous two games. Target recipients received larger offers than the controls, and actual public officers showed more restraint in the amounts sent when the interaction was with a target recipient (see table 3.5). For players 2, lower levels of education and being unemployed were among the more robust attributes to make a difference, as was being indigenous. Once again, being displaced brought a reward, and being an ex-combatant or street vendor brought a punishment. Third-party punishment game offers by player 1 to player 2 (target and control participants). The regression results in this case show similar re- sults with respect to pro-sociality and to target and control interactions, indicated by the significance and signs of the first coefficients in table 3.6. However, fewer characteristics of the players seem to explain the variation in the offers. Education, for instance, maintains the negative effect but is no longer significant. That player 2 was in a common-law relationship has a negative effect in several of the specifications, and being an ex-combatant or a street recycler also has a negative effect, although not significant. Because the third-party punishment game also explores the importance of social norms of fairness in third parties, we regressed the decisions to punish on different levels of fairness elicited from players 1. The results reinforce some of the findings of other games, as shown in table 3.7. Punishment rates by players 3 in third-party punishment game. As expected, lower offers by players 1 increased the likelihood of punishment by players 3. Moreover, the attributes of players 1 changed the probability. Younger and more educated players 1 saw a higher probability of being sanctioned. The level of education of the punisher (player 3) also increased the likelihood. Consistent with the previously discussed games, when player 2 was an ex-combatant, we observe less pro-social behavior, in this case on the part of players 3. Ceteris paribus, the likelihood of player 1 sanctioning an unfair offer is lower when the affected recipient was part of that par- ticular group. Table 3.5 Trust Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the trust game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 1 is a target 0.097 0.141** 0.102 ­0.012 ­0.182 1 if player 2 is a target 0.219*** 0.211*** 1 if player 1 & 2 are targets ­0.176*** ­0.184*** 0.159 0.126** 0.127 1 if player is woman ­0.062* ­0.063 Age ­0.001 0 Player's level of education 0.039*** 0.029** Natural logarithm of player's household Sociodemographic expenses per capita ­0.01 1 if player works in a health institute 0.02 Player 1's data 1 if player works in an education institute ­0.109** 1 if player works in a nutrition institute ­0.107** Player's time worked multiplied by dummy of target player 1 0.006 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (continued) Table 3.5 Trust Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the trust game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.03 0.029 0.009 0.074* 0.061 0.065 0.090** Sociodemographic Player 2's age 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003* 0.001 0.002 0.002 1 if player 2 is single ­0.022 ­0.02 ­0.026 0.048 0.056 0.009 0.02 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.019 0.018 ­0.006 0.054 0.029 0.028 ­0.014 Player 2's years of education ­0.024** ­0.027* ­0.026* ­0.037** ­0.063*** ­0.029 ­0.036* Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.009 0.002 ­0.006 0.034** 0.014 0.029** 0.018 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.128*** 0.102*** 0.100** 0.123** 0.091* 0.127*** 0.143*** 1 if player 2 considers Player 2's data herself black 0.034 0.047 0.035 ­0.036 0.044 0.028 0.089* 1 if player 2 considers Discriminatory herself indigenous 0.124** 0.079 0.062 0.135* 0.235** 0.253*** 0.243*** 1 if player 2 is displaced 0.108*** 0.021 0.005 0.207* 0.055 0.111*** 0.018 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.045 ­0.011 ­0.01 ­0.130** ­0.144 ­0.046 0.005 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker 0.076 0.049 0.071 ­0.007 ­0.051 0.079 0.062 1 if player 2 is a street vendor ­0.131** ­0.164*** ­0.167 ­0.119* ­0.142** ­0.119* ­0.148** Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from Games player 1 in the trust game 0.068 0.097** 0.072 0.069 0.151* 0.134 0.132 0.218*** 0.263*** 0.215*** Player 2's rank given by player 1 in the distributive dictator game 0.030*** (continued) Table 3.5 Trust Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the trust game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.073 ­0.055 Player 2's age ­0.002 0.001 1 if player 2 is single ­0.074 ­0.088 1 if player 2 is in common law ­0.014 0.009 Player 2's years of education 0.031 0.066** Dummy of target player 1 per player 2's data Player 2's number of minor people in charge ­0.033* ­0.017 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.011 0.024 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0 0 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.101 0.017 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous ­0.006 ­0.149 1 if player 2 is displaced ­0.126** ­0.052 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant 0.112 0.186* 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker 0.105 0.144 1 if player 2 is a street vendor 0 0 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the trust game ­0.101 ­0.051 ­0.076 (continued) Table 3.5 Trust Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the trust game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.068 0.092* Dummy of target player 1 and target player 2 per player 2's data Player 2's age ­0.001 ­0.001 1 if player 2 is single ­0.046 ­0.059 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.015 0.056 Player 2's years of education 0.001 0.011 Player 2's number of minor people in charge ­0.026 ­0.023 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.012 ­0.031 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000* 0.000* 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.01 ­0.052 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous ­0.1129** ­0.163* Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the trust game ­0.221** ­0.258*** ­0.212** Constant 0.528*** 0.360*** 0.632*** 0.582*** 0.619*** 0.567*** 0.512*** 0.591*** 0.694*** 0.536*** 0.504*** 0.519*** 0.726** Interactions 537 537 537 537 537 491 537 537 537 537 537 537 450 R-squared 0.042 0.118 0.114 0.078 0.135 0.144 0.140 0.095 0.173 0.149 0.091 0.171 0.083 Source: Authors. Note: A cluster with player 1's decisions is included. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 3.6 Third-Party Punishment Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the third-party punishment game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 1 is a target ­0.006 0.036 ­0.301* ­0.03 ­0.294 1 if player 2 is a target 0.138*** 0.134** 1 if player 1 & 2 are targets ­0.123** ­0.115** ­0.192 0.002 ­0.182 1 if player is a woman ­0.071** ­0.06 Age ­0.001 ­0.001 Player's level of education 0.033*** 0.016 Natural logarithum of player's household Sociodemographic expenses per capita 0.002 1 if player works in a health institute 0.048 Player 1's data 1 if player works in an education institute 0.027 1 if player works in a nutrition institute ­0.078* Player's time worked multiplied by dummy of target player 1 0.006* Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0 0.000** 0.000** 0.000* 0 0 0 0 0.000** (continued) Table 3.6 Third-Party Punishment Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the third-party punishment game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.092*** 0.088** 0.080*** 0.105** 0.101* 0.075* 0.064 Player 2's age 0.003** 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.004 0.004 Sociodemographic 1 if player 2 is single 0.013 0.023 0.024 ­0.026 0.002 ­0.036 ­0.035 1 if player 2 is in common law ­0.035 ­0.02 ­0.037 ­0.142* ­0.174* ­0.151* ­0.142* Player 2's years of education 0.005 ­0.002 ­0.0018 ­0.035 ­0.013 ­0.031 ­0.028 Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.005 ­0.003 ­0.01 ­0.041 ­0.051 ­0.036 ­0.05 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.081** 0.057 0.051 0.075 0.102 0.072 0.091 1 if player 2 considers herself black ­0.006 ­0.011 ­0.019 ­0.114 ­0.086 ­0.133** ­0.097 Player 2's data 1 if player 2 considers Discriminatory herself indigenous ­0.049 ­0.017 0.001 ­0.171 0.01 ­0.125 ­0.045 1 if player 2 is displaced 0.077** 0.058 0.058 0.05 0.086 0.112*** 0.084* 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.090*** ­0.035 ­0.073 0.003 0.067 ­0.060* ­0.009 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker ­0.062 ­0.018 ­0.03 0.045 0.207 ­0.004 0.018 1 if player 2 is a street vendor 0.007 0.005 0.163 0.045 0.036 0.056 0.048 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from Games player 1 in the third-party punishment game 0.073 0.097* 0.074 0.057 0.190* 0.233** 0.190* 0.202** 0.248*** 0.198** Player 2's rank given by player 1 in the distributive dictator game 0.001 (continued) Table 3.6 Third-Party Punishment Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the third-party punishment game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman ­0.024 ­0.036 Player 2's age 0 ­0.005 1 if player 2 is single 0.065 0.041 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.146* 0.184* Player 2's years of education 0.060* 0.028 Dummy of target player 1 per player 2's data Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.057 0.053 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.005 ­0.078 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000** 0.000*** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.176* 0.124 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.15 ­0.014 1 if player 2 is displaced 0.056 ­0.001 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.102 ­0.144 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker ­0.083 ­0.239* 1 if player 2 is a street vendor 0 0 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the third-party punishment game ­0.200* ­0.214* ­0.19 (continued) Table 3.6 Third-Party Punishment Game Offers by Player 1 to Player 2 (Target and Control Participants) (continued) Method OLS Dependent variable Percentage of the allocation offered by player 1 to player 2 in the third-party punishment game Independent variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.006 0.01 Dummy of target player 1 and target player 2 per player 2's data Player 2's age ­0.001 ­0.002 1 if player 2 is single 0.074 0.068 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.160* 0.155* Player 2's years of education 0.026 0.028 Player 2's number of minor people in charge 0.053 0.058* 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.025 ­0.04 Player 1's ­ player 2's household expenses per capita (Colombian pesos, thousands) 0.000** 0.000** 1 if player 2 considers herself black 0.214** 0.156* 1 if player 2 considers herself indigenous 0.106 0.035 Percentage of the allocation expected by player 2 from player 1 in the third-party punishment game ­0.235** ­0.269*** ­0.228** Constant 0.428*** 0.324*** 0.312*** 0.481*** 0.359*** 0.450*** 0.532*** 0.499*** 0.338 0.509*** 0.466*** 0.504*** 0.46 Interactions 428 428 428 428 428 388 428 428 428 428 428 428 282 R-squared 0.044 0.140 0.128 0.072 0.136 0.160 0.175 0.134 0.200 0.178 0.124 0.194 0.102 Source: Authors. Note: A cluster with player 1's decisions is included. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. 76 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Table 3.7 Punishment Rates by Players 3 in Third-Party Punishment Game Method Probit Punishment rate: 1 if player 3 Dependent variable pays for punishing player 1 dF/dx Independent variables (1) (2) (3) Player 1's % of money sent by player 1 ­0.873* ­0.877* ­0.898* data 1 if player 1 is a woman ­0.005 0.005 Age ­0.002 ­0.004** Player's level of education 0.038* 0.037* 1 if player 2 is a woman 0.038 0.024 Player 2's age ­0.003*** ­0.003 Sociodemographic 1 if player 2 is single 0.06 0.073*** 1 if player 2 is in common law 0.119 0.145 Player 2's years of education ­0.64* ­0.059* 1 if player 2 is unemployed 0.059 0.068 1 if player 2 has 4 or more people in charge ­0.019 ­0.005 Player 2's data Player 2's stratum 0.032 0.027 1 if player 2 considers herself black ­0.038 ­0.059 1 if player 2 considers herself Discriminatory indigenous ­0.02 ­0.003 1 if player 2 is displaced ­0.023 ­0.034 1 if player 2 is an ex-combatant ­0.141** ­0.135** 1 if player 2 is a recycling worker 0.021 0.07 1 if player 2 is a street vendor ­0.017 0.059 1 if player 3 is a woman ­0.043 Age 0.002 Player 3's Player's level of education 0.032** data Player's number of minor people in charge ­0.013 Preferences for fairness and income distribution ­0.031*** Interactions 4,760 R-squared 0.2039 0.2099 0.238 Source: Authors. Note: A cluster with player 3's decisions is included. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. discrimination in the provision of social services 77 Lessons Based on the Results Several lessons may be derived from this study. Some of them relate to using these methods to explore questions such as the economics of poverty, dis- crimination, and pro-social behavior that can be of use for other organiza- tions and researchers. Some lessons relate to the design and implementation of pro-poor social policies and the role of public servants as deliverers of services targeted to the poor when there is room for discretionary power. Our framed experiment offers a context of pro-sociality toward poor or vulnerable groups. We expected our recipients to trigger generosity and pro-sociality in general among service providers, both public officials and controls. A study by Pablo Brañas (2006) confirms that the framing of dictator game experiments and the attributes of the recipients matter greatly. Having actually poor recipients and even going to the extreme of having the donations of the dictators convert into medicines for poor nations resulted in very high offers, and about two-thirds of players 1 sent their entire endowment. Our study falls in between the conventional designs of unframed games among anonymous students and the strongly framed Brañas design. Nev- ertheless, what is remarkable in our design is not that we observe higher- than-average levels of generosity, but the degree of variation observed toward the same groups of beneficiaries and the fact that our target groups of public officials and the poor displayed several behaviors that seem to respond to the individual attributes of senders and recipients. Do social preferences affect the behavior of public officials? We think that they do. In general, citizens and public officials whose work is related to the provision of social services to the poor do manifest pro-social behavior, confirming that fairness, altruism, trust, and social punishment are mechanisms and traits that determine behavior when dealing with the more vulnerable. However, such behavior is affected by the characteristics of the recipients of the social services and, in some cases, by the attributes of the providers. In some cases, the factors that trigger greater levels of altruism and fairness are consistent with social policy, and in others they are not, which raises concerns. In particular, citizens (public officials and nonpublic officials) favor women, particularly those in households with lower levels of education and more minor dependents. This seems to be a reasonable strategy if strengthening human capital among the poor is seen as a cost-effective strategy and if women are seen as guarantors of building such human capi- tal within the household. Also, people seem to favor displaced people, also consistent with the country's political context and a recent constitutional mandate by the constitutional court. However, certain attributes of recipients decreased pro-social behavior by players 1. Those attributes are related to occupation, marital status, 78 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi and social background, none of which should result in differentiated or discriminatory treatment; being an ex-combatant, a street recycler, a street vendor, or in a common-law relationship decreased generosity from play- ers 1. People in common-law relationships also expected lower offers, confirming the actual amounts sent, but with no legal or moral foundation for such behavior and expectations. These attributes do not necessarily decrease the deservedness of the recipients of social services, but they do seem to shape the preferences of public officials and nonpublic officials when making their choices. Such results raise the question of whether social programs should moni- tor the level and quality of social services toward certain groups. Then again, it might be important to reduce or hide the collection of informa- tion on social services applicants that might be irrelevant to the allocation or delivery of such services when public servants make micro decisions about allocating scarce resources (for example, assigning available spaces in medical attention, education, child care, or nutrition services). The levels of conformism expressed in lower expected offers and lower levels of rejection of unfair offers for our target group (the poor) also deserve some attention. Such conformism can create an equilibrium of lower levels of commitment in the provision of certain social services. We wonder whether placing greater emphasis on explaining the rights of the most vulnerable groups in society could increase the demand for fairness in the delivery of services by creating stronger social norms in favor of fairness. Certain groups emerged as being subject to discriminatory treatment and of particular importance. The population of street dwellers and homeless persons working in informal garbage recycling activities is sig- nificant in major cities,15 and that population is particularly vulnerable with regard to enrollment in social services, basic conditions of the house- hold, and access to health and education. Meanwhile, our results confirm a cultural stigma toward them that deserves further attention. Despite the stigma, their activity and income are based not on altruistic transfer (such as begging) but rather on self-employment and the provision of environmental services (recycling and reduction of disposed garbage); furthermore, they have been working with governmental and nongov- ernmental organizations to strengthen self-governing institutions such as cooperatives and associations. As for ex-combatants, the social punishment and lower pro-social behavior observed toward this group, after controlling for their age, gen- der, and level of education, deserve some attention. A state program exists to reinsert these young people into civil life based on welfare programs, but such programs contradict the social norm of redistributive justice that seems to be present in the society and is clearly manifested across our samples. Favoring displaced people and punishing ex-combatants reflect the social climate of the country with respect to the search for peace and negotiations within an ongoing conflict. discrimination in the provision of social services 79 Annex: Methodology This annex adds information regarding the methods used, the demographic characteristics of the samples, and the recruitment strategies employed. Design of the Sessions Table 3A.1 shows the sequence and components of the experimental ses- sions. The original design proposed for the study involved 24 people per session. Unfortunately, this design was very difficult to implement because a large number of people failed to show up at the appointed time and location. Four sessions of 24 participants each were conducted under the 24-participant design for a total of 96 people. After that, we split the design in two and ran sessions with 12 people each from then on (designs II and III in the table). Design III is essentially the same as design II, except that more people were recruited and attended the sessions, and these per- sons were allowed to participate. These changes did not affect the design of the basic protocol or the instructions. First, the DDG game, where one player 1 makes decisions based on five players 2, remained unaltered throughout. Second, all other games (DG, UG, TG, and 3PP) involved the same number of interactions and decisions across the designs. Table 3A.2 shows the sequence and components of a single experimen- tal session run with 12 players. Table 3A.1 Stages of the Field Sessions Number Number People by Total Design Sessions of sessions of people roles participants I 1, 2, 4 3 24 Player 1 10 72 Player 2 10 Player 3 4 II 3, 5­12 9 12 Player 1 5 108 Player 2 5 Player 3 2 13­21a 18 12 Player 1 5 216 Player 2 5 Player 3 2 III 22­28b 13 12 or 13 Player 1 5 + 1 163 Player 2 5 Player 3 2 Total 559 Source: Authors' compilation. a. Each one of 24 people. b. Each one of 26 people. Table 3A.2 Stages for One Field Session Stage Activity Location Data produced 80 Stage I Recruitment of 5 players 2 Streets, centers for the attention of Invitation, photo, pre-game target populations demographics player 2, received Col$2,000 for transportation as part of their show-up fee Build cards A-B-C-D-E players 2 player 2 cards from demographics Stage II Recruitment of 5 players 1 Service providers (health centers, Invitation, pre-game public schools, daycare centers, demographics player 1, received community kitchens) Col$4,000 (show-up fee) Game decisions (5 activities) players 1 Workplace (80%) or campus lab Game choices players 1 (off-hours) (20%) Build Cards 1-2-3-4-5 players 1 player 1 cards from demographics Stage III Recruitment of 2 players 3 Workplace, streets, campus Pre-game demographics player 3 Game decisions (Activity-5) players 3 Game choices players 3 Matching of choices by players 1, players 3 Game outcomes Payments and exit survey players 3 Receipts (Col$4000, show-up fee) and post-game survey Stage IV Game decisions Campus (70%) or centers for the Game choices players 2 (5 activities) players 2 attention of targeted populations Matching of choices by players 1, players 2 (30%) Game outcomes Payments and exit survey players 2 Receipts and post-game survey, Col$2,000 for bus Stage V Payments and exit survey players 1 Workplace Receipts and post-game survey Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Session involved 12 participants. discrimination in the provision of social services 81 Lab Setting Figure 3A.1 describes the basic setup of the experimental design for one of the activities (the ultimatum game, or activity 2). All other games were conducted in the same manner. In this case, based on the card of player 2, player 1 decided how much to send to player 2 of the Col$20,000 given as the endowment for the pair. Player 2 decided whether to accept or reject the offer. Depending on that decision, the funds were allocated as initially proposed, and, if the offer was rejected, no payment was made to either player. Players 1 were in one location, and they were informed that players 2 were in another location (see figure 3A.2). They did not see each other at any time, and their identities and decisions were kept confidential. Players 1 were seated at a desk and recorded their decisions privately on a decisions sheet (paper). Players 2 were invited the next day to come to campus. At that time, Players 2 were seated in a waiting room and called one at a time to a desk where a monitor verbally asked for decisions and recorded them on a decisions sheet. The monitor then wrote the deci- sions of each player 2 in each activity. At the end of the five activities, all Figure 3A.1 Lab Setting for the Ultimatum Game First day Second day Third day Fourth day YESTERDAY TODAY TOMORROW Player 2 Player 1 Player 2 Player 1 Invitation, Invitation, They arrive at campus Photo, Pre-game demographics, Pre-game demographics, $4,000 (show up fee) $2,000 for bus game choices Allocates $20,000 Código Jugador 1 S19J10041 La siguiente información es de la persona de la foto con la Edad A Código Jugador S9J2054A 21 años Accepts / La siguiente información es de la persona de la foto con la cual usted está jugando: Género Lugar de nacimiento y Edad San Martin, 52 años Estado civil Femenino Rejects Unión libre, vive con su cónyuge Nivel Educativo Oficio y tiempo en el oficio Universitario sin título Desempleado hace 6 meses Estrato, Barrio y Localidad en el cual vive Funcionario público de Estrato 2, Kennedy, Kennedy Colegio Distrital Grupo de SISBEN al cual pertenece Total personas a cargo Ninguno 3 Cuántos años lleva trabajando allí Último nivel educativo aprobado Menores a cargo 10 años Básica secundaria 2 Otro Cargo que desempeña en la institución Desplazado Seguridad J2 Cards Game choices Game choices Receipts J1 Cards Game outcomes and Receipts and post-game post-game survey, $2,000 for bus survey Source: Authors' compilation. 82 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Figure 3A.2 General Lab Setting A 1 Ultimatum 2 game Ultimatum B game Ultimatum 3 game C 4 D 5 E Service providers (health centers, public schools, daycare centers, Campus (70%) or centers for the community kitchens): Workplace attention of targeted populations (80%) or campus lab (off-hours; 20%) (30%) Source: Authors' compilation. decisions were matched for determining the earnings in each interaction and activity. For the ultimatum game, each player 1 sent three different offers to three players 2. At the end of the session, we selected randomly for each player at least one activity that would be paid in cash on top of the show-up fee that was paid to cover the transportation costs of each participant. On aver- age, players were paid for more than one activity, and this was common information for all players. Prior to making their decisions, players 1 and 2 received information about the other player in the particular interaction through the cards mentioned above. The information that each player had about the other player in each interaction is shown in table 3A.3. Based on this information, the players were asked to make their decisions in each of the games. Recall that each participant played the same game with three different people. Sampling and Recruitment We conducted these experiments among the groups described in the pro- posal, including local officials and beneficiaries of social services as well discrimination in the provision of social services 83 Table 3A.3 Information for the Players What Player 1 observed in Player 2 card What Player 2 observed in Player 1 card Photo Age Birthplace and age Gender Marital status Education level (highest degree obtained) Occupation and time in it Service provider (health, education, child District, location, and care, nutrition) district stratification Years spent working Number of dependents Position Dependents that are minors Last year of education SISBEN Source: Authors' compilation. as control groups. In most cases, the role of player 1 was assigned to local officials and comparable control subjects, and the role of recipients was played by people sampled from poor populations who were current or potential beneficiaries of social services. We use the terms "target" and "control" for our experiment participants. By "target," we refer to those individuals involved in the direct process of application and delivery of social services. In the case of players 1, the target sample refers to those employed in the public service agencies that interact directly with the potential or actual beneficiaries of social services to the poor. These include white-collar and blue-collar employees at the four types of agencies (education, health, child care, and nutrition programs). Players 2 are persons who are applying for, are eligible to apply for, or are receiving these kinds of social services. As for the controls, we recruited citizens of the city with different levels of education, income, occupation, and location of residence to serve as control groups for players 1, 2, and 3. We recruited participants by visiting neighborhoods where potential beneficiaries apply for these social services or where they actually receive them. We additionally recruited local officials or employees for these gov- ernment programs. Examples include health services for the poorest citi- zens, public preschool and day care centers, and community kitchens and nutritional government programs. The following groups were included in the subject pool: · Potential applicants and current beneficiaries of social protection services, · Local officials in Bogotá's agencies that provide social services such as education, health, day care, and nutrition, 84 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi · Surveyors usually hired by private contractors who conduct the SIS- BEN survey in large cities and metropolitan areas, and · Controls (other government officials and citizens with demographic characteristics equivalent to those of the groups above). The map in figure 3A.3 shows the locations of the public agencies where we recruited players 1. Figure 3A.3 Recruitment of Players 1 in Bogotá, Colombia, by Geographical Location Recruited Institutions SUBA USAQUEN ENGATIVA FONTIBON BARRIOS UNIDOS BO G O TA CHAPINERO TEUSAQUILLO KENNEDY PUENTE BOSA ARANDA LOS SANTA FE MARTIRES ANTONIO NARINO LA CANDELARIA CIUDAD BOLIVAR TUNJUELITO RAFAEL URIBE SAN CRISTOBAL USME Source: Authors' compilation. discrimination in the provision of social services 85 In the case of local officials, the confidentiality and privacy of data were a major concern, as we were asking individuals to reveal their preferences regarding fairness, altruism, and discrimination. Therefore, the identities of the local officials or their decisions were never revealed to the other players and could not be observed by their superiors. In fact, we tried to recruit more than one officer from each service provider we visited in the sample. For players 2, recruitment took place among the poor and more vulner- able groups around these and other locations in the city. Table 3A.4 shows the geographic location (localidad) of the participants' households, and table 3A.5 shows the attendance of participants, by the role played. To give an idea of their locations and occupations, tables 3A.6 through 3A.8 show the composition of the sample, by type of player, for both the target and the control groups. Table 3A.4 Geographical Location of Participants' Households (percent) Location N Player 3 Player 2 Player 1 Antonio Nariño 20 0.0 85.0 15.0 Barrios Unidos 6 33.3 16.7 50.0 Bosa 17 5.9 58.8 35.3 Candelaria 1 0.0 100.0 0.0 Chapinero 54 25.9 59.3 14.8 Ciudad Bolívar 33 0.0 51.5 48.5 Engativá 43 32.6 7.0 60.5 Fontibón 26 19.2 7.7 73.1 Kennedy 35 25.7 17.1 57.1 Mártires 5 20.0 40.0 40.0 Puente Aranda 15 20.0 20.0 60.0 Rafael Uribe 14 0.0 50.0 50.0 San Cristóbal 38 0.0 71.1 28.9 Santafé 39 10.3 64.1 25.6 Suba 43 30.2 18.6 51.2 Teusaquillo 25 28.0 20.0 52.0 Tunjuelito 37 0.0 40.5 59.5 Usaquén 36 33.3 16.7 50.0 Usme 11 0.0 45.5 54.5 Alrededores 15 40.0 20.0 40.0 Total 513 17.7 38.0 44.2 Source: Authors' compilation. 86 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Table 3A.5 Players Who Attended the Sessions by Role % of total % target % control Player role N recruited group group 1 227 90.80 75.33 24.67 2 195 82.28 84.10 15.90 3 91 97.85 100 Total 513 568 recruited Source: Authors' compilation. Table 3A.6 Players 1 by Groups Target group Control group Local officers N % N % Mayor's office 3 1.75 College Students 27 48.21 Educationa 31 18.13 Private sectore 9 16.07 Healthb 34 19.88 Government (Central)f 10 17.86 c g Nutrition 28 16.37 Government (District) 10 17.86 d Child Care 44 25.73 Surveyers SISBEN 31 18.13 Total 171 100 56 100 Source: Authors' compilation. a. Public schools and CADELs (Local Administrative Center for Education). b. ARSs (Administradora del Régimen Subsidiado), UPAs (Unidad Primaria de Atención), UBAs (Unidad Básicas de Atención), CAMIs (Centros de Atención Médica Inmediata). c. Community kitchens and COLs (Local Operative Center). d. Hogares comunitarios, daycare centers, kindergarten, Casas Vecinales, nursery schools. e. Universities and NGOs. f. DNP (Departamento Nacional de Planeación). g. SGD (Secretaría de Gobierno Distrital), SHD (Secretaría de Hacienda Distrital). In the following three tables we show the composition of our sample for Players 1, 2 and 3 for both the target and controls to give an idea of the locations and occupations they have. discrimination in the provision of social services 87 Table 3A.7 Players 2 by Groups Target group Control group N % N % Displaced people 43 26.22 Students 27 87.10 People with disabilities 4 2.44 Private sectora 4 12.90 Indigenous people 1 0.61 Black 6 19.35 Ex-combatant 34 20.73 SISBEN 3 9.68 Recycler 18 10.98 Street vendor 12 7.32 Black 25 15.24 SISBEN 107 65.24 Total 164 31 Source: Authors. a. Universities and NGOs. Table 3A.8 Players 3 by Groups Target group Control group Officers N % N % a Government (central) 38 90.48 Students 30 61.22 b d Government (district) 1 2.38 Private sector 13 26.53 Congress 1 2.38 Street 6 12.24 International organizationsc 2 4.76 Total 42 100 49 100 Source: Authors' compilation. a. Ministerio de Comunicaciones, Ministerio de Hacienda, Ministerio de Minas y Energía, Super Intendencia Financiera, DIAN (Dirección de Impuestos y Aduanas Nacionales), CGR (Contraloría General de la República), FOSYGA (Fondo de Solidaridad y Garantías). b. SGD (Secretaria de Gobierno Distrital). c. CEPAL (Comisión Económica para América Latina). d. Universities and NGOs. To give an idea of the socioeconomic status of the players recruited, table 3A.9 shows the household expenditures (in Colombian pesos and U.S. dollars) reported by players in both the target and control subsamples. Table 3A.10 presents the kind of aid and welfare benefits that players 2 were receiving from the government through different social services pro- grams. It is based on the demographic survey filled out for each participant. 88 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Table 3A.9 Players' Monthly Household Expenditures by Role (US$) Target Control Role player 1 2 3 1 2 3 Mean 293.22 135.19 678.25 906.10 580.10 1,147.70 Minimum 20.08 7.23 120.45 120.45 120.45 100.38 Maximum 3,613.50 401.50 2,409.00 4,015.00 2,409.00 6,022.50 Standard deviation 309.11 698.14 502.21 817.35 490.16 1,434.74 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: US$1 = Col$2,490.66 (Monthly mean average for May to July 2006, according to http//:www.banrep.gov.co). Table 3A.10 Welfare Benefits of Target Population (Players 2) Target Control 1. Possession of an aid program certificate (percent) SISBEN certificate 52.63 9.67 Ex-combatant certificate 29.82 0 Displaced aid program certificate 11.40 0 Familias en Acción program 3.51 0 2. Use of welfare programs (percent) People receiving benefits from public programs 79.27 29.03 a Education 56.92 88.89 b Nutrition 29.23 0 c Health 84.62 33.33 Child cared 17.05 0 Source: Authors' compilation. a. Public schools and CADELs (Local Administrative Center for Education). b. Community kitchens and COLs (Local Operative Center). c. ARSs (Administradora del Régimen Subsidiado), UPAs (Unidad Primaria de Atención), UBAs (Unidad Básicas de Atención), CAMIs (Centros de Atención Médica Inmediata). d. Hogares comunitarios, daycare centers, kindergarten, Casas Vecinales, nursery schools. Sociodemographic Characteristics of Players Tables 3A.11 and 3A.12 present a series of characteristics for the sample of participants. Recall that only the information in the card was known to the other player. discrimination in the provision of social services 89 Table 3A.11 Players 2 Characteristics Observed by Players 1 Target Control Age Mean 31.98 22.39 Max 16 18 Min 65 32 SD 12.87 3.56 Marital status (%) Single 39.63 96.77 Married 7.93 3.23 Union 36.59 0 Divorced 3.66 0 Widow 12.20 0 Activity (%) Working 51.22 16.13 Studying 15.85 83.87 Looking for a job 21.95 0 Target Control Home work 7.93 0 Gender (%) Disabled 1.83 0 Female 57.93 58.06 Other 1.22 0 Male 42.07 41.94 Employment (%) Race (%) Private sector 27 100 Black 15.24 19.35 Unskilled worker 1.12 0 Indigenous 7.93 0 Government worker 2.25 0 Mestizo 76.83 80.65 Home worker 6.74 0 SISBEN (%) Professional worker 1.12 0 Yes 65.24 9.68 Independent worker 59.55 0 No 34.76 90.32 No payment 2.25 0 SISBEN group (%) Years in that activity 0 43.40 0 Mean 4.78 10.26 1 39.62 0 Max 40 21 2 13.21 33.33 Min 0 0.02 3 3.77 33.33 SD 8.29 7.67 4 0 33.33 Strata (%) Education: levela 0 13.50 0 Mean 2.62 5.35 1 26.99 3.23 Max 6 8 2 25.77 9.68 Min 0 4 3 17.79 54.84 SD 0.79 0.80 4 15.95 19.35 Education: years 5 0 6.45 Mean 8.15 17.26 6 0 6.45 Max 18 20 Dependents Min 0 15 Mean 1.98 0 SD 3.57 0.77 Max 7 0 Other (%) Min 0 0 Displaced people 38.39 0 SD 1.85 0 People with disabilities 3.57 0 Children Ex-combatant 30.36 0 Mean 1.54 0 Indigenous 0.89 0 Max 6 0 Recycler 16.07 0 Min 0 0 Street vendor 10.71 0 SD 1.58 0 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: SD = standard deviation. a. 1 = primary (incomplete); 2 = secondary (high school incomplete); 3 = tertiary (technical, college incomplete or complete). 90 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Table 3A.12 Players 1 Characteristics Observed by Players 2 Target Control Age Mean 34.3 25.9 Max 17 17 Min 55 54 SD 8.43 8.79 Gender Women 57.93 58.06 Male 42.07 41.94 Education: level Only Target N % Mean 4.46 5.71 Max 8 8 Officers 176 77.53 Min 2 3 Educationa 35 19.89 SD 1.63 1.36 CADEL 22.86 Education: years CED 60.00 Mean 14.53 17.45 Healthb 34 19.31 Max 20 20 CAMI 17.65 Min 4 12 SD 3.91 1.66 UBA 29.41 Years in the activity UPA 26.47 Mean 5.49 3.48 Nutritionc 28 15.91 Max 33 22 COL 21.95 Min 0.08 0.03 DABS 39.29 SD 5.88 4.88 IDIPRON 25.00 Private sectore 18.13 6.90 Position Child Cared 54 30.68 For the governmentf 81.87 93.10 jardinDABS 61.11 Blue collar 36.43 7.14 hogarICBF 38.89 White collar 63.57 92.59 Surveyers SISBEN 31 13.66 Students 0.00 48.21 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: SD = standard deviation. a. Public schools, CADELs (Local Administrative Center for Education) and CED (Centro de Educacion para el Desarrollo: Education Programs). b. ARSs (Administradora del Régimen Subsidiado), UPAs (Unidad Primaria de Atención), UBAs (Unidad Básicas de Atención), and CAMIs (Centros de Atención Médica Immediata). c. Community kitchens and COLs (Local Operative Center). d. Community kitchens, COL (Local Operative Center), DABS (Departamento Administrativo de Bienestar Social: Welfare Programs), and IDIPRON (Instituto para la Protección de la Niñez y la Juventud: Youth and Childhood Protection). e. Universities and NGOs. f. DNP (Departamento Nacional de Planeación), SGD (Secretaría de Gobierno Distrital), SHD (Secretaría de Hacienda Distrital). Payments Each player received his or her earnings from at least one of the five games and at most three games, randomly selected. The final frequency of each game paid to each player is reported in table 3A.13. Since in the 3PP game discrimination in the provision of social services 91 Table 3A.13 Frequency of Payments by Game Game Role player DDG DG UG TG 3PP 1 19.33 14.29 18.07 13.03 39.08 2 59.09 14.05 16.94 12.81 39.26 3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 100.00 Total 33.04 11.89 14.69 10.84 48.95 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: n.a. = not applicable. DDG = distributive dictator game; DG = dictator game; UG = ultimatum game; TG = trust game; 3PP = third-party punishment game. Table 3A.14 Earnings by Rolea Standard Role player Mean Maximum Minimum Sum deviation 1 3.71 10.40 0.00 862 1.80 2 6.60 16.00 0.00 1,504 3.07 3 3.84 4.00 3.20 354 0.32 Total 4.93 16.00 0.00 2,719 2.69 Source: Authors' compilation. a. An activity was not paid for when the participant did not attend the session. Earnings do not include the show-up fee (Col$4,000 = US$1.60) paid to each participant. we needed to pay at least one player 3, and we wanted to pay all players when a game was selected, all players 1 and 2 involved in the 3PP were paid. Those players who were not paid for the 3PP were paid for one of the other activities. The final earnings, without show-up fee, are reported in table 3A.14. Overall, US$2,700 was paid to the 513 people who participated. Every player also received a show-up fee of Col$4,000 (US$1.6). Social Efficiency and Equity across Games Table 3A.15 reports the social efficiency and equity statistics for each of the games and for the two major types of (player 1­player 2) interactions, by sample. These interactions consisted of target-target, control-control, target-control, and control-target. Table 3A.15 Social Efficiency and Equity in the Dictator, Ultimatum, Trust, and Third-Party Punishment Games General DDG DG UG TG 3PP 92 Number of observations 557 558 559 444 2,118 Real social efficiency Mean 100% 89% 83% 93% 91% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Minimum 1.00 0.00 0.50 0.73 0.00 Standard deviation 0.00 0.30 0.13 0.11 0.18 Player 2's equity Mean 54% 62% 61% 36% 53% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.66 1.00 Minimum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Standard deviation 0.28 0.24 0.17 0.15 0.24 Target: Players 1 and 2 DDG DG UG TG 3PP Number of observations 364 360 363 283 1,370 Real social efficiency Mean 100% 89% 83% 92% 91% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Minimum 1.00 0.00 0.50 0.73 0.00 Standard deviation 0.00 0.30 0.13 0.11 0.18 Player 2's equity Mean 52% 62% 61% 35% 52% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.66 1.00 Minimum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Standard deviation 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.15 0.24 (continued) Table 3A.15 Social Efficiency and Equity in the Dictator, Ultimatum, Trust, and Third-Party Punishment Games (continued) Control: Players 1 and 2 DDG DG UG TG 3PP Number of observations 52 57 53 28 190 Real social efficiency Mean 100% 80% 76% 99% 88% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Minimum 1.00 0.00 0.50 0.73 0.00 Standard deviation 0.00 0.30 0.12 0.05 0.24 Player 2's equity Mean 42% 61% 57% 32% 48% Maximum 1.00 1.00 0.93 0.66 1.00 Minimum 0.00 0.30 0.13 0.00 0.00 Standard deviation 0.25 0.21 0.16 0.12 0.22 Control: Players 1 ­ Target: Players 2 DDG DG UG TG 3PP Number of observations 98 99 99 84 380 Real social efficiency Mean 100% 94% 87% 93% 94% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Minimum 1.00 0.00 0.50 0.73 0.00 Standard deviation 0.00 0.22 0.12 0.11 0.14 Player 2's equity Mean 70% 71% 68% 44% 62% Maximum 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.66 1.00 Minimum 0.00 0.10 0.35 0.00 0.00 93 Standard deviation 0.28 0.23 0.16 0.16 0.24 Source: Authors. Note: DDG = distributive dictator game; DG = dictator game; UG = ultimatum game; TG = trust game; 3PP = third-party punishment game. 94 cárdenas, candelo, gaviria, polanía, and sethi Notes The authors want to acknowledge the help of the many people who con- tributed to this project, which enabled them to achieve sampling across the city, recruit participants, conduct the experimental sessions, explore archives, and understand the provision of social services to the poor. They are grateful to the following organizations and individuals: Fundación Enséñame a Pescar; Dangely Bernal, Pilar Cuervo, Álvaro Castillo, Hernando Ramírez, Dora Alarcón, and Fer- nando Arrázola (Consultorio Jurídico y Facultad de Derecho, Universidad de los Andes); Rocío Marín (Defensoría del Pueblo); Sandra Carolina Vargas (Facultad de Economía, Universidad de los Andes); Natalia Marín (Foro Joven); Yezid Botiva (SEI Consultores); Teresa Ortiz (Jardín Infantil Gimnasio Británico); Luz Mélida Hernández (Fundación Bella Flor); Carlos Betancourt and Germán Nova (Secre- taría de Hacienda Distrital); Mauricio Castillo and Luis Hernando Barreto (Con- traloría General de la República); Jeannette Avila (Departamento Administrativo de Bienestar Social); and the following students from the Universidad de los Andes, who volunteered at different stages of the project: Pablo Andrés Pérez, Stybaliz Castellanos, Juan Carlos Reyes, Andrés Felipe Sarabia, Gustavo Caballero, Gloria Carolina Orjuela, Orizel Llanos, and Fabián García. Finally, the authors wish to express their gratitude to Hugo Ñopo and Andrea Moro, who provided valuable comments on previous drafts. 1. All but the last experiment involve a player 1 (provider) and a player 2 (ben- eficiary). For the third-party punishment game, a third player decides whether to punish at a personal cost player 1 when the latter has acted unfairly against player 2. The strategy method is used for games where players 2 have to make choices contin- gent on the decisions by players 1. We asked players 2 and 3 to elicit their responses to every possible scenario or choice by player 1, before realizing the actual decisions. Thus we gathered rich information about reciprocal responses by players 2 and 3. 2. At the time of the experiments, the exchange rate was about US$1 = Col$2,490 (Colombian pesos). The minimum wage at the time was about US$5.5 a day, about Col$13,300 a day. 3. See Chaudhuri and Sethi (2003) for a survey of the Arrow-Phelps literature on stereotypes and statistical discrimination. 4. Sistemas Únicos de Información sobre Beneficiarios en América Latina. 5. Régimen Subsidiado en Salud, based on SISBEN rankings. 6. http://www.ramajudicial.gov.co; http://200.21.19.133/sentencias/. 7. "Writ of protection of constitutional rights." 8. The constitutional court has made several rulings based on the mechanism of the tutela commanding public institutions to guarantee social services to the poor. We find the following types of arguments: (1) individuals who argue that their rights and the principle of equality have been violated as a result of being clas- sified into the SISBEN indexing system; (2) displaced people who argue for equal treatment when asking for social services such as health care and medicines, edu- cation for their children, housing and economic stabilization programs, and child care; (3) displaced people who argue that they should be registered as displaced (to obtain the Sistema Único de Registro de Desplazados); (4) people who argue that they have been denied treatment for no reason by health care institutions. The Colombian ombudsman (Defensoría del Pueblo) has heard various allega- tions in which poor people claimed to be the subject of social exclusion in the pro- vision of social services. Out of 1,123 accusations, 100 describe circumstances in which poor people could have experienced discrimination by local officials involved in providing social services. Among the cases of alleged discrimination, 52 percent involved health care institutions, 20 percent involved educational institutions, 20 percent featured problems with SISBEN surveyors, 6 percent involved claims with discrimination in the provision of social services 95 institutions that provide nutrition, and 2 percent involved disputes with child care institutions. Those who alleged discrimination possessed the following sociodemo- graphic characteristics (totals add up to more than 100 percent because of multiple characteristics): 64 percent were women, 46 percent were unemployed or working at home, 9 percent were displaced, 30 percent were handicapped, and 7 percent were from other parts of the country or were indigenous or Afro descendants. 9. Reinsertados is a common name used to identify ex-combatants from irreg- ular armed forces who are in the process of being reinserted into civil life through government programs that provide various kinds of support. 10. The design for this game has benefitted greatly from the valuable exchange with Catherine Eckel (University of Texas at Dallas). 11. Including traits and mechanisms related to other-regarding preferences such as altruism, reciprocal altruism, reciprocity, fairness, trust, and altruistic (social) punishment. 12. This result, however, needs to be explored further because we initially used the self-reported ethnic or racial affiliation, which might involve subreporting of affil- iation with minorities or groups that have been historically discriminated against. 13. We have, however, data for the 55 people who did not attend, because we collected basic demographic information at the time of recruitment such as age, gender, and education level. 14. 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American Economic Review 62 (4): 659­61. 4 Discrimination and Social Networks: Popularity among High School Students in Argentina Julio Elías, Víctor Elías, and Lucas Ronconi This chapter seeks to understand peer popularity and to assess the extent of discrimination in the formation of networks during adolescence in Argentina. Are teenagers of some particular ethnic origin less likely to be accepted by their peers? Does parental income matter for popularity? Are foreign-born teenagers excluded? Does physical attractiveness matter? The importance of this issue is underscored by several studies and in the media, suggesting that discrimination is a problem in Argentine society (Braylan and Jmelnizky 2004; Villalpando and others 2006). To answer these questions, we asked high school students to select and rank 10 classmates with whom they would like to form a team to perform school activities and then used this information to construct a measure of Julio Elías is with the Banco Central de la República Argentina and the Univer- sidad del CEMA, Víctor Elías is with the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, and Lucas Ronconi is with the Universidad Torcuato Di Tella. The authors would like to thank Adriana Boyer, Lucas Sal, and Olga Seeber for their excellent research assistance as well as Hugo Ñopo Aguilar, Alberto Chong, and Andrea Moro for their valuable comments and suggestions. They also benefited from the comments of Marina Bassi, Laura Ripani, Alejandro Rodríguez, John Dunn Smith, and Máximo Torero, and of seminar participants at the Universidad de San Andrés and at the meetings of the Latin American Research Network on "Discrimination and Economic Outcomes" in Washington, DC, and Mexico in 2006. They are grateful to Raquel Gómez for her hospitality and help as a research network coordinator. 97 98 elías, elías, and ronconi popularity. Next, we collected information on students' characteristics, including physical attractiveness, ethnic origin, skin color, nationality, pre- vious academic performance, personality traits, parental socioeconomic background, and other family characteristics. We then explored the effect of these characteristics on popularity. Being popular during adolescence is relevant for at least three reasons. First, school peer effects are important for academic achievement (see Zimmerman 2003). Second, peer popularity affects the development of social skills, which in turn appear to be important for success during adult- hood. For instance, Galeotti and Mueller (2005) find that adults who are highly ranked by their classmates during high school earn significantly higher wages during adulthood, and Kuhn and Weinberger (2005) find that people who occupy leadership positions in high school subsequently earn more during adulthood. Third, attaining status in the groups to which we belong is a goal of social life (see, for example, Becker, Murphy, and Werning 2005). This study has two distinctive features. First, and contrary to most empirical work that relies on experiments where the environment is arti- ficial, we study real school classes.1 School authorities asked students to select classmates with whom to form a team, mentioning that, based on their expressed preferences, teams would be formed to conduct activities during the rest of the year. Second, to the best of our knowledge, the micro data sets available to study discrimination in Argentina do not include information on factors such as skin color, ethnicity, or physical attractive- ness.2 The findings reported here are based on a rich set of student char- acteristics that were collected to explore the existence of discrimination against different traits and to avoid potential omitted-variable bias. The chapter proceeds as follows. The first section describes the survey design and procedures, the second presents the data and discusses the measures of popularity and beauty, the third presents results on the main determinants of students' popularity, the fourth discusses some features of popularity and social networks, the fifth discusses expected sorting by groups, and the sixth provides some estimates of the potential benefits of joining a network. A final section concludes. Survey Design and Procedures The sample frame consists of schools with students attending third grade in the polimodal (that is, equivalent to the last year in high school) in Florencio Varela and Hurlingham (two municipalities located in greater Buenos Aires) and in the city of Tucumán.3 According to the 2001 census, approximately 1.3 million individuals 16­17 years of age were living in Argentina. The selected sample frame imposes two potential biases with respect to the population. First, only 40 percent of the population under discrimination and social networks 99 study resides in the selected provinces (35 percent in Buenos Aires and 5 percent in Tucumán). Second, not all teenagers are enrolled in high school. According to the Ministry of Education, approximately three-quarters were enrolled in high school in 2001.4 The figure is 73 percent for Greater Buenos Aires and 65 percent for Tucumán. Dropouts have different char- acteristics than those enrolled in high school (for example, they are poorer on average), which suggests the inadequacy of extrapolating the results of the study to them. Almost 1,000 schools offer polimodal in Greater Buenos Aires, includ- ing 30 located in the municipality of Florencio Varela and 23 in Hurling- ham. In the city of Tucumán, 88 schools offer polimodal. The survey was performed in nine schools in Greater Buenos Aires (six in Florencio Varela and three in Hurlingham) and seven schools in Tucumán. Data were collected in the following manner. First, a survey was con- ducted in the classroom, where the "tutor"5 gave students a questionnaire asking them to rank classmates according to their preference for forming a team.6 Based on this information, different measures of popularity were constructed. Two important aspects of the survey are worth emphasizing. First, the survey was conducted in March (the first month of the school year in Argentina), and students were told that, based on their expressed prefer- ences, teams would be formed at some point during the year to conduct activities at school and that teams would meet on a regular basis. Second, in all schools where the survey was conducted, the authorities were planning to form teams and act on this information. Therefore, the environment was not artificial. After collecting the first questionnaire, the tutor gave students a sec- ond questionnaire, which included questions about socioeconomic back- ground, nationality, race, ethnicity, and personality. Finally, students received a third questionnaire, which asked them to name and rank, sepa- rately, the three female and male classmates that they considered to be physically the most attractive. At this point, the tutor asked students to fill out the questionnaire responsibly, mentioning that the results would remain strictly confidential and would be used by researchers to analyze the role that beauty and other factors play among adolescents. The second source of information was school records. Information was collected on students' grades during the previous year, whether the student was a beneficiary of the Becas program, and the year in which the student enrolled in the school.7 The annex to this chapter presents an English translation of the three questionnaires, which were designed with the following (sometimes conflicting) objectives: maintaining simplicity, collecting relevant infor- mation, avoiding nonresponses, and increasing the reliability of answers. Discussions with schoolteachers and authorities were extremely helpful in designing the questionnaires. 100 elías, elías, and ronconi Data This section describes the measures used for popularity and beauty and presents the data for schools located in Buenos Aires and in Tucumán. Popularity and Beauty Measures of popularity and beauty were created by focusing on the rank- ing sections of the survey (first and third questionnaires). As students ranked their order of preference for 10 classmates as members of a group to perform school activities, it is possible to derive measures of peer popu- larity based either on the rankings that students received from their class- mates or simply on whether they were chosen.8 There are alternative ways to measure popularity and beauty. One of the most common measures of popularity in network analysis is the number of times each student is chosen by his or her classmates divided by class size. In this study, an analogous measure is constructed that also incorporates the extra information coming from the student's position in the ranking. First, the position of the student in the average ranking is considered as a measure of popularity. To construct this measure, a ranking from 1 to 11 is considered, where the eleventh position is assigned to students who were not nominated in the first 10 positions by their classmates. Under this assumption, the average ranking for student i is given by the following: 11 N h ,i w h ri = ClassSize - 1 h =1 i (4.1) where w1 = 1, w2 = 2, ... w10 = 10, and w11 = 11, Nh,i is the number of times student i was nominated in the h position by his or her classmates, wh is the ranking position, and ClassSizei is the total number of students in the class. An advantage of this simple measure is that a monotonic transformation of the ranking variable, wh, does not affect the qualita- tive results. Additionally, a dichotomous variable approach is applied to perform the analysis, which can be considered as a monotonic transformation of the student ranking variable, wh. As a consequence, similar results are obtained. However, this approach is helpful in analyzing other important aspects of the same problem. Within this approach, two alternatives are considered. First, popularity is defined as a dichotomous variable that indicates whether the student was chosen by at least 50 percent of his or her classmates. That is, discrimination and social networks 101 10 N h, i h =1 0 .5 di = 1 if ClassSize - 1 (4.2) 0 Otherwise A second alternative considered for each student in the class is whether he or she was chosen separately by each of his or her classmates in the first five places for forming a group. That is, 1 if student j chose student i in the first five places di , j = (4.3) 0 Otherwise For example, in a class of 20 students, there will be 19 observations for each student, indicating whether he or she was chosen by each of the members of the class. In this example, there will be a total of 380 obser- vations just for this class. A valuable feature of this approach is that it permits an investigation of how the rater's characteristics affect the indi- vidual's selection of peers. Finally, the standard deviation of the ranking of each student is com- puted. That is, 11 N h,i (wh - ri )2 ri = ClassSize - 1 h =1 i (4.4) The standard deviation is low for students who are either very popular or very unpopular and is high for those who are liked by some, but not all, of their classmates. This measure permits an analysis of the degree of homogeneity of preferences within a classroom. Using the information obtained by the third questionnaire, a formula similar to equation 4.1 is applied to construct a proxy for beauty. In this case, however, h goes from 1 to 4, since students were asked to rank only the three physically most attractive classmates. That is, the measure of beauty is defined as follows: 4 Nh =1 h, i wh (4.5) Bi = ClassSizei - 1 where w1 = 3, w2 = 2, w3 = 1, and w4 = 0 and Nh,i is the number of times student i was ranked in the h position by his or her classmates. 102 elías, elías, and ronconi Schools Located in Buenos Aires In Buenos Aires, the survey was conducted in nine schools--six in Flor- encio Varela and three in Hurlingham. Four out of the nine schools are public, and two are located in the municipality of Florencio Varela. The total number of students in the selected schools is 641, and the average class size is 26 students. Although 62 students were absent on the day the survey was conducted, there was a 100 percent participation rate among those who were present. Therefore, 579 students completed the surveys. The average age is 17 years old, less than half of the students are male, and almost all of the students were born in Argentina (only one student in the sample is foreign born--in neighboring Paraguay). Table 4.1 presents basic statistics, the number of responses, and corre- lations for the main independent variables that enter into the preliminary specification. A valuable feature of this study is that a very high percentage of students answered each question. With the exception of ethnicity, which was answered by only 65 percent of students,9 all of the remaining ques- tions were answered by more than 90 percent of students. Approximately 45 percent of the sample has white skin. With respect to ethnic origin, 87 percent of the students who answered the question mentioned European origins, 18 percent Native American, 4 percent Middle Eastern, 2 percent Asian, and 1 percent African (students were asked to select all ethnic origins that apply). Out of a set of four goods (car, computer, access to Internet, and air conditioning), students have, on average, 1.6 goods. Each student has, on average, 2.6 siblings. The average grade the previous year is 7 out of 10 for math and 7.7 out of 10 for literature, and 19 percent of the sample receives a Beca scholarship. The average parental education is 9.7 years of schooling. It is difficult to determine whether this is a representative sample of the population because there are no other surveys with information about skin color or ethnicity. However, it is possible to compare other character- istics such as parental education. The Encuesta de Calidad de Vida (ECV) was conducted by the National Institute of Statistics in 2001. The average parental education of teenagers 16 to 17 years of age, who were enrolled in polimodal and living in Greater Buenos Aires (which includes both Hurlingham and Florencio Varela) was 9.9 years of schooling in 2001, slightly higher than in the sample we study. Panel A of table 4.1 presents the correlations between the main inde- pendent variables included in our specification. As expected, the measure of wealth (hereafter, parental wealth) is highly correlated with parents' average education, with a correlation coefficient of 0.46, and is negatively correlated with whether the student receives a scholarship and number of siblings, with correlation coefficients of -0.32 and -0.23, respec- tively. Parental wealth and parents' average education are also positively correlated with whether the student is white and has European ethnicity. Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics, Buenos Aires A. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlations of Selected Individual Characteristics (continued) Native Foreign- Parental Parental Has Literature Math White American European born Number wealth education scholarship grade grade Beauty skin ethnicity ethnicity parents siblings Mean 1.59 9.74 0.19 7.72 6.97 0.28 0.45 0.18 0.87 0.09 2.6 Standard deviation 1.37 3.75 0.39 1.47 2.09 0.40 0.50 0.38 0.33 0.28 1.8 Number responses 568 578 641 532 530 641 572 371 371 545 564 Parental education 0.46 Has scholarship ­0.32 ­0.29 Literature grade ­0.11 ­0.03 0.11 Math grade ­0.05 ­0.02 0.11 0.33 Beauty 0.07 ­0.05 0.07 0.09 0.02 White skin 0.18 0.19 ­0.03 ­0.02 ­0.02 0.05 (continued) 103 Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics, Buenos Aires (continued) 104 A. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlations of Selected Individual Characteristics (continued) Native Foreign- Parental Parental Has Literature Math White American European born Number wealth education scholarship grade grade Beauty skin ethnicity ethnicity parents siblings Native American ethnicity ­0.13 ­0.20 0.08 0.01 0.09 ­0.06 ­0.15 European ethnicity 0.16 0.14 ­0.02 0.03 ­0.01 0.07 0.20 ­0.59 Foreign-born parents 0.02 ­0.08 0.01 0.04 ­0.01 0.01 ­0.06 0.11 ­0.11 Number siblings ­0.23 ­0.19 0.12 ­0.10 ­0.02 0.01 ­0.10 0.09 ­0.06 0.04 1.00 B. Mean and Standard Deviation of Selected Individual Characteristics Number of Standard Variable responses Mean deviation Age 579 17.1 0.71 Gender (male = 1) 641 0.47 0.50 Nationality (Argentine = 1) 576 0.99 0.05 African ethnicity 371 0.01 0.09 Asian ethnicity 371 0.02 0.15 Middle East ethnicity 371 0.04 0.19 Source: Authors' compilation. discrimination and social networks 105 Regarding school performance, math grades are highly correlated with literature grades, with a correlation coefficient of 0.33. Hereafter, the average grade is used as a measure of a student's academic performance. The overall standard deviation is 0.5 for white skin, 1.37 for parental wealth, and 3.75 for parental education. The within-school class standard deviation for these variables is 0.47, 1.07, and 3.09, respectively. These figures show that heterogeneity within the school class is high with respect to race and socioeconomic status, implying that this is an appropriate environment in which to study peer discrimination.10 Schools Located in Tucumán The survey was also conducted in seven schools in Tucumán. Two out of the seven schools are public. The total number of students in the selected schools is 375, and the average class size is 28.8 students. While 32 stu- dents were absent the day the survey was conducted, there was a 100 per- cent participation rate among those who were present. Therefore, infor- mation is available for 343 students. The average age in the sample is 16.8 years old, slightly lower than in the sample for Buenos Aires, and only two students in the sample are foreign born. Table 4.2 presents basic statistics for the sample of Tucumán, the num- ber of responses, and correlations for the main independent variables that enter into the specifications. As in the case of Buenos Aires, the response rate was very high. Most questions, including ethnicity, were answered by more than 95 percent of the students. Approximately 44 percent of the sample has white skin, almost the same as the 45 percent found for Buenos Aires. With respect to ethnic origin, the percentage of the students who reported European and Native American origin is much lower than in Buenos Aires. In Tucumán, 64 percent of students reported European ori- gin, compared with 87 percent in Buenos Aires, and 13 percent reported Native American origin, compared with 18 percent in Buenos Aires. In contrast, the proportion reporting Middle Eastern origin is much higher, 12 percent compared with 4 percent in Buenos Aires. Students have an average of 2.4 siblings. The average grade the previous year is 6.4 out of 10 for math and 7.4 out of 10 for literature; only 8 percent of the sample receives a Beca scholarship. Students have, on average, 2.1 out of four goods (car, computer, access to Internet, and air conditioning), and the average parental education in the sample is 13 years of schooling. Clearly, the Tucumán sample has a higher socioeconomic status than the Buenos Aires sample. This difference is explained, in part, by the fact that the average income and education in the capital city of Tucumán are higher than in both Hurlingham and Flor- encio Varela. But five of the seven schools surveyed in Tucumán are pri- vate, which suggests that the sample we study in Tucumán over-represents students with high socioeconomic status. This is confirmed by the fact 106 Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics, Tucumán A. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlations of Selected Individual Characteristics (continued) Native Foreign- Parental Parental Has Literature Math White American European born Number wealth education scholarship grade grade Beauty skin ethnicity ethnicity parents siblings Mean 2.13 13.05 0.08 7.37 6.40 0.31 0.44 0.13 0.64 0.03 2.40 Standard deviation 1.40 3.8 0.27 1.51 1.99 0.51 0.50 0.33 0.48 0.17 1.32 Number responses 342 343 375 339 336 375 343 343 343 336 343 Parental education 0.39 Has scholarship ­0.14 ­0.15 Literature grade 0.28 0.15 ­0.19 Math grade 0.20 0.20 ­0.21 0.40 Beauty ­0.04 0.10 0.00 ­0.06 ­0.06 White skin 0.14 0.12 ­0.02 0.05 0.03 0.09 Native American ethnicity ­0.12 ­0.07 0.05 0.03 0.00 ­0.14 ­0.16 (continued) Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics, Tucumán (continued) A. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlations of Selected Individual Characteristics (continued) Native Foreign- Parental Parental Has Literature Math White American European born Number wealth education scholarship grade grade Beauty skin ethnicity ethnicity parents siblings European ethnicity 0.18 0.25 0.07 0.12 0.04 ­0.08 0.06 0.00 Foreign­born parents 0.10 0.04 ­0.04 0.00 0.02 0.13 ­0.05 0.04 ­0.05 Number siblings ­0.04 0.03 0.01 ­0.07 ­0.06 0.09 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 1.00 B. Mean and Standard Deviation of Selected Individual Characteristics Number of Standard Variable responses Mean deviation Age 343 16.78 0.53 Gender (male = 1) 375 0.36 0.48 Nationality (Argentine = 1) 343 0.99 0.08 House is of corrugated iron 332 0.01 0.09 African ethnicity 343 0.01 0.08 Asian ethnicity 343 0.03 0.18 Middle East ethnicity 343 0.12 0.32 107 Source: Authors' compilation. 108 elías, elías, and ronconi that, in the ECV, the average parental education is 10.8 among teenagers 16 to 17 years of age attending school and living in Greater Tucumán (which includes the city of Tucumán).11 Panel A of table 4.2 presents, for Tucumán, the correlations among the main independent variables included in the specification. As in the case of Buenos Aires, parental wealth is positively correlated with average paren- tal education and negatively correlated with whether the students are on scholarship and the number of siblings, but they are lower in absolute terms than for Buenos Aires. Parental wealth and average parental educa- tion are also positively correlated with whether the student is white and with European ethnicity. As in Buenos Aires, heterogeneity within the school class is high with respect to race and socioeconomic status. The overall and within-school class standard deviation is 0.5 and 0.48, respectively, for the variable white skin, 1.4 and 1.23 for parental wealth, and 3.8 and 3.4 for parental education. Empirical Results This section investigates the effects of individual characteristics, such as skin color, beauty, ethnic origin, and family wealth on student popularity. The analysis assumes that student rankings depend on a set of individual characteristics. In addition, in ranking their classmates, students may dif- fer in their valuation of each relevant characteristic. Hence, there is a distribution of valuations over each characteristic in the population. A student's ranking is therefore determined by his or her characteristics and by the value that his or her classmates (that is, the raters) place on each of these characteristics. The following empirical model, which serves as a baseline for the estimations, summarizes such considerations: ri , j = xi j + 1, j Bi + ui , j (4.6) where ri,j is the ranking assigned to student i by student j, with values from 1 to 11, xi is a vector of individual characteristics, Bi is a measure of beauty of the student, and ui,j is a disturbance, representing the other forces affect- ing ri,j that are not explicitly measured. Using equation 4.6, equation 4.7 gives the average ranking of student i: ri = xi + 1Bi + ui (4.7) where the upper bar denotes the mean over the school class. According to equation 4.7, the partial effect of a student characteristic (for example, beauty, race) on its average ranking is equal to the class average valuation of that characteristic. An important implication of this discrimination and social networks 109 analysis is that, by using the average student ranking as a measure of popularity, it is only possible to recover the population's average valuation placed on each characteristic. In addition, the average valuations may also vary across different classes according to unobservable or observable class characteristics, such as average parental wealth and whether the class is mixed. This implies that the average ranking for student i in class k is given by the following: rik = xik k + 1,kBik + uik (4.8) where the subscript k reflects variations in average valuations across school classes. Estimating equation 4.8 raises some econometric problems. First, the error term in the linear regression model is heteroskedastic because the number of students differs by class, and the distribution itself may vary across classes. This problem is solved by computing clustered standard errors, where the clusters correspond to school classes. Second, in estimating the effect of beauty on student average ranking, the measure of beauty is likely to have measurement error for at least two reasons. First, students only selected and ranked the three most attractive female and male classmates, not the entire class. Second, students did not provide an absolute measure of beauty for the selected classmates. Different versions of equation 4.8 are estimated below. First, a common effect of individual characteristics on student average ranking is assumed. Then, variations on coefficients across classes are allowed according to whether the school is mixed. In order to check the robustness of our estimates to different definitions of popularity, a probit model is also run, using student popularity as defined in equation 4.2 as the dependent vari- able. Finally, a modified version of equation 4.6 is used to investigate how the beauty and academic performance of the rater affect his or her valua- tions of each individual characteristic. Baseline Effects of Individual Characteristics on Popularity In table 4.3 students are categorized according to their average ranking as very popular (top 20 percent of the class), moderately popular (between 20 and 80 percent), and unpopular (bottom 20 percent of the class). The table presents the mean of parental wealth, parental education, beauty, school performance, and race for these three groups. Results for Buenos Aires and Tucumán are presented separately. In both provinces, highly popular students are, on average, physically more attractive and have better grades than unpopular students. When looking at differences in race, wealth, and parental education across groups, the sign of the differences varies according to the sample. In Buenos 110 Table 4.3 Wealth, Parental Education, School Performance, Race, and Beauty According to Student's Average Ranking, Buenos Aires and Tucumán Buenos Aires Tucumán Moderately Moderately Very popular popular (between Unpopular Very popular popular (between Unpopular (top 20%) 20% and 80%) (bottom 20%) (top 20%) 20% and 80%) (bottom 20%) Parental wealth 1.45 1.52 2.05 2.51 2.05 1.91 Parental education 9.21 9.71 10.52 13.53 13.00 12.60 Literature grade 8.04 7.76 7.10 7.62 7.39 7.00 Math grade 7.39 7.00 6.27 6.75 6.38 6.07 Beauty 0.40 0.28 0.10 0.51 0.28 0.14 White skin 0.45 0.46 0.41 0.39 0.46 0.46 Native American ethnicity 0.21 0.19 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.14 European ethnicity 0.89 0.86 0.91 0.63 0.62 0.69 Foreign parents 0.09 0.08 0.07 0 0.03 0.03 Source: Authors' compilation. discrimination and social networks 111 Aires, high-ranked students are, on average, poorer than low-ranked stu- dents, and their parents' average education is also lower. In Tucumán, the opposite is observed: students with a high average ranking are, on average, wealthier, and their parents are, on average, more educated. Since aver- age wealth in the sample of Buenos Aires is lower than in the sample of Tucumán, this suggests that the relationship between average ranking and wealth may vary with the level of wealth, displaying a U-shaped relation- ship between average ranking and income. Regarding race, the percent- age of students in Buenos Aires with Native American ethnicity is larger among high-ranked students than among low-ranked students, while in Tucumán the reverse is true. In addition, in Tucumán the percentage of students with white skin is lower among high-ranked students than among low-ranked students. Table 4.4 presents estimates of the effects of individual characteristics on student popularity assuming a homogeneous effect across school classes. All regressions are run by ordinary least squares (OLS). The dependent Table 4.4 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking, Buenos Aires and Tucumán All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III Age 0.037 0.097* ­0.104** (0.044) (0.055) (0.048) Gender (male = 1) ­0.168 ­0.309** 0.118 (0.118) (0.129) (0.239) Not born in the school 0.549** 0.791*** ­0.062 province (0.235) (0.212) (0.473) Not born in the school ­0.101 ­0.147** 0.145 district (0.069) (0.064) (0.271) Average grade ­0.195*** ­0.179*** ­0.199*** (0.033) (0.037) (0.069) Beauty ­0.377*** ­0.297*** ­0.501*** (0.099) (0.101) (0.167) Native American ethnicity ­0.063 ­0.335 0.003 (0.116) (0.217) (0.152) European ethnicity ­0.111 ­0.538** ­0.030 (0.112) (0.248) (0.135) African ethnicity 0.190 0.583* 0.466*** (0.143) (0.315) (0.134) (continued) 112 elías, elías, and ronconi Table 4.4 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking, Buenos Aires and Tucumán (continued) All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III Asian ethnicity 0.227* ­0.268 0.284* (0.136) (0.217) (0.167) Middle Eastern ethnicity 0.081 ­0.101 0.030 (0.083) (0.176) (0.128) Did not report ethnicity ­0.038 ­0.494* (0.142) (0.253) Skin color (white = 1) ­0.022 ­0.073 0.082 (0.069) (0.094) (0.093) Parental wealth ­0.022 ­0.005 ­0.046 (0.031) (0.042) (0.047) Parents' average education ­0.018** ­0.016 ­0.025** (0.009) (0.013) (0.010) Number of siblings 0.019 0.037* ­0.024 (0.020) (0.020) (0.050) Foreign parents 0.037 ­0.045 0.623* (0.156) (0.174) (0.333) Observations 840 509 331 2 R 0.45 0.48 0.48 F 10.71 16.36 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The samples for Buenos Aires and Tucumán comprise all the students who completed the surveys for whom all the variables included in the regression are avail- able. The dependent variable is the Student's Average Ranking (see equation 4.1). All regressions include the following controls: school class dummies, student's numbers of years living in the school district, whether the student has a scholarship, whether the student lives with both parents, whether the student's parents are married, whether the student's parents were born outside the school province, and measures of the student's personality. Clustered standard errors are reported in parentheses below each coeffi- cient, where clusters correspond to school classes. * Significant at 10 percent. ** Significant at 5 percent. *** Significant at 1 percent. variable is the average student ranking as defined in equation 4.1. The first column presents results using the pooled sample. Columns 2 and 3 present results for Buenos Aires and Tucumán, respectively. All specifications include school class dummies. The table reports only the variables that turn out to be important in the analysis, and the regressions discrimination and social networks 113 include the following controls that are not reported in the table because they are not statistically significant: the number of years the student has been living in the school district, whether the student has a scholarship, whether the student lives with both parents, whether the student's parents are married, whether the student's parents were born outside the province in which the school is located, and measures of the student's personality. Clustered standard errors are reported in parentheses below each coef- ficient, where clusters correspond to school classes. The results paint a consistent picture when looking across samples for two factors as the main determinants of a student's average ranking. These two factors are academic performance (average grade) and beauty. Both factors have a negative sign, which means that students with better grades and those perceived as more beautiful are ranked in a higher position (that is, are more popular). Both variables are statistically significant at the 1 percent level in all samples. Consider first the effect of average grade on student popularity. The coefficients on this variable are very similar across samples, -0.18 for the sample of Buenos Aires and -0.2 for the sample of Tucumán, implying that a five-point increase in grades leads to a gain of approximately one position in the ranking.12 Regarding the effect of beauty, the magnitude of the effect in the sample of Tucumán is larger than in the sample of Buenos Aires--by a factor of 1.7. This issue is discussed in more detail below. There does not appear to be a strong and consistent effect of ethnicity and skin color on the average ranking of students. Skin color is not signifi- cantly correlated with popularity in any of the specifications. Regarding ethnic origin, in the pooled sample, only Asian ethnicity has a negative effect on popularity, and the effect is only significant at the 10 percent level. When looking at the sample of Buenos Aires, having European ethnicity significantly increases popularity, while having African ethnicity decreases popularity (significant at the 10 percent level). In Buenos Aires, however, those who did not report their ethnicity are more popular. Given that individuals who did not report ethnicity are more likely to be part of a minority, the estimated positive effect of European ethnicity may be biased upward. For Tucumán, where 95 percent of students reported ethnicity, African and Asian ethnicity is negatively correlated with popu- larity (although in the latter case the effect is only significant at the 10 percent level). Regarding the effects of average parental education, the coefficients are negative and statistically significant in the pooled sample and in Tucumán (that is, students with more-educated parents are more popular). Paren- tal wealth, in contrast, has no significant effect on popularity. Since the variables of wealth and average parental education are highly correlated (a correlation coefficient of 0.46 and 0.39 for the samples of Buenos Aires and Tucumán, respectively), it is hard to disentangle the effect. Finally, no correlation is found between popularity and parental nationality (except 114 elías, elías, and ronconi in Tucumán, where students with foreign-born parents are less popular, although the effect is only significant at the 10 percent level). The effect of physical attractiveness on popularity would be biased if beauty were correlated with the error term. Physical attractiveness is mea- sured based on the rankings provided by students, not by external evalu- ators. If students rank their classmates based not only on their physical attractiveness but also on other traits unobservable to the econometrician, the estimated effect of beauty would capture the effects of both physical attractiveness and the unobserved factor. Personality traits, such as extro- version, represent factors that are usually unobserved by the econometri- cian but could be correlated with both beauty and popularity (Anderson and others 2001). To deal with this concern, students were explicitly asked to rank their classmates based on their physical appearance, and information was also collected on personality traits such as extroversion and conscientiousness. In particular, students were asked to report what they like to do when they meet with their friends (that is, talk a lot, tell jokes, listen), and what they plan to do after finishing high school (that is, study, work, work and study, don't know).13 The estimates presented in table 4.4 control for these factors. Therefore, it is unlikely that the effect of physical attractiveness on popularity captures personality traits. Furthermore, using the sample of mixed schools, four additional mea- sures of physical attractiveness are generated, as defined in equation 4.4, but varying the group of raters according to their gender as follows: considering the rankings generated (1) by females only, (2) by males only, (3) by students of the same gender as the rated student, and (4) by students of the opposite gender as the rated student. Even though this strategy does not fully solve the concern that students select their most attractive classmates based on unobservable factors other than beauty, the underlying premise is that the criteria used by the rater to assess beauty in an "objective" way may vary according to the gender of the student rater or in relation to the gender of the rated student. That is, the omitted-variable bias may vary with the gen- der of the rater of beauty. Although it is a priori unknown how the bias var- ies with the different measures of beauty (that is, whether males or females are more "objective" raters), at least it is possible to analyze the extent to which the magnitude and the statistical significance of the coefficients are affected by the use of these different measures of beauty. Table 4.5 presents the correlations between the different measures of physical attractiveness for the whole sample, as well as separately for Bue- nos Aires and Tucumán. As the table shows, the four additional measures of beauty are highly correlated with the measure of beauty generated using all students in the school class as raters (correlation coefficients range from 0.84 to 0.92). However, the correlation between the measures of beauty when the group of raters is restricted to male students or to female students is much lower, 0.65 for the whole sample. Thus it seems that both mea- sures offer different information or measure different things. discrimination and social networks 115 Table 4.5 Matrix Correlation of Different Measures of Beauty, Buenos Aires and Tucumán A. Whole Sample Measure of beauty computed using raters Opposite Same Males Females gender gender Females 0.65 Measure of beauty Opposite gender 0.82 0.85 computed using raters Same gender 0.83 0.80 0.65 Total class 0.87 0.91 0.91 0.86 Number of observations is 778. B. Buenos Aires Measure of beauty computed using raters Opposite Same Males Females gender gender Females 0.61 Measure of beauty Opposite gender 0.81 0.84 computed using raters Same gender 0.81 0.77 0.62 Total class 0.84 0.92 0.91 0.85 Number of observations is 573. C. Tucumán Measure of beauty computed using raters Opposite Same Males Females gender gender Females 0.69 Measure of beauty Opposite gender 0.83 0.87 computed using raters Same gender 0.85 0.83 0.69 Total class 0.91 0.89 0.92 0.88 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Number of observations is 205. Table 4.6 presents estimates of the effect of beauty on popularity using the four additional measures of beauty defined above. Each column cor- responds to one of the four measures of beauty. As the table shows, the 116 elías, elías, and ronconi Table 4.6 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking Using Different Measures of Beauty: Mixed Schools, Whole Sample Raters Same gender Opposite gender Females Males of rated of rated Beauty ­0.366*** ­0.242** ­0.322*** ­0.279** (0.074) (0.108) (0.075) (0.113) Observations 633 633 633 633 R2 0.46 0.44 0.46 0.45 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The sample comprises all the students from mixed schools in Buenos Aires and Tucumán who filled out the surveys for whom all the variables included in the regression are available. The dependent variable is the student's average ranking (see equation 4.1). Each column corresponds to a different measure of beauty as defined in the text. All regressions include the same controls as in table 4.4. Clustered standard errors are reported in parentheses below each coefficient, where clusters correspond to school classes. ** Significant at 5 percent. *** Significant at 1 percent. results are practically unaffected, and the effect of beauty on popularity is positive and statistically significant, independent of the measure of beauty used. However, the magnitude of the effect varies depending on the gender of the rater. In particular, the coefficient when beauty is rated by male stu- dents is much lower than when beauty is rated by female students. Finally, in order to check the robustness of the results to an alternative definition of popularity, a probit model is also run, using as the dependent variable whether the student was chosen by at least half of the class (see equation 4.2). The results of the probit model, presented in table 4.7, confirm the previous findings. Academic performance and beauty appear as the main determinants of student popularity in all three samples. Paren- tal education is also positively correlated with popularity, and parental wealth, skin color, and ethnicity are not significant factors (except for Native American ethnicity, which is positively correlated with popularity, although only in the pooled sample and at the 10 percent level). Heterogeneity in the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student Popularity: Mixed versus Single-Sex Schools Table 4.8 investigates how the effects of average grade, beauty, and aver- age parental education vary according to whether the school is mixed. discrimination and social networks 117 Table 4.7 Probit Model for the Probability of Being Chosen by at Least 50 Percent of the Class, Tucumán and Buenos Aires All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III Age 0.020 ­0.035 0.087 (0.074) (0.088) (0.140) Gender (male = 1) 0.272*** 0.514*** ­0.003 (0.093) (0.124) (0.155) Not born in the ­0.455** ­0.603* 0.189 school province (0.218) (0.309) (0.388) Not born in the 0.162 0.262** ­0.113 school district (0.099) (0.125) (0.258) Average grade 0.164*** 0.175*** 0.146*** (0.034) (0.046) (0.056) Beauty 0.520*** 0.583*** 0.552*** (0.110) (0.154) (0.161) Native American ethnicity 0.243* 0.609** 0.221 (0.146) (0.272) (0.221) European ethnicity 0.105 0.598* 0.037 (0.130) (0.316) (0.163) Asian ethnicity ­0.615 ­ ­0.324 (0.380) (0.393) Middle Eastern ethnicity 0.040 0.900** ­0.109 (0.197) (0.425) (0.236) Did not report ethnicity 0.090 0.672* ­ (0.163) (0.343) Skin color (white = 1) ­0.027 0.094 ­0.183 (0.094) (0.124) (0.155) Parental wealth 0.026 ­0.002 0.072 (0.040) (0.057) (0.063) Parents average education 0.031** 0.038** 0.041* (0.014) (0.019) (0.023) Number of siblings ­0.029 ­0.029 ­0.012 (0.028) (0.036) (0.054) Foreign parents 0.183 0.276 ­0.494 (0.199) (0.218) (0.515) (continued) 118 elías, elías, and ronconi Table 4.7 Probit Model for the Probability of Being Chosen by at Least 50 Percent of the Class, Tucumán and Buenos Aires (continued) All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III Observations 836 502 329 2 R 0.0791 0.1188 0.0861 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The table reports the marginal effects of a probit regression. The samples for Buenos Aires and Tucumán comprise all the students who completed the surveys for whom all the variables included in the probit model are available. The dependent vari- able is whether the student was chosen by at least 50 percent of the class (see equation 4.2). The model includes the same set of variables as in table 4.4. Z-values are reported in parentheses below each coefficient. * Significant at 10 percent. ** Significant at 5 percent. *** Significant at 1 percent. Table 4.8 Estimates of the Effects of Individual Characteristics on Student's Average Ranking for Mixed and Single-Sex Schools, Buenos Aires and Tucumán Pooled sample Buenos Aires Tucumán Single- Single- Single- Mixed sex Mixed sex Mixed sex schools schools schools schools schools schools I II III IV |V VI Average ­0.18*** ­0.26*** ­0.18*** ­0.13** ­0.11 ­0.28*** grade (0.04) (0.08) (0.04) (0.06) (0.09) (0.11) Beauty ­0.41*** ­0.07 ­0.29*** ­0.76 ­0.62*** ­0.11 (0.11) (0.16) (0.10) (0.79) (0.17) (0.24) Parents' average ­0.02** ­0.00 ­0.02* 0.04 ­0.02 ­0.02 education (0.01) (0.02) (0.01) (0.06) (0.02) (0.02) Observations 633 207 453 56 180 151 2 R 0.46 0.42 0.50 0.53 0.52 0.40 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: All regressions include the same set of variables as in table 4.4, but we only report the coefficients of average grades, beauty, and average parental education. Clus- tered standard errors are reported in parentheses below each coefficient, where clusters correspond to school classes. * Significant at 10 percent. ** Significant at 5 percent. *** Significant at 1 percent. discrimination and social networks 119 The table presents separate regressions for mixed and single-sex schools for the pooled sample and for Tucumán and Buenos Aires separately. Eight out of the 38 school classes in the sample are single sex, with four classes including only females and four classes including only males. The same specifications are run as in table 4.4, but table 4.8 reports only the coefficients of the variables of interest: average grade, beauty, and average parental education. When looking across samples, the effects of average grade and beauty appear to be different according to whether the school is mixed. For the pooled sample, columns 1 and 2 suggest that the effect of average grade is statistically significant in both kinds of schools, but is much larger among single-sex schools. An interesting result is that beauty only matters in mixed schools. Moreover, for the Tucumán sample, average grade does not affect stu- dent popularity among mixed schools, while beauty has a strong positive effect. In contrast, among single-sex schools in Tucumán, the effect of aca- demic performance is strong, while beauty has no statistically significant effect on popularity. Since the effect of beauty is more important in mixed schools, this result suggests that mating may be driving the relationship between popularity and beauty. Heterogeneity in Individual Valuations According to Beauty and Academic Performance of the Rater This section investigates how the beauty of the rater affects his or her valuations of beauty, academic performance, and parental education of fellow students. In order to learn about the distribution of valuations across students, we use a probit model to estimate the determinants of the probability that student i will be chosen in the first five places by student j to form a group (see equation 4.3). In this specification, students' beauty, academic performance, and parental education enter, not only alone, but also interacted with the beauty variable of the rater (that is, the beauty of student j). Table 4.9 reports the marginal effects of the probit model. The interaction terms between beauty of the rater and beauty of the rated student are positive and statistically significant for the sample of Bue- nos Aires, meaning that more-beautiful students place a higher value on the beauty of other students when choosing classmates to form a group. The same is true for the effect of beauty of the rater on the valuation of parental education: more-beautiful students place a higher value on the parental education of other students when choosing classmates to form a group. When the effect of academic performance of the rater on his or her valuation of the traits of other students in forming a group is considered, it is found that the higher the average grade of the rater, the lower the value placed on beauty; the higher the value placed on academic performance, the lower the value placed on parental education. 120 Table 4.9 The Effect of Beauty and Academic Performance of the Rater on Her/His Valuations of Student's Individual Characteristics, Tucumán and Buenos Aires All Buenos Aires Tucumán All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III IV V VI Average grade 0.018*** 0.017*** 0.017*** ­0.004 ­0.005 ­0.011 (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.005) (0.007) (0.008) Beauty 0.033*** 0.010 0.055*** 0.112*** 0.124*** 0.087** (0.006) (0.009) (0.008) (0.028) (0.046) (0.034) Average parental education ­0.002** ­0.003** ­0.001 0.010*** 0.011** 0.014*** (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.003) (0.005) (0.004) Beauty of the rater * Beauty 0.026*** 0.061*** 0.001 n.a. n.a. n.a. (0.009) (0.016) (0.011) Beauty of the rater * Average grade ­0.002 ­0.004 ­0.006** n.a. n.a. n.a. (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) Beauty of the rater * Average 0.002** 0.004* 0.004*** n.a. n.a. n.a. parental education (0.001) (0.002) (0.002) (continued) Table 4.9 The Effect of Beauty and Academic Performance of the Rater on Her/His Valuations of Student's Individual Characteristics, Tucumán and Buenos Aires (continued) All Buenos Aires Tucumán All Buenos Aires Tucumán I II III IV V VI Average grade of the rater * Beauty n.a. n.a. n.a. ­0.009** ­0.012** ­0.004 (0.004) (0.006) (0.005) Average grade of the rater * Average n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.003*** 0.003*** 0.004*** grade (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Average grade of the rater * Average n.a. n.a. n.a. ­0.001*** ­0.002** ­0.002*** parental education (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) Observations 24,318 13,812 10,506 21,596 12,069 9,527 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: n.a. = not applicable. In the table we report the marginal effects of a probit regression. The dependent variable is whether student i was chosen in the first five places by student j to form a group (see equation 4.4). In this specification, the student's beauty, academic performance, and parental education now enter not only alone, but also interacted with the beauty variable of the rater (i.e., beauty of student j). We only report the variables of interest; the model also includes the same set of variables as in table 4.4. Z-values are reported in parentheses below each coefficient. * Significant at 10 percent. ** Significant at 5 percent. *** Significant at 1 percent. 121 122 elías, elías, and ronconi Popularity and Social Networks It is plausible that discrimination or segregation in the formation of social networks during the school years against a particular group of people hinders their acquisition of social skills and that lack of social compe- tencies is subsequently penalized in the labor market. The formation of social networks calls attention to the importance of popularity and non- anonymity in an individual's chances of joining a network. It is possible to proxy how difficult it will be for a student to form a group and the degree of homogeneity of preferences within a class by looking at students' aver- age ranking and its variability, measured by the standard deviation of the student ranking. Figure 4.1 shows the relationship between the average ranking and the standard deviation of the ranking for each student in the pooled sample.14 As the figure shows, there is a strong positive relationship between the average ranking and its standard deviation. One interpretation of this rela- tionship is that most people agree on whom they do not want to have in a group, but the degree of agreement over potential teammates decreases as the student's expected ranking increases. In other words, there is agree- ment over the position of students at the bottom of the ranking; as the Figure 4.1 Average Student Ranking and Standard Deviation of the Student Ranking Pooled Sample, Buenos Aires and Tucumán By construction, 10 the standard deviation is bounded Standard deviation from above. 5 0 4 6 8 10 12 Average ranking Source: Authors' compilation. discrimination and social networks 123 expected position in the ranking increases, however, disagreement among peers also increases. Moreover, this suggests that factors that adversely affect students' aver- age ranking, such as having low academic performance or not being beau- tiful, not only reduce the student's expected position in the ranking, but also increase agreement among peers about the student's undesirability as a potential group member. This evidence, together with the previous esti- mates, suggests that a high degree of segregation by beauty and academic performance should be expected on the part of the members of a group or network. Expected Sorting In order to identify potential differences in characteristics and behavior between students who could easily join a network and those who may have difficulty joining one, groups of two students were formed by match- ing students who chose each other as their first choice in forming a group. Using this simple matching function, in the case of Tucumán, 80 groups of two students each were formed, a total of 160 students. In the case of Buenos Aires, 146 groups of two students each were formed, a total of 292 students. These students were then compared with 215 students in Tucumán and 349 students in Buenos Aires who were not considered to have a group. Table 4.10 presents the mean academic performance, beauty, and par- ents' average education by group according to whether the student has a match. As the table shows for both the Buenos Aires and Tucumán sam- ples, the students who have a match have, on average, higher grades and are perceived by their peers as being more beautiful. The gaps in academic performance between groups are large: 0.3 and 0.4 for Buenos Aires and Tucumán, respectively. Table 4.11 presents correlations between the student characteristics and the characteristics of the first-choice student for all students and for those students who have a match separately. As the table shows, there is a strong correlation between the student's academic performance and the academic performance of the student's first choice. The same is true for beauty, par- ents' average education, and gender. Again, this suggests that a high degree of positive sorting in academic performance and beauty can be expected. The Benefits of Networks The previous section identifies differences in characteristics between mem- bers and nonmembers of a group or network, and this evidence could help to assess the potential benefits of being a member of a network. In order 124 elías, elías, and ronconi Table 4.10 Average Grade, Beauty, and Average Parental Education of Matched Students and Not Matched Students, Buenos Aires and Tucumán Average Parents' average N grade Beauty education All Matched 452 7.30 0.32 10.7 Not matched 564 7.04 0.25 11.2 Buenos Aires Matched 292 7.50 0.32 9.6 Not matched 349 7.20 0.23 9.9 Tucumán Matched 160 7.10 0.32 12.8 Not matched 215 6.70 0.28 13.2 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The matched group is composed of those students who have chosen each other as first choice in forming a group. The not-matched group is composed of all the remaining students. to have a rough estimate of the potential benefit of being part of a group or network, we examine student performance at school. Student perfor- mance can be considered a measure of the quality of schooling and, within certain approximations, could have an effect on wages similar to that of the quantity of schooling. Table 4.10 shows that the average school performance is 0.26 higher for members than for nonmembers of a group, representing a 4 percent difference in school quality that could be considered an achievement of the group or network. In Argentina, with an average schooling of 10 years for the labor force, this 4 percent increase in schooling quality represents an increase of 0.40 years of schooling, where perfect substitution between quality and quantity dimensions of schooling is assumed. Considering a value of 12 percent for the return to schooling in Argentina (see Savanti and Patrinos 2005), the group or network will obtain a benefit of a 4.8 percent increase in wages. Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd (1996) sug- gest, however, that it is more appropriate to consider how schooling qual- ity affects the rate of return to schooling. Under this assumption, if a third of the 12 percent rate of return to schooling is due to schooling quality, then the expected increase in wages will be only 1.6 percent. Some estimates of network benefits offer potentially useful comparisons with those rough estimates. For example, Angrist and Lavy (1997) study discrimination and social networks 125 Table 4.11 Correlations between Student Characteristics and the Characteristics of Her or His First-Choice Student to Form a Group: Average Grade, Beauty, Average Parental Education, and Gender, Buenos Aires and Tucumán A. Buenos Aires Characteristic of student's first choice Characteristic of Average Parents' average student grade Beauty education Gender All students Average grade 0.30 0.05 ­0.04 ­0.04 Beauty 0.01 0.28 ­0.03 ­0.12 Parents' average education ­0.08 ­0.05 0.17 0.01 Gender ­0.03 ­0.15 0.05 0.78 Matched students Average grade 0.49 0.07 ­0.07 0.06 Beauty 0.07 0.39 ­0.04 ­0.13 Parents' average education ­0.07 ­0.04 0.18 0.02 Gender 0.06 ­0.13 0.02 0.84 B. Tucumán Characteristic of student's first choice Characteristic of Average Parents' average student grade Beauty education Gender All students Average grade 0.26 ­0.03 0.12 0.05 Beauty ­0.07 0.23 ­0.01 0.23 Parents' average education 0.15 ­0.03 0.15 0.03 Gender ­0.05 0.06 0.05 0.85 Matched students Average grade 0.49 0.01 0.22 0.03 Beauty ­0.01 0.12 ­0.02 0.19 Parents' average education 0.25 ­0.02 0.29 0.07 Gender 0.00 0.19 0.07 0.89 Source: Authors' compilation. 126 elías, elías, and ronconi the effects of an education reform in Morocco that replaced instruction in French with instruction in Arabic; the reform led to a 17 percent decline in the wages of those who did not know French. The authors also mention that immigrants in Germany who knew German had wages 30 percent higher than their counterparts who did not know German; knowledge of a language is here understood as a way of being able to join a network (see, for example, Gresenz, Rogowski, and Escarce 2007). Other studies about "local externalities" mentioned by Banerjee and Duflo (2005) indicate that social learning could increase the adoption rate of new technologies by 17 percent in agriculture. Conclusions As established in the Argentine Federal Education Law, one of the main objectives of the education system is to provide real equality of oppor- tunities to every individual and to eradicate all forms of discrimination in the classroom. Furthermore, the school, as an agency of socializa- tion, attempts to inculcate these values in its pupils. In turn, students are expected to change their behavior, thus contributing to the eradication of discrimination in other social environments. This chapter studies the determinants of peer popularity among stu- dents attending their last year of school in Buenos Aires and Tucumán. As this population has spent at least 12 years attending school, analyzing how they rank their classmates provides valuable information for assess- ing whether there is any evidence of some form of peer discrimination in the school system.15 The importance of this issue is underscored by several studies sug- gesting that discrimination is a problem in Argentine society. Reviewing the literature, Braylan and Jmelnizky (2004) show that most allegations involve discrimination based on nationality, ethnic origin, socioeconomic status, and physical appearance. While estimates of the magnitude of the phenomenon are lacking, most observers believe that discrimination is a major problem. The findings of this chapter, however, suggest that students do not rank their classmates based on their skin color, parental wealth, or nationality (although there is some evidence of discrimination against African and Asian ethnicity, the results are not robust across specifications). Compar- ing these results with the reports on discrimination in other social environ- ments suggests that either the school system has improved over time in its efforts to eradicate peer discrimination (that is, younger generations are less likely to discriminate than older generations) or individuals change their behavior over the life cycle. In either case, it is clear that the school system is not reproducing major forms of peer discrimination observed discrimination and social networks 127 in other social environments. Adolescents who have dark skin and those whose parents are poor or were born in neighboring countries do not appear to be discriminated against by their classmates. Physical appearance and previous academic performance, in contrast, are strong predictors of popularity. The finding that students have a pref- erence for higher achievers should not necessarily be a reason for concern. Students selected their classmates with the expectation that groups were going to be formed and that those groups would meet to conduct school activities. Assuming that having higher achievers in a group increases its productivity, the finding can be interpreted as evidence that students are interested in improving their performance. Alternatively, it can be inter- preted as evidence of meritocracy. The evidence that beauty matters is more troubling. On the one hand, beauty is an irrelevant trait for carrying out school-related activities. On the other hand, students are likely to select their teammates not only with the objective of improving academic performance, but also with the objective of mating. From this perspective, it becomes difficult to consider "lookism" as a form of prejudice. There is nonetheless an instrumental reason why policy makers should be concerned about the finding that beauty is a major determinant of peer popularity among adolescents. As social-psychological studies have found, being highly ranked by one's peers during high school enhances confi- dence, self-esteem, and oral and interpersonal skills, and labor economists have found that social skills are an important determinant of success in the labor market. Annex. Three Questionnaires This annex presents the English version of the three questionnaires. Students received the Spanish version. Questionnaire 1 First and last name: ....................................... List the 10 classmates with whom you would like to form a group to do activities at school. Rank them beginning with your first choice. (Write their first and last name, no nicknames please!) First: ......................................................... Second: ...................................................... Third: ......................................................... Fourth: ......................................................... 128 elías, elías, and ronconi Fifth: .......................................................... Sixth: .......................................................... Seventh: ....................................................... Eighth: ......................................................... Ninth: ........................................................... Tenth: ........................................................... Questionnaire 2 First and last name: ................................... Age: ...................................................... Gender (Mark the correct answer with X): o Male o Female If you were born in Argentina, in which province: ............... and locality: ................... If you were born in another country, in which country? .......................... ................................ For how many years have you been living in the current neighborhood? ............................. Which grade did you get last year in literature? ................. in mathematics? ....................... Which material is your house made of? o Corrugated iron o Wood o Bricks Do your parents have a car? o No o Yes Do you have a computer at home? o No o Yes discrimination and social networks 129 Do you have access to the Internet at home? o No o Yes Is there air conditioning at home? o No o Yes Do you live with your parents? o No o Yes Are they married? o No o Yes How many brothers and sisters do you have? .................................. What is your mother's maximum educational attainment? (Mark only one box) o College graduate o Some college o High school graduate o High school dropout o Primary school graduate o Primary school dropout o Don't know What is your father's maximum educational attainment? (Mark only one) o College graduate o Some college o High school graduate o High school dropout o Primary school graduate o Primary school dropout o Don't know 130 elías, elías, and ronconi In which province/country was your mother born? (Name country if foreign born) .................... In which province/country was your father born? (Name country if for- eign born) ......... Do you have any of the following ethnic origins? (Check all boxes that apply) o African o Asian o European o Native American o Middle East Do you consider yourself? (Check only 1 box) o White o Olive-skinned o Dark o Other When you meet with friends, do you like to: (Check all boxes that apply) o Talk a lot o Listen o Tell jokes o None of the above What do you plan to do after finishing high school? o Study and work o Just study o Just work o Do not know How important are friends to finding a good job? o Very important o Important discrimination and social networks 131 o Not important at all o Do not know Do you think there is discrimination in the labor market? o Yes o No o Do not know On a scale from 1 to 5 (where 1 indicates very important and 5 indicates not important), How important are the following characteristics to finding a good job? Education: ........................ Physical beauty: ................. Skin color: ........................ Parents' wealth: ................. Other: ............................. Questionnaire 3 First and last name: ........................ Which are the three female classmates you consider the most physically attractive? (Please answer seriously. This information is useful to analyze the role of beauty among adolescents. Your answer will remain strictly confidential). The most beautiful female classmate is: .................. The second most beautiful is: .............................. The third most beautiful is: ................................ And, which are the three male classmates you consider the most physically attractive? The most handsome male classmate is: .................. The second most handsome is: .............................. The third most handsome is: ................................ 132 elías, elías, and ronconi Notes 1. For experimental evidence in Argentina, see Mobius and Rosenblat (2006). 2. The evidence presented in Villalpando and others (2006) and Braylan and Jmelnizky (2004) is based either on allegations or on the opinion of the authors. Additionally, while we focus on peer discrimination among adolescents, these studies are broader and analyze the whole Argentine society. For a discussion about adolescents and peer rejection in the United States, see Fisher, Scyatta, and Fenton (2000). 3. These jurisdictions were chosen simply because the authors possessed the technical capacities to conduct the survey in these places. 4. http://www.me.gov.ar (accessed December 12, 2004). 5. In Argentina, the tutor (preceptor in Spanish) is a school authority in charge of several chores at school such as controlling students' behavior and attendance and organizing school events. 6. A figure of 10 nominations was chosen because that is the number used in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health conducted across schools in the United States. This survey has been the source of information for most empiri- cal studies on popularity and friendship networks among students. 7. The Becas is a federal program where students with poor parental back- ground receive a fellowship equal to 400 pesos per year in exchange for attending school; only students enrolled in public schools are eligible. 8. Developmental psychologists usually distinguish between "sociometri- cally" and "perceived" popular students. The latter refers to students who are considered popular by their classmates but are not necessarily liked. This vari- able is usually obtained by asking students to point out which classmates they consider to be the most popular. Our measure captures sociometric popularity. For further discussion, see Cillessen and Rose (2005). The data do not allow us to measure peer rejection, because school authorities refused to collect this information. 9. Students who did not report their ethnicity are less likely to have white skin, are on average poorer, and have less educated parents. Given the positive correla- tion between these variables and European ethnicity, it is likely that students who did not report their ethnicity are part of a minority group. 10. If schools were totally segregated by race, for example, it would be impos- sible to detect peer discrimination because students could only choose among classmates who all have the same race. 11. People who reside in the city of Tucumán, however, are on average richer and have more schooling than those who reside in Greater Tucumán, but outside the city. Therefore, the extent to which our sample over-represents students from higher-income families in the city of Tucumán is somewhat overstated by the above figures. 12. Similar results are obtained including separate regressors for the math and literature grade. Both variables are negative and statistically significant. We also include a dummy equal to 1 if the student achieves the best grade in the class. This indicator is not significant in any of the samples. 13. Extroversion refers to energy and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Conscientiousness refers to a tendency to show self-discipline and aim for achievement, with planned rather than spontaneous behavior. It is not obvious how to properly measure these two concepts (John and Srivastava 1999), and the information we were able to collect is limited. Therefore, it is likely that the proxies we use for extroversion and conscientiousness have measurement error. discrimination and social networks 133 14. By construction, the standard deviation of the student ranking is bounded from above with an inverted U-shaped function. Consider the two extreme cases: an individual with the lowest possible average ranking has mean 1 and standard deviation 0, and an individual with the highest possible average ranking has mean 11 and standard deviation 0 as well. 15. An interesting extension of this study would be to analyze whether teach- ers or school authorities discriminate. Another line of inquiry would be to analyze whether the government allocates more resources to schools located in richer juris- dictions. For a discussion for Argentina, see Braslavsky and Filmus (1987). References Anderson, Cameron, Oliver John, Dacher Keltner, and Ann Kring. 2001. "Who Attains Social Status? Effects of Personality and Physical Attractiveness in Social Groups." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (1): 116­32. Angrist, Joshua, and Victor Lavy. 1997. "The Effect of a Change in Language of Instruction on the Returns to Schooling in Morocco." Journal of Labor Eco- nomics 15 (1): S48­76. Banerjee, Abhijit, and Esther Duflo. 2005. "Growth Theory through the Lens of Development Economics." Unpublished mss., Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Cambridge, MA. Becker, Gary, Kevin Murphy, and Ivan Werning. 2005. "The Equilibrium Distribu- tion of Income and the Market for Status." Journal of Political Economy 113 (2): 282­310. Braslavsky, Cecilia, and Daniel Filmus. 1987. La discriminación educativa en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Miño Dávila. Braylan, Marisa, and Adrián Jmelnizky. 2004. Informe sobre antisemitismo en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Delegación de Asociaciones Israelitas Argentinas and Centro de Estudios Sociales. Cillessen, Antonius, and Amanda Rose. 2005. "Understanding Popularity in the Peer System." Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2): 102­05. Fisher, Celia, Wallace Scyatta, and Rose Fenton. 2000. "Discrimination Distress during Adolescence." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 29 (6): 679­95. Galeotti, Andrea, and Gerrit Mueller. 2005. "Friendship Relations in the School Class and Adult Economic Attainment." IZA Discussion Paper 1682. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany. Gresenz, Carole R., Jeannette A. Rogowski, and José Escarce. 2007. "Social Net- works and Access to Health Care among Mexican Americans." NBER Working Paper W13460, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Heckman, James, Anne Layne-Farrar, and Petra Todd. 1996. "Human Capital Pricing Equations with an Application to Estimating the Effect of Schooling Quality on Earnings." Review of Economics and Statistics 78 (4): 562­610. John, Oliver, and Sanjay Srivastava. 1999. "The Big-Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, and Theoretical Perspectives." In Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2d ed, ed. L. A. Pervin and Oliver John. New York: Guilford. Kuhn, Peter, and Catherine Weinberger. 2005. "Leadership Skills and Wages." Journal of Labor Economics 23 (3): 395­436. 134 elías, elías, and ronconi Mobius, Markus, and Tanya Rosenblat. 2006. "Why Beauty Matters." American Economic Review 96 (1): 222­35. Savanti, Maria Paula, and Harry A. Patrinos. 2005. "Rising Returns to Schooling in Argentina, 1992­2002: Productivity or Credentialism?" Policy Research Working Paper 3714, World Bank, Washington, DC. Villalpando, Waldo, Daniel Feierstein, Norma Fernández, Ana González, Horacio Ravenna, and María Sonderéguer. 2006. La discriminación en Argentina: Diag- nósticos y propuestas. Buenos Aires: Eudeba. Zimmerman, David. 2003. "Peer Effects in Academic Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment." Review of Economics and Statistics 85 (1): 9­23. 5 An Experimental Study of Labor Market Discrimination: Gender, Social Class, and Neighborhood in Chile David Bravo, Claudia Sanhueza, and Sergio Urzúa No matter how much has been done to study labor market discrimination, whether racial, ethnic, or gender, the issue of its detection (identification) is still unsettled. Conventional regression analyses suffer from important limitations due to the omission of relevant variables. The presence of unobservable variables limits the scope of these results (Altonji and Blank 1999; Neal and Johnson 1996; Urzúa 2008). In addition, experimental studies have been criticized for failing to measure discrimination correctly (Heckman 1998; Heckman and Siegelman 1993). In this chapter, we study the Chilean labor market and identify the pres- ence (or absence) of gender discrimination using an experimental design. This empirical strategy allows us to transcend the limitations of earlier works and represents the first experimental study of its kind in Chile and David Bravo is with the Centro de Microdatos, Departamento de Economía, Universidad de Chile; Claudia Sanhueza is with the Instituto Latinoamericano de Doctrina y Estudios Sociales (ILADES), Universidad Alberto Hurtado; and Sergio Urzúa is with the Department of Economics and the Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University. The authors would like to thank Andrea Moro and Hugo Ñopo for their helpful comments, Verónica Flores and Bárbara Flores for their excellent research assistance, and staff of the Survey Unit of the Centro de Microdatos for their outstanding performance. 135 136 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa the region. Our approach also enables us to address the identification of socioeconomic discrimination associated with individual characteristics such as name and place of residence. Why is Chile an interesting case? Chile offers a perfect example of a labor market in which females seem to be discriminated against. Despite the fact that the average years of schooling of female workers in Chile are not statistically different from those of male workers, average wages of male workers are 25 percent higher.1 In fact, several studies have sug- gested that gender discrimination is a factor in determining wages in the Chilean labor market.2 Estimates obtained using standard Blinder- Oaxaca decompositions give "residual discrimination" a significant role in the total wage gap.3 The evidence also shows stable and systematic differences in the returns to education and experience by gender along the conditional wage distribution. Additionally, Montenegro (2001) shows that "residual discrimination" is higher for women with more education and experience. Furthermore, Chilean female labor force participation is particularly low, 38.1 percent, compared with Latin America's regional average of 44.7 percent.4 However, the evidence suggesting the presence of gender discrimina- tion is subject to important qualifications. Specifically, observed gen- der differences in labor market outcomes could be interpreted as the manifestation of gender differences in unobserved characteristics that determine labor market productivity. In this context, the estimates of gender differences would be erroneously interpreted as evidence of dis- crimination. This is a concern affecting most of the applied literature studying discrimination.5 Our empirical approach deals explicitly with the issue of unobserved characteristics and is based on a simple and clear identification strategy for the analysis of discrimination. Specifically, we submitted more than 11,000 fictitious curriculum vitae (CVs) to real job vacancies that were published weekly in a widely read newspaper in Santiago (Chile's capital city) during 2006. For each classified ad, we submitted a set of strictly equivalent CVs--with regard to qualifications and employment experi- ence of applicants--varying only their gender, name and surname, and place of residence. We then measured labor market discrimination using differences in call response rates obtained for the various demographic groups. Having full control over the information contained in each CV, we generated "identical" individuals, thus addressing the concerns about potential biases caused by unobserved variables affecting labor market productivity across gender. The first section reviews the relevant literature for this study; the second presents all of the methodological information associated with implemen- tation of the experiment, which began in the last week of March 2006; a third reports the main results; and a final section presents the main conclu- sions and policy lessons. an experimental study of labor market discrimination 137 Literature Review Labor market discrimination is said to arise when two identically produc- tive workers are treated differently on the grounds of their race or gender, when race or gender do not in themselves have an effect on productivity (Altonji and Blank 1999; Heckman 1998). However, no two individuals are identical, and several unobservable factors determine individual per- formance in the labor market (see Bravo, Sanhueza, and Urzúa 2009 for a review of this literature). The empirical literature deals with these problems using two alternative methodologies: regression analysis and field experiments.6 The traditional regression analysis approach typically uses Blinder-Oaxaca decomposi- tions (Blinder 1973; Oaxaca 1973) to determine how much of the wage differential between groups of workers, by race or gender, is unexplained. This unexplained part is usually interpreted as discrimination. Most of the evidence of gender discrimination in Chile comes from the regression analysis approach (see, for example, Montenegro 2001; Montenegro and Paredes 1999; Paredes and Riveros 1994). However, the lack of several control variables, such as cognitive and noncognitive skills, labor market experience, schooling attainment, family background characteristics, and preferences for nonmarket activities, limits the scope of these studies. In a more recent attempt to disentangle the determinants of differences in the labor market, Núñez and Gutiérrez (2004) study the returns to the socioeconomic background of origin (or "class") in Chile. They measure "class" by the individual's surname, which is classified as low and high social class depending on its origin (for example, Basque or Spanish Euro- pean ancestry). They use a data set that allows them to reduce the role of unobservable factors by limiting the population under study (homoge- neous population). The data also contain a rich set of labor market pro- ductivity measures. The class wage gaps obtained by an Oaxaca-Ramson decomposition amount to approximately 25 to 35 percent. The study presented in this chapter is much more closely related to the literature of experimental studies for the analysis of discrimination in the labor market.7 This literature started in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s and was subsequently used by the International Labour Organisation in the 1990s. More recently, experimental techniques have been published in lead- ing economic journals (for example, Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004). Experimental approaches can be divided into two types: audit studies and natural experiments. The latter take advantage of unexpected changes in poli- cies or events (Antonovics, Arcidiacono, and Walsh 2004, 2005; Goldin and Rouse 2000; Levitt 2004; Newmark, Bank, and Van Nort 1996). In Chile, as far as we know, there are no studies using these kinds of variations. Two strategies have been used to carry out audit studies. The first takes a personal approach, in which individuals are sent to job interviews or 138 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa apply for jobs over the telephone. The second sends written applications for real job vacancies. The first procedure is the most subject to criticism. It has been argued that it is impossible to ensure that false applicants are identical. Also, testers have sometimes been told that they are involved in a study of discrimination and that their behavior could bias the results (see Heckman and Siegelman 1993). The first experiments to use written applications sent unsolicited job applications to "potential employers"; these experiments tested prefer- ential treatment in employer responses and not the hiring decision. Later came experiments in which curriculum vitae were sent in response to real announcements. Although the latter technique overcomes the criticisms of the personal approaches and tests the hiring decision,8 it does not over- come a common problem in the audit studies mentioned by Heckman and Siegelman (1993) and Heckman (1998), which is that audits are crucially dependent on the distribution of unobserved characteristics for each racial group and the audit standardization level. Thus there may still be unob- servable factors that determine productivity, but not discrimination. Riach and Rich (2002) accept this criticism but point out that it is difficult to imagine how firms' internal attributes could enhance productivity. They conclude that, since Heckman and Siegelman (1993) do not explain what could be behind those gaps, the argument has "not been proven." The study presented here mainly follows the line of work developed by Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004), which measures racial discrimination in the labor market by means of posting fictitious curriculum vitae for job vacancies published in Boston and Chicago newspapers. They randomly gave half of the CVs African American names and half European ("white") names. Additionally, they measured the effect of applicant qualification on the racial gap; for this, the CVs were differentiated between high qualifica- tions and low qualifications. Their findings are as follows: the curriculum vitae associated with white names received 50 percent more calls for an interview than those with African American names, and whites were more affected by qualification level than blacks. Additionally, the authors find some evidence to suggest that employers were inferring social class based on applicants' names. Experimental Design The experiment consisted of submitting more than 11,000 CVs of ficti- tious individuals for real job vacancies that appeared weekly in the news- paper with the highest circulation in Chile. Each week, the team selected 60 job vacancies from the newspaper. Eight CVs, four corresponding to men and four to women, were submitted for each vacancy. The details of the experimental design are presented here. an experimental study of labor market discrimination 139 Definition of Demographic Cells We defined eight relevant demographic cells for the categories of interest for our study. The cells were defined to serve the objectives of the study. To study discrimination by gender, we separated men and women. To study socioeconomic discrimination, we included two variables: surname and municipality of residence. To reduce the number of observations required in each case, we separated these last variables into the two extremes: (a) socioeconomically rich and poor municipalities and (b) surnames asso- ciated with the upper classes and lower classes. Since we have three dichotomous variables, the final number of demo- graphic cells is eight, as shown in table 5.1. We chose approximately 60 job vacancies each week. Eight CVs were sent for each job vacancy, in other words, one for each demographic cell. So 480 CVs were submitted each week: 240 from men and 240 from women. A group of names, surnames, and municipalities was established to satisfy the requirements of each cell, with the names and municipalities chosen randomly for each vacancy. Figure 5.1 presents the final structure of the fictitious CVs used in our experiment. Source of Job Vacancies The main source of job vacancies in Santiago is the newspaper used in our experiment, which publishes around 150 job vacancies every Sunday, with a repeat rate of around 30 percent.9 The ads are also available on the newspaper's Web site. To prepare the fieldwork, we first carried out a detailed analysis of the type of job vacancies published by the newspaper. In the month of January and the first three weeks of March 2006, we analyzed all vacancies pub- lished. As a result of this preliminary study, we created a CV bank based on three categories: professionals, technicians (skilled workers), and unskilled workers. Other markedly male or female categories were rejected. Table 5.1 Demographic Cells for the Analysis of Discrimination Men Women Upper-class Lower-class Upper-class Lower-class Municipality surname surname surname surname High-income municipality Low-income municipality Source: Authors' compilation. 140 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Figure 5.1 The Design of the Fictitious CVs JOB VACANCY 8 curriculum vitae (CV) 4 female CVs 4 male CVs High-class surname High-class surname high-income municipality high-income municipality High-class surname High-class surname low-income municipality low-income municipality Low-class surname Low-class surname high-income municipality high-income municipality Low-class surname Low-class surname low-income municipality low-income municipality Source: Authors' compilation. Creation of CV Banks Job vacancies were grouped into three skill levels: professionals, techni- cians, and unskilled workers. An individual was assigned responsibility for each category, and he or she was in charge of selecting the weekly vacancies, as well as the production, submission, and supervision of the CVs submitted. A database of fictitious CVs was created for each of the skill levels. Three specialized teams generated CV prototypes using as examples real CVs avail- able on two public Web sites.10 In producing the CVs, the instruction was to comply with the profile of the most competitive applicant for the vacancy selected. Each set of eight CVs was constructed so that their qualification level and employment experience were equivalent. In this way, we ensured that the applicants were equally eligible for the job in question.11 Classification of Municipalities In order to facilitate the fieldwork, we concentrated our efforts on job vacancies for the metropolitan urban region, which is divided into 34 municipalities. We used the socioeconomic classification of households an experimental study of labor market discrimination 141 (based on the 2002 census) to classify municipalities into high-income and low-income municipalities. The classification process was the following: 1. Using data from CASEN 2003, we computed the proportion of the households by socioeconomic level within each municipality. 2. We defined as high-income municipalities the top five municipalities with the largest proportion of households in the top socioeconomic level. 3. We defined as low-income municipalities the top 15 municipalities with the smallest proportion of the population in the top socioeco- nomic level and the greatest proportion in the two bottom socioeco- nomic levels. In order to examine the impact of socioeconomic level of the municipal- ity of origin, we excluded all municipalities of intermediate socioeconomic groups. The final list of the municipalities included in each group is pre- sented in table 5.2. Table 5.2 Selected Municipalities, by Income Level Selected municipalities High-income municipalities Low-income municipalities Vitacura Pedro Aguirre Cerda Pudahuel Conchalí Providencia Quilicura San Joaquín Lo Prado La Reina San Ramón Lo Espejo Renca Las Condes Recoleta San Bernardo La Granja Ñuñoa Cerro Navia El Bosque La Pintana Source: Authors' compilation. 142 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5.3 Selected Surnames, by Social Origin Selected surnames Upper-class surnames Lower-class surnames Rodrigo Recabarren Merino Valeska Angulo Ortiz Susan Abumohor Cassis Pablo Ayulef Muñoz Javiera Edwards Celis Rosmary Becerra Fuentes Pedro Ariztia Larrain Clinton Benaldo Gonzalez Source: Authors' compilation. Classification and Selection of Names and Surnames The names and surnames included on the CVs were classified and selected following the procedure described by Núñez and Gutiérrez (2004). Specifi- cally, a sample of names and surnames was taken from the alumni register of the Faculty of Economics and Business of the Universidad de Chile. Sub- sequently, a group of individuals classified (based on their personal percep- tion) these names and surnames into high social class, middle social class, and lower social class. For the purposes of the fieldwork, only the names and surnames classified as upper class and lower class were considered. An example of the surnames used in each category is presented in table 5.3. Description of the Fieldwork The research team handled the weekly selection of job vacancies that appeared in the newspaper every Sunday and constructed the targeted CVs for each vacancy. This process involved compiling the competitive CVs and ensuring their equivalence so that the only differentiating elements were the gender of the applicant, social level, name and surname, and munici- pality of residence. The team also included three other research assistants, including a sociologist and an economist, who randomly reviewed the CVs sent and supervised the procedure. The job vacancies selected and the set of eight CVs submitted to each job vacancy were entered weekly into a specially designed Web page that allowed us to review all of the vacancies, together with their respective sets of CVs. An information technology expert entered that information into the Web page. A central aspect of our study was the procedure by which we kept records of each of the received contacts (phone calls and e-mails) associated with each CV and job vacancy. To receive these contacts, a fully dedicated team of males and females was ready to take the calls 24 hours a day from Mon- day to Sunday. Eight mobile telephones, each with a different number, were assigned to each of the CVs in the set; this ensured that the recruiters did not an experimental study of labor market discrimination 143 encounter repeated telephone numbers. The people in charge of receiving the calls recorded the day, name of the applicant, the vacancy, and the phone number of the firm that selected the CV. Each report was entered into the Web page of the project, which allowed us to supervise the calls received. In parallel, job vacancy responses were also received by e-mail, as some job vacancies requested electronic contact information. To handle these cases, we generated a generic e-mail for each CV. All e-mail addresses were checked every three days. As with the phone calls, the e-mails were reported and entered into the Web page of the project. The Identity of Fictitious Applicants Once the names and surnames were classified by categories (upper class and lower class), they were mixed so as not to use real names. Addi- tionally, each fictitious applicant had a fictitious national identification number. To ensure the equivalence of each set of CVs, the age of the applicants was set at between 30 and 35 years of age, and applicants were listed as married with at least one child and no more than two children. Ensuring the Equivalence of Fictitious Applicants between Cells In order to ensure the equivalence of the eight fictitious applications sub- mitted to each vacancy, we also controlled for additional differences that otherwise might have contaminated our results: · Regarding the educational background of the applicants, those with university education were considered Universidad de Chile gradu- ates and, when necessary, reported graduate degrees from the same university. · The secondary school of the applicant and the home address were determined by the applicant's municipality of residence. A bank of school names in each municipality was used for this purpose. To ensure consistency, we randomly assigned secondary schools condi- tional on the assigned municipality. · Each CV in a set had a unique telephone number; however, these numbers were allowed to repeat themselves among different groups of CVs. · The employment experience of the applicants was equivalent within each category (professional, technician, unskilled worker), but differ- ent across categories. Thus professionals with greater time spent in the educational system had fewer years of employment experience; mean- while, unskilled workers had a longer track record in the labor market. To maintain this equivalence, we also assigned the number of jobs and employment history (absence of employment gaps) for each fictitious 144 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5.4 Assignment of Previous Labor Market Experience, by Skill Level Category Employment experience Number of jobs Professionals 7 to 12 years 2 to 3 Technicians 8 to 13 years 4 to 5 Unskilled workers 12 to 17 years 5 to 7 Source: Authors' compilation. applicant within skill categories. Table 5.4 presents the assignment of employment experience and number of previous jobs held. · Graduate degrees of applicants were equivalent within the set of eight CVs. Graduate degrees had to be from the same university (Uni- versidad de Chile). Training courses also had to be from equivalent institutions (technical institutes). · As a general rule, high-quality CVs were submitted to each vacancy. In other words, the variables of employment history, education, and training were drawn up to be attractive to firms. · The salary expectations, which generally had to be included in job applications, were based on actual remuneration of professionals and technicians (from the Web page www.futurolaboral.cl). The starting point was a salary level required by a good candidate (percentile 75 of that distribution), and expected remuneration was subsequently reduced to average levels. Each set of eight CVs sent for a vacancy had the same reference salary level, which varied only slightly (in some cases, the level was given as a range and in others it was given as a specific reference). · Although we worked to ensure that the fictitious CVs were equiva- lent, we also sought to ensure that they looked as if they were made by different people, such as having different fonts and different orga- nization of the information. (See the annex for examples of CVs.) Findings The CV mailing process started during the last week of March 2006. Table 5.5 presents weekly information on the number of classified ads published, the number of CVs submitted, and the response rates. After 20 weeks, we had submitted 11,016 CVs, with an average response rate of 14.65 percent a week. This rate is higher than that obtained by Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004). The response rate varied from week to week. For example, the response rate was only 6.15 percent during the third week (April 10­16) but reached 24.63 percent during the sixth week (May 1­7). There are several reasons an experimental study of labor market discrimination 145 Table 5.5 Distribution of Responses, by Week Total Total General number CVs number response Week of ads sent of calls rate (%) 1 March 24­31 56 448 60 13.39 2 April 3­9 63 504 71 14.09 3 April 10­16 65 520 32 6.15 4 April 17­23 61 488 60 12.30 5 April 24­30 61 488 92 18.85 6 May 1­7 67 536 132 24.63 7 May 8­14 73 584 116 19.86 8 May 15­21 72 576 75 13.02 9 May 22­28 74 592 98 16.55 10 May 29­June 4 74 592 83 14.02 11 June 5­11 72 576 135 23.44 12 June 12­18 78 624 87 13.94 13 June 19­25 73 584 90 15.41 14 June 26­July 2 76 608 77 12.66 15 July 3­9 73 584 63 10.79 16 July 10­16 69 552 84 15.22 17 July 17­23 68 544 101 18.57 18 July 24­30 75 600 93 15.50 19 July 31­August 6 66 528 45 8.52 20 August 7­13 61 488 30 6.15 Average 69 551 81 14.65 Total 1,377 11,016 1,624 Source: Authors' compilation. for this variation. First, the response rate could be correlated directly with the overall quality of the CVs sent; thus, for those weeks with a low response rate, the quality of the CVs might not have been as good as the CVs sent by real applicants. As explained, in this event the complete set of eight CVs was of low quality, and our results were not affected by this phenomenon. Second, national holidays during some of the weeks could have influenced firms' efforts to contact potential employees. For example, the low response rate of April 10­16 was most likely a result of Holy Week (a Catholic holiday). Finally, the variation in response rates could also be 146 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa attributed to labor market conditions. Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) report similar variations in their response rates, apparently associated with different labor market conditions. Table 5.6 presents the same variables as in table 5.5, but breaking down the information by type of job category (that is, professionals, technicians, and unskilled workers). In the annex, we list the type of qualifications within the three job categories. The average weekly response rate by type of employment shows the same evolution as the overall response rate. Unskilled workers and technicians have a higher response rate than pro- fessionals. More precisely, the average response rate for professionals is 12.1 percent compared with 14.2 percent for unskilled workers and 18.1 percent for technicians. Since we recorded when each fictitious CV was submitted and when it received a callback, we can study the time to receive a phone call (or e-mail). Figure 5.2 presents the distribution of time to receive a phone call. More than 60 percent of the contacts were made before the tenth day. The average number of days before any contact was made is approximately 12 days overall: 14 days for professionals and unskilled workers and 8 days for technicians (see table 5.7). The résumés were submitted by physical mail, e-mail, and fax. Table 5.8 shows the average number of days that passed before a contact was made, by method of submission. On average, CVs submitted by physical mail received a callback by the eighteenth day, and CVs submitted by e-mail received a callback by the eighth day. We now examine the average response rate by the three dimensions considered in this chapter. Gender Effects Table 5.9 presents the results for response rates by gender. The results show similar overall rates for males and females: 14.9 and 14.6 percent for men and women, respectively. The implied difference is small and not statistically significant (applying a test where the null hypothesis is the equality of the two proportions). In other words, men and women seem to have the same probability of being contacted for a follow-up. When the gender-based difference is examined by type of occupation, the response rate of women is statistically lower than the response rate of men only for unskilled workers. When analyzing the data by type of surname, women register a slightly higher response rate than men in the upper-class group (15.3 versus 15.1 percent, respectively). However, this difference is not statistically significant. The differences between male and female response rates are also not significant among CVs with lower-class surnames and CVs from high-income municipalities. Among low-income municipalities and technicians, the response rate of women is statistically higher than that of men. Table 5.6 Number of CVs Sent, Number of Calls, and Response Rate, by Week and Type of Employment Number of CVs sent Number of calls received Response rate (%) Week Professionals Technicians Unskilled Professionals Technicians Unskilled Professionals Technicians Unskilled 1 March 24­31 120 136 192 8 11 41 6.7 8.1 21.4 2 April 3­9 176 168 160 7 18 46 4.0 10.7 28.8 3 April 10­16 184 176 160 8 14 10 4.3 8.0 6.3 4 April 17­23 168 160 160 2 21 37 1.2 13.1 23.1 5 April 24­30 168 160 160 27 24 41 16.1 15.0 25.6 6 May 1­7 200 176 160 34 63 35 17.0 35.8 21.9 7 May 8­14 208 192 184 34 45 37 16.3 23.4 20.1 8 May 15­21 192 200 184 22 32 21 11.5 16.0 11.4 9 May 22­28 208 200 184 43 36 19 20.7 18.0 10.3 10 May 29­ June 4 192 200 200 15 52 16 7.8 26.0 8.0 (continued) 147 148 Table 5.6 Number of CVs Sent, Number of Calls, and Response Rate, by Week and Type of Employment (continued) Number of CVs sent Number of calls received Response rate (%) Week Professionals Technicians Unskilled Professionals Technicians Unskilled Professionals Technicians Unskilled 11 June 5­11 176 192 208 64 34 37 36.4 17.7 17.8 12 June 12­18 208 200 216 24 51 12 11.5 25.5 5.6 13 June 19­25 192 192 200 19 43 28 9.9 22.4 14.0 14 June 26­ July 2 216 192 200 35 34 8 16.2 17.7 4.0 15 July 3­9 200 184 200 37 9 17 18.5 4.9 8.5 16 July 10­16 168 184 200 23 39 22 13.7 21.2 11.0 17 July 17­23 176 184 184 26 35 40 14.8 19.0 21.7 18 July 24­30 208 192 200 19 52 22 9.1 27.1 11.0 19 July 31­ August 6 192 136 200 5 16 24 2.6 11.8 12.0 20 August 7­13 176 112 200 11 19 0.0 9.8 9.5 Total 3,728 3,536 3,752 452 640 532 12.1 18.1 14.2 Source: Authors' compilation. an experimental study of labor market discrimination 149 Figure 5.2 Number of Days before a Callback a. Unskilled workers 100 receive a callback 80 Days to 60 40 20 0 50 100 150 Days b. Technical workers 100 receive a callback 80 Days to 60 40 20 0 50 100 150 Days c. Professional workers 100 receive a callback 80 Days to 60 40 20 0 50 100 150 Days Source: Authors' compilation. Neighborhood Effects Table 5.10 presents our results for the analysis of differences in response rates by the socioeconomic classification of place of residence (municipal- ity). The overall response rate of applicants from high-income munici- palities is 15.1 percent compared with 14.4 percent for applicants from low-income municipalities. 150 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5.7 Days before Callback, by Type of Job Type of job Professionals Technicians Unskilled Total Average days before callback 14.02 8.69 14.81 12.18 Total calls back 452 640 532 1,624 Total CVs sent 3,728 3,536 3,752 11,016 Response rate (%) 12.12 18.10 14.18 14.74 Source: Authors' compilation. A more detailed analysis suggests that the observed differences are, on average, smaller than those presented in table 5.10, and most of the differ- ences are not statistically significant (at the 10 percent level). Social Class Effects Table 5.11 presents our results for the analysis of discrimination based on social status (as measured by our classification of surnames). The overall response rate observed for fictitious candidates with upper-class surnames is 15.2 percent, whereas the response rate for individuals with lower-class surnames is 14.3 percent. Once again, most of the differences in response rates are not statistically significant. The largest differences occur within the group of women and within the high-income municipalities. In conclusion, an unexpected finding is the absence of significant gen- der differences in response rates. In addition, the differences in response rates are lower by municipality or surname than by gender. The analysis of the response rates for professionals generally confirms these findings. All in all, we conclude that there are no significant differences in response rates by gender, municipality, or surname. Regression Analysis Table 5.12 undertakes a complementary analysis using linear regression models. The results confirm our previous findings. The dummy variables associated with gender, municipality, or surname are not statistically sig- nificant. Therefore, we do not find evidence supporting the presence of discrimination in any of the dimensions investigated in this chapter. Timing of Callbacks The results presented until now suggest that there are no differences in callback rates across groups. However, it may be possible to hypothesize an experimental study of labor market discrimination 151 Table 5.8 Days before Callback, by Method of Contact Method for submitting CVs Physical mail E-mail Fax Total Average days 18.70 8.12 17.00 12.18 before callback Total calls back 621 1,001 2 1,624 Total CVs sent 3,941 7,059 16 11,016 Response rate (%) 15.76 14.18 12.50 14.74 Source: Authors' compilation. differences favoring some groups in the timing of the callbacks. Since we submitted eight CVs to each job announcement, it may be that employers first called male applicants and, after they did not follow up, proceeded to contact female applicants. However, this was not the case. Table 5.13 shows the mean number of days it took for applicants to receive a callback after the CV was submit- ted. None of the differences reported in the number of days to receive a callback across groups is statistically significant. Left for future research is the estimation of formal statistical models in which the day the person receives a callback is explained by the dimension under consideration--discrimination--and other controls. This analysis will provide more conclusive evidence of whether people who are actually discriminated against are called back later. Discussion The findings presented here are certainly surprising, since Latinobarómetro data on discriminatory perception show that Chileans perceive their soci- ety as discriminatory. In this section, we present a brief discussion of the possible reasons for these findings. First, as noted, the findings are only valid for callbacks, which are only the first step when searching for a job. We do not study either interviews or the real assignation of jobs or wages. So we cannot rule out the possibility of some kind of discrimination at those stages. Likewise, sending CVs to job announcements in the newspaper is not the only way to find a job in Chile. There are Web pages, for instance, that manage banks of CVs. In addition, there is anecdotal evidence that high- skilled workers in Chile use their social networks to search for jobs. In addition, recruiting firms or "head hunters" look for people with special skills and aptitudes. In addition, there is unsubstantiated evidence that recruiters usually look for people who have given surnames, who studied 152 Table 5.9 Callbacks by Gender, Social Class, and Income Men Women Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value General All 5,508 819 14.9 805 14.6 -14 -0.3 0.376 0.707 Professionals 1,864 232 12.4 220 11.8 -12 -0.6 0.602 0.547 Technicians 1,768 302 17.1 338 19.1 36 2.0 -1.572 0.116 Unskilled 1,876 285 15.2 247 13.2 -38 -2.0 1.778 0.075 High social class All 2,754 415 15.1 420 15.3 5 0.2 -0.188 0.851 Professionals 932 115 12.3 120 12.9 5 0.5 -0.349 0.727 Technicians 884 151 17.1 166 18.8 15 1.7 -0.930 0.352 Unskilled 938 149 15.9 134 14.3 -15 -1.6 0.968 0.333 Low social class All 2,754 404 14.7 385 14.0 -19 -0.7 0.731 0.465 Professionals 932 117 12.6 100 10.7 -17 -1.8 1.228 0.219 Technicians 884 151 17.1 172 19.5 21 2.4 -1.292 0.196 Unskilled 938 136 14.5 113 12.0 -23 -2.5 1.565 0.118 (continued) Table 5.9 Callbacks by Gender, Social Class, and Income (continued) Men Women Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value High-income municipality All 2,754 421 15.3 410 14.9 -11 -0.4 0.414 0.679 Professionals 932 116 12.4 116 12.4 0 0.0 0.000 1.000 Technicians 884 159 18.0 167 18.9 8 0.9 -0.491 0.623 Unskilled 938 146 15.6 127 13.5 -19 -2.0 1.244 0.213 Low-income municipality All 2,754 398 14.5 395 14.3 -3 -0.1 0.115 0.908 Professionals 932 116 12.4 104 11.2 -12 -1.3 0.861 0.389 Technicians 884 143 16.2 171 19.3 28 3.2 -1.742 0.082 Unskilled 938 139 14.8 120 12.8 -19 ­2.0 1.272 0.203 Source: Authors' compilation. 153 154 Table 5.10 Callbacks by Municipality, Social Class, and Gender High-income Low-income municipality municipality Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value General All 5,508 831 15.1 793 14.4 ­38 ­0.7 1.021 0.307 Professionals 1,864 232 12.4 220 11.8 ­12 ­0.6 0.602 0.547 Technicians 1,768 326 18.4 314 17.8 ­12 ­0.7 0.524 0.600 Unskilled 1,876 273 14.6 259 13.8 ­14 ­0.7 0.655 0.512 High social class All 2,754 430 15.6 401 14.6 ­29 ­1.1 1.092 0.275 Professionals 932 117 12.6 118 12.7 1 0.1 ­0.070 0.944 Technicians 884 163 18.4 154 17.4 ­9 ­1.0 0.558 0.577 Unskilled 938 150 16.0 133 14.2 ­17 ­1.8 1.097 0.273 Low social class All 2,754 405 14.7 388 14.1 ­17 ­0.6 0.652 0.514 Professionals 932 115 12.3 102 10.9 ­13 ­1.4 0.939 0.348 Technicians 884 163 18.4 160 18.1 ­3 ­0.3 0.185 0.853 Unskilled 938 123 13.1 126 13.4 3 0.3 ­0.204 0.838 (continued) Table 5.10 Callbacks by Municipality, Social Class, and Gender (continued) High-income Low-income municipality municipality Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value Men All 2,754 421 15.3 398 14.5 ­23 ­0.8 0.871 0.384 Professionals 932 116 12.4 116 12.4 0 0.0 0.000 1.000 Technicians 884 159 18.0 167 18.9 8 0.9 ­0.491 0.623 Unskilled 938 146 15.6 127 13.5 ­19 ­2.0 1.244 0.213 Women All 2,754 410 14.9 395 14.3 ­15 ­0.5 0.572 0.567 Professionals 932 116 12.4 104 11.2 ­12 ­1.3 0.861 0.389 Technicians 884 143 16.2 171 19.3 28 3.2 ­1.742 0.082 Unskilled 938 139 14.8 120 12.8 ­19 ­2.0 1.272 0.203 Source: Authors' compilation. 155 156 Table 5.11 Callbacks by Surname, Income of Municipality, and Gender High social class Low social class Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value General All 5,508 835 15.2 789 14.3 ­46 ­0.8 1.236 0.216 Professionals 1,864 235 12.6 217 11.6 ­18 ­1.0 0.903 0.367 Technicians 1,768 317 17.9 323 18.3 6 0.3 ­0.262 0.793 Unskilled 1,876 283 15.1 249 13.3 ­34 ­1.8 1.591 0.112 High-income municipality All 2,754 430 15.6 405 14.7 ­25 ­0.9 0.939 0.348 Professionals 932 117 12.6 118 12.7 1 0.1 ­0.070 0.944 Technicians 884 163 18.4 154 17.4 ­9 ­1.0 0.558 0.577 Unskilled 938 150 16.0 133 14.2 ­17 ­1.8 1.097 0.273 Low-income municipality All 2,754 401 14.6 388 14.1 ­13 ­0.5 0.500 0.617 Professionals 932 115 12.3 102 10.9 ­13 ­1.4 0.939 0.348 Technicians 884 163 18.4 160 18.1 ­3 ­0.3 0.185 0.853 Unskilled 938 123 13.1 126 13.4 3 0.3 ­0.204 0.838 (continued) Table 5.11 Callbacks by Surname, Income of Municipality, and Gender (continued) High social class Low social class Differences Test CVs sent Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Calls Rate (%) Z P value Men All 2,754 415 15.1 404 14.7 ­11 ­0.4 0.417 0.677 Professionals 932 115 12.3 117 12.6 2 0.2 ­0.140 0.889 Technicians 884 151 17.1 151 17.1 0 0.0 0.000 1.000 Unskilled 938 149 15.9 136 14.5 ­13 ­1.4 0.836 0.403 Women All 2,754 420 15.3 385 14.0 ­35 ­1.3 1.335 0.182 Professionals 932 120 12.9 100 10.7 ­20 ­2.1 1.436 0.151 Technicians 884 166 18.8 172 19.5 6 0.7 ­0.363 0.717 Unskilled 938 134 14.3 113 12.0 ­21 ­2.2 1.434 0.152 Source: Authors' compilation. 157 158 Table 5.12 Regressions for the Probability of Receiving a Callback (Dependent variable: Dummy = 1 if a callback is received) Variable Coeff. P value Coeff. P value Coeff. P value Coeff. P value Dummy high-income municipality=1 0.0069 0.304 0.0070 0.301 0.0074 0.392 0.0048 0.736 Dummy men=1 0.0026 0.706 0.0029 0.670 0.0020 0.770 ­0.0106 0.389 Dummy high-class surname=1 0.0082 0.222 0.0084 0.210 0.0082 0.226 ­0.002 0.863 Dummy professional job ad=1 ­0.0217 0.009 ­0.0262 0.003 ­0.0249 0.004 Dummy technician job ad=1 0.0380 0.000 0.0369 0.000 0.0370 0.000 Dummy studied at private school=1 ­0.0030 0.780 ­0.0114 0.741 Dummy studied at municipal school=1 ­0.0173 0.038 0.0061 0.668 Controls for type of mail sent No No Yes Yes Including interactions No No No Yes 2 Pseudo R 0.0003 0.006 0.0189 0.009 Number of observations 11,016 11,016 11,016 11,016 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Probit regressions. Coefficients are expressed in probability points for discrete changes of dummy variables from 0 to 1 (evaluated at means). an experimental study of labor market discrimination 159 Table 5.13 Number of Days to Receive a Callback Mean Median Gender Men 12.8 8 Women 11.6 7 Difference 1.2 1 Municipality High income 11.8 7 Low income 12.5 7 Difference ­0.7 0 Surname High class 12.3 7 Low class 12.1 7 Difference 0.2 0 Source: Authors' compilation. in private and exclusive schools, and who possess a large network of contacts. Thus we may be looking at just one part of the labor market, the part that is not discriminating. Additionally, we use a different experimental design than that used by Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004). We argue, however, that our meth- odology is more robust. While we constructed equally qualified CVs and then assigned names, those authors took samples of CVs from the real world and assigned them different names using the same share of popula- tion groups as in the real world. This difference has two major implica- tions that may raise additional questions. First, constructing fictitious individuals helps us to have real exogenous variations. Second, this fake world may differ from the real world, and, as a consequence, employers could have applied positive discrimination. They could have thought, "If this person, under these circumstances, reaches such a level of education and experience, she or he must be a good applicant." Yet it is still surprising that, although Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) find statistically significant differences among surnames associ- ated with African American and white population groups, we do not find similar results in our study. This may mean that discrimination is deeper in the United States than in Chile, which, unlike other Latin American countries such as Bolivia, Brazil, or Peru, does not display a great deal of racial diversity. The country's population is overwhelmingly of European descent, with only a small indigenous population. 160 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Finally, what we consider to be subjective discrimination in the labor market may indeed be related more to historical factors of inequality of opportunities. Following Ferreira and Gignoux (2008), the principle of equality of opportunity is based on three concepts: circumstances, results, and opportunities. On the one hand, circumstances are exog- enous factors that people do not choose to have and that are out of their control, such as socioeconomic background of origin, place of birth, gen- der, or physical and mental disability. On the other hand, results are an individual's achievements, which are obtained after a process of creation, accumulation, and performance, such as educational level, employment, wages, benefits, and others. Opportunities are variables that influence results and determine an individual's performance. Some opportunities are out of the control of the individual, and some, like public policy, are endogenous to society. The principle of equality of opportunity states that, for the results to be fair, all individuals, independent of their cir- cumstances, should have the same opportunities in life. In this context, when we observe that human capital and access to employment (results) differ between groups of the population, this may be due to poor public policies that fail to equalize opportunities of different groups rather than to discrimination in the labor market. Thus results are more related to circumstances. Conclusions In this chapter we study the Chilean labor market and analyze the presence of gender discrimination. In order to transcend the limitations of earlier works, we used an experimental strategy, the first of its kind in Chile. This design allowed us to investigate the presence of socioeconomic discrimi- nation associated with social status (name) and place of residence in the Chilean labor market. The study consisted of sending fictitious curriculum vitae for real job vacancies published weekly in a widely read Chilean newspaper. We sub- mitted a set of strictly equivalent CVs to each job classified, varying only the gender, name, and place of residence, and then analyzed the differences in call response rates across various demographic groups. We find no statistically significant differences in callbacks for any of the groups we explored: gender, socioeconomic background, or place of residence. The findings are surprising and generate new questions. Several issues may be behind these findings. In particular, we only consider one step in the hiring process, the callback, not the complete behavior of the labor market. We leave for further research the use of formal econometric models to estimate different effects of the timing of the call (see Bravo, Sanhueza, and Urzúa 2009). an experimental study of labor market discrimination 161 Annex Table 5A.1 CVs Sent in (Unskilled) Unskilled Number Percentage Administrativo 952 25.37 Aseador 208 5.54 Auxiliar Aseo 48 1.28 Bodeguero 384 10.23 Cajero 328 8.74 Cobrador 96 2.56 Conductor 48 1.28 Digitador 368 9.81 Encuestador 88 2.35 Fotocopiador 8 0.21 Garzon 152 4.06 Guardia 56 1.49 Operario Producción 8 0.21 Operario Tintoreria 8 0.21 Promotor 304 8.10 Recepcionista 16 0.42 Vendedor 624 16.63 Volantero 56 1.49 Total 3,752 100 Source: Authors' compilation. Table 5A.2 CVs Sent in (Professional) Professionals Number Percentage Abogado 192 5.14 Constructor Civil 640 17.14 Contador Auditor 912 24.47 Ing. Civil 264 7.06 Ing. Comercial 576 15.44 Ing. Ejecucion 144 3.84 Ing. Informatico 256 6.86 (continued) 162 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.2 CVs Sent in (Professional) (continued) Professionals Number Percentage Profesor 720 19.17 Psicologo 16 0.42 Supervisor Educacional 8 0.21 3,728 100 Source: Authors' compilation. Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Soporte Computacional 8 0.23 Administrador 16 0.45 Administrador Empresas 8 0.23 Administrador Sistema 8 0.23 Administrador de Botilleria 8 0.23 Administrador de Empresas 8 0.23 Administrador de Local 16 0.45 Administrador de Redes 16 0.45 Administrador de Restaurant 8 0.23 Administrador de Sistemas 16 0.45 Administrador de red 8 0.23 Administrador de redes 8 0.23 Administrativo en Comex 8 0.23 Adquisiciones 8 0.23 Agente de Ventas 16 0.45 Agente de Ventas Intangibles 8 0.23 Analista Computacional 8 0.23 Analista Programador 200 5.66 Analista Sistemas 8 0.23 Analista de Sistema 32 0.90 Analista de Sistemas 24 0.68 Analista o Programador 8 0.23 Asistente Adquisiciones 16 0.45 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 163 Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Asistente Comercio Exterior 8 0.23 Asistente Contable 40 1.13 Asistente Técnico Hardware 8 0.23 Asistente de Enfermeria 8 0.23 Asistente de Enfermos 16 0.45 Auxiliar Enfermería 8 0.23 Auxiliar Paramedico 16 0.45 Auxiliar Paramédico 32 0.90 Auxiliar Técnico de Laboratorio 8 0.23 Auxiliar de Enfermeria 40 1.13 Auxiliar de Enfermería 40 1.13 Auxiliar de Laboratorio 8 0.23 Auxiliar de enfermería 8 0.23 Auxiliar de laboratorio 8 0.23 Auxiliar de toma de muestra 8 0.23 Ayudante Contable 8 0.23 Ayudante de Contador 40 1.13 Chef 32 0.90 Cheff Ejecutivo 8 0.23 Comercio Exterior 8 0.23 Conocimientos en Computacion 8 0.23 Contador 200 5.66 Contador Administrador 8 0.23 Contador Asistente 16 0.45 Contador General 72 2.04 Contador general 8 0.23 Desarrollador de Web 8 0.23 Dibujante Autocad 48 1.36 Dibujante Estructural 8 0.23 Dibujante Gráfico 8 0.23 Dibujante Mecánico Autocad 8 0.23 Dibujante Proyecticta 8 0.23 (continued) 164 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Dibujante Técnico 32 0.90 Dibujante de Arquitectura 8 0.23 Dibujante técnico 24 0.68 Dibujante y Proyectistas 8 0.23 Diseñador Gráfico 128 3.62 Diseñador Industrial 32 0.90 Diseñador Internet 8 0.23 Diseñador Web 16 0.45 Diseñador Web Master 8 0.23 Diseñador de Página web 8 0.23 Diseñador de web 8 0.23 Ejecutivo Comercio Exterior 8 0.23 Ejecutivo Telemarketing 8 0.23 Ejecutivo de Ventas 8 0.23 Encargado de Adquisiciones 16 0.45 Encargado de Adquisisciones 8 0.23 Encargado de Compras 8 0.23 Encargado de Informatica 8 0.23 Encargado de Informática 8 0.23 Encargado de Local 8 0.23 Encargado de Remuneraciones 8 0.23 Encargado de comercio exterior 8 0.23 Encargado de informática 8 0.23 Encargado de remuneraciones 8 0.23 Experto en Computación 8 0.23 Experto en Diseño Página Web 8 0.23 Explotador de Sistemas 8 0.23 Informático 8 0.23 Informático Hardware 8 0.23 Jefe Adquisiciones 8 0.23 Jefe Facturación 8 0.23 Jefe de Abastecimiento 8 0.23 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 165 Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Jefe de Bodega 8 0.23 Jefe de Local 56 1.58 Jefe de Locales 8 0.23 Jefe de Personal 8 0.23 Jefe de Recursos Humanos 8 0.23 Jefe de Tienda 32 0.90 Jefe de Tiendas 8 0.23 Jefe para cafeteria y pasteleria 8 0.23 Operador Informático 8 0.23 Paramedico 16 0.45 Paramedico RX 8 0.23 Paramedicos 8 0.23 Pedidor Aduanero 8 0.23 Prevencionista Riesgos 8 0.23 Procurador 32 0.90 Programador 544 15.38 Programador Analista 8 0.23 Programador Clipper 8 0.23 Programador Web 80 2.26 Programador Webmaster 8 0.23 Programador o Analista 8 0.23 Programador y Analistas 8 0.23 Proyectista Autocard 8 0.23 Soporte 16 0.45 Soporte Computacional 88 2.49 Soporte Informático 8 0.23 Soporte Tecnico 8 0.23 Soporte Técnico 24 0.68 Soporte en Redes 16 0.45 Supervisor 8 0.23 Supervisor Cobranzas 24 0.68 Supervisor Locales Comerciales 8 0.23 (continued) 166 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Supervisor Logístico 16 0.45 Supervisor de Call Center 8 0.23 Supervisor de Facturación y cobranzas 8 0.23 Supervisor de Venta 8 0.23 Técnico Informatico 8 0.23 Técnico Paramedico 8 0.23 Técnico Paramedicos 8 0.23 Técnico Soporte 16 0.45 Técnico en Computación 8 0.23 Técnico en Redes 8 0.23 Técnico paramedico 8 0.23 Técnico Administración de Redes 8 0.23 Técnico Administrador Empresas 8 0.23 Técnico Comercio Exterior 32 0.90 Técnico Computación 16 0.45 Técnico Gastronómico 8 0.23 Técnico Informático 32 0.90 Técnico Instalación Redes 8 0.23 Técnico Jurídico 24 0.68 Técnico Paramédico 88 2.49 Técnico Prevención 8 0.23 Técnico Programador 24 0.68 Técnico Químico 8 0.23 Técnico Soporte Terreno 8 0.23 Técnico Soporte en Linux 8 0.23 Técnico de Comercio Exterior 8 0.23 Técnico en Comercio Exterior 16 0.45 Técnico en Comex 8 0.23 Técnico en Computación 128 3.62 Técnico en Computación y Redes 8 0.23 Técnico en Enfermería 8 0.23 Técnico en Gastronomía 8 0.23 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 167 Table 5A.3 CVs Sent in (Technicians) (continued) Technicians Number Percentage Técnico en Hardware y Redes 8 0.23 Técnico en Hardware y Software 8 0.23 Técnico en Informática 16 0.45 Técnico en Logística 8 0.23 Técnico en Mantención 8 0.23 Técnico en Programación 8 0.23 Técnico en Redes Computacionales 8 0.23 Técnico en Reparación 8 0.23 Técnico en Soporte 72 2.04 Técnico en Soporte Computacional 8 0.23 Técnico en comex 8 0.23 Técnico paramédico 8 0.23 Técnico pc grafico 8 0.23 Vendedores Isapre 8 0.23 Web Master 8 0.23 Total 3,536 100 Source: Authors' compilation. Table 5A.4 Number of Days before a Callback, by Type of Job Type of job Days Professionals Technicians Unskilled Total 0 10 90 54 154 1 55 92 65 212 2 11 57 45 113 3 10 36 44 90 4 3 19 15 37 5 14 20 7 41 6 26 22 15 63 7 19 58 50 127 8 31 50 21 102 9 26 23 28 77 (continued) 168 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.4 Number of Days before a Callback, by Type of Job (continued) Type of job Days Professionals Technicians Unskilled Total 10 17 11 22 50 11 31 5 4 40 12 7 5 2 14 13 11 5 5 21 14 24 28 15 67 15 9 24 11 44 16 12 13 11 36 17 9 7 5 21 18 11 3 14 19 2 2 1 5 20 15 2 17 21 7 4 12 23 22 13 4 7 24 23 5 1 3 9 24 9 5 14 26 1 9 1 11 27 18 4 3 25 28 3 6 5 14 29 1 3 2 6 30 9 1 5 15 31 1 1 32 1 1 33 1 9 10 34 4 4 35 2 1 3 36 7 1 1 9 37 2 5 7 38 3 3 40 2 1 3 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 169 Table 5A.4 Number of Days before a Callback, by Type of Job (continued) Type of job Days Professionals Technicians Unskilled Total 41 2 5 7 42 1 1 2 43 4 1 5 44 2 2 48 2 2 4 49 1 1 2 50 3 2 5 51 4 4 52 1 1 54 4 4 55 1 1 57 4 4 58 1 8 9 59 3 2 5 64 1 1 66 3 3 73 4 4 74 4 4 76 1 1 77 5 2 7 84 3 1 4 85 2 2 86 1 1 90 2 2 91 4 4 93 1 1 95 1 1 98 1 1 105 2 2 (continued) 170 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.4 Number of Days before a Callback, by Type of Job (continued) Type of job Days Professionals Technicians Unskilled Total 111 1 1 116 1 1 125 1 1 126 1 1 Average days 14.02 8.69 14.81 12.18 Total calls back 452 640 532 1624 Total CVs sent 3,728 3,536 3,752 11,016 Response rate (%) 12.12 18.10 14.18 14.74 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Empty cells = no callback. Table 5A.5 Number of Days before a Callback, by CV Submission Method (continued) CV submission method Days Physical mail E-mail Fax Total 0 154 154 1 212 212 2 4 109 113 3 47 43 90 4 26 11 37 5 16 25 41 6 19 44 63 7 66 61 127 8 54 48 102 9 61 16 77 10 21 29 50 11 19 21 40 12 2 12 14 13 4 17 21 14 27 40 67 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 171 Table 5A.5 Number of Days before a Callback, by CV Submission Method (continued) CV submission method Days Physical mail E-mail Fax Total 15 29 15 44 16 20 16 36 17 9 10 2 21 18 10 4 14 19 3 2 5 20 10 7 17 21 11 12 23 22 17 7 24 23 5 4 9 24 11 3 14 26 9 2 11 27 6 19 25 28 8 6 14 29 5 1 6 30 14 1 15 31 1 1 32 1 1 33 1 9 10 34 4 4 35 3 3 36 4 5 9 37 7 7 38 2 1 3 40 3 3 41 6 1 7 42 2 2 43 5 5 44 2 2 48 2 2 4 (continued) 172 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 5A.5 Number of Days before a Callback, by CV Submission Method (continued) CV submission method Days Physical mail E-mail Fax Total 49 2 2 50 2 3 5 51 4 4 52 1 1 54 4 4 55 1 1 57 4 4 58 8 1 9 59 3 2 5 64 1 1 66 3 3 73 4 4 74 4 4 76 1 1 77 7 7 84 3 1 4 85 2 2 86 1 1 90 2 2 91 4 4 93 1 1 95 1 1 98 1 1 105 2 2 111 1 1 116 1 1 125 1 1 126 1 1 (continued) an experimental study of labor market discrimination 173 Table 5A.5 Number of Days before a Callback, by CV Submission Method (continued) CV submission method Days Physical mail E-mail Fax Total Average days 18.70 8.12 17.00 12.18 Total call backs 621 1,001 2 1,624 Total CVs sent 3,941 7,059 16 11,016 Response rate (%) 15.76 14.18 12.50 14.74 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Empty cells = no callback. Figure 5A.1 Example of a Scanned Ad Source: Chilean newspaper. CURRICULUM VITAE MICHAEL BAILEY LAVAGNINO I. DATOS PERSONALES Fecha de Nacimiento : 17 de Julio de 1975 Nacionalidad : Chilena Cédula de Identidad : 12.408.860 ­ 3 Estado Civil : Casado, 1 hijo Dirección : Av. Pocuro 2900, Depto. 304, Providencia Teléfono : 08 ­ 4724260 E-mail : Pcs.2541@gmail.com II. DATOS PERSONALES Educación Básica y Media : Colegio San Ignacio El Bosque, Providencia (1989 ­ 1992). Educación Universitaria : Construcción Civil, Escuela de Construcción Civil Universidad Católica de Chile (1998). Educación Post Universitaria : Postítulo en Tecnologías avanzadas en (TAC) Mención en Obras Construcción, Facultad de Ingeniería, Civiles. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (2000). III. IDIOMAS Inglés, nivel medio, hablado y escrito IV. EXPERIENCIA LABORAL ­ Constructora Maihue Ltda., Asistente en el Estudio de Presupuestos de Obra. (Part Time), 2001 ­ 2002. ­ Constructora Fernández Wood Ltda., Jefe de Oficina Técnica de presupuestos de obras, 2002 ­ 2004.. ­ E.C. Pumpin e Irarrazabal, Administrador de Obra: Edificio y Caseta Planta Agas Con Con y Profesional de Terreno: Edificio en construcción, 2005 ­ 2006. V. OTROS Manejo de Microsoft Office (Excel, Word, Power Point, Outlook). VI. PRETENSIONES DE RENTA $ 1.000.000. Con disponibilidad para viajar fuera de Santiago. Santiago, Abril de 2006 174 CAROLINA HARMSEN BERNAL Antecedentes Personales Fecha de nacimiento: 14 de diciembre de 1976 Carnet de identidad: 12.325.974-7 Dirección: Av. Simon Bolivar 5501- C, La Reina Estado civil: Casada, 2 hijos Teléfono: 08 ­ 4734992 E-mail: Profesional2525@gmail.com Experiencia Laboral Postulante Ingeniería Fecha: 01/2005 ­ 02/2006 Empresa: Dirección de Obras Sanitarias del MOP Actividad de la empresa: Obras sanitarias Descripción de funciones: Proyectar, ejecutar y dirigir obras hidráulicas. Jefe Área Fecha: 04/2002 ­ 12/2004 Empresa: Constructora Sega Ltda. Actividad de la empresa: Construcción Descripción de funciones: Jefe del departamento de obras civiles. Ingeniería y Construcción Fecha: 05/2000 ­ 01/2001 Empresa: Delmar Construcciones Ltda. Actividad de la empresa: Construcción Descripción de funciones: Jefe depto. Obras Civiles, encargado de llevar a cabo las políticas en cuanto a seguridad, eficacia y eficiencia de los sistemas implementados, además de interactuar con proveedores, consultores externos y los departamentos financiero y operativo de la empresa. Educación Universitaria Completa Título: Constructor Civil Institución: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile País: CHILE Ciudad: Santiago Fecha: 1999 175 Secundaria Institución: Colegio Nuestra Señora del Pilar País: CHILE - Santiago Fecha: 1987 ­ 1993 Cursos de Especialización Completos Nombre Curso : MAGÍSTER EN CIENCIAS DE LA INGENIERÍA M/ INGENIERÍA GEOTÉCNICA. Institución: Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas País: CHILE Ciudad: Santiago Fecha: 2001 Cursos de Especialización Completos Nombre Curso : Dominio de aplicaciones Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Power Point, Access, Excel Institución: Infoland País: CHILE Ciudad: Santiago Fecha: 1999 Nombre Curso : Diplomado, Implantación de la Calidad para la Certificación ISO 9001:2000 Institución: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile País: CHILE Ciudad: Santiago Fecha: 2005 Idiomas Inglés Nivel Medio Pretensión de Renta $ 900.000 Disponible para viajar dentro del país. SANTIAGO, abril de 2006 176 CURRICULUM VITAE ANTECEDENTES PERSONALES NOMBRE COMPLETO SALOMON DABDUB ARANCIBIA FECHA DE NACIMIENTO 11 de noviembre de 1971 CEDULA DE IDENTIDAD 10.452.187-4 NACIONALIDAD Chilena ESTADO CIVIL Casado, 1 hijo DIRECCION PARTICULAR Combarbalá 4560, La Granja FONO PARTICULAR 08 ­ 4716515 E-MAIL ingenieros001@gmail.com ESTUDIOS REALIZADOS Secundarios Saint Christian College, 1988 Universitarios Construcción Civil. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile - 1994 Postítulo en Administración de Empresas Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile 1996 Postítulo Administración de Empresas Constructoras mención en desarrollo inmobiliario. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2002. EXPERIENCIA PROFESIONAL 1998 ­ 2000 Constructora SOCOVESA S.A. Supervisor de planta de hormigones premezclados, con labores operacionales, técnicas y comerciales asesorando empresas en faenas de hormigado. 2001 ­ 2003 Promet Servicios S.A. Jefe del Departamento de Control de Calidad para faena en Minera Escondida Ltda. correspondiente al Proyecto Expansión Fase IV. Labores de jefe de terreno y subadministrador. 2004 ­ 2005 Flesan Ingeniería S.A. Jefe del Departamento de Construcción de la empresa, realizando propuestas y ejecución de obras menores. Idiomas Inglés nivel Medio Dominio de Sofware Aplicaciones de Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Excell, Power Point, y Access). Pretensión de Renta $ 1.000.000. Disponible para viajar a regiones. Santiago, abril de 2006. 177 CURRICULUM VITAE MARCELA ROSS VARGAS I. DATOS PERSONALES Fecha de nacimiento 23 de septiembre de 1972 Nacionalidad Chilena Cédula de identidad 10.668.374 ­ 7 Estado civil Casada, 1 hijo Dirección Rolando Petersen 1502, Cerro Navia Teléfono 08 ­ 4724283 E-mail 2006profesional@gmail.com II. EDUCACIÓN Educación Media Liceo Isaura Dinator de Guzmán A4 Santiago (1989). Educación Universitaria Escuela de Construcción Civil, Universidad Católica de Chile. Construcción Civil (Diciembre de 1995). Educación Post Universitaria Post Título en Administración de Empresas Constructoras, Mención en Desarrollo en Obras Civiles. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (1997). III. IDIOMAS Inglés (Nivel Medio). IV. EXPERIENCIA LABORAL ­ EMPRESA CONSULTORA, Consultoría/Asesoría, Asesor Análisis, Gestión de Control, Evaluación y Programación de proyectos de infraestructura urbana, Vial e Hidráulica, 2002 ­ 2003. ­ EMPRESA INGEVEC S.A. Jefa del Área Obras Civiles y como Inspector de Obra en las diferentes sucursales a lo largo del país. 2003 ­ 2004. ­ EMPRESA CONSTRUCTORA RALUN LTDA. Inspector de diversas obras. 2005 ­ 2006. V. OTROS Dominio de aplicaciones Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Excel, Power Point, Access). VI. PRETENSIÓN DE RENTA $ 1.000.000. Con disponibilidad para viajar a Regiones. Santiago, abril de 2006. 178 Pablo Calfil Gonzalez Información personal · Estado civil: Casado, 1 Hijo · Nacionalidad: Chilena · Edad: 33 · María Soledad 670, Las Condes · Rut: 11.051.154-0 · Teléfono 08 ­ 7621538 · Email: ing.profesional@gmail.com Educación · 1990, Colegio Francisco de Asís de Las Condes Educación Superior · Construcción Civil, Universidad Católica de Chile. Constructor Civil · Postítulo en tecnologías avanzadas en construcción (TAC) mención en obras civiles. Universidad Católica de Chile. · Curso Auditor Interno ISO 9000:2000, IRAM e IQNET · Preparación y Evaluación de Proyecto Inmobiliario, Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Chile. Experiencia profesional · 1999 ­ 2000, DELVA, Metalmecánica Asesor en métodos constructivos, control de obras (Ms-proyect), rectificación topográfica, administración de obras, contratación personal de obras, presupuestos y análisis de costos. · 2000 ­ 2003, Enginner Chile, Construcción Asesor, Supervisor y Ejecutor de proyectos como contratista en la empresa. · 2004 ­ 2005, CINTAC, Materiales de Construcción Supervisor labores de faena, propias del método constructivo METALCON (gestión de calidad). Software · Dominio de aplicaciones Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Power Point, Access, Excel). Idioma Inglés Medio Pretensión de Renta $ 1.000.000. Disponibilidad Para viajar fuera de Santiago. Abril, 2006. 179 Analia Socorro Socorro Constructor Civil ANTECEDENTES PERSONALES FECHA DE NACIMIENTO 14 de Julio de 1974 CEDULA DE IDENTIDAD 12.152.187 ­ 5 NACIONALIDAD Chilena ESTADO CIVIL Casada, 1 hijo DIRECCIÓN PARTÍCULAR El Gabino 4340 Dpto. 301, Lo Barnechea FONO PARTÍCULAR 08 ­ 7627022 E-MAIL Amarillo.camino@gmail.com EDUCACIÓN SECUNDARIOS Colegio La Dehesa, 1991. UNIVERSITARIOS Construcción Civil Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (1997). EDUCACIÓN POST - Postitulo en Administración de Empresas UNIVERSITARIA Constructoras, Mención en Desarrollo inmobiliario, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (1999). EXPERIENCIA PROFESIONAL 2000­2002 Constructora Ecopsa S.A. Catastro de viviendas en garantías. Administración de RRHH. Encargada de las terminaciones de las viviendas de la obra, de un condominio en la comuna de Lo Barnechea. 2003 ­ 2004 Ingeniería e Inmobiliaria S.A. Evaluación Económica de maquinaria pesada, compra, venta, arriendo y costos de operación. 2004 ­ 2006 Constructora Propuerto Ltda. Ingeniero de Estudio de Propuestas, creación de precios unitarios, programación de obras y plazos, asignación de recursos, cotizaciones, interpretación de planos y bases técnicas. IDIOMA Dominio del Inglés Medio. OTROS ANTECEDENTES Dominio de aplicaciones Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Excel, Power Point, Access). PRETENSIÓN DE RENTA $ 1.000.000. Con Disponibilidad para viajar a regiones. Santiago, abril de 2006. 180 CURRICULUM VITAE I. Antecedentes Personales Nombre Pablo Ayulef Muñoz Profesión Constructor Civil, Universidad de Chile Fecha de Nacimiento 24 de febrero de 1975 Cédula de Identidad 12.166.357-8 Nacionalidad Chilena Estado Civil Casado, 1 hijo Dirección Antonio Machado 1951, El Bosque Teléfono (08) 7621526 Correo Electrónico ingcivil2006@gmail.com II. Estudios · Licenciatura Media (1992) Centro Educacional Matías Cousiño, El Bosque · Título Universitario de Constructor Civil (1998) Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago. · Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería área ingeniería y gestión de la Construcción. Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad Católica de Chile. · Curso, Auditor Interno ISO 9001:2000, Fundación Sercal III. Antecedentes Laborales 2001 ­ 2003 Inspector Técnico, Profesional de Terreno Empresa Constructora Fe Grande, Santiago Principales funciones: Coordinación de trabajos en estudio y aprobados para ser realizados a la brevedad. Redistribución de funciones a ingenieros calculistas y proyectistas. 2004 ­ 2005 Ingeniero Ingeniería y Proyectos IPSA S.A., Santiago Principales funciones: Miembro del Departamento de Estudios de la empresa en apoyo al control y desarrollo de proyectos de ingeniería, realizando trabajos en la parte técnica y administrativa. Marzo 2005 a Jefe de Departamento de Estudios la fecha Ingeniería Cocivil Ltda., Santiago. Principales funciones: Coordinación de los trabajos para su estudio y real factibilidad de desarrollo. IV. Otros Antecedentes Dominio de aplicaciones Microsoft Office e Internet a nivel de usuario (Word, Excel, Power Point, Access). Ingles: Nivel Medio. VI. Pretensión de Renta $ 1.000.000. Disponible para viajar fuera de Santiago. Abril, 2006 181 CURRICULUM VITAE I. Antecedentes Personales Nombre Johanna Paineman Ojeda Profesión Constructor Civil Fecha de Nacimiento 02 de julio de 1976 Cédula de Identidad 12.497.158 ­ 3 Nacionalidad Chilena Estado Civil Casada, 2 hijos Dirección Los Morros 13570, La Pintana Teléfono (08) 7627540 Correo Electrónico Viaje.3201@gmail.com II. Antecedentes Laborales 2002 ­ 2003 Inspector de Obras Bustamante Ltda., Construcción Principales funciones: Contratada como profesional de obra, para terminaciones de viviendas, en el sector de "La Reserva", en la comuna de Chicureo. 2004 ­ 2005 Inspector Técnico y Asesor en la confección de Morteros y Hormigones, fabricados en obras. Fernández Word Constructora 2005 a la fecha Jefe de Terreno: Proyecto "Mejoramiento de Barrios" la obra consta de 450 soluciones de casetas sanitarias, mandante I. M. de Valparaíso. Sociedad Constructora Kaner Ltda. Estudios Secundarios 1993 Liceo 1 Javiera Carrera, Santiago. Estudios Superiores 1994 ­ 1999 Título Universitario de Constructor Civil Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 2000 Postítulo prevención de riesgos en el sector productivo Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago. Idioma Inglés nivel medio. III. Otros Antecedentes Dominio de aplicaciones Windows, Microsoft Office (Excel, Word, PowerPoint). IV. Cursos de Especialización Auditor Interno ISO 9001:2000, Universidad Católica de Chile VI. Pretensión de Renta $ 1.000.000. Disponibilidad para viajar fuera de Santiago. Santiago, Abril 2006. 182 an experimental study of labor market discrimination 183 Notes 1. Authors' calculations using data from the 2003 Survey of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Chile (hereafter, CASEN 2003). After correcting for differ- ences in human capital and occupational choice, this gap falls to approximately 19 percent. 2. Previous studies for Chile are Bravo (2005); Montenegro (2001); Montene- gro and Paredes (1999); Paredes and Riveros (1994). 3. Bravo (2005) shows that, taking all employed workers and controlling for years of schooling and occupation, the wage gap was 13.5 percent in 2000. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, he concludes that most of this difference was due to "residual discrimination." 4. According to the International Labour Organisation. Contreras and Plaza (2004) show that cultural factors, such as sexism, significantly influence female labor force participation in Chile. 5. Núñez and Gutiérrez (2004) analyze discrimination by social class in Chile controlling for the potential presence of unobserved variables. 6. See Altonji and Blank (1999) and Blank, Dabady, and Citro (2004) for complete surveys of the econometric problems involved in detecting discrimination in the labor market using regression analysis and field experiments. 7. Riach and Rich (2002, 2004) and Anderson, Fryer, and Holt (2006) offer a complete survey of these studies. 8. It really tests the callback decision. 9. Repeat rate refers to the proportion of ads that were repeated from the week before. It is common to publish ads for more than one Sunday. 10. See http://www.laborum.com and http://www.infoempleo.cl. 11. The central element in training the individuals in charge of this process was to ensure that the eight CVs prepared for each vacancy were equivalent with regard to qualifications and human capital. References Altonji, Joseph, and Rebecca Blank. 1999. "Race and Gender in the Labor Market." In Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam: North Holland. Anderson, Lisa, Roland Fryer, and Charles Holt. 2006. "Discrimination: Experi- mental Evidence from Psychology and Economics." In Handbook on Economics and Discrimination, ed. William Rogers. Cheltenham: Elgar. Antonovics, Kate, Peter Arcidiacono, and Randall Walsh. 2004. "Competing against the Opposite Sex." Economics Working Paper Series 2003-08, Univer- sity of California at San Diego, San Diego. ------. 2005. "Games and Discrimination: Lessons from `The Weakest Link.'" Journal of Human Resources 40 (4): 918­47. Bertrand, Marianne, and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2004. "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination." American Economic Review 94 (4): 991­1013. Blank, Rebecca, Marilyn Dabady, and Constance Citro. 2004. Measuring Racial Discrimination: Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Blinder, Alan. 1973. "Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Esti- mates." Journal of Human Resources 7 (4): 436­55. 184 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Bravo, David. 2005. Elaboración, validación y difusión de Índice Nacional de Calidad del Empleo Femenino. Report prepared for the Secretary of Gender (Ministerio Servicio Nacional de la Mujer). Santiago: Universidad de Chile, Centro de Microdatos. Bravo, David, Claudia Sanhueza, and Sergio Urzúa. 2009. "Using an Experimental Approach to Identify Labor Market Discrimination Based on Gender and Social Class in a Developing Economy." Unpublished mss., Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Economía, Santiago. Contreras, Dante, and Gonzalo Plaza. 2004. "Participación femenina en el mer- cado laboral Chileno ¿Cuánto importan los factores culturales?" Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Economía, Santiago. Ferreira, Francisco, and Jérémie Gignoux. 2008. "The Measurement of Inequality of Opportunity: Theory and an Application to Latin America." Policy Research Working Paper Series 4659, World Bank, Washington, DC. Goldin, Claudia, and Cecilia Rouse. 2000. "Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of `Blind' Auditions on Female Musicians." American Economic Review 90 (4): 715­41. Heckman, James. 1998. "Detecting Discrimination." Journal of Economic Per- spectives 12 (2): 101­16. Heckman, James, and Peter Siegelman. 1993. "The Urban Institute Audit Studies: Their Methods and Findings." In Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measure of Discrimination in America, ed. Michael Fix and Raymond Struyk. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. Levitt, Steven. 2004. "Testing Theories of Discrimination. Evidence from `The Weakest Link.'" Journal of Law and Economics 47 (2): 431­52. Montenegro, Claudio. 2001. "Wage Distribution in Chile: Does Gender Matter? A Quantile Regression Approach." Policy Research Report on Gender and Devel- opment, Working Paper 20, World Bank, Washington, DC. Montenegro, Claudio, and Ricardo Paredes. 1999. "Gender Wage Gap and Dis- crimination: A Long-Term View Using Quantile Regression." Unpublished mss., Universidad de Chile, Santiago. Neal, Derek A., and William R. Johnson. 1996. "The Role of Premarket Fac- tors in Black-White Wage Differences." Journal of Political Economy 104 (5): 869­95. Newmark, David, Roy J. Bank, and Kyle D. Van Nort. 1996. "Sex Discrimination in Restaurant Hiring: An Audit Study." Quarterly Journal of Economics 111 (3): 915­41. Núñez, Javier, and Roberto Gutiérrez. 2004. "Classism, Discrimination, and Meri- tocracy in the Labor Market: The Case of Chile." Documento de Trabajo 208, Universidad de Chile: Departamento de Economía, Santiago. Oaxaca, Ronald. 1973. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Mar- kets." International Economic Review 14 (3): 693­709. Paredes, Ricardo, and Luis Riveros. 1994. "Gender Wage Gaps in Chile: A Long- Term View: 1958­1990." Estudios de Economía 21 (número especial). Riach, Peter, and Judith Rich. 2002. "Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Marketplace." Economic Journal 112 (483): 480­518. ------. 2004. "Deceptive Field Experiments of Discrimination: Are They Ethical?" Kyklos 57 (3): 457­70. Urzúa, Sergio. 2008. "Racial Labor Market Gaps: The Role of Abilities and School- ing Choices." Journal of Human Resources 43 (4): 919­71. 6 Ability, Schooling Choices, and Gender Labor Market Discrimination: Evidence for Chile David Bravo, Claudia Sanhueza, and Sergio Urzúa Significant gender differentials in labor market outcomes (labor income and labor force participation, among others) have been extensively studied and well documented (Altonji and Blank 1999). The structural reasons behind these gaps, however, are not fully understood. This chapter con- tributes to the literature by studying gender differences in a framework in which schooling decisions and labor market outcomes are endogenously determined. Our framework allows individual heterogeneity, not only from the point of view of observable characteristics, but also from that of unobserved variables. We assume that individuals know this additional source of heterogeneity, and they base their schooling and labor market decisions on it. Unobserved heterogeneity therefore plays a crucial role in our approach. David Bravo is with the Centro de Microdatos, Departamento de Economía, Universidad de Chile; Claudia Sanhueza is with the Instituto Latinoamericano de Doctrina y Estudios Sociales (ILADES), Universidad Alberto Hurtado; and Sergio Urzúa is with the Department of Economics and the Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University. This study was undertaken as part of the Latin American and Caribbean Research Network Project "Discrimination and Economic Outcomes." 185 186 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Ours is a challenging task for several reasons. First, a comprehensive analysis of gender differences in a variety of outcomes is subject to the usual and irremediable data limitations. Second, the natural complexi- ties associated with econometric models of multiple, endogenous, and correlated outcomes usually make these models empirically unappealing. Finally, the fact that we allow individuals' decisions to depend on variables unobserved by the researcher but known to the agent represents an addi- tional challenge of our approach. We deal with each of these difficulties. First, we use a new data set from Chile that contains detailed information on labor market and schooling outcomes at the individual level. Second, following the analy- sis of Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzúa (2006), we postulate a simple fac- tor structure model based on economic theory that allows us to deal with multiple endogenous variables. Finally, we interpret this factor as unobserved heterogeneity since the researcher does not need to know the individual's factor level (although it is assumed to be known by the individual). We argue that the factor represents a combination of differ- ent skills (cognitive and personality skills). Chile provides an interesting example of an apparently significant gen- der gap in different dimensions of the labor market. The evidence for Chile usually comes from the estimation of regression models in which the outcome of interest (usually log monthly income or hourly wage) is regressed on a set of observable characteristics, including gender. The coefficient associated with the gender dummy is commonly interpreted as discrimination (for example, Contreras and Puentes 2001; Montenegro 1999; Montenegro and Paredes 1999; Núñez and Gutiérrez 2004; Paredes and Riveros 1994). As we explain in this chapter, our empirical approach shares some of the characteristics of these previous studies (for example, functional forms), but it relaxes many of their assumptions, as it presents a more comprehensive model of the Chilean labor market.1 The evidence in table 6.1 provides the initial perspective of the gender differences that motivate this chapter. It presents basic information for a variety of schooling and labor market outcomes obtained from a sample of males and females between the ages of 28 and 40 years.2 A compari- son of the schooling outcomes (panel A in table 6.1) leads us to conclude that, on average, (a) females are slightly more educated than males, (b) females are less likely to repeat a grade in both primary and secondary school, and (c) females perform better in school than males (measured by the average grade in secondary school). However, this educational advantage of women over men seems to have no impact on the labor market. The evidence in panel B illustrates this point, showing that males overwhelmingly dominate females in every dimension of the labor market (monthly earnings, employment, and experience). This chapter seeks to identify the factors determining this phenomenon. The chapter is organized as follows. The first section describes the data, the second presents evidence on the differences in labor market outcomes ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 187 Table 6.1 Means of Schooling and Labor Market Outcomes by Gender from SPS02 Females Males Standard Standard Variable (Dummy = 1 if apply) Mean deviation Mean deviation A. School information Maximum schooling level = primary education 0.11 0.32 0.17 0.38 Maximum schooling level = secondary education 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.50 Maximum schooling level = some tertiary education 0.26 0.44 0.24 0.43 Maximum schooling level = complete tertiary education 0.11 0.31 0.10 0.30 Grade retention in primary school 0.22 0.41 0.30 0.46 Grade retention in secondary school 0.20 0.40 0.24 0.43 Average grade in secondary schoola 0.16 0.98 ­0.17 1.00 B. Labor market variables Monthly earningsb 215,266 214,323 285,140 360,046 Hours worked per week 43.41 11.74 48.17 9.81 b Hourly wage 1,292 1,257 1,636 4,649 Working during last month 0.59 0.49 0.82 0.39 Less than 10 years of experience 0.56 0.50 0.25 0.43 Between 10 and 15 years of experience 0.26 0.44 0.34 0.47 More than 15 years of experience 0.18 0.39 0.41 0.49 Number of observations 1,765 1,801 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The numbers presented in this table correspond to the sample of individuals between 28 and 40 years old at the time of the interview. a. We normalize the mean of average grades to 0, and the loading to 1. b. Monthly earnings and hourly wages are in Chilean pesos. between males and females using a conventional approach, the third intro- duces our model and discusses its empirical implementation, and a fourth discusses our results. A final section concludes. 188 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Data This chapter uses information from the Chilean Social Protection Survey 2002 (SPS02). This survey was designed to identify and analyze the most important determinants of social security decisions (participation in the social security system) among Chileans. In order to do this, a represen- tative sample of 17,246 participants in the Chilean pension system was interviewed between June 2002 and January 2003. For each individual in the sample, the survey collected information on household composi- tion (age, gender, and level of schooling of household members as well as their relations with the interviewee), current employment status, sources of income, educational variables (maximum schooling attained, average grades in primary and secondary school, characteristics of the primary and secondary schools attended), family history (mother's and father's educa- tion, characteristics of the place of residence where the individual grew up, and number of previous relationships), labor history since age 15 or since 1980, depending on the year in which the individual became 15 years old (periods of employment, unemployment, and inactivity), training pro- grams (information on the three most important training programs since 1980), expectations (job, retirement, and life), savings (instruments and amounts), and a set of variables describing the individual's knowledge of the characteristics and performance of the Chilean pension system. We use the sample of individuals with ages in the range of 28 through 40 years, representing approximately 21 percent of the original sample (3,566 versus 17,246).3 We restrict the ages of the sample for several reasons. First, since the information on labor history begins only in 1980 (or since age 15), by using individuals 28­40 years old we ensure that the individuals in our sample report complete labor histories beginning at age 18. Second, since schooling is a critical ingredient of our analysis, by excluding individuals 27 years old and younger, we focus our attention on individuals who most likely had reached their final level of schooling at the time of the interview.4 Finally, it is worth noting that the current Chilean schooling system was designed only in the early 1980s. Therefore, since our analysis includes information on the characteristics of the primary and secondary schools in which the individual was enrolled, by restricting the analysis to individu- als ages 28­40, we ensure that such information is comparable across the individuals in our sample. Table 6.2 presents the summary statistics of the variables used in this chapter. The Conventional Gender Gap Analysis The gender differences in labor market outcomes are usually analyzed in the context of linear models in which the variable of interest is regressed Table 6.2 Descriptive Statistics from SPS02 by Gender Females Males Standard Standard Variable (Dummy = 1 if apply) Mean deviation Mean deviation Age 33.76 3.76 33.71 3.79 A. School information Maximum schooling level = primary education 0.11 0.32 0.17 0.38 Maximum schooling level = secondary education 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.50 Maximum schooling level = some tertiary education 0.26 0.44 0.24 0.43 Maximum schooling level = complete tertiary education 0.11 0.31 0.10 0.30 A.1. Primary school Primary school in urban area 0.91 0.29 0.89 0.31 Repeating a grade in primary school 0.22 0.41 0.30 0.46 Was primary school public? 0.77 0.42 0.81 0.39 Was primary school private-subsidized? 0.16 0.37 0.13 0.33 Was primary school managed by a corporation? 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 Was primary school private? 0.07 0.25 0.06 0.23 A.2. Secondary school Secondary school in urban area 0.98 0.14 0.99 0.12 Repeating a grade in secondary school 0.20 0.40 0.24 0.43 189 (continued) 190 Table 6.2 Descriptive Statistics from SPS02 by Gender (continued) Females Males Standard Standard Variable (Dummy = 1 if apply) Mean deviation Mean deviation Was secondary school public? 0.70 0.46 0.70 0.46 Was secondary school private-subsidized? 0.23 0.42 0.22 0.42 Was secondary school managed by a corporation? 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.13 Was secondary school private? 0.07 0.25 0.06 0.24 Average grade in secondary school 0.16 0.98 ­0.17 1.00 B. Family background Mother's employment ­ salaried 0.56 0.50 0.55 0.50 Father's employment ­ salaried 0.99 0.07 0.99 0.09 Total number of children 1.64 1.19 1.47 1.22 Mother's education (years of schooling) 7.51 3.77 7.42 3.69 Father's education (years of schooling) 8.14 4.11 7.91 4.00 Growing up under poverty 0.28 0.45 0.35 0.48 Growing up in a broken home 0.96 0.20 0.96 0.20 C. Labor market variables Monthly earnings (Chilean pesos) 215,266 214,323 285,140 360,046 Hours worked per week 43.41 11.74 48.17 9.81 (continued) Table 6.2 Descriptive Statistics from SPS02 by Gender (continued) Females Males Standard Standard Standard Variable (Dummy = 1 if apply) Mean deviation deviation deviation Hourly wage (Chilean pesos) 1,292 1,257 1,636 4,649 Working during last month 0.59 0.49 0.82 0.39 Total work experience since Jan. 1980 (months) 113.43 66.00 165.02 63.52 Less than 10 years of experience 0.56 0.50 0.25 0.43 Between 10 and 15 years of experience 0.26 0.44 0.34 0.47 More than 15 years of experience 0.18 0.39 0.41 0.49 C.1 Type of job Salaried 0.81 0.39 0.20 0.40 Domestic service 0.11 0.32 0.00 0.02 Employer or self-worker 0.08 0.27 0.20 0.40 C.2 Type of occupation Administrative and managerial workers 0.03 0.17 0.06 0.24 Professionals 0.13 0.34 0.08 0.27 Technicians and associate professionals 0.14 0.35 0.11 0.32 Clerks 0.26 0.44 0.10 0.30 Service workers and shop and market sales workers 0.22 0.42 0.09 0.29 191 (continued) 192 Table 6.2 Descriptive Statistics from SPS02 by Gender (continued) Females Males Standard Standard Variable (Dummy = 1 if apply) Mean deviation Mean deviation Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 0.01 0.09 0.06 0.23 Craft and related trades workers 0.04 0.19 0.23 0.42 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 0.04 0.19 0.17 0.37 Elementary occupations 0.13 0.34 0.10 0.31 D. Place of residence North (regions I to III) 0.13 0.33 0.11 0.32 Central (regions IV to VII) 0.65 0.48 0.62 0.49 South (regions VIII to XII) 0.23 0.42 0.26 0.44 Santiago (region XIII) 0.43 0.49 0.42 0.49 Number of observations 1,765 1,801 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: The numbers presented in this table correspond to the sample of individuals between 28 and 40 years old at the time of the interview. ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 193 on the gender dummy variable and a set of additional controls.5 The coef- ficient associated with the gender dummy is interpreted as the estimated gender gap. Given its popularity, our first attempt to quantify the gender gap closely follows this idea. Table 6.3 presents the results from the fol- lowing model of (log) hourly wages (lnW): lnW = + Male + X + U, (6.1) where Male represents the gender dummy (Male = 1 if individual is male and 0 if female), X represents the individual's observable characteristics, and U is the error term in the regression. In this simple model, the (con- ditional) gender gap is simply . Each column in table 6.3 represents a different specification of equation 6.1. In particular, column A presents the results of a model in which we include the characteristics of both place of residence and occupation in the vector of controls X. Column B adds a set of variables controlling for the individual's accumulated experience, and column C adds to the controls in column B a set of variables controlling for schooling levels.6 The results indicate that males make approximately 23 percent more than females in terms of hourly wages. This gender gap is statistically significant regardless of the column analyzed. The last model in table 6.3 (column D) includes a correction for the fact that the labor market outcome is reported only for individuals who are working (Heckman 1974, 1981). This is particularly important given the gender differences in employment rates reported in table 6.1 (panel B). Thus, the model in column D is lnW = + Male + X + U if wage is observed (D = 1) D = 1[Z + V > 0], (6.2) where 1[A] is an indicator function that takes a value of 1 if A is true and 0 otherwise, Z is a vector of observables, and V represents the unobserv- ables. D = 1[.] is the censoring rule for wages. In our empirical model, Z includes variables such as number of children, whether the individual grew up in a poor household, and mother's and father's occupational sta- tus. The estimated gender gap after correcting for selection is 29 percent, and it is statistically significant. Thus, after controlling for selection, we find not only a significant but also a larger gender gap in wages (compared with the gap estimated without using the correction). This fact illustrates the importance of paying particular attention to an individual's endog- enous decisions (in this case, employment decisions) when analyzing the gender gap. We exploit this point in the following section. The analysis of the gender gap in wages is interesting and important, but it represents only one dimension of many among which males and females can differ. We first extend our analysis to the case of monthly hours worked. We model (log) hours worked using a linear-in-parameter 194 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 6.3 The Gender Gap in Hourly Wages from SPS02 Variables (A) (B) (C) (D) Male 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.29 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) Schoolinga Secondary education 0.29 0.30 (0.04) (0.04) Some tertiary education 0.49 0.50 (0.04) (0.05) Complete tertiary education 0.90 0.92 (0.06) (0.06) Experienceb Between 10 and 15 years of 0.04 0.05 0.14 experience (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) More than 10 years of experience 0.04 0.10 0.19 (0.03) (0.03) (0.04) Residencec Central ­0.15 ­0.15 ­0.15 ­0.15 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) South ­0.04 ­0.04 ­0.05 ­0.004 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) Santiago 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.24 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) Type of jobd Employer or self-worker ­0.13 ­0.13 ­0.10 ­0.11 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) Domestic service ­0.08 ­0.08 ­0.04 ­0.06 (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Occupationse Professionals 0.09 0.10 ­0.18 ­0.17 (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Technicians and associate ­0.33 ­0.33 ­0.27 ­0.25 professionals (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Clerks ­0.71 ­0.72 ­0.56 ­0.53 (0.07) (0.07) (0.06) (0.06) Service workers and shop and ­1.08 ­1.08 ­0.84 ­0.83 market sales workers (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (continued) ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 195 Table 6.3 The Gender Gap in Hourly Wages from SPS02 (continued) Variables (A) (B) (C) (D) Skilled agricultural and fishery ­1.35 ­1.36 ­0.96 ­0.93 workers (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) (0.09) Craft and related trades workers ­1.05 ­1.05 ­0.77 ­0.74 (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Plant and machine operators and ­1.11 ­1.11 ­0.85 ­0.82 assemblers (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Elementary occupations ­1.28 ­1.28 ­0.94 ­0.91 (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Constant 7.63 7.61 7.04 6.75 (0.07) (0.07) (0.08) (0.10) Correction for selection No No No Yes Source: Authors' compilation. Note: For each model, schooling corresponds to the declared schooling level for each individual in the sample. Specification (D) includes the same controls as (C) but is estimated including a correction for selection. The variables used in the first stage are number of children, mother's occupational situation, father's occupational situ- ation, and whether the individual grew up in a poor household. Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The baseline category is primary education. b. The baseline category is less than 10 years of experience. c. The baseline category is north (regions I to III). Central represents regions IV­VII (including the XIII region), south represents regions VIII­XII. d. The baseline category is public and private employees. e. The baseline category is administrative and managerial workers. model similar to equation 6.1 and the same set of controls as the ones used for wages. Table 6.4 presents the estimated gender gap in monthly hours worked. The structure of this table is identical to the structure of table 6.3. The results from columns A, B, and C suggest that males work approxi- mately 11 percent more hours per month than females. This difference is statistically significant and stable across the three specifications. However, the last column in table 6.4 presents (again) a different story. Unlike the results for wages, the correction for selection significantly reduces the gender gap in hours worked. The estimated gap is only 0.04 percent, and it is not statistically significant. We also extend our analysis to employment status. In this case, we use a probit model instead of a linear regression model. Table 6.5 pres- ents the results for three different specifications. For each specification, we present both estimated coefficients and estimated marginal effects.7 196 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 6.4 The Gender Gap in Monthly Hours Worked from SPS02 Variables (A) (B) (C) (D) Male 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.004 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Schoolinga Secondary education ­0.01 ­0.04 (0.02) (0.02) Some tertiary education 0.02 ­0.03 (0.03) (0.02) Complete tertiary education ­0.03 ­0.04 (0.04) (0.03) Experienceb Between 10 and 15 years of 0.08 0.08 ­0.07 experience (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) More than 10 years of experience 0.08 0.08 ­0.08 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Residencec Central ­0.002 ­0.005 ­0.01 0.02 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) South ­0.05 ­0.05 ­0.05 ­0.10 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.03) Santiago 0.02 0.02 0.02 ­0.03 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Type of jobd Employer or self-worker ­0.20 ­0.20 ­0.20 ­0.05 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Domestic service ­0.11 ­0.12 ­0.12 0.01 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Occupationse Professionals ­0.30 ­0.28 ­0.27 ­0.22 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Technicians and associate ­0.24 ­0.24 ­0.25 ­0.17 professionals (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Clerks ­0.18 ­0.18 ­0.19 ­0.16 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Service workers and shop and ­0.19 ­0.19 ­0.19 ­0.11 market sales workers (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) (continued) ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 197 Table 6.4 The Gender Gap in Monthly Hours Worked from SPS02 (continued) Variables (A) (B) (C) (D) Skilled agricultural and fishery ­0.18 ­0.20 ­0.20 ­0.16 workers (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.04) Craft and related trades workers ­0.16 ­0.17 ­0.18 ­0.13 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Plant and machine operators and ­0.12 ­0.13 ­0.13 ­0.06 assemblers (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Elementary occupations ­0.24 ­0.25 ­0.25 ­0.17 (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.03) Constant 3.95 3.91 3.92 4.21 (0.04) (0.04) (0.05) (0.04) Correction for selection No No No Yes Source: Authors' compilation. Note: For each model, schooling corresponds to the declared schooling level for each individual in the sample. Specification (D) includes the same controls as (C) but is estimated including a correction for selection. The variables used in the first stage are number of children, mother's occupational situation, father's occupational situ- ation, and whether the individual grew up in a poor household. Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The baseline category is primary education. b. The baseline category is less than 10 years of experience. c. The baseline category is north (regions I to III). Central represents regions IV­VII (including the XIII region); south represents regions VIII­XII. d. The baseline category is public and private employees. e. The baseline category is administrative and managerial workers. The results indicate that males are 22 percentage points more likely to report employment (during the month previous to the date of the interview) than females when schooling and experience are excluded as controls. When schooling or schooling and experience are included as controls, the estimated gap is 14 percentage points. The gap is statisti- cally significant regardless of the specification. In summary, the results show that men dominate women in all labor market outcomes. Additionally, the results are robust across different speci- fications; only in the case of hours worked and after controlling for selection do we find neither sizable nor statistically significant gender differences. Up to this point, we have treated the individual's schooling decisions and accumulated experience as exogenous controls. However, these vari- ables can also be subject to gender differences. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 shed light on this point. The implications of separate analyses of schooling choices and accumulated experience for our previous results are left for 198 Table 6.5 The Gender Gap in Employment from SPS02 (A) (B) (C) Variables Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Male 0.67 0.22 0.42 0.14 0.41 0.14 (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) Backgrounda Number of children ­0.09 ­0.03 ­0.08 ­0.03 ­0.04 ­0.01 (0.02) (0.01) (0.02) (0.01) (0.02) (0.01) Age 0.02 0.01 ­0.03 ­0.01 ­0.04 ­0.01 (0.01) (0.00) (0.01) (0.00) (0.01) (0.00) Mother's occupation ­0.05 ­0.02 ­0.03 ­0.01 ­0.06 ­0.02 (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) Father's occupation ­0.27 ­0.08 ­0.21 ­0.07 ­0.13 ­0.04 (0.29) (0.08) (0.30) (0.09) (0.31) (0.09) Growing up in poverty ­0.24 ­0.08 ­0.27 ­0.09 ­0.14 ­0.05 (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) (0.05) (0.02) Schoolingb Secondary education 0.26 0.09 (0.07) (0.02) Some tertiary education 0.59 0.17 (0.08) (0.02) (continued) Table 6.5 The Gender Gap in Employment from SPS02 (continued) (A) (B) (C) Variables Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Complete tertiary education 1.22 0.27 (0.12) (0.01) Experiencec Between 10 and 15 years of 0.66 0.20 0.73 0.21 experience (0.06) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) More than 10 years of 0.88 0.26 1.04 0.29 experience (0.07) (0.02) (0.08) (0.02) Residenced Central ­0.08 ­0.03 ­0.09 ­0.03 ­0.06 ­0.02 (0.08) (0.03) (0.08) (0.03) (0.08) (0.03) South 0.22 0.07 0.24 0.08 0.24 0.08 (0.08) (0.03) (0.08) (0.03) (0.08) (0.03) Santiago 0.24 0.08 0.24 0.08 0.18 0.06 (0.06) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) Constant 0.03 1.25 0.91 (0.37) (0.40) (0.42) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. Mother's and Father's Education are dummy variables that take a value of one if the respective parent worked as a salaried worker and zero otherwise. 199 b. The baseline category is primary education. c. The baseline category is less than 10 years of experience. d. The baseline category is north (I to III regions). Central represents regions IV­VII (including region XIII); south represents regions VIII­XII. 200 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Table 6.6 The Gender Gap in Accumulated Experience from SPS02 Less than Between 10 and More than 10 yearsa 15 yearsa 15 yearsa Marginal Marginal Marginal Variablesb Coefficient effect Coefficient effect effect Male 1.11 ­0.40 1.92 0.11 0.29 (0.07) (0.02) (0.09) (0.02) (0.02) Secondary 0.26 ­0.04 ­0.08 0.09 ­0.04 education (0.11) (0.03) (0.12) (0.03) (0.02) Some college 0.08 0.04 ­0.61 0.08 ­0.13 (0.13) (0.04) (0.14) (0.03) (0.02) College graduate ­0.07 0.11 ­1.16 0.07 ­0.18 (0.16) (0.04) (0.19) (0.04) (0.02) Mother's years ­0.01 0.002 0.00 ­0.002 ­0.0003 of schooling (0.01) (0.003) (0.01) (0.003) (0.003) Father's years ­0.02 0.01 ­0.04 ­0.003 ­0.01 of schooling (0.01) (0.003) (0.01) (0.003) (0.003) Growing up in ­0.05 0.003 0.06 ­0.02 0.02 poverty (0.08) (0.02) (0.09) (0.02) (0.02) Growing up in ­0.15 0.01 0.16 ­0.06 0.05 broken home (0.17) (0.05) (0.21) (0.04) (0.03) Age 0.11 ­0.07 0.42 ­0.01 0.08 (0.01) (0.00) (0.01) (0.00) (0.00) Constant ­4.10 ­15.07 (0.40) (0.55) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The experience levels correspond to the accumulated experience declared during the interview. b. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical education (complete and incomplete). the next section, where they are discussed in the context of a more general framework than the one described here.8 We model accumulated experience using a discrete choice approach. Specifically, we assume that the observed level of experience is the result of a decision-making process involving three alternatives: less than 10 years of experience, between 10 and 15 years of experience, and more than 15 years of experience. This decision is assumed to depend on the schooling level of the individual as well as his or her family background (mother's and father's education, broken home, age, and growing up in poverty). Given this setup, Table 6.7 The Gender Gap in Schooling Decisions from SPS02 Primary Secondary Some postsecondary College school school education graduate Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal Variables effect Coefficient effect Coefficient effect Coefficient effect Male 0.04 ­0.30 ­0.02 ­0.33 ­0.02 ­0.30 ­0.004 (0.01) (0.08) (0.02) (0.09) (0.02) (0.10) (0.01) Mother's years of schooling ­0.02 0.08 ­0.01 0.15 0.02 0.17 0.01 (0.00) (0.02) (0.00) (0.02) (0.00) (0.02) (0.002) Father's years of schooling ­0.01 0.05 ­0.02 0.13 0.02 0.16 0.01 (0.00) (0.01) (0.00) (0.01) (0.00) (0.02) (0.002) Growing up in poverty 0.11 ­0.59 0.00 ­0.84 ­0.08 ­0.84 ­0.03 (0.01) (0.08) (0.02) (0.09) (0.02) (0.11) (0.01) Growing up in broken home ­0.09 0.43 0.00 0.83 0.11 0.34 ­0.01 (0.03) (0.17) (0.04) (0.21) (0.03) (0.23) (0.03) Age 0.004 ­0.03 ­0.002 ­0.04 ­0.004 ­0.01 0.003 (0.001) (0.01) (0.002) (0.01) (0.002) (0.01) (0.001) Constant 1.07 ­0.68 ­2.35 (0.40) (0.45) (0.52) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical education (complete and incomplete). 201 202 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa we compute the gender gap in accumulated experience by estimating a multinomial probit model. Table 6.6 presents the estimated coefficients and marginal effects. The estimates associated with the gender dummy are all significant and suggest that males are considerably more likely to report more experience than females. Specifically, males are 40 percentage points less likely to report less than 10 years of experience and 29 percentage points more likely to report more than 15 years of experience than females. Table 6.7 sheds light on the existence of a gender gap in schooling decisions. It presents the coefficients and marginal effects obtained from a multinomial model of schooling choice. The model is estimated using the maximum schooling levels reported by individuals in the sample. The schooling levels considered are primary school, secondary school, some postsecondary education, and complete tertiary education (college gradu- ates). The results show that (if anything) females are more likely than males to reach higher levels of schooling. The advantage of females over males in schooling achievement and attainment (initially suggested in table 6.1) is confirmed in table 6.8. This table presents the estimated gender gap for three variables measuring schooling performance: probability of grade retention during primary school, probability of grade retention during secondary school, and aver- age grades during secondary school. For each variable females consistently outperform males. Males are 7 and 4 percentage points more likely to repeat a grade during primary and secondary school, respectively, and males, on average, have significantly lower grades during high school than females (0.31 points of test's standard deviation). Therefore, the evidence presented in tables 6.7 and 6.8 leads us to conclude that females should be better prepared than males to enter the labor market. This also implies that, by not including gender differences in schooling variables, our previous results might underestimate the actual unexplained gender gap (or discrimination). We analyze this possibility by introducing a more general model in which schooling decisions, school- ing achievement, employment decisions, accumulated experience, hours worked, and hourly wages are modeled jointly. A Model of Schooling and Labor Market Outcomes under Unobserved Heterogeneity The model in this section follows the analysis in Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzúa (2006) and Urzúa (2008).9 These papers estimate economic models with multiple sources of unobserved heterogeneity (unobserved cognitive and noncognitive skills). Conditioned on observables, these unobserved factors account for all of the dependence across choices in the model. The results from these studies confirm that unobserved abilities play a crucial role in explaining a variety of labor market and behavioral outcomes. Table 6.8 The Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 Grade retention during Grade retention during Average score during primary school secondary school secondary schoola Variables Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Male 0.22 0.07 0.12 0.04 ­0.31 (0.05) (0.01) (0.05) (0.02) (0.04) Mother's educationb Secondary education ­0.06 ­0.02 0.02 0.01 0.05 (0.06) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) (0.04) Some tertiary education 0.14 0.04 ­0.06 ­0.02 0.11 (0.19) (0.06) (0.20) (0.06) (0.13) Complete tertiary education ­0.29 ­0.08 ­0.13 ­0.04 0.35 (0.22) (0.06) (0.20) (0.05) (0.13) Father's educationb Secondary education ­0.17 ­0.05 ­0.05 ­0.01 0.14 (0.06) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) (0.04) Some tertiary education ­0.51 ­0.13 ­0.29 ­0.08 0.23 (0.16) (0.03) (0.16) (0.04) (0.10) Complete tertiary education ­0.41 ­0.11 ­0.11 ­0.03 0.21 (0.16) (0.04) (0.15) (0.04) (0.10) (continued) 203 204 Table 6.8 The Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 (continued) Grade retention during Grade retention during Average score during primary school secondary school secondary schoola Variables Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Background Growing up in poverty 0.25 0.08 ­0.04 ­0.01 ­0.16 (0.05) (0.02) (0.06) (0.02) (0.04) Growing up in broken home ­0.38 ­0.13 0.04 0.01 0.10 (0.11) (0.04) (0.13) (0.04) (0.09) School characteristicsc Urban primary school ­0.20 ­0.07 0.02 (0.08) (0.03) (0.08) Urban secondary school 0.40 0.10 0.22 (0.24) (0.05) (0.16) Private-subsized primary school ­0.10 ­0.03 0.07 (0.07) (0.02) (0.06) Corporation ­ primary school ­0.45 ­0.12 0.22 (0.59) (0.12) (0.35) Private primary school ­0.27 ­0.08 0.09 (0.12) (0.03) (0.09) (continued) Table 6.8 The Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 (continued) Grade retention during Grade retention during Average score during primary school secondary school secondary schoola Variables Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Marginal effect Coefficient Private-subsized secondary school ­0.21 ­0.06 0.13 (0.06) (0.02) (0.05) Corporation ­ secondary school ­0.42 ­0.10 0.15 (0.26) (0.05) (0.17) Constant ­0.18 ­1.15 ­0.33 0.41 ­0.10 0.24 Private secondary school (0.13) (0.27) (0.17) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The average score is standardized to have mean 0 and variance 1 in the population. b. The baseline category is primary education. c. In the case of the dummies controlling for the type of school management the baseline category is public school. 205 206 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa In this chapter we postulate the existence of a single underlying source of unobserved heterogeneity. This is mainly due to data limitations. Spe- cifically, even though the SPS02 contains rich information on variables not previously available, it does not contain enough variables to allow the identification of multiple sources of unobserved heterogeneity.10 Conse- quently, we interpret our single source of unobserved heterogeneity as the combination of unobserved cognitive and noncognitive abilities.11 Let denote the unobserved heterogeneity or latent ability. This abil- ity is unobserved from the point of view of the econometrician, but each individual knows his or her ability level. We assume that this latent ability determines the individual's schooling and labor market outcomes and that there are no intrinsic differences between males and females regarding , so that we can work with an overall distribution of .12 The Model for Schooling Each agent chooses the level of schooling, among S possibilities, such that she maximizes her (net) utility. Let Is represent the net benefit associated with each schooling level s (s = {1, . . . , S}) and assume the following linear- in-the-parameters model for Is: Is = s Male + sXs + s + es for s = 1, . . . , S (6.3) where s represents the gender gap associated with schooling level s, Xs is a vector of observed variables determining schooling, s is the associated vector of parameters, s is the factor loading associated with latent ability, and es represents an idiosyncratic component assumed to be independent of and Xs. The individual components {es }S=1 are mutually independent. s All of the dependence across schooling choices comes through the observ- able, Xs, and the latent ability . The agent chooses the level of schooling with the highest benefit. Formally, s* = argmax {I s } (6.4) { s 1,..., S } where s* denotes the individual's chosen schooling level. Conditional on Xs (with s = 1, . . . , S) and , equations 6.3 and 6.4 can be interpreted as a standard discrete choice model. The Model for Accumulated Experience The model also treats accumulated experience as an endogenous outcome. Specifically, after solving for the optimal schooling level s, the agent is assumed to select her experience level a(s) among A different alternatives. Following our schooling model, we assume a linear-in-the-parameters ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 207 specification for the benefits associated with the experience level a given schooling level s (Ia(s)): Ia(s) = a(s) Male + a(s)Xa + a (s) + ea(s) for a(s) = 1, . . . , A and s = 1, . . . , S, (6.5) where a(s) is the gender gap, Xa is the vector of observed variables, a(s) is the associated vector of parameters, a(s) is the factor loading, and ea(s) represents an idiosyncratic component assumed to be independent of A and Xa. The individual components {ea( s ) }a =1 for any s are mutually inde- pendent. Finally, the observed experience level A*(s*), where s* represents the schooling level observed in the data, is obtained as follows: A (s ) = argmax {I a(s) }. (6.6) a(s*) {1,..., A} The Model for Hourly Wages and Monthly Hours Worked For hourly wages and monthly hours worked, we consider schooling- experience specific models. Consider first the model for wages. Denote by s and a(s) the levels of schooling and experience attained by the individual. Wages (Ya(s)) are modeled using a linear specification: ln Ya(s) = Y, a(s) Male + Y, a(s)XY + Y, a(s) + eY, a(s) for s = 1, . . . , S and a(s) = 1, . . . , A, (6.7) where Y, a(s) is the gender gap, XY is a vector of observed controls, Y, a(s) is the vector of coefficients, Y, a(s) is the coefficient associated with latent ability, and eY, a(s) represents an idiosyncratic error term such that eY, a(s) (, XY) for any a(s)(= 1, . . . ,A) and s(= 1, . . . , S). This error term is unknown from the point of both the econometrician and the agent. A parallel strategy is used to model hours worked. Let Ha(s) denote the monthly hours worked given schooling level s and experience level a(s). Thus we assume the following: ln Ha(s) = H, a(s) Male + H, a(s)XH + H, a(s) + eH, a(s) for s = 1, . . . , S and a(s) = 1, . . . , A, (6.8) where H, a(s) is the gender gap, XH is a vector of observed controls, H, a(s) is the vector of coefficients associated with XH, H, a(s) is the parameter asso- ciated with latent ability, and eH, a(s) represents an idiosyncratic error term such that eH, a(s) (, XH) for any a(s)(= 1, . . . , A) and s(= 1, . . . , S). As before, the agent and econometrician do not know the error term eH, a(s). 208 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa The Model for Employment Let IE, a(s) denote the net benefit associated with employment (versus the alternatives of unemployment or out of the labor force) given schooling level s and accumulated experience a(s). As in the previous cases, we assume a linear-in-the-parameters specification for IE, a(s): IE, a(s) = E, a(s) Male + E, a(s)XE + E, a(s) + eE, a(s) for s = 1, . . . , S and a(s) = 1, . . . , A, (6.9) where E, a(s), E, a(s), XE, E, a(s), and eE, a(s) are defined as before. Finally, the error term is such that eE, a(s) (, XE) for any a(s)(= 1, . . . , A) and s(= 1, . . . , S). We use equation 6.9 to model the employment decisions observed in the data. Specifically, if we let DE, a(s) denote a binary variable such that it is equal to 1 if the individual is employed and 0 otherwise, we estimate a binary model assuming that DE, a(s) = 1[IE, a(s) > 0], where 1[.] is (again) the indicator function. Schooling Performance: The Measurement System The identification of the model can be established using the arguments devel- oped in Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) and Hansen, Heckman, and Mullen (2004). The identification strategy assumes the existence of a set of measurements (variables not affected by the endogenous labor market outcomes and schooling choices). Let Ti (i = 1, . . . , n) denote the ith measure. We distinguish the unob- served ability from the observed ability measure Ti. This is important because Ti is likely to depend on the characteristics of the school as well as on the family background of the individual at the time of the test. Thus if XT denotes these characteristics, we have the following: Ti = Ti Male + Ti XT + Ti + eTi for i = 1, . . . , n, (6.10) where eTi (, XT ) and eTi eTj for any i, j {1, . . . , n} such that i j. Since there are no intrinsic units for latent ability, we need to normalize one of the loadings in the system to unity to set the scale of latent ability. Therefore, for some Ti (i = 1, . . . , n), we set Ti = 1. Our assumptions imply that, conditional on observables (variables contained in X), the dependence across all measurements, choices, and outcomes comes through the unobserved heterogeneity (). ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 209 Implementing the Model In summary, our empirical model with unobserved heterogeneity has the following ingredients: the schooling decision model; the linear models for hourly wages and monthly hours worked, by schooling level s and experience level a(s); the models for employment, by schooling level s and experience level a(s); the model for accumulated experience, by school- ing level; and finally, the system of measurements or school achievement. Unobserved heterogeneity appears as a determinant of each of these components. In this chapter, we assume that is distributed according to a two-component mixture of normals. Formally, + (1 - p) N , 2 2 pN 1 , (6.11) 1 2 2 With this assumption we allow a flexible functional form for the distri- bution of unobserved heterogeneity. We estimate the schooling choice model and the experience models using multinomial choice models. Thus we assume that the idiosyncratic shocks in the equations describing the net utilities are normally distrib- uted. The four final schooling levels considered in our analysis are primary school, secondary school (or high school), some postsecondary education, and complete tertiary education (or a college degree). For accumulated experience, we use the following categories: less than 10 years of experi- ence, between 10 and 15 years of experience, and more than 15 years of experience. In estimating the model, we use the schooling and experience level reported at the time of the interview.13 For the models of wages and hours worked, we use the information for the month previous to the interview. The same applies in the case of employment status. This is consistent with what we use to estimate the gender gap. The measurement system uses the following variables: average grade during secondary education, grade retention during primary education (dummy variable), and grade retention during secondary education (dummy variable). We normalize the mean of the factor to 0, and we normalize the loading to be equal to 1 in the equation for the average grade during sec- ondary education.14 Table 6.9, panels A and B, display the variables used in the empirical implementation of the model as well as the normalization ensuring the identification of the model. The model is estimated using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods. See Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzúa (2006) and Hansen, Heckman, and Mullen (2004) for a formal exposition of our identification and estimation strategies.15 210 Table 6.9A Variables in the Empirical Implementation of the Model Outcome Equations Monthly hours Accumulated Educational Variables Hourly wagea workeda Employmenta experienceb choice modelc Gender dummy Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region of residence Yes Yes Yes Growing up in broken home Yes Mother's education Yes Yes Father's education Yes Yes Growing up in poverty Yes Yes Age Yes Yes Yes Type of occupation Yes Yes Type of job Yes Yes Unobserved ability Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Source: Authors' compilation. Note: a. Hourly wages, monthly hours worked, and employment models are estimated for four different schooling categories (primary, secondary, some tertiary, and complete tertiary) and three different levels of accumulated experience (less than 10 years, between 10 and 15 years, and more than 15 years). In each case, the labor market outcome refers to the previous month individual's outcome. b. Accumulated experience is modeled with a multinomial choice model. The categories considered are less than 10 years, between 10 and 15 years, and more than 15 years. The level of accumulated experience is the total work experience reported at the time of the interview. c. The educational choice model is estimated considering four different categories: primary, secondary, some tertiary, and complete tertiary. ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 211 Table 6.9B Variables in the Empirical Implementation of the Model Auxiliary Measures Average grade Grade retention Grade retention in secondary in primary in secondary Variables education school school Primary school in an urban area (dummy) Yes Yes Secondary school in an urban area (dummy) Yes Yes Growing up in broken home Yes Yes Yes Mother's education Yes Yes Yes Father's education Yes Yes Yes Growing up in poverty Yes Yes Yes Primary school system (public, private, etc.) Yes Yes Secondary school system (public, private, etc.) Yes Yes Unobserved ability Yes Yes 1.0 Source: Authors' compilation. Main Results Table 6.10 presents the gender gap in hourly wages obtained from the model with unobserved heterogeneity. The estimated gaps are, in general, sizable and statistically significant. We do not observe clear patterns either by schooling or by experience levels, although we consistently estimate the largest gender gap among college graduates (regardless of the level of experience considered). In this group we estimate that males make between 36 and 38 percent more than women. These differences are larger than those presented above. But table 6.10 also presents a range for the gender gap in wages, which goes from ­6 percent (nonsignificant) for high school dropouts reporting less than 10 years of experience to 38 percent for college graduates reporting between 10 and 15 years of experience. In only two cases do we estimate a gender gap below 15 percent. Therefore, our evidence indicates the existence of wage differentials that cannot be explained by observed or unobserved characteristics. 212 Table 6.10 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hourly Wages, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between 10 More Less Between More than 10 and than than 10 and than than and than than 10 and than Variables 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years Male ­0.06 0.30 0.07 0.35 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.35 0.15 0.38 0.38 0.36 (0.29) (0.18) (0.14) (0.09) (0.06) (0.05) (0.08) (0.08) (0.10) (0.08) (0.15) (0.20) Employer or ­0.41 ­0.34 ­0.30 0.19 ­0.19 ­0.23 0.22 0.06 ­0.12 0.00 ­0.10 0.41 self-workerb (0.37) (0.15) (0.10) (0.11) (0.08) (0.06) (0.12) (0.14) (0.14) (0.15) (0.20) (0.39) Domestic serviceb ­0.52 0.18 ­0.27 ­0.11 ­0.13 0.16 0.08 ­1.44 ­0.11 (0.37) (0.24) (0.20) (0.16) (0.17) (0.17) (0.28) (0.61) (0.50) Professionalsc ­1.04 ­0.52 0.26 0.42 ­0.11 ­0.21 ­0.18 ­0.18 (0.63) (0.48) (0.22) (0.36) (0.29) (0.14) (0.24) (0.30) Technicians and associate professionals ­0.96 ­0.36 ­0.40 0.03 0.26 ­0.41 ­0.11 ­0.46 ­0.03 (0.28) (0.20) (0.15) (0.18) (0.25) (0.23) (0.18) (0.30) (0.35) Clerks ­0.83 ­1.22 ­0.48 ­0.43 ­0.38 ­0.11 ­0.53 ­0.55 ­0.79 ­0.56 Service workers and shop and market sales workers ­0.57 ­0.48 ­1.66 ­0.61 ­0.84 ­0.64 ­0.46 ­0.59 ­0.84 (continued) Table 6.10 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hourly Wages, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 (continued) High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between 10 More Less Between More than 10 and than than 10 and than than and than than 10 and than Variables 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 0.39 ­0.55 ­0.78 ­1.75 ­0.83 ­0.92 ­0.44 0.47 ­0.81 Craft and related trades workers 0.25 ­0.38 ­0.57 ­1.44 ­0.68 ­1.67 ­0.57 ­0.27 ­0.63 1.22 (0.60) (0.25) (0.18) (0.13) (0.19) (0.26) (0.24) (0.19) (0.39) (0.47) (0.34) (0.38) (0.28) (0.26) (0.17) (0.12) (0.22) (0.26) (0.25) (0.85) Plant and machine operators and assemblers 0.69 ­0.36 ­0.57 ­0.52 ­0.72 ­0.81 ­0.80 ­0.52 ­1.11 0.59 ­1.37 (0.48) (0.32) (0.25) (0.18) (0.13) (0.20) (0.26) (0.24) (0.52) (0.56) (0.40) (0.30) (0.26) (0.17) (0.12) (0.27) (0.27) (0.32) (0.69) (0.59) Elementary occupations 0.35 ­0.67 ­0.63 ­1.66 ­0.80 ­0.88 ­0.91 ­0.55 ­1.18 ­0.97 ­1.75 (0.57) (0.40) (0.29) (0.37) (0.24) (0.16) (0.63) (0.46) (0.38) (0.32) (0.38) (0.28) (0.26) (0.20) (0.13) (0.28) (0.30) (0.28) (0.38) (0.50) Central 0.48 ­0.11 ­0.13 ­0.29 ­0.21 ­0.15 ­0.05 ­0.19 0.11 ­0.13 0.38 ­0.58 (0.51) (0.22) (0.13) (0.12) (0.09) (0.07) (0.15) (0.15) (0.23) (0.17) (0.28) (0.38) (continued) 213 214 Table 6.10 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hourly Wages, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 (continued) High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between 10 More Less Between More than 10 and than than 10 and than than and than than 10 and than Variables 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years 10 years 15 years 15 years South 0.41 ­0.13 ­0.03 ­0.24 ­0.07 0.03 ­0.10 ­0.13 0.11 0.03 0.42 ­0.12 (0.43) (0.21) (0.14) (0.11) (0.09) (0.08) (0.13) (0.14) (0.23) (0.15) (0.27) (0.34) Santiago ­0.25 0.36 0.19 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.08 0.20 0.12 0.35 ­0.05 0.39 (0.35) (0.16) (0.11) (0.10) (0.07) (0.06) (0.11) (0.10) (0.13) (0.11) (0.19) (0.26) Intercept 5.56 7.04 7.04 8.10 7.36 7.37 7.28 7.12 7.52 8.07 7.98 8.80 (0.47) (0.51) (0.34) (0.27) (0.19) (0.13) (0.21) (0.30) (0.30) (0.25) (0.43) (0.55) Unobserved ­0.20 0.71 ­0.03 0.17 0.13 ­0.19 ­0.32 ­0.30 ­0.004 ­0.39 ­0.50 ­0.89 heterogeneity (0.13) (0.43) (0.07) (0.15) (0.11) (0.09) (0.15) (0.17) (0.20) (0.22) (0.39) (0.51) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The accumulated experience corresponds to the retrospective information reported by the individual at the time of the interview. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical education (complete and incomplete). b. For the characteristics of the type of job (employer or self-worker and domestic service), the baseline category is public and private employees. c. For the set of variables controlling for occupation characteristics (from professionals to elementary occupations in this table) the baseline category is administrative and managerial workers. ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 215 As in the case of wages, the results obtained for hours worked show a range of values for the gender gap. These are presented in table 6.11. The point estimates range between ­6 percent (high school dropouts with less than 10 years of experience) and 18 percent (high school dropouts with between 10 and 15 years of experience). In this case, however, less than half of the estimates are statistically significant. For example, among high school and college graduates, we do not find significant gender dif- ferences. This is consistent with the evidence presented in the section on conventional gender gap analysis, although the numbers in table 6.11 show a broader picture of the gender gap in hours worked. Table 6.12 presents the results for employment, with two main findings. First, in general we observe a reduction in the estimated gap when we move from low to high levels of experience (the only exception is for high school graduates). Second, the results suggest that schooling also helps to reduce the estimated gaps (there are only two exceptions in table 6.12). In fact, among college graduates, the estimated coefficients are -0.12 and -0.23 for experience levels between 10 and 15 years and more than 15 years, respec- tively, so the gap favors females in this case. As in the case of hours worked, only a few estimates are statistically significant, and, when significant, they are usually associated with low levels of schooling and experience.16 Table 6.13 presents the results obtained for the four multinomial choice models used to study accumulated experience. The evidence in table 6.13 shows how the gender gap diminishes with schooling. Specifically, the significant gender differences estimated for high school dropouts and high school graduates are 100 percent larger than those estimated among indi- viduals with some college. We do not find significant gender differences among college graduates. Our analysis of the gender gap in variables associated with the labor market leads us to conclude that (a) there are differences between males and females that cannot be explained with observable or unobservable characteristics and that, in general, (b) these differences are larger among individuals reporting low levels of schooling and almost vanish among individuals with more education.17 The model also allows us to analyze gender differences in schooling attain- ment and schooling achievement. It is worth recalling that females outper- form males in these two dimensions (tables 6.7 and 6.8). Tables 6.14 and 6.15 repeat the analysis incorporating unobserved heterogeneity (latent ability). Table 6.14 presents the gender gap in schooling decisions. The results show (again) that females are more likely than males to reach higher schooling levels. Compared with the results in table 6.7, the effects are now larger. Something similar is observed in the case of grade retention during primary school, grade retention during secondary school, and aver- age grades during high school. The results are shown in table 6.15. The evidence in this table suggests that females outperform males, the dif- ferences are statistically significant, and they are larger than the ones 216 Table 6.11 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hours Worked, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than Variables 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years Male ­0.06 0.18 0.14 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.17 0.12 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.08 (0.15) (0.13) (0.08) (0.07) (0.03) (0.03) (0.05) (0.04) (0.05) (0.06) (0.08) (0.10) Employer or ­0.01 ­0.12 ­0.17 ­0.53 ­0.06 ­0.16 ­0.24 ­0.31 ­0.22 ­0.09 ­0.02 ­0.07 self-workerb (0.18) (0.11) (0.06) (0.09) (0.04) (0.03) (0.08) (0.07) (0.07) (0.11) (0.10) (0.20) Domestic serviceb 0.18 ­0.09 0.08 ­0.25 0.00 ­0.18 0.07 ­0.75 ­0.09 (0.19) (0.18) (0.11) (0.14) (0.08) (0.09) (0.14) (0.30) (0.36) Professionalsc ­0.96 ­0.08 ­0.34 ­0.45 ­0.33 ­0.20 ­0.29 ­0.15 (0.55) (0.26) (0.15) (0.18) (0.15) (0.10) (0.13) (0.15) Technicians and associate professionals ­0.34 ­0.05 ­0.21 ­0.42 ­0.38 ­0.22 ­0.19 ­0.19 ­0.31 (0.24) (0.10) (0.08) (0.12) (0.12) (0.11) (0.13) (0.15) (0.17) Clerks 0.31 ­0.21 ­0.11 ­0.25 ­0.27 ­0.34 ­0.22 ­0.02 ­0.15 ­0.02 (0.17) (0.28) (0.18) (0.22) (0.08) (0.06) (0.15) (0.13) (0.12) (0.43) (0.34) (0.22) (0.09) (0.07) (0.13) (0.13) (0.12) (0.14) (0.19) (0.24) (continued) Table 6.11 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hours Worked, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 (continued) High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than Variables 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years Service workers and shop and market sales workers 0.36 ­0.27 ­0.11 ­0.11 ­0.23 ­0.38 ­0.31 ­0.28 ­0.02 0.00 (0.28) (0.30) (0.20) (0.23) (0.09) (0.06) (0.18) (0.13) (0.16) (0.36) (0.29) (0.36) (0.20) (0.21) (0.09) (0.07) (0.13) (0.13) (0.12) (0.28) (0.27) Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 0.01 ­0.10 ­0.09 ­0.31 ­0.06 ­0.22 0.11 ­0.29 ­0.09 (0.16) (0.28) (0.18) (0.22) (0.10) (0.07) (0.18) (0.15) (0.14) (0.26) (0.29) (0.29) (0.19) (0.30) (0.12) (0.09) (0.41) (0.23) (0.18) Craft and related trades workers ­0.11 0.07 ­0.06 ­0.23 ­0.05 ­0.23 ­0.27 ­0.33 ­0.09 0.38 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 0.06 0.03 ­0.08 ­0.09 ­0.02 ­0.16 ­0.06 ­0.25 ­0.43 ­0.06 0.02 Elementary occupations ­0.16 0.01 ­0.09 ­0.28 ­0.09 ­0.27 ­0.68 ­0.64 ­0.05 0.52 217 (continued) 218 Table 6.11 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Hours Worked, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experiencea from SPS02 (continued) High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduates Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than Variables 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years Central 0.05 ­0.07 0.05 ­0.04 ­0.02 ­0.02 0.13 ­0.05 ­0.12 ­0.07 ­0.26 ­0.20 (0.25) (0.16) (0.08) (0.10) (0.05) (0.04) (0.09) (0.07) (0.12) (0.12) (0.14) (0.20) South ­0.19 ­0.01 ­0.15 0.00 0.00 ­0.04 0.07 ­0.04 ­0.07 ­0.19 ­0.22 ­0.31 (0.22) (0.16) (0.08) (0.09) (0.04) (0.04) (0.09) (0.07) (0.12) (0.11) (0.14) (0.17) Santiago ­0.09 ­0.02 ­0.02 0.07 0.05 0.01 ­0.03 0.03 0.09 0.02 0.02 0.03 (0.17) (0.12) (0.06) (0.09) (0.04) (0.03) (0.07) (0.05) (0.07) (0.08) (0.10) (0.14) Intercept 4.35 3.54 4.01 3.91 3.85 4.05 3.92 4.17 4.06 3.90 4.04 4.05 (0.27) (0.37) (0.22) (0.22) (0.09) (0.07) (0.14) (0.14) (0.15) (0.17) (0.21) (0.27) Unobserved 0.40 ­0.39 0.23 ­0.15 0.01 0.03 0.18 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.17 -0.04 heterogeneity (0.13) (0.26) (0.06) (0.12) (0.05) (0.05) (0.10) (0.08) (0.10) (0.13) (0.17) (0.22) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. a. The accumulated experience corresponds to the retrospective information reported by the individual at the time of the interview. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical education (complete and incomplete). b. For the characteristics of the type of job (employer or self-worker and domestic service), the baseline category is public and private employees. c. For the set of variables controlling for occupation characteristics (from professionals to elementary occupations in this table) the baseline category is legislators, senior officials, and managers. Table 6.12 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Employment Status, by Schooling Level and Accumulated Experience from SPS02 High school dropoutsa High school graduates Some postsecondary education College graduatesb Less Between More Less Between More Less Between More Less Between than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 than than 10 and 15 Variables 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years 15 years 10 years years Male 1.40 0.35 ­0.10 0.98 0.30 0.34 0.80 0.36 0.18 ­0.12 ­0.23 (0.54) (0.35) (0.35) (0.14) (0.12) (0.13) (0.14) (0.20) (0.24) (0.25) (0.47) Central ­0.17 ­0.09 0.00 0.03 0.42 0.42 ­0.39 (0.17) (0.21) (0.22) (0.23) (0.32) (0.48) (0.61) South 0.16 0.05 ­0.06 0.29 1.17 1.45 ­0.36 (0.17) (0.20) (0.22) (0.23) (0.37) (0.62) (0.59) Santiago 0.17 0.27 0.10 ­0.06 0.20 0.10 ­0.19 (0.14) (0.16) (0.16) (0.18) (0.26) (0.33) (0.33) Number of 0.09 0.04 0.11 ­0.11 ­0.07 ­0.07 ­0.04 ­0.03 0.01 0.14 0.17 children (0.10) (0.13) (0.10) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.07) (0.09) (0.10) (0.13) (0.21) Intercept ­2.20 ­0.26 0.13 ­0.08 0.62 0.79 0.06 0.40 0.38 1.13 3.16 (1.17) (0.54) (0.61) (0.17) (0.20) (0.23) (0.21) (0.29) (0.44) (0.72) (2.09) Unobserved ­1.65 ­1.63 ­1.64 0.37 0.21 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.22 0.59 ­1.69 heterogeneity (1.35) (1.27) (1.62) (0.22) (0.27) (0.25) (0.29) (0.44) (0.54) (0.70) (1.81) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. The accumulated experience corresponds to the retrospective information reported by the individual at the time of the interview. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical edu- cation (complete and incomplete). 219 a. Among high school dropouts, the characteristics of the place of residence perfectly predict the labor status, so those variables are excluded in these cases. b. For the group of individuals reporting more than 15 years of experience and a college degree, the gender dummy perfectly predicts the labor status: the 29 women in these category reported to be working (34 out of 37 males report to be working). Since the gender coefficient is the main interest of this table we do not include this model here. 220 Table 6.13 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Accumulated Experience, by Schooling Level from SPS02 High school dropouts High school graduates Some postsecondary College graduates Between 10 Between 10 Between 10 Between 10 and More than and More than and More than and More than Variables 15 years 15 years 15 years 15 years 15 years 15 years 15 years 15 years Male 1.47 2.95 1.48 2.50 0.75 1.02 0.14 0.41 (0.23) (0.24) (0.12) (0.15) (0.14) (0.21) (0.28) (0.42) Mother's years 0.04 ­0.02 0.03 0.03 ­0.01 0.05 ­0.04 ­0.11 of schooling (0.05) (0.05) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.04) (0.06) (0.09) Father's years ­0.04 0.00 0.00 ­0.02 ­0.02 0.00 0.09 ­0.06 of schooling (0.05) (0.04) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.04) (0.06) (0.10) Growing up ­0.21 ­0.03 ­0.16 ­0.14 0.02 0.25 ­0.30 0.79 in poverty (0.24) (0.22) (0.12) (0.14) (0.19) (0.26) (0.42) (0.69) Age ­0.05 0.26 0.11 0.46 0.20 0.61 0.39 0.78 (0.03) (0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) (0.06) (0.06) (0.11) Intercept 1.37 ­10.45 ­4.22 ­17.06 ­6.98 ­22.97 ­16.69 ­25.84 (1.29) (1.21) (0.64) (0.97) (1.00) (2.73) (3.54) (4.42) Unobserved 1.19 ­0.20 1.23 1.57 0.53 2.09 2.95 ­1.71 heterogeneity (0.74) (0.17) (0.28) (0.36) (0.45) (0.96) (1.55) (3.10) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. The accumulated experience corresponds to the retrospective information reported by the individual at the time of the interview. The table presents the results for three multinomial choice models (each for each schooling level). The baseline category is less than 10 years of accumulated experience. ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 221 Table 6.14 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Schooling Decisions from SPS02 Secondary Some College Variables school postsecondary graduates Male ­0.47 ­0.55 ­0.61 (0.11) (0.13) (0.30) Mother's years of 0.13 0.23 0.41 schooling (0.02) (0.03) (0.06) Father's years of 0.09 0.21 0.44 schooling (0.02) (0.02) (0.07) Growing up in poverty ­0.03 ­0.03 0.08 (0.01) (0.02) (0.04) Growing up in broken 0.53 1.02 0.46 home (0.22) (0.30) (0.71) Age ­0.81 ­1.25 ­2.20 (0.11) (0.15) (0.46) Intercept 1.10 ­1.66 ­12.93 (0.51) (0.64) (2.99) Unobserved heterogeneity 1.90 3.52 10.90 (0.38) (0.48) (1.96) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. The schooling level corresponds to the schooling level declared in the sample. Postsecondary education includes technical education (complete and incomplete). The baseline category is primary school. presented in table 6.8. Specifically, when comparing the estimated gender gap across tables, we obtain 18 percent (0.26 versus 0.22) and 41 percent (0.17 versus 0.12) increments in the gender coefficient associated with grade retention during primary school and with grade retention during secondary school, respectively. In the case of average grade during second- ary school, we obtain an increment of 6.4 percent in the gender gap (0.33 versus 0.31). Can Unobserved Heterogeneity Explain the Gender Gap in the Labor Market? Our results indicate that, after controlling for unobserved heterogeneity, there are nonsignificant gender differences in a variety of labor market variables among educated individuals (for example, hours worked, accu- mulated experience, employment), but we still find gender differences Table 6.15 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 222 Grade retention in Grade retention in Average score during Variablesa primary school secondary school secondary schoolb Male 0.26 0.17 ­0.33 (0.05) (0.06) (0.04) Mother: secondary education ­0.08 ­0.04 0.10 (0.07) (0.07) (0.04) Mother: some tertiary education 0.06 ­0.20 0.23 (0.21) (0.22) (0.12) Mother: complete tertiary education ­0.30 ­0.18 0.38 (0.25) (0.23) (0.12) Father: secondary education ­0.20 ­0.12 0.20 (0.06) (0.07) (0.04) Father: some tertiary education ­0.61 ­0.44 0.30 (0.18) (0.18) (0.10) Father: complete tertiary education ­0.40 ­0.17 0.24 (0.17) (0.17) (0.09) Growing up in poverty 0.28 0.04 ­0.23 (0.06) (0.07) (0.04) Growing up in broken home ­0.09 0.45 0.01 (0.08) (0.26) (0.08) Urban primary school ­0.40 0.13 (0.12) (0.09) (continued) Table 6.15 Model with Essential Heterogeneity Gender Gap in Schooling Achievement from SPS02 (continued) Grade retention in Grade retention in Average score during Variablesa primary school secondary school secondary schoolb Urban secondary school 0.01 0.19 (0.16) (0.14) Private-subsized primary school 0.00 ­0.01 (0.08) (0.05) Corporation ­ primary school ­0.57 0.26 (0.68) (0.32) Private primary school ­0.11 ­0.06 (0.13) (0.08) Private-subsized secondary school ­0.20 0.12 (0.07) (0.05) Corporation ­ secondary school ­0.47 0.16 (0.28) (0.15) Private secondary school ­0.28 0.17 (0.14) (0.09) Intercept ­0.36 ­1.17 ­0.40 (0.14) (0.30) (0.16) Unobserved heterogeneity ­0.98 ­1.22 1.00 (0.09) (0.12) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Standard errors are presented in parentheses. 223 a. In the case of mother's and father's education the baseline category is primary education. In the case of the dummies controlling for the type of management the baseline category is public school. b. The average score is standardized to have mean 0 and variance 1 in the population. 224 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa among the other schooling groups. These differences can, in principle, be interpreted as "pure" discrimination. However, this interpretation requires several qualifications. First, our empirical strategy assumes that a one-dimensional model of unobserved heterogeneity is sufficient to capture and control for selection (endogeneity) across different decisions. Nevertheless, previous studies have shown the existence of at least two underlying sources of unob- served heterogeneity when explaining labor market outcomes and social behavior.18 In this context, our one-dimensional model may capture only some of the unobserved heterogeneity in the data. The consequences of incorporating additional sources of essential heterogeneity for our results are hard to predict. In this context, we cannot discard the possibility that what we interpret as "unexplained gaps" can be in fact explained by, for example, heterogeneity in other unobserved traits (self-esteem or locus of control) or preferences (preferences for leisure).19 Second, and following up on the previous point, the coefficients associ- ated with what we identify as unobserved heterogeneity are not always significant in our results. The strongest effect of unobserved heterogeneity is obtained for the schooling variables (tables 6.14 and 6.15) and for accumu- lated experience (table 6.13). Although the effects are sizable for the other outcomes, they are usually not statistically significant. This suggests that our source of unobserved heterogeneity is more closely related to scholastic abil- ity, which apparently is not significantly valued in the Chilean labor market after schooling and experience levels are taken into account. Nevertheless, there might be other sources of unobserved heterogeneity that are indeed priced in the labor market. This again illustrates the potential benefits of extending the model to multiple dimensions of unobserved heterogeneity. Another consideration regarding the interpretation of our results is whether they are robust to the assumption of a unique distribution of unobserved heterogeneity in the sample. The consequences of allowing gender-specific distributions on our previous results are (again) hard to predict, but we believe that the complications of such an extension would most likely dominate any potential new insights; this is because the identi- fication of gender-specific distribution has additional complications, and it relies on even stronger assumptions than the one already made.20 Besides, from an intuitive point of view, we do not find a priori deep reasons to believe that there are gender differences in the distribution of unobserved heterogeneity. As a result, we leave the estimation of gender-specific dis- tribution for future research. Conclusions In this chapter, we present a comprehensive analysis of the gender gap in a variety of labor market outcomes for Chile. The analysis is carried out ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 225 using two different approaches. The first approach follows the literature by estimating linear and nonlinear models of a variety of variables on dif- ferent observable controls and the gender dummy. This approach does not pay attention to potential selection problems (endogeneity). The second approach is more general. It allows for the presence of individuals' unob- served heterogeneity that is assumed to be the cause of the endogeneity problems in the conventional approach. Our main results are robust across the approaches. They suggest the existence of a gender gap in labor market variables that cannot be explained by observable or unobservable characteristics or by underlying selection mechanisms that generate endogeneity. Nevertheless, the findings from the model with unobserved heterogeneity indicate that the gender gap critically depends on individuals' human capital (schooling level). This is particularly important among college graduates. For this group, gender differences are in general not statistically significant. The evidence also demonstrates that females outperform males in schooling achievement and schooling performance. This is observed regardless of the approach, but we find the stronger effects in the model with unobserved heterogeneity. The gender differences favoring women represent an argument against the conventional idea that labor market differences can be interpreted as the result of gender differences in human capital. Overall, the estimates in this chapter could lead us to conclude that women are effectively discriminated against in the labor market, with the largest gender gap observed among the less educated groups. However, we prefer to interpret our results cautiously. We believe that the availability of better data and the estimation of even more general models than the one considered here could indeed explain some of the unexplained estimated gender gap. Notes 1. Chapter 5 in this volume uses an experimental design for the analysis of gender differences in the labor market. 2. The information comes from the Social Protection Survey 2002 of Chile (SPS02), which is the source of information used in this chapter. 3. Our sample is obtained after considering the following exclusions. We first exclude the military sample (57 individuals) and individuals reporting as occupa- tion "family member without salary" (12 individuals). Then we exclude individu- als 27 years old or younger and 41 years old or older. This reduces the sample from 17,177 to 5,439. Finally, individuals with missing values in any of the following variables are excluded: years of education, mother's education, father's educa- tion, growing up in poverty, and growing up in a single-parent household. This exclusion reduces the sample to the final 3,566 individuals. The final exclusion is required because, for each individual, we need to have valid values for the controls entered in the schooling decision model presented later in the chapter. 226 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa 4. A more general analysis of schooling decisions would require a dynamic model for schooling choices. The SPS02 does not allow us to carry out such an analysis. 5. The conventional approach is typically based on the analysis in Oaxaca (1973) and Blinder (1973). 6. Our data contain reported labor market experience, as individuals were asked about their labor market history. Therefore, our results use real, not poten- tial, experience. 7. The marginal effects are computed at the mean values of the variables in the model. 8. This is particularly important if we consider that schooling decisions and accumulated experience are probably endogenous variables in the context of the models presented in tables 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5. The model presented in the next sec- tion deals with this endogeneity. 9. Our approach also shares some of the features of the empirical model proposed by Bourguignon, Ferreira, and Lustig (1998) and Ferreira and Paes de Barro (1999). However, we relax some of the assumptions imposed by them, such as no selection based on unobserved components and specific assumptions on the distributions of the error terms. 10. See Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) for a detailed discussion of identification arguments in the context of models with unobserved heterogeneity. 11. We expect to extend our model to a multifactor model in which we can precisely distinguish between cognitive and noncognitive abilities. 12. The alternative would have been to estimate gender-specific distributions. We consider this an attractive possibility. However, given the data limitations (sam- ple size) and the large number of parameters in the model, we prefer to follow a simple analysis by considering an overall distribution for . Future research should consider the potential differences in unobserved heterogeneity between males and females. The agents in our model not only know their own ability level but also know all of the parameters affecting future outcomes. The agents, however, do not have perfect information, since they do not know the idiosyncratic shocks affecting labor market outcomes. 13. In the case of experience, we use the retrospective information provided by the respondent. The labor history is reported from age 15 or since 1980, depending on the year in which the individual turned 15. 14. The variables included in the measurement system are self-reported. A valid concern in this context is the presence of nonclassical measurement. Our approach deals with this statistical problem, since we explicitly allow the unobserved com- ponent in the equations for average grade during secondary education and grade retention during primary and secondary education to be determined by unobserved variables correlated with the other components of the model. 15. The estimation is carried out using a Gibbs sampling algorithm. See Robert and Casella (1999) for details. 16. For the group of individuals reporting more than 15 years of experience and a college degree, the gender dummy perfectly predicts labor status: the 29 women in this category reported a job during the week prior to the interview. These coefficients are the point estimates of the parameters associated with the gender dummy variable; they need to be interpreted cautiously since they do not represent the marginal effects. 17. The only exception to this point, and an important one, comes from the analysis of hourly wages. 18. See Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzúa (2006), and Urzúa (2008). 19. The assumption of a single source of unobserved heterogeneity can be relaxed depending on the availability of more comprehensive information at the ability, schooling choices, and gender discrimination 227 individual level. The need for better and more comprehensive information comes from the identification argument of the models. Recall that the source of unob- served heterogeneity in this chapter is identified using the schooling achievement variable. In order to identify additional sources of heterogeneity, we would need additional variables in the measurement system. The availability of information on personality traits, IQ tests, or time preferences could allow the identification and estimation of more general models of unobserved heterogeneity. See Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) for details. 20. Specifically, even though we can ensure the identification of gender-specific variance-covariance matrixes, the identification of gender-specific mean differ- ences in the distribution of unobserved heterogeneity would require the existence of at least one discrimination-free variable. The selection and existence of such variable(s) are arguably nontrivial as well. See Urzúa (2008) for details. References Altonji, Joseph, and Rebecca Blank. 1999. "Race and Gender in the Labor Mar- ket." In Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3C, ed. Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, 3143­259. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, North-Holland. Blinder, Alan. 1973. "Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Esti- mates." Journal of Human Resources 7 (4): 436­55. Bourguignon, François, Francisco Ferreira, and Nora Lustig. 1998. "The Micro- economics of Income Distribution Dynamics in East Asia and Latin America." World Bank research proposal (April), World Bank, Washington, DC. 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In Structural Analysis of Discrete Data with Econometric Applications, ed. Charles Manski and Dan- iel McFadden. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Heckman, James, Jora Stixrud, and Sergio Urzúa. 2006. "The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior." Journal of Labor Economics 24 (3): 411­82. Montenegro, Claudio. 1999. "Wage Distribution in Chile: Does Gender Matter? A Quantile Regression Approach." Unpublished mss., Universidad de Chile, Santiago. 228 bravo, sanhueza, and urzúa Montenegro, Claudio, and Ricardo Paredes. 1999. "Gender Wage Gap and Dis- crimination: A Long-Term View Using Quantile Regression." Unpublished mss., Universidad de Chile, Santiago. Núñez, Javier, and Roberto Gutiérrez. 2004. "Classism, Discrimination, and Meri- tocracy in the Labor Market: The Case of Chile." Documento de Trabajo 208, Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Economía, Santiago. Oaxaca, Ronald. 1973. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Mar- kets." International Economic Review 14 (3): 693­709. Paredes, Ricardo, and Luis Riveros. 1994. "Gender Wage Gaps in Chile: A Long- Term View: 1958­1990." Estudios de Economía 21 (número especial). Robert, Christian, and George Casella. 1999. Monte Carlo Statistical Methods. New York: Springer-Verlag. Urzúa, Sergio. 2008. "Racial Labor Market Gaps: The Role of Abilities and Schooling Choices." Journal of Human Resources 43 (4): 919­71. 7 What Emigration Leaves Behind: The Situation of Emigrants and Their Families in Ecuador Ximena Soruco, Giorgina Piani, and Máximo Rossi This chapter seeks to identify, analyze, and measure discrimination against international emigrants and their families in southern Ecuador (specifi- cally, the city of Cuenca and the rural canton of San Fernando). Up to now, the literature has focused primarily on analyzing the migrants' situation in the receiving countries (mainly the United States and Spain); less effort has been made to produce scientific knowledge on the effects of the phenom- enon in the migrants' home country. Moreover, studies addressing the local effects of international emigration have emphasized its causes, develop- ment, and consequences for the national economy; discrimination against emigrants' families who are residing in their home country is largely absent from the academic and public discussion. Since 1999 the diaspora has constituted Ecuador's second most impor- tant source of income, after oil, and yet emigrants and their families are fre- quently discriminated against. The recently coined term "resident" refers to the sons, daughters, and parents of emigrants. They are often portrayed as "problematic people," likely to be engaged in criminal activities, with a low educational profile, and an unlikely future within the country. This chapter seeks to open up the discussion on discrimination against emigrants and their families in Ecuador and to devise a social and cultural Ximena Soruco is with the Fundación Sur (Cuenca, Ecuador), and Giorgina Piani and Máximo Rossi are with the Departamento de Economía, Universidad de la República Oriental del Uruguay. 229 230 soruco, piani, and rossi approach to understanding discrimination. It is organized as follows. The first section presents the context for international migration from Ecua- dor, the second presents the theoretical framework, and the third describes the methodology. This is followed by sections on the qualitative and quan- titative results. A final section concludes. The Context The Ecuadorian people have a long history of spatial displacement, brought about by economic need and political crisis. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Ecuador experienced internal migration, both temporary and permanent, such as the migration from Cuenca's valley to Guayaquil (the country's main port and most industrial city) and to Quito, Ecuador's capital city. International migration is a relatively new phenomenon, start- ing in the 1970s in the south, the region addressed in this chapter. Since then, social networks have been created between Cuenca and the United States as well as between Cuenca and Spain, as Ecuadorian emigration has accelerated. Only in 1999 did emigration become a nationwide phenom- enon and a subject of public opinion, increasing 250 percent. Between 2000 and 2005 more than a million people left the country, and an estimated 3 million Ecuadorians are now living and working abroad (Acosta 2005). The main cause of this rise is the financial crisis that culminated in 2000 in the bankruptcy of the banking system and the dollarization of the national economy (Acosta 2005, 3; Ramírez and Ramírez 2005, 70). As international emigration has skyrocketed, Ecuador's public social investment has grown slowly. In 1991 remittances totaled US$109 million, while social spending reached US$513 million. By 2001 these figures had moved in opposite directions: remittances soared to US$1.4 billion, while social spending grew slightly to US$685 million (Ramírez and Ramírez 2005, 77). In 2001 remittances were more than double the amount of social spending, nearly 10 times the amount of economic aid, and 5 times the International Monetary Fund's credit for that year. According to an Inter- American Development Bank communication, "The most efficient means to combat poverty in Latin America does not come from governments or international cooperation but from emigrants' remittances" (Ramírez and Ramírez 2005, translated by the authors). Most rural emigrants enter the host country illegally. Those wishing to enter the United States pay a coyote between US$10,000 and US$14,000 to organize the illegal entrance. If the individual succeeds in entering the host country, he will work at least two years just to pay back the debt and release the mortgage on the family's land. Once this amount has been paid, the emigrant will begin to save money to send to the family. Thus for at least two years the new head of the household (usually the wife and mother) will have to support the family. The emigrant will not be able to return to Ecuador until his legal status has been regularized. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 231 Theoretical Framework At times of profound world market integration, postcolonial societies inten- sify their colonial forms of distinction (mainly race) to avoid becoming meritocratic, fully modern societies in which individual merit serves as the basis for social mobility. As Balibar and Wallerstein (1992) point out, race and gender are central categories in the world division of labor. Discrimina- tion against international emigrants, as in Ecuador, must be contextualized in the current geopolitical division of labor (Quijano 2000). This chapter analyzes discrimination as a social and cultural con- struction that encompasses visible, measurable behaviors (face-to-face or institutional discrimination) that affect the society as a whole. Areas of particular importance include social hierarchy, channels of mobility, collective social imagery, individual and group identities, and long- term expectations. In practical terms, discrimination encompasses social investment (for example, education, health, and rural and agri- cultural development) and incentives for certain types of production (for example, agroindustrial business instead of small-scale subsistence production). We understand discrimination as a "social construction," meaning a product of human practices. Developed by the school of sociological phe- nomenology (Berger and Luckmann 2001), this approach privileges "com- mon sense." Perception is the first constitutive moment of reality and of the social. This common sense becomes materialized or institutionalized over time, acquiring a structure independent of individual perceptions. Social constructions are not only subjective perceptions but also objective social conditions, cultural values, or concrete historical contexts. By this we mean "social dispositions" that are internalized and therefore condi- tioned practices, such as discrimination. This does not mean that social dispositions determine individual behav- iors; the social is not a world of fixed and immutable laws, but a space of interactions between subjects, the specific situation of the action, and the subjects' context (structures, social representations, history). As Bourdieu (1999) states, there is a "conditioned freedom." Social interactions, conducted in a setting of social dispositions and individual freedom, are also based on power relationships. This point of view allows us to consider conflict at the level of face-to-face interactions. According to Foucault (1994, 125­26; authors' translation), In human relationships, being whatever they might be--verbal communication, loving, institutional, economic relationships-- power is always present. I mean, any relationship where one tries to direct somebody else's behavior. . . . These power relationships are mobile, they can be modified, they are not determined once and for all. 232 soruco, piani, and rossi Thus discrimination is a social interaction that depends on an individual's perceptions. These perceptions are not "transparent" or natural. Instead, they are conditioned by what the individual has learned (internalized struc- ture) about emigrants and how this new category ("resident," illegal) is related to old meanings (indigenous, uneducated, rural). These dispositions condition, but do not determine, the (discriminatory) interaction. Individual freedom and the specificity of the situation (where it takes places, between whom, in which power balance, and for what purpose) materialize the interaction. These subjective and objective aspects configure the discriminatory interaction. To analyze discrimination as a matter of individual choice, guided by rational actions, denies its social and cultural dimensions or at least reduces it to a homogeneous, universal social scenario. Liberal economics presupposes that human behavior is guided by ratio- nal intentions. By nature, humans are seen as acting according to a rational calculus of means and ends. Human actions are thus defined as the result of rational decisions based on the knowledge and resources available and on selfish or altruistic motivations. As the accumulation of internalized rep- resentations in the individual and in the context of the interaction (power relationships, intersubjectivity, social meanings), history is excluded from the analysis, and with it the possibility of understanding social settings that promote or restrain discriminatory behaviors. Thus the liberal economic framework tends to homogenize the social or cultural realm. "Homo eco- nomicus," the individual acting on means-ends rationality, is not a natural entity, but rather the product of the specific historical context of modernity and capitalism. The disciplines of anthropology and history have shown that, in other cultural settings, human beings act according to other rationalities (social prestige, symbolic interchange, the community over the individual). To understand discrimination in Latin America, we need to consider that modernity and capitalism are not completed processes. We therefore seek to complement the approach taken by mainstream economists. Phenomena such as "statistical discrimination" (defined as a result of an information problem on the basis of appearance), discrimi- nation based only on individuals' preferences (taste), and self-exclusion (self-imposed discrimination), although manifested by individual behaviors, preferences, and rationalities, are socially and culturally conditioned. Methodology To address the questions posed in this chapter, we crafted a methodology of qualitative and quantitative design. Specifically, we sought to obtain quan- titative and qualitative information to identify, characterize, and measure the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 233 discrimination against emigrants. We conducted 20 in-depth interviews in San Fernando (a rural area) and collected pertinent news from the most important newspapers, one local and one national. We also conducted two surveys, one in Cuenca and one in San Fernando, to measure perceptions and behaviors toward international emigrants. The annex to this chapter presents details of the methodology. The rest of the chapter describes and analyzes the main results of this research. Qualitative Results and Analysis Qualitative methods consist of in-depth interviews and secondary sources of information as well as the analysis of media content. We deal with each in turn. In-Depth Interviews and Secondary Sources of Information We conducted 20 in-depth interviews in the rural town of San Fernando. According to the last census, 434 people (305 men and 129 women) had emigrated from San Fernando at the date of the interview, most of them between the ages of 17 and 27 years (INEE 2001). This means that 11 percent of the population of San Fernando left their hometown in search of better conditions in other cities of the country or abroad. In the last decade, San Fernando's main productive activity has shifted from agriculture to animal husbandry, which requires fewer workers than traditional agriculture and offers daily income to peasants who sell milk to local traders. Emigration, remittances, and new cultural pat- terns, along with stockbreeding activity, have tended to individualize the peasant community. This shift is reflected in, among other things, the preference for paid employment and commerce over traditional com- munal activities. According to a study by Bendicen and Associates (2003), Ecuadorian emigrants working abroad send home about US$1.5 billion monthly, or approximately to US$176 per household. According to our research in San Fernando, 46 percent of those who receive remittances do so on a monthly basis, and another 27 percent receive remittance income every two or three months. When asked about the destination of this money, 61 percent of the respondents said they use it to pay for living expenses, 17 percent use it for some kind of luxury good or activity, 8 percent use it to invest in business, 8 percent use it for savings, 4 percent use it to invest in real estate, and 2 percent use it to pay educational expenses. Interviewees said that the local economy improved significantly follow- ing the economic crisis of 2000 and the change in currency from sucres to dollars. 234 soruco, piani, and rossi Figure 7.1 Percent of Households That Receive Remittances, by Monthly Income 3% 1% 19% 26% Less than $250 $250­$500 $500­$1,500 $1,500­$2,500 More than $2,500 51% Source: Bendicen and Associates 2003, 13. Perception of the economic situation. When discussing San Fernando's economic situation, interviewees frequently mentioned the dollarization of the economy in 2000 and international emigration. After dollarization, real estate prices rose significantly, while prices of cattle and farm products decreased. Some interviewees said that, before dollarization, it was possible to buy a ranch with the money obtained from selling a few head of cattle. They could also sell small animals (chickens, pigs, guinea pigs) to buy daily supplies like food and clothing. Before dollarization, remittances allowed recipients to increase their purchasing power by exchanging incoming dollars for sucres. Emigrants could quickly pay their debts to local moneylenders (chulqueros) as well as buy lands and build new dwellings for their family. Nowadays, the number of families who lose their lands because they are not able to pay the loans to moneylenders is growing rapidly. As one interviewee stated, "When I was single, I had quite a lot of cattle, thanks to my parents' inheritance. After I got married, I also had enough cattle, but my children grew up, and they decided to emigrate; that was when I lost everything I had to the chulqueros."1 In 1990 San Fernando, formerly a parish, became a canton; since then, the town's infrastructure development has been remarkable. The national government is responsible for much of this improvement, but emigrants' contributions have been critical as well. In fact, it is common practice for emigrants to donate money to build or repair churches and sporting facili- ties and to pay for community religious celebrations. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 235 At the same time, emigration has produced a new socioeconomic hier- archy. Although almost everyone in San Fernando has at least one relative who is an emigrant, noticeable differences exist between households that directly receive remittances (immediate relatives) and those that do not. Consequently, having an emigrant parent, sibling, or child places a house- hold in a favorable socioeconomic situation relative to others. The amount of time since emigration and legal status in the receiving country are also important variables to be considered. People who emigrated more than five years ago usually enjoy resident status in their host country or at least are able to pay their travel debts; many have built a house in San Fernando or Cuenca. After these two expenses are covered, the emigrant's family is free to invest in land, cattle, and other economic activities (public transportation, grocery stores, cloth- ing stores, restaurants, moneylending); sometimes they also invest in the emigration of another family member. If the emigrant has legal status in the host country, he or she can also visit the family in Ecuador and use his or her accumulated "cultural capital" to open a business or move the family to the nearest big city (Cuenca). People who emigrated less than two years ago constitute a second group. Their families are not only in less favorable conditions than families in the first group, but they also are more vulnerable than families with no emi- grants. In order to undertake the "migratory adventure," the individual asks the family for support. According to interviewees, once contacts are made, the potential emigrant will need between US$10,000 and US$14,000, an amount that is increasing due to additional border controls and tougher immigration regulations in the United States and Europe. To obtain that sum of money, the families ask moneylenders for loans, mortgaging their land and paying interest of approximately 6.5 percent a month. Once the emigrant obtains a loan, he or she begins the trip, which if suc- cessful, could take up to two months. But many emigrants are caught and then deported; they still need to pay half of the loan to the moneylenders and coyotes, leaving the family to pay the debt and interest generated by the unsuccessful adventure. When the emigrant reaches his or her final destination (sometimes after one or more unsuccessful attempts), he or she will save for one or two years in order to pay the mortgage on the family's lands. Once this step has been completed, residents will start to receive remittance income. With many households receiving remittances, San Fernando's inhabit- ants evaluate their local economy in a positive way. Interviewees made statements such as "Everybody has enough money; because relatives send money from abroad. There is almost no poverty here. Everybody has lands, cattle, and a place to sow. We are all more or less well off," or "Many people have become rich because of emigration." Families who do not receive money from emigrants offered a contrasting point of view: "Here, people believe that because some have emigrated 236 soruco, piani, and rossi to the United States, we all are wealthy. That is why local traders and merchants ask the highest prices, but we do not have money [and we buy in Cuenca]." According to our interviews and quantitative data (INEE 1997, 2001; Municipio de San Fernando 2005), San Fernando is far from wealthy. Nonetheless, remittances have served to (a) alleviate poverty by supporting families' expenses for food, housing, health, and education and to (b) deepen the social hierarchy, as only the families of emigrants are able to accumulate capital, buy land, and expand their cattle or farming business. Investment of remittances. After paying their debts, "residents" of San Fernando generally use their remittances to pay for housing and daily goods, productive investment, the migration of other family members, and education. The first investment is generally to build a new dwelling. When plan- ning to construct a new house, emigrants usually send a picture of an American or European house they would like to have reproduced. These pictures are then mixed with local architectural elements to give birth to a new style, the product of this blending. Cuenca's elite deem these buildings to be "irrational," arguing that, because no one lives in them, they represent an irrational investment that dulls productive investments. Moreover, they are concerned that the once-idyllic rural landscape (the place of their haciendas, or estates, and huasipungos, or peasant servants) is taking on urban characteristics (Ordóñez 2005). These so-called ghost dwellings are not only criticized by the elites in Cuenca, but also by the peasants in San Fernando: "Emigrants invest in cars, lands, cattle, and they build enormous and luxurious houses that are always abandoned. They want to show their economic power and compete with the rest to gain prestige." This new construction serves to keep alive the hope of returning home (the "utopia of return"). Such construction also serves practical purposes; since emigrants usually leave their family behind (wife, husband, children, or parents), building a house for them constitutes a show of support. As one interviewee stated, "The canton of San Fernando and its surrounding area have gotten better compared to some years ago. Before, there were no people or houses, but currently the number of inhabitants has increased and people have good houses." If a new social stratum is being established, then the conspicuous con- sumption of perishable and nonperishable goods and investment in luxury items would be rational. Such consumption and investment would reflect an economic strategy to become part of the local dominant class and from there to obtain privileges such as favorable treatment by the municipal government. At the same time, this new spending should be considered as part of the new cultural values that the emigrants have assimilated in their new the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 237 setting. Most emigrants have settled in a consumer society, and they seek the same level of consumption for their relatives back home. One can easily see signs of this "transculturation"2 in San Fernando: for example, groceries with canned food, stores with urban-style clothing and electronic goods, and restaurants. According to one interviewee, "Some emigrants come with money, they also return with a business, a car, for example [a public transportation business]. My son came back, bought cattle, land, and now he has a clothing store downtown." We turn now to the investment in production. Unfortunately, we were unable to find information about San Fernando's dairy production, num- ber of head of cattle, or any land register that would allow us to compare changes in the last years. The 2005 land property register (catastro) is the only known source of information (Municipio de San Fernando 2005). For example, San Fernando's average ranch is considerably smaller (2.89 hectares) than the national (8.39 hectares) or the provincial (Azuay, 6.14 hectares) average. How is it possible to talk about emigrants' economic accumulation with ranches that are smaller than average? The Andean system of landownership is characterized by the posses- sion of small pieces of land in different ecological areas. In San Fernando, landowners tend to own many small pieces rather than a single large ranch. Table 7.1 illustrates a typical case in which different family mem- bers (identified by the common last name and mother's maiden name) have multiple properties. With the exception of Rosendo's single holding of 1 hectare, the table shows that even when these siblings own more than one piece of land, each piece is approximately 0.46 hectare (4,600 cubic meters), conspicu- ously below San Fernando's average of 2.89 hectares. Analyzed individu- ally, these siblings appear to be poor because they cannot feed even a Table 7.1 Typical Case of Multiple Land Property, Chumblín, San Fernando 2005 Name No. of properties Size (hectares) Adolfo 5 2.40 José María 3 2.00 Manuel Adolfo 4 2.00 Mariana 6 1.81 Mercedes 8 3.20 Rosendo 1 1.00 Total 27 12.41 Source: Authors' calculations based on Catastro Rural de San Fernando (2005). 238 soruco, piani, and rossi single head of cattle, which requires 1 hectare in the valley. However, knowledge of traditional family arrangements and networks suggests that family members have access to all 12.41 hectares. In addition, in the San Fernando area, it is common practice to own two very different size pieces of land, such as one of 0.5 hectare and another of 35 hectares. Regardless of the size of landholding, some successful "residents" have become landowners and cattle farming businessmen. These families are starting to compete for privileges with Cuenca's upper class, which still owns lands in San Fernando. According to an interviewee, "[Emigrants invest in] buying lands, houses, cattle, and in improving grain crops. They also can compete with the estates, getting more profits with cattle farming." Successful "residents" (defined by ranch size) have had a consider- able impact on the local economy (in trade in goods, real estate, and construction) and on the social hierarchy. "Residents" and their emigrant family members have imposed new values on the community, including individualism, consumerism, and changes in traditional diet, clothing, and music. These new practices affect the youngest generations most and offer an important role model, which constitutes a third kind of investment in the region. After the first emigrant family member has become established in the host country, and after he or she has repaid travel debts and built a new dwelling, the next step is often to finance a new emigrant, usually a spouse or child. Unlike the first trip, subsequent expenses are paid by the emigrant rather than a moneylender. In addition, "residents" who have accumulated a decent sum (more than US$10,000) can also lend money to more distant relatives, perhaps charging them a lower interest rate than a moneylender. Lending to dis- tant relatives, though, is the first step toward becoming a chulquero (the Ecuadorian term for moneylender). The term chulquero is a sensitive topic in San Fernando. It has negative connotations of both usury and illegality. In the words of one interviewee, "Here in San Fernando is the reign of a network of corruption among the City Hall, the property registry, the city court, and chulqueros. Part of my land, obtained by inheritance, was stolen by a chulquero. This chulquero is my own brother, and today he is San Fernando's richest man. Every- thing began when his offspring emigrated and started sending money. This money was invested in high-interest loans to the rest of the people who wanted to emigrate. In San Fernando, there are other well-know chulque- ros who live in Cuenca, but do their business here." The third step is to investment in education. There are three elementary schools in San Fernando, two public and one private, and only one high school. Some parents send their teenagers to the high school in the nearby canton of Girón, which they believe offers a better curriculum and allows students to acquire a more urbanized cultural background that will provide the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 239 them a sense of urban belonging and better prospects. The town of Girón has greater economic activity due to its strategic connection to the coastal region. However, sending children to study in Girón significantly increases the cost of education. In addition to the direct expense of bus transporta- tion, families also experience a significant opportunity cost in students' reduced time and ability to help their families in farm or other work. There is no university in either San Fernando or Girón. Students who complete high school may also obtain a technical certificate in agronomy or veterinary studies, but pursuing a university degree means moving to Cuenca. Once university students settle in Cuenca, however, they are unlikely to return to San Fernando after obtaining a degree; working and living conditions are generally considered better in Cuenca, Ecuador's third largest city. Under these circumstances, as shown in table 7.2, only 15 percent of San Fernando's population over the age of five years has completed a high school education, while 71 percent of the population has only an elementary school education. Moreover, San Fernando's urban population has, on average, 5.1 years of formal education, while the rural population has, on average, only 4.6 years, less than the 6 years needed to complete elementary school. Education carries high opportunity costs in peasant families, where children's work is needed in the fields and at home. In the words of one interviewee, "As parents, we must send our children to elementary school, Table 7.2 Percentage of the Population, Aged Five Years and Older, by Highest Level of Education Attained and Urban/Rural Area Education level Urban Rural Total reached Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Total 1,255 100.00 2,275 100.00 3,530 100.00 None 69 5.50 194 8.53 263 7.45 Adults literacy instruction 8 0.64 4 0.18 12 0.34 Elementary school 761 60.64 1,733 76.18 2,494 70.65 High school 289 23.03 229 10.07 518 14.67 Post high school 6 0.48 1 0.04 7 0.20 Undergraduate 47 3.75 15 0.66 62 1.76 Graduate 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 Not stated 75 5.98 99 4.35 174 4.93 Source: Authors' calculations based on VI Censo Nacional, 2001. 240 soruco, piani, and rossi but then they have to help us in the fields." Another person noted, "Edu- cation is very important for our children. Unfortunately, money scarcity did not allow us to send our children to high school or maybe to study in another region. That is why in these recintos [outlying areas] there are no professionals, and because there is neither work nor land to produce, [many] have decided to emigrate. But our main responsibility is to send our children to elementary school. Later they make their future." San Fernando additionally suffers from a shortage of jobs for educated persons. This may further explain why parents do not make a greater effort to send children to high school. The following statements are rep- resentative: "Many students complete high school, but there are no jobs, and they end up being farmers. How does studying help them then?" and "High school education is for people with money, not for poor ones" and "Going to high school or university takes a long time. I prefer to work." Nonetheless, there are signs that the educational situation has begun to change, at least for some. San Fernando's first and only private school opened very recently (in 2006), and teachers acknowledge that their stu- dents are primarily the children of emigrants. As one noted, "Emigrants' children study here, then they go to the university in Cuenca." However, emigration can have negative as well as positive effects on education. According to one high school principal in San Fernando, emi- gration is the most common cause of school dropout: "Many teenagers drop out of high school because they are planning to make the trip to the U.S. or Spain. If they do not leave immediately, they drop out of school because they want to work to save some money for the trip. . . . They also think education will not make any difference when they work abroad." Thus remittances seem to have a positive impact on elementary school education, but a negative effect on high school and university education. Since the offspring of many emigrants hope to join their parent(s) abroad and accept that they will be working in unskilled positions, they find no apparent utility in investing in middle and higher education. Perception of the emigration phenomenon and discrimination in San Fernando. As we have seen, the migratory phenomenon embodies oppos- ing situations: emigrants who can accumulate enough capital to become the local nouveau riche and deepen social differences, at one extreme, and, at the other, suffering, bankruptcy, and even death for those who have tried to emigrate in recent years. Emigration improves access to elemen- tary education but increases high school dropout rates and reproduces low skill levels. San Fernando's inhabitants acknowledge this complexity. They believe that poverty has diminished because of emigration and that many people have been able to buy land and cattle, fertilize their fodder farms, and build new houses, all of which is bringing prosperity. They also know that emigration is a big risk because of the increasing difficulty of entering the the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 241 United States or Europe. The inhabitants of San Fernando have also seen how neighbors and relatives have lost their lands because of loans from chulqueros. Putting these negative individual consequences aside, none of our inter- viewees considered emigration to be a negative, except one statement that requires further analysis. According to a taxi driver who works in Cuenca, "Emigration brings regrettable things to emigrants' children. They stay with their uncles or grandparents, but they suffer because they do not have the love of their parents. Unaffectionate grandparents mistreat children, although there are laws against it. Unfortunately, there are not authorities who can punish this situation. Children are psychologically ill-treated and battered." Of the 20 interviews conducted, this is the only individual to make such a strong argument against emigration. Summary. Our qualitative data have been useful in identifying San Fernando's perceptions of emigration, which suggest that emigration is not a discriminatory category, although it creates differences between emigrant and non-emigrant families in regard to economic income, access to education and health care, and cultural capital (goods, music, food). We now turn to the media analysis, which shows how emigration has become a category of discrimination against rural emigrants and their families in Cuenca. Analysis of Media Content During a six-month period from September 2005 to February 2006, we monitored two newspapers: Mercurio, the newspaper with the highest readership in Cuenca, and El Comercio, the leading national newspaper. Our team identified, coded, and analyzed all news discussing any issue related to international emigration. In total, we collected 424 articles, of which 70 percent appeared in Mercurio and the remaining 30 percent appeared in El Comercio. All news dealing with emigration was coded using the 11 categories displayed in figure 7.2. We now turn to an analysis of the news in each category. Coyotes and chulqueros. In this category, we found 45 news items, rep- resenting10.6 percent of the stories on emigration. Coyotes are said to receive about US$14,000 per illegal immigrant crossing the U.S. border, and chulqueros are the local moneylenders who lend the money to poten- tial emigrants. Stories dealing with these critical figures narrate experiences of people who failed to cross the border and, if fortunate, were sent back home, where they had to face the loss of their properties because they were not able to pay their debts. These stories include various complaints about mistreatment by coyotes and chulqueros, as well as the dangers of the migratory journey, which frequently include fatalities. We found no 242 soruco, piani, and rossi Figure 7.2 News on Emigration by Theme/Issue Typology Coyotes and chulqueros 45 Deportations/arrests 46 Emigrants abroad 38 Emigrants' children in Ecuador 58 Emigrants' income 31 Experts' opinion 48 Charity and social work 30 Host countries' actions 50 Ecuadorian government actions 30 Immigrants to Ecuador 33 Other 15 Source: Authors' calculations based on media content analysis, September 2005­February 2006. stories of successful border crossings in which emigrants found a job in the recipient country and sent money first to pay their chulquero debt and then to help their family. Arrest and deportation. In this category, we found 46 news items, repre- senting 10.9 percent of the stories on emigration. Detailed descriptions of deportation and arrests complement the stories related to coyotes and chulqueros. In these accounts, unsuccessful emigrants narrate the violence they suffered when they were captured by immigration authorities, placed under arrest, and deported. These emotionally charged testimonies aim to discourage the Ecuadorian population from even considering emigration as a possible endeavor. The life of emigrants. In this category, we found 38 news items, represent- ing 9 percent of the stories on emigration. This general category includes stories about the life that awaits emigrants abroad. Here we found news about emigrants' social networks, job markets in host countries, the dis- crimination that they face in the host countries, and the process of con- structing a new identity in the new context, such as articles dealing with religious pilgrimages organized by Ecuadorian emigrants. Also covered is the cultural transformation that accompanies emigra- tion. With the suggestive title "A Dichotomy of Evolution," one expert's the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 243 comment reads, "Ecuadorian women [living in Spain] are apparently trapped in a dichotomy of evolution, between a Western society related to an image of liberty and the Ecuadorian culture, associated with tradition. Therefore, they live on a thin line between modernity's liberties and the threat of libertinage" (Mercurio, Thursday, October 20, 2005). Two components of discrimination are evident, gender discrimination and discrimination against emigrants, and they appear to reinforce one another. The articles dealing with cultural change appear to acknowledge the abandonment of Ecuadorian traditional culture and the embrace of the values of the new culture. Elements of this discourse of "acculturation" are also present in the media's approach to the life of emigrants' children, which is discussed next. Emigrants' children in Ecuador. In this category, we found 58 news items, representing 13.7 percent of the stories on emigration. This category of analysis involves the most negative consequences of emigration as identi- fied by the media and emigration "experts." Stated in many ways, the ar- ticles ask, What will happen to your children if you decide to emigrate? There are two approaches to this topic. One is to let the experts talk by quoting professionals in the social sciences, such as social work and psychology, and representatives of the Catholic Church, both clergy and laity. The second, sometimes used in combination with the first, is to present the voices of emigrants' children as testimonies. Their voices are heard in various seminars and workshops organized by nongovernmental organizations, the Catholic Church, and local authorities. In short, articles on the lives of emigrants' children suggest that emigra- tion represents abandonment of children. Emigrants are portrayed as irre- sponsible parents who abandon their children, causing them psychological damage, low self-esteem, poor educational performance, and social and cultural problems such as gang involvement, drug use, and suicide. Some journalists refer to emigrants' children as a "social problem," and an emigrant expert who runs a program for youth in Cuenca calls them "marginal": "Marginality does not only refer to poverty: there are many emigrants' children who have money but are isolated. Schools have closed their doors to them because they do not live with their parents; that is marginalization, and that generates low self-esteem" (Mercurio, Thurs- day, September 1, 2005, 6B). Thus "marginal" is seen as involving "isolation" and "low self-esteem" rather than economic position. In this discourse, emigrants' children are seen as isolated from their parents and not supported by their schools. This statement, though, is contradicted by our preliminary findings that emigrants' families in San Fernando invest in education comparatively more than their counterparts; various private schools in Cuenca and San Fernando specifically target this "new market." 244 soruco, piani, and rossi Even when there are reactions against this discrimination and "marginalization" of emigrants' children, those reactions are filtered through the dominant discourse. "I don't think we are a problem, but society has stigmatized us like that" (Mercurio, Thursday, November 17, 2005, 6B). "I think they want to have their houses, but they also hurt their families. They [emigrants] think it is all about money, but no money can buy happiness" (Mercurio, Thursday, December 8, 2005, 6B). In the words of a child, "Some schoolmates fight against each other, they do not get along well. They are rejected because their parents are poor or rich and because they come from a different social class" (Mercurio, Thursday, December 8, 2005, 6B). Thus emigrants' children are discriminated against by their classmates, who say, "Although they have money, they are not the same class as the rest." According to an article in Mercurio (Thursday, November 17, 2005, 6B), "In this testimony we see how they [emigrants' children] assume roles that do not correspond to their ages. He [an emigrant's child] was forced to grow up, he was left on his own very young, and he had to become an adult. His father left when he was 9, and his mother also left when he was 13. He has a hard life." A Catholic priest said, "Emigration is and will be a problem for all of our rural towns and regions . . . Fathers who live far away in different realities, mothers who face new circumstances feel alone and unprotected because their husbands have forgotten about them. Children without their parents' love, who grow up without [moral] values. Now many young people meet to drink, have sex, and use drugs. This is caused by parents who thought emigration was going to resolve their economic problems, but I think their absence is much worse" (Mercurio, Thursday, November 24, 2005). None of these perspectives arose in the in-depth interviews conducted in San Fernando. Marginalization, perversion, and criminal behavior were not among their concerns. They did mention that it is hard for grandpar- ents to take complete responsibility for a child, an opinion that grew out of their own experience of being raised by their grandparents. Emigration is not a new phenomenon in Cuenca's rural areas, but an old survival strategy. In addition, in the countryside, it is a common practice to send children to live with relatives so that they can continue their education after elementary school. The image of emigrants' children as marginalized appears to be an urban creation, displacing the rural image of emigrants as role models. The popularity of successful emigrants in rural areas (their "reciprocity" in religious celebrations and public works) is inverted in the urban con- text: "They are no longer the `best' godfathers a child can have [because of the loans or networks for a migratory endeavor] . . . but loveless, irre- sponsible, and ambitious parents, who can impact negatively Ecuadorian society as a whole." This kind of discourse is also evident in well-intentioned social work- ers and religious people, who have a vertical, racist, and paternalist the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 245 conception of the phenomenon. An urban elite exists who see their spa- tial hegemony as being threatened by emigrants and their families. These "residents" can, for the first time, pay for their children to attend the same private schools as the children of the elite and become their neigh- bors and probably their partners in business. Therefore, members of the elite feel the need to differentiate themselves from this group, creating a new conceptualization of the indigenous peasant: they are still rural, primitive, and irresponsible, and they let their children be marginalized. Emigrants' income. In this category, we found 31 news items, represent- ing 7.3 percent of the stories on emigration. Another negative stereotype concerns the investments of emigrants. Despite the role of remittances in the alleviation of poverty, many emigration experts and journalists refer to those incomes as "unproductive." According to an article in Mercurio (Wednesday, September 21, 2005), "`Migradollars' do not reduce poverty. Those who receive that money consume them all, and what is worse, they end up being dependent on them . . . Migratory incomes are invested in everything except for productive projects. That money is spent as soon as it comes." And in El Comercio (Tuesday, November 11, 2005), "Este dinero no tiene que caer en saco roto [This income should not be misspent]." The media acknowledge the importance of the area's growing real estate sector, but they also refer to these new buildings as "ugly," "inappropriate for the rural context," and "dysfunctional." The following comment refers to a peasant family who has an emigrant son: "They have a house with a dancing hall and garage, but because the road does not get to the house, they have to keep the car in their neighbor's garage. But they buy electronic supplies for the house and the latest technological stuff" (El Comercio, Monday, December 19, 2005). "Residents" are seen not only as irresponsible and careless of their off- spring, but also as unproductive, superficial, wasteful, and dysfunctional. Only in some cases does this kind of attribution coexist with data on the contribution of emigrants' income to the national economy. Even then, there is no recognition of emigrants' support for the national economy. Experts' opinion. In this category, we found 48 news items, representing 11.3 percent of the stories on emigration. Many seminars, conferences, and meetings are held to discuss emigration, in which Ecuadorian and international experts deliberate about its consequences and characteristics. Despite the participation of international researchers and policy makers, these events (usually carried out in Cuenca) tend to portray emigration with the same characteristics discussed in the media. In this sense, the Catholic Church plays a critical role in articulating the national discourse on migration. Charity and social work. In this category, we found 30 news items, rep- resenting 7.1 percent of the stories on emigration. There is a high level of 246 soruco, piani, and rossi similarity between the opinions of local experts and charitable organization officials, as these groups largely overlap. The Catholic Church and many nongovernmental organizations also conduct social campaigns on behalf of deported emigrants and families cheated by coyotes and chulqueros. Host countries and government actions. We found 50 news items on host countries and 30 news items on government actions, representing 11.8 and 7.1 percent of the stories on emigration, respectively. These news items tend to deal with international and national regulations regarding illegal migration, the living situation of migrants in the host countries (primarily Spain and the United States), and public policies that can help the emigrant population. The official voice tends to be bureaucratic and informative, and we found no discriminatory element in these articles. Immigration in Ecuador. In this category, we found 30 news items, repre- senting 7.8 percent of the stories on emigration. These stories discuss the illegal migration of Peruvians and Colombians to Ecuador. This subject is discussed both in Cuenca and throughout Ecuador, not only in the urban context, but also in rural areas such as San Fernando. The topics covered include illegality, coyotes, deportation, and violence. In contrast to the discussion of Ecuadorian emigrants, the media do not devote space to the everyday life of immigrants in Ecuador. Quantitative Results and Analysis We conducted two population surveys (one in the city of Cuenca and the other one in the rural area of San Fernando) in June and August 2006 to quantify some of the qualitative findings. This section presents the main results of the surveys. The survey results confirm that migration is an important issue in respondents' everyday lives. "Migration" is listed as one of the most important problems currently facing their city by 21.3 percent of respondents in Cuenca and 21.6 percent of respondents in San Fernando (see table 7.3). Migration: Some Attitudes The second set of questions sought to gain insight on the respondent's attitudes and opinions on migration from three perspectives: overall, for migrants themselves, and for their family members who stay in Ecuador. Tables 7.3 through 7.6 present data on attitudes toward migration in Cuenca and San Fernando. The population of Cuenca appears more criti- cal of migration (53 percent said it is a "bad thing for Cuenca") than the population of San Fernando (40 percent). The same difference is found when respondents were asked about their opinions on migration from the migrant's perspective: 51 percent of the population of Cuenca said that the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 247 Table 7.3 What Do You Think Are the Two Main Problems Currently Facing the Population of [Cuenca/San Fernando]? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Poverty 36.5 50.8 Education 9.2 6.5 Health care/insurance 3.1 9.7 Migration 21.3 21.6 Lack of jobs 16.0 3.2 Delinquency 13.1 2.2 Corruption 0.8 0.5 Don't know/no answer 0.0 5.4 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.4 Overall, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) A good thing for [Cuenca/ San Fernando] 37.5 47.0 A bad thing for [Cuenca/San Fernando] 52.7 40.0 It depends 9.0 11.9 No answer 0.8 1.1 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.5 And for the Migrants Themselves, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) A good thing for migrants 40.2 48.1 A bad thing for migrants 51.0 40.0 It depends 7.1 7.6 No answer 1.7 4.3 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. 248 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.6 And for Their Immediate Family Members Who Stay in Ecuador, Do You Think That International Migration Is . . . Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) A good thing for (Cuenca/ San Fernando) 14.8 25.4 A bad thing for (Cuenca/San Fernando) 77.9 63.8 It depends 5.6 8.6 No answer 1.7 2.2 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. migration is negative for the migrants themselves, while 48 percent of the population of San Fernando said that it is positive. Finally, when asked their opinion on migration from the point of view of migrants' family members, respondents in Cuenca and San Fernando said that it is a "bad thing" for them (78 and 64 percent, respectively). As shown in table 7.7, 83 percent of respondents in Cuenca and 71 percent of respondents in San Fernando said that a child of an emigrant will "do worse in school than a child of a non-emigrant." Migration: Some Facts The vast majority of the persons interviewed in Cuenca and San Fernando have at least one family member living and working in a foreign country (76 percent in Cuenca and 80 percent in San Fernando; see table 7.8). Almost a quarter of the population in San Fernando has at least one son outside the country (see table 7.9). San Fernando's migration figures sur- pass Cuenca's in all categories of family members, except for mothers. In our sample, 44 percent of respondents in San Fernando and 28 percent in Cuenca said that they receive remittances from relatives living in a foreign country (see table 7.10). Given the importance of remittances, we sought to understand who receives the money, how often money is received, and how that money is spent. As shown in table 7.11, most recipients said that they obtain remit- tances on a monthly basis, while a small percentage said that they receive remittances less than once a year. Table 7.12 shows how respondents think that emigrants' families spend the money they receive from abroad, and table 7.13 shows how these families actually spend their remittances. Despite the perception that emigrants' families misuse the money they receive, 20.5 percent of San Fernando's respondents said that these families spend their remittances buying land. Moreover, as shown in the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 249 Table 7.7 Do You Think a Child of an Emigrant Will Have the Same Performance at School as a Child of a Non-Migrant, a Poorer Performance, or a Better Performance? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Same performance 4.8 6.5 Poorer performance 83.3 71.4 Better performance 1.5 2.2 Depends 8.8 14.6 Don't know/no answer 1.7 5.4 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.8 Is Any Member of Your Family Currently Living and Working in a Foreign Country? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Yes 76.0 79.5 No 23.5 20.5 No answer 0.4 0.0 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.9 Is Your [Family Member] Currently Living and Working Abroad? Cuenca San Fernando (% Yes) (% Yes) Father 3.5 3.8 Mother 3.3 0.5 Son 7.5 24.9 Daughter 2.9 8.1 Grandson 1.5 3.2 Granddaughter 0.8 1.1 Sister/brother 28.5 30.8 Brother-in-law/son-in-law 10.4 11.9 Sister-in-law/daughter-in-law 5.0 8.1 Another family member (grandparent/ uncle/aunt/nephew/niece) 36.9 30.8 Total (n = 480) (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. 250 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.10 Do You (or Other Family Members) Receive Remittances from Relatives Who Live in a Foreign Country? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Yes 27.7 44.3 No 48.1 35.1 Don't know/no answer 0.2 0.0 Does not apply 24.0 20.5 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.11 How Frequently Do You (or Other Family Members) Receive Remittances? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Once a month 13.5 19.5 Every 2 to 3 months 4.6 5.9 Every 4 to 6 months 4.6 9.7 Once a year 4.0 8.6 Less than once a year 1.0 0.5 Don't know/no answer 0.0 0.0 Does not apply 72.3 55.7 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.12 How Do You Think Migrants' Family Members Spend the Money They Receive from Abroad? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Open businesses 1.5 0.0 Build or buy a house 45.0 38.9 Buy luxury products 17.9 11.4 Daily consumption products 2.5 1.1 Buy lands 5.8 20.5 Education for their children 2.9 2.2 Savings 1.0 1.1 Don't know/no answer 22.5 24.9 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 251 Table 7.13 How Is the Money Spent? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Regular expenditures (daily goods and clothing) 19.4 34.1 Business investments 0.4 0.5 Savings 0.4 1.6 Building/buying house/properties 0.6 0.0 Education 5.2 3.2 Buying luxury goods 0.4 0.0 Paying debts 1.3 4.9 Does not apply 72.3 55.7 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. table 7.13, of those that receive remittances, respondents in both Cuenca and San Fernando reported that they spend the money first on living expenses and then on education. As Bendicen and Associates (2003) indicate, remittances in Ecuador are not primarily a means of improving a family's economic status, but a matter of economic survival. In our survey, a significant percentage of respondents (19 percent in Cuenca and 34 percent in San Fernando) indicated that remittances pay for basic expenditures such as food, rent, and utilities. In the qualitative study, we learned that rural and urban areas evaluate migration differently. More than a third of the respondents in Cuenca said that there is "a lot" and "some" discrimination against family members of migrants (35 percent), a figure that drops to 15 percent in San Fernando (see table 7.14). More analytical work is needed to understand this dif- ference in perception. Tables 7.15 and 7.16 present figures on perceptions about emigrants and their children. Using questions from the survey, we estimated three blocks of probit models. First, we evaluated the perception of discrimination against emi- grants' relatives. Second, we evaluated the degree of social integration of those relatives. Finally, we used the question about contentment or satis- faction with life to model the impact on happiness of having relatives who have emigrated from the city. Those models were estimated separately, if necessary, for Cuenca and San Fernando. Four models were estimated within the first block, taking as dependent variables: 1. Discrimination1: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent perceives that there is much discrimination and the 252 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.14 How Much Discrimination Is There against Family Members of People from [Cuenca/San Fernando] Who Go to Live and Work in Another Country? Would You Say There Is a Lot of Discrimination, Some, Only a Little, or None at All? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) A lot 19.6 5.9 Some 15.5 9.2 Only a little 30.4 18.9 No discrimination at all 33.5 62.2 Don't know 0.6 3.8 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.15 What Is a Migrant's Child Most Likely to Do as an Adult? Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) Finish university 10.8 12.4 Work as an employee 3.3 11.9 Join a gang 24.2 15.1 Open his/her own business 4.8 6.5 Migrate (leave the country) 50.2 43.2 Don't know/no answer 6.7 10.8 Total 100 (n = 480) 100 (n = 185) Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.16 Agreement with the Following Statements Cuenca (%) San Fernando (%) "People who leave their children behind to migrate are irresponsible" 54.2 43.2 "Migrants' children are not good students" 60.2 38.9 "Migrants' children are frequently involved in illicit activities" 45.6 28.6 "Migrants' children spend their money on luxury products" 91.4 82.7 "Migrants' children are losing their cultural identity" 89.6 77.8 Source: Authors' compilation. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 253 value of 0 when he or she perceives that there is some discrimi- nation, little discrimination, or no discrimination at all against migrants' family members. 2. Discrimination2: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent thinks of emigration as something positive or ben- eficial for the city and takes the value of 0 when he or she thinks of emigration as negative for the city. 3. Califica: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent thinks that the sons and daughters of emigrants would get lower grades than those with non-emigrant parents and a value of 0 when the respondent thinks that the sons and daughters of emigrants would get equal or higher grades than those of non- emigrant parents. 4. Emigrate: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent thinks that emigrating is the most probable thing that an emigrant's son or daughter would do and the value of 0 when the respondent chooses any other option. The dependent variables chosen for the social integration block were the following: 1. No participation: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent answers that he or she would never take part in any form of political demonstration and the value of 0 when the respon- dent chooses any other provided option. 2. Social participation: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent belongs to a political party or labor union; profes- sional, commercial, sport, or cultural association; or any kind of voluntary organization. For the last block, the dependent variable was happy: a binary variable that takes the value of 1 when the respondent answers that he or she is satisfied or very satisfied with his or her life and a value of 0 when the respondent chooses any other option. The following independent variables were taken into account: age, sex, marital status, education, race, having relatives abroad, religion, number of family members, job characteristics, whether the respondent receives money from relatives abroad (remittances), household income, and level of deprivation. Table 7.17 (panels A and B) shows the models of discrimination in Cuenca and the marginal effects, Table 7.18 presents the models of social integration and the marginal effects, and table 7.19 shows the happiness model and the marginal effects for the same population. 254 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.17A Models of Discrimination in Cuenca Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Male ­0.355** 0.490*** ­0.501*** 0.182 (0.157) (0.138) (0.163) (0.135) Age ­0.009* ­0.007 0.011** ­0.002 (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.004) Married 0.318* 0.029 ­0.215 0.158 (0.182) (0.159) (0.197) (0.153) Divorced 0.418 0.131 ­0.487* 0.086 (0.275) (0.245) (0.295) (0.235) Secondary education ­0.199 ­0.360** 0.115 0.328** (0.171) (0.152) (0.181) (0.150) Tertiary education ­0.464** ­0.306 0.598** 0.325* (0.221) (0.192) (0.243) (0.189) Mestizo ­0.025 0.134 0.322* 0.323** (0.168) (0.154) (0.165) (0.151) Relatives abroad 0.164 0.243 0.025 0.048 (0.159) (0.149) (0.174) (0.145) Household size ­0.012 ­0.021 ­0.043 0.022 (0.046) (0.042) (0.049) (0.041) Religious ­0.092 0.072 0.16 ­0.075 (0.220) (0.187) (0.239) (0.188) Full-time 0.148 ­0.286* 0.420** 0.126 (0.157) (0.146) (0.172) (0.143) Part-time ­0.036 0.02 0.312 0.181 (0.203) (0.172) (0.215) (0.174) Public worker ­0.254 0.117 0.299 ­0.16 (0.268) (0.220) (0.329) (0.221) Political party 0.144 ­0.008 0.713*** ­0.164 (0.180) (0.165) (0.241) (0.167) Remittances 0.001* 0.001 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Unmes ­0.422* ­0.221 ­0.323 0.15 (0.248) (0.208) (0.239) (0.208) Household income 0.000*** 0 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Level of Deprivation 0 ­0.174 0.144 ­0.277** (0.151) (0.136) (0.154) (0.133) (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 255 Table 7.17A Models of Discrimination in Cuenca (continued) Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Constant ­0.805 0.292 ­0.03 ­0.026 (0.631) (0.559) (0.648) (0.548) Observations 476 476 476 476 Pseudo R-squared 0.06 0.04 0.1 0.05 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 7.17B Marginal Effects of Discrimination in Cuenca (only significant variables) Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Total 0.1823 0.3707 0.8668 0.4970 Male ­0.0895 0.1871 ­0.1163 Age ­0.0023 0.0024 Married 0.0810 Divorced ­0.1261 Secondary education ­0.1334 0.1302 Tertiary education ­0.1113 0.1110 0.1289 Mestizo 0.0766 0.1278 Relatives abroad Household size Religious Full-time ­0.1072 0.0881 Part-time Public worker Political party 0.1161 Remittances 0.0002 Unmes ­0.0962 Household income 0.0001 Level of Deprivation ­0.1106 Source: Authors' compilation. 256 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.18A Models of Social Integration in Cuenca (1) (2) No participation Social participation Male ­0.275* 0.504*** (0.141) (0.141) Age 0.020*** ­0.014*** (0.005) (0.005) Married 0.187 0.167 (0.162) (0.162) Divorced ­0.147 0.432* (0.239) (0.240) Secondary education ­0.089 0.299* (0.153) (0.167) Tertiary education ­0.125 0.321 (0.200) (0.203) Mestizo 0.065 ­0.143 (0.153) (0.164) Relatives abroad ­0.23 0.340** (0.149) (0.160) Household size 0.044 ­0.033 (0.042) (0.045) Religious 0.058 0.102 (0.186) (0.201) Full-time ­0.04 0.478*** (0.146) (0.158) Part-time 0.114 0.433** (0.178) (0.186) Public worker ­0.252 0.35 (0.229) (0.224) Political party ­0.324* (0.176) Remittances 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) Unmes ­0.034 0.203 (0.224) (0.219) Household income 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) Level of Deprivation 0.344** ­0.323** (0.134) (0.145) (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 257 Table 7.18A Models of Social Integration in Cuenca (continued) (1) (2) No participation Social participation Constant ­1.932*** ­0.213 (0.561) (0.573) Observations 476 476 Pseudo R-squared 0.09 0.12 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 7.18B Marginal Effects of Social Integration in Cuenca (only significant variables) (1) (2) No participation Social participation Total 0.3639 0.2763 Male ­0.1013 0.1739 Age 0.0075 ­0.0047 Married Divorced 0.1559 Secondary education 0.1016 Tertiary education Mestizo Relatives abroad 0.1071 Household size Religious Full-time 0.1615 Part-time 0.1548 Public worker Political party ­0.1162 Remittances Unmes Household income Level of Deprivation 0.1292 ­0.1080 Source: Authors' compilation. 258 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.19A Model of Happiness in Cuenca Happy Male 0.061 (0.144) Age ­0.008* (0.005) Married 0.086 (0.168) Divorced 0.238 (0.259) Secondary education 0 (0.155) Tertiary education 0.394* (0.203) Mestizo 0.478** (0.210) White 0.766** (0.300) Relatives abroad ­0.375** (0.162) Religious 0.363* (0.211) Household size 0.007 (0.045) Full-time 0.207 (0.150) Part-time 0.328* (0.184) Public worker 0.276 (0.289) Remittances ­0.001 (0.000) Unmes 0.115 (0.211) Household income 0.000** (0.000) Level of Deprivation ­0.367*** (0.141) (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 259 Table 7.19A Model of Happiness in Cuenca (continued) Happy Constant 0.935 (0.589) Observations 475 Pseudo R-squared 0.12 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 7.19B Marginal Effects of Happiness in Cuenca (only significant variables) Happy Male Age ­0.0028 Married Divorced Secondary education Tertiary education 0.1283 Mestizo 0.1745 White 0.2117 Relatives abroad ­0.1213 Religious 0.1143 Household size Full-time Part-time 0.1057 Public worker Remittances Unmes Household income 0.0001 Level of Deprivation ­0.1261 Source: Authors' compilation. 260 soruco, piani, and rossi Perception of Discrimination in Cuenca The signs of the significant variables show that women, older citizens, the more educated, and individuals who receive remittances from abroad on a monthly basis said that they perceive lower (higher) discrimination. The level of discrimination perceived is lower for married individuals than for unmarried individuals, and the perception of discrimination lessens as the amount of the remittances received rises as a percentage of house- hold income. The most important marginal effects correspond to women (-), married (+), individuals with university studies (-), and receipt of a monthly remittance (-). Women and men in Cuenca have different perceptions of the impact of emigration. For men, emigration is beneficial, and the marginal effect is of 19 percentage points. Individuals with high school education and full-time jobs have a negative perception of emigration. Women and individuals who are divorced disagree with the statement that the children of emigrants do worse in school than other children. Mean- while, persons who are older, have a university education, and self-identify as being of mixed race, full-time employees, and individuals not affiliated with a political party agree with the statement. The most important mar- ginal effects are sex (-), divorced (-), university (+), and political party (+). Regarding the perception of emigration as being the most probable activity for an emigrant's son or daughter, the marginal effects are positive and important for individuals with higher levels of education (high school and university) and of mixed race. Not having the goods that the survey took into account has a negative impact. Women in Cuenca perceive higher levels of discrimination toward emi- grants but consider emigration beneficial for the city; they do not consider the school grades of the children of emigrants to be a problem. Respon- dents with university studies do not find high levels of discrimination, but they do think that the children of emigrants have problems with school grades and that emigrating is their most probable outcome. Among indi- viduals who identify themselves as mestizos, there is a strong perception that children of emigrants have problems with school grades and that they are likely to emigrate. With respect to income, the perception of a high level of discrimination rises with the amount of the remittances received from abroad and with home income, but diminishes among those who receive remittances once a month. Table 7.18 shows the results of the model and the marginal effects of the models related to social integration in Cuenca: nopart and partsoci. Women and persons not currently involved in a political party disagree with the statement, "I would never take part in a political demonstration." Meanwhile, agreeing with the statement rises with age, meaning that older people are more reluctant to take part in this kind of activity, as are per- sons who report deprivation. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 261 Individuals who take part in community institutions are more likely to be women, divorced, people with a high school education, people with rel- atives abroad, and individuals with full- or part-time jobs. More deprived and older individuals tend not to participate. Women in Cuenca tend to be more active in community activities and to have a greater awareness of social issues. People who have relatives abroad (10 percentage points mar- ginal effect) and those who are more deprived do not appear to participate or to be interested in community institutions. Finally, happiness levels rise with having a university education, with being mestizo or white (in comparison with other racial or ethnic identifi- cations), with being religious, with having a part-time job, and with level of family income (see table 7.19). These results coincide in general terms with the literature on these topics. In contrast, having relatives abroad, being deprived, and being older have a negative effect on happiness. Perception of Discrimination in San Fernando Respondents in San Fernando do not perceive high levels of discrimina- tion, so the model with discrimination1 as the dependent variable was not estimated. In this case, depriva is the only significant variable with a positive sign, meaning that more-deprived people find higher levels of discrimination. The results for the variable mestizo and for relatives abroad are signifi- cant. People who identify themselves as mestizo think that emigration is beneficial for San Fernando, while people with relatives abroad have the opposite opinion. The marginal effects are important for both variables: +19 percentage points for being mestizo and -24 percentage points for having relatives abroad. For the first group, emigration represents an opportunity, while for others it represents a high cost for society. Variables corresponding to sex and the amount of the remittance have a negative sign, meaning that the respondents do not agree with the state- ment, "Emigrants' sons and daughters have lower school achievement." At the same time, they are affirmative for mestizo and political party. The marginal effects of being mestizo are the greatest (25 percentage points) in agreeing with the statement. In the model for perception of emigration as the most probable future for the son or daughter of an emigrant, three significant variables have large marginal effects. Married persons, individuals with a high school education, and public sector workers tend to agree with the statement that emigration is the most probable future for an emigrant's son or daughter (marginal effects of +20, +24, and +31 percentage points, respectively). Table 7.20 presents the marginal effects of the discrimination models for the population of San Fernando. While the mestizo population does not consider emigration as negative for the population as a whole, this group perceives emigrants' sons and daughters as having lower grades. 262 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.20A Models of Discrimination in San Fernando Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Male 0.416 ­0.036 ­0.569** 0.34 (0.374) (0.221) (0.238) (0.227) Age ­0.008 0.004 ­0.014* ­0.005 (0.014) (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) Married ­0.452 0.301 0.236 0.545** (0.456) (0.270) (0.313) (0.276) Divorced 0.162 0.277 ­0.288 0.481 (0.601) (0.350) (0.375) (0.352) Mestizo ­0.337 0.493* 0.715*** 0.059 (0.387) (0.254) (0.263) (0.253) Household size 0.07 0 ­0.003 ­0.072 (0.111) (0.062) (0.068) (0.063) Religious 0.913 0.056 0.875 ­0.797 (0.699) (0.455) (0.641) (0.612) Full-time ­0.149 0.182 0.189 ­0.306 (0.410) (0.261) (0.285) (0.257) Part-time 0.322 0.161 ­0.057 ­0.163 (0.418) (0.270) (0.279) (0.265) Political party 0.096 0.15 0.679** ­0.772** (0.466) (0.282) (0.331) (0.305) Remittances 0 0.001 ­0.002*** ­0.001 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Unmes ­0.356 0.368 0.13 ­0.009 (0.578) (0.308) (0.333) (0.317) Household income 0 0 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) No insurance ­1.388*** (0.522) Level of Deprivation 1.072*** 0.065 0.01 ­0.263 (0.384) (0.250) (0.261) (0.241) Secondary education ­0.315 0.191 0.618** (0.273) (0.326) (0.286) Tertiary education ­0.321 0.55 0.419 (0.448) (0.552) (0.478) Relatives abroad ­0.609** 0.138 0.071 (0.263) (0.286) (0.262) (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 263 Table 7.20A Models of Discrimination in San Fernando (continued) Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Public worker ­0.384 0.062 0.806* (0.365) (0.535) (0.433) Constant ­2.765* ­0.762 0.559 0.581 (1.559) (0.971) (1.061) (0.965) Observations 113 185 185 185 Pseudo R-squared 0.17 0.07 0.17 0.12 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 7.20B Marginal Effects of Discrimination in San Fernando (only significant variables) Discri1 Discri2 Califica Emigrar Male ­0.1213 Age ­0.0045 Married 0.2084 Divorced Mestizo 0.1899 0.2506 Household size Religious Full-time Part-time Political party 0.1774 ­0.2704 Remittances ­0.0005 Unmes Household income No insurance Level of Deprivation Secondary education 0.2426 Tertiary education Relatives abroad ­0.2382 Public worker 0.3101 Source: Authors' compilation. 264 soruco, piani, and rossi People with relatives abroad view emigration as having a negative effect on the city. Table 7.21A presents the results of the models related to social integra- tion in San Fernando: nopart and partsoci. Marginal effects (table 7.21B) show that women, persons of mixed race, public sector workers, and those not actively involved in a political party would take part in a demonstra- tion or political meeting. Older people and religiously observant people would not take part in a political meeting, and the effect is especially high (+46 percent) for the religious. In contrast, women are very active in the community. The closer the respondent is to the dominant culture, the more probable it is that he or she will have a discriminatory perception about emigrants (as shown in table 7.22). This is true for all variables except gender. In Cuenca, women have more discriminatory perceptions about emigrants than men. Table 7.21A Models of Social Integration in San Fernando No participation Social participation Male ­0.548* 0.515** (0.301) (0.249) Age 0.016** ­0.006 (0.008) (0.007) Married ­0.016 ­0.018 (0.311) (0.291) Divorced ­0.056 ­0.077 (0.366) (0.389) Secondary education ­0.159 0.617** (0.315) (0.290) Mestizo ­0.548** 0.428 (0.274) (0.312) Relatives abroad ­0.455 0.333 (0.289) (0.296) Household income ­0.096 ­0.049 (0.069) (0.072) Religious 1.234*** (0.404) Full-time 0.319 0.301 (0.324) (0.293) (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 265 Table 7.21A Models of Social Integration in San Fernando (continued) No participation Social participation Part-time 0.237 0.325 (0.310) (0.318) Public worker ­1.255** 0.344 (0.628) (0.415) Political party ­1.468*** (0.421) Remittances ­0.001 0 (0.001) (0.001) Unmes 0.24 0.259 (0.357) (0.312) Household income 0 0 (0.000) (0.000) Level of Deprivation 0.079 ­0.098 (0.316) (0.274) Tertiary education 0.724 (0.470) Constant ­0.216 ­1.254 (1.261) (1.065) Observations 171 176 Pseudo R-squared 0.24 0.17 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 10%. ** Significant at 5%. *** Significant at 1%. Table 7.21B Marginal Effects of Social Integration in San Fernando (only significant variables) No participation Social participation Male ­0.1642 0.1750 Age 0.0053 Married Divorced (continued) 266 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7.21B Marginal Effects of Social Integration in San Fernando (continued) No participation Social participation Secondary education 0.2181 Mestizo ­0.1915 Relatives abroad Household size Religious 0.4614 Full-time Part-time Public worker ­0.2489 Political party ­0.3958 Remittances Unmes Household income Level of Deprivation Tertiary education Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7.22 Pattern of Discrimination against Emigrants Discrimination Discrimination + ­ Dominant pole (more Subaltern pole (less Variables integrated) integrated) Residence Urban Rural Gender Male Female Civil status Married Single, divorced Age Adult Young, elderly Ethnicity Mestizo Indigenous/peasant Employment Full-time job Unemployed Wage High Low Remittances None High/monthly Education University Basic Source: Authors' compilation. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 267 Conclusions and Recommendations The use of a mixed methodology has furthered our understanding of the emigration phenomenon in Cuenca and San Fernando. This chapter finds evidence of the existence of discrimination against "residents," the families of emigrants. Moreover, the in-depth interviews confirm that discrimination is deeper in the city of Cuenca than in the rural area of San Fernando. Public discourse about emigrants (in the media, migration policies, and social relief interventions) is similar to the perceptions in Cuenca about international emigration: · Emigration is perceived as a problem and as "bad for the region" (Cuenca and the nation), for emigrants themselves, and especially for their families. · Emigrants are seen as "irrational" and their families as not using their remittances in productive and sustainable activities; they are not seen as contributing to the national economy. · Emigrants are portrayed as "irresponsible" because they have aban- doned their families in search of better living conditions. · Emigrants' children are perceived as doing worse in school than other children. They are seen as "not integrated into society," and there is a general idea that they will eventually (try to) leave the country. This social representation of emigrants has its logical conclusion in the idea that emigrants do not contribute to national development and threaten the country's symbolic unity (the discourse of the national family). However, there are significant differences between the urban and rural context in Ecuador. San Fernando's inhabitants perceive emigration as being negative for the town, but they also see emigrants as successful because they can support their family both within Ecuador and abroad. The inhabitants of Cuenca see emigrants as irresponsible and unpro- ductive and their offspring as likely to become marginalized and prone to join a gang, drop out of school, or become an illegal emigrant. The perception of emigrants in the local newspaper (Mercurio) and in national newspapers such as El Comercio coincides with the perception held in Cuenca. The quantitative results confirm the existence of discrimination against emigrants. The closer the person surveyed is to the dominant culture (being urban, male, married, adult, or mestizo; having a full-time job, a high wage, and education; and not receiving remittances), the more likely it is that he or she will have a negative view of emigrants. This model func- tions for all of the variables studied except gender. In Cuenca, women have more discriminatory perceptions about emigrants than men. 268 soruco, piani, and rossi What are the implications of this pattern of discrimination? Ecuador's national project is based on the idea of an egalitarian (modern) society in which inhabitants are recognized as citizens with the same political (democratic), economic (meritocratic model, income, and education), and cultural (mestizaje) rights. However, the country's actual social hierarchy articulates modern categories of status (income, education, cultural capi- tal) with race. The richest and more educated are usually mestizos, while the poorest are indigenous and peasants. Emigration threatens Cuenca's traditional social hierarchy because of the incomes and cultural capital it offers to "residents." Discrimina- tion against emigrants is a social mechanism that controls this "distur- bance" in two ways. First, discrimination reduces the social mobility of "residents." Second, it affects emigrants' incomes and investment in the economic sphere (commerce, service, real estate), which is controlled by the upper class. What are the costs of discrimination? Discrimination against "resi- dents" could encourage school dropout or weaken the educational per- formance of the children of emigrants; it undoubtedly reduces their social mobility and integration into society. Finally, public discourse on emi- grants as economically irrational justifies the government's lack of rural development policies and agricultural production incentives. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 269 Annex: Methodological Approach The first stage of the project conducted historical and archival research, in- depth interviews, media analysis, and participant observation. The second tested and quantified some of the qualitative findings, using two popula- tion surveys. Historical, Archival Research Secondary sources of information (published documents, newspapers, magazines, written records, and previous studies) were used to analyze public opinion regarding emigration in Ecuador. Data from the sixth population census of Ecuador (INEE 2001) helped us to gain a better understanding of specific demographic characteristics of the population of Ecuador and San Fernando. In-Depth Interviews We conducted 20 in-depth interviews of a sample of the population of San Fernando. In-depth interviews were conducted one-on-one and lasted between 30 and 60 minutes. The format was flexible, yielding rich infor- mation on personal opinions, beliefs, and values. The questionnaire was semistructured, starting with general questions intended to establish rap- port and then proceeding to more purposive questions. Media Analysis In modern societies, values are formed and transmitted primarily by the available means of communication. In recent decades, the role of mass media has become so relevant that some observers have proposed that social problems are not an entity themselves but are instead defined by what people think and say about them. They see the emergence of social problems through a process of public definitions (Blumer 1951; Kitsuse and Spencer 1973). In this approach, the media are considered to be both a "product" of the society and a technology to produce social images and stereotypes. For example, Becker (1966) indicates that a situation becomes a social problem when some person or group perceives it as a potential threat to their values. Widespread concern develops gradually after that person or group points out the condition to others and convinces them that it is a problem. When enough people become concerned with this condition or characteristic, institutions are established and charged with the respon- sibility of monitoring, controlling, and eradicating the problem. These institutions generate cases, information, and data to support their claims; a process of validation and public definition of the problem is established (Hubbard, DeFleur, and DeFleur 1975). 270 soruco, piani, and rossi The signs and symbols are the unit of analysis, rather than the inten- tions or aim of the communicators or the effects produced in the inter- preter. It has been argued that the mass media may reinforce certain beliefs of specific groups in society. In this sense, we sought to study "what was said" in the printed press about migrants and their families in order to understand the stereotypes and fantasies associated with that condition in San Fernando and Cuenca. In general, we analyzed the qualitative data using content analysis. This technique does not aim to quantify the media content, but rather to approach it as a "text" or discourse, a dominant imagery that constitutes stereotypes about residents and the migratory phenomenon in society (the upper and middle classes as well as the families of emigrants, who impose discrimina- tory criteria on themselves). This technique, developed in the humanities, complements quantitative data by focusing on the hegemonic discourse and cultural features on which discriminatory practices are based. Population Survey Once the qualitative stage was finalized, we proceeded to the quantita- tive method. We implemented two population surveys (Cuenca and San Fernando) in June and August 2006 to test the statistical significance of the qualitative findings. The survey was designed to optimize costs and time constraints and to maximize response rates and data quality. The population surveys gathered quantitative data that were used to estimate ordered probit models and to analyze the effect of the dependent variables on the levels of discrimination or on the attitudes and opinions regarding discrimination and exclusion. The models sought to determine how individual characteristics affect the formation of favorable opinions or attitudes toward migrants and their families or opinions about the existence of discrimination. This analysis was critical to identifying the key variables related to discrimination. Qualitative Methods In March 2006 we conducted 20 in-depth interviews with peasants liv- ing in the rural area of San Fernando. Interviewees had to be more than 20 years old and living in the rural area of San Fernando. We conducted another four interviews with "key informants" in the urban area of San Fernando: San Fernando's mayor, a member of the city council, a teacher at the local secondary school, and the vice principal of San Fernando's only high school. An open-ended questionnaire allowed the questions to be tailored to different interviewees' profiles. The interviews were recorded (with prior consent by the interviewee) and then transcribed and analyzed by mem- bers of the team. the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 271 The two city newspapers with the highest readership were monitored during a six-month period from September 2005 to February 2006: Mercu- rio, the newspaper with the highest readership in Cuenca, and El Comercio, the leading national newspaper. Our team identified, coded, and analyzed all news discussing any issue related to international emigration. In total, 424 articles were collected, of which 70 percent appeared in Mercurio and 30 percent appeared in El Comercio. Quantitative Methods The sample design used for the Migration Household Survey was a ran- dom sample of the urban populations of Cuenca and San Fernando. The first stage of selection was the census block,3 the second was the dwelling, and the third was the respondent member of the household. This sample design was self-weighted, meaning that all of the households had the same probability of being selected for the interview. The frame of reference was based on the list of blocks produced by the 2001 census of population and dwellings (INEE 2001). This list contains information about the geographic identification of each block and the num- ber of dwellings occupied at the time of the census. Each block is identified with its province, canton, census zone, census sector, and census block. The canton is the second-largest administrative and political division (after the province) of the national territory of Ecuador. Census zones are subdivisions of the cantons and correspond to the legal sections existing in Ecuador. Census tracts are an intermediate geographic unit, a subdivision of the census zone; in urban areas, sectors consist of a group of blocks. The census block is the smallest geographic unit. In urban areas, this is a city block, and in rural areas it is a clearly defined area of land that can be covered by a single enumerator during the population census. Once blocks were selected, the interviewer randomly selected dwellings according to the following procedure. Once the interviewer arrived at the selected block, he or she made a list of the private and occupied dwellings and then drew four titular and two alternate dwellings. The sample sizes presented in table 7A.1 were determined to guarantee a (plus or minus) 5 percent true value of the parameters to be estimated, with a 95 percent confidence level. The urban area of the canton of San Fernando has only one census zone, four sectors, and 73 blocks. For this reason, the survey was applied in at least three households per selected block. In Cuenca, the random sample drew the census sectors indicated in table 7A.2. The urban area of Cuenca has 53 census zones and 552 census sectors. For this reason, the survey questionnaire was applied to 60 census sectors with eight surveys each. Once the interviewer had selected the target dwelling, he or she made the first attempt to contact the household and to obtain a list of house- hold members by name and date of birth. In order to select a random 272 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7A.1 Sample Design, Size Cuenca San Fernando Target population size (occupied dwellings) 67,709 361 Confidence interval (%) 95 95 Confidence level (%) 5 5 Sample size (respondents) 480 185 Source: Authors' compilation. Table 7A.2 Sample Design, Selection in Cuenca Number Zone Parish Sector 1 1 San Sebastián 6 2 1 San Sebastián 7 3 3 San Sebastián 1 4 3 San Sebastián 9 5 5 Bellavista 3 6 6 El Vecino 2 7 8 Hno. Miguel 8 8 9 Hno. Miguel 2 9 10 Machángara 7 10 10 Machángara 9 11 11 Machángara 2 12 12 Machángara 1 13 14 El Vecino 7 14 14 El Vecino 8 15 16 El Vecino 2 16 16 El Vecino 11 17 18 Bellavista 7 18 19 Bellavista 4 19 20 Bellavista 7 20 21 San Sebastián 11 21 22 El Batán 7 22 23 El Batán 5 23 23 El Batán 11 (continued) the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 273 Table 7A.2 Sample Design, Selection in Cuenca (continued) Number Zone Parish Sector 24 24 El Batán 1 25 24 El Batán 3 26 24 El Batán 5 27 26 Sucre 1 28 26 Sucre 3 29 26 Sucre 9 30 26 Sucre 11 31 28 Gil Ramirez Dávalos 1 32 28 Gil Ramirez Dávalos 10 33 29 El Sagrario 2 34 29 El Sagrario 6 35 29 El Sagrario 10 36 29 El Sagrario 12 37 30 San Blas 9 38 31 Totoracocha 1 39 31 Totoracocha 4 40 33 Totoracocha 3 41 34 Monay 2 42 34 Monay 6 43 37 Cañaribamba 7 44 38 Cañaribamba 12 45 39 San Blas 1 46 39 San Blas 10 47 40 El Sagrario 1 48 40 El Sagrario 3 49 41 Gil Ramirez Dávalos 6 50 41 Gil Ramirez Dávalos 9 51 43 Sucre 1 52 43 Sucre 5 53 44 Yanuncay 6 54 44 Yanuncay 9 (continued) 274 soruco, piani, and rossi Table 7A.2 Sample Design, Selection in Cuenca (continued) Number Zone Parish Sector 55 48 Yanuncay 4 56 48 Yanuncay 5 57 48 Yanuncay 10 58 48 Yanuncay 11 59 53 Huayna Capac 8 60 53 Huayna Capac 9 Source: Authors' compilation. respondent, the interviewers applied the "next birthday" selection method, which consists of selecting the individual who is closest to an upcoming birthday. The survey was conducted in June and August 2006. The survey instrument was applied using a face-to-face, paper-and- pencil mode. The survey took an average of 25 minutes in Cuenca and 30 minutes in San Fernando. The questionnaire contained six thematic parts: 1. Introduction. General questions to "break the ice" and solicit infor- mation on likes and dislikes in regard to living in the city and main problems of the city 2. Migration. Questions regarding attitudes and opinions about the migration phenomenon 3. Discrimination. Questions to identify any possible discriminatory behavior in relation to the migration phenomenon 4. Satisfaction with life. Questions to measure happiness and model the social and economic costs of discrimination against migrants' families in Cuenca and San Fernando 5. Citizenship. Questions to measure the level of civic participation and community action and to model the costs of discrimination 6. Sociodemographic characteristics. Questions regarding standard characteristics of the respondents. Notes 1. The following quotations come from 20 in-depth interviews in San Fernando, conducted in March 2006. Names have been omitted to preserve interviewees' privacy. 2. We use "transculturation" instead of the more common term "acculturation" to avoid one-sided approaches to cultural change. Acculturation reflects only one- way change, from one culture to the other. Transculturation implies that cultural changes are two-way transformations; a person mixes her own culture with the new one and does not abandon her culture (Ortiz 1999). the situation of emigrants and their families in ecuador 275 3. A census block is the smallest geographic unit used by the U.S. Census Bureau for tabulation of 100 percent data (data collected from all houses rather than a sample of houses). Several blocks make up block groups, which again make up census tracts. There are, on average, about 39 blocks per block group, with varia- tions. Blocks are typically bounded by streets, roads, or creeks. In cities a census block may correspond to a city block, but in rural areas, where roads are fewer, blocks may be limited by other features. References Acosta, Alberto. 2005. "El aporte de las remesas para la familia ecuatoriana." Paper presented at the "Expert Group Meeting on International Migration and Development in Latin America and the Caribbean," United Nations Secretariat, Mexico. Balibar, Etienne, and Immanuel Wallerstein. 1992. Race, Nation, Class: Ambigu- ous Identities. London: Verso. Becker, Howard S. 1966. Outsiders: Studies in Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press. Bendicen and Associates. 2003. Receptores de remesas en el Ecuador: Una investi- gación de mercado. Quito: Inter-American Development Bank. Berger, Peter, and Thomas Luckmann. 2001. La construcción social de la realidad. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu. Blumer, Herbert. 1951. "Collective Behavior." In New Outline of the Principles of Sociology, ed. Alfred M. Lee. New York: Barnes and Noble. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1999. Meditaciones pascalianas. Barcelona: Anagrama. Foucault, Michel. 1994. Hermeneútica del sujeto. Madrid: La Piqueta. Hubbard, Jeffrey C., Melvin L. DeFleur, and Lois B. DeFleur. 1975. "Mass Media Influences on Public Conceptions of Social Problems." Social Problems 23 (1): 22­34. INEE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística del Ecuador). 1997. III censo nacional agropecuario. Quito: INEE. ------. 2001. VI censo nacional y V de vivienda. Quito: INEE. Kitsuse, John I., and Malcolm Spencer. 1973. "Toward a Sociology of Social Prob- lems: Social Conditions, Value Judgments, and Social Problems." Social Prob- lems 20 (4): 407­19. Municipio de San Fernando. 2005. Catastro rural. San Fernando, Ecuador: Muni- cipio de San Fernando. Ordóñez, Santiago. 2005. "Ciudades de blancos y diásporas cholas: El caso con- temporáneo de Cuenca, Ecuador." Paper presented at the Society of Latin American Studies, Amsterdam. Ortiz, Fernando. 1999. Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y el azúcar. Madrid: Letras Hispánicas. Quijano, Anibal. 2000. Colonialidad del poder, eurocentrismo y América Latina. Buenos Aires: Argentina. Ramírez, Franklin, and Jacques Paul Ramírez. 2005. La estampida migratoria ecuatoriana: Crisis, redes transnacionales y repertorios de acción migratoria. Quito: Centro de Investigaciones Ciudad. 8 Gender Differentials in Judicial Proceedings: Evidence from Housing-Related Cases in Uruguay Eduardo Gandelman, Néstor Gandelman, and Julie Rothschild The efficiency of the legal system is an important determinant of the devel- opment of the housing market. The easier it is to have a person evicted or a mortgaged property executed, the lower the probability of facing a breach by a debtor. Therefore, the available legal remedies facilitate or hamper the development of mortgage markets and have an impact on national home- ownership ratios. Within a country, if it is more costly to take over the collateral of women debtors, the market might be less willing to provide women with the required long-term financing to acquire a house. In this chapter we present evidence that the presence of a woman grants the defendant party judicial benefits that translate into extensions and longer proceedings, and we do so by using micro data to test whether courts are indeed more lenient toward women than men. This chapter finds evi- dence of favorable treatment of women in the judiciary system, and this is Eduardo Gandelman, Néstor Gandelman, and Julie Rothschild are with the Universidad ORT Uruguay. This study was undertaken as part of the Latin Ameri- can and Caribbean Research Network Project "Discrimination and Economic Outcomes." The authors wish to thank Alexis Avcharian, María del Lujan Riaño, Mariana Irazoqui, Rossana Aramendi, Virginia Cutinella, Carolina Pamparato, and María Laura Otegui for their research assistance. This chapter benefited from comments from Marina Andreas Moro, Hugo Ñopo, and Claudia Piras. 277 278 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild a case of positive discrimination in favor of women that is rarely found in the literature dealing with discrimination. Gender differences in court outcomes have been explained by, among others, paternalism, court chivalry, differences in male and female crimi- nality, and the practical problems of jailing women with children (see, for instance, Curran 1983; Simon 1975; Steffensmeier 1980). Remaining agnostic about the true cause of gender disparities does not prevent us from concluding that the existence of legal or judicial differentiation in favor of women may induce creditors to offer women worse financing conditions since transactions with them could involve higher costs in case of a breach of the obligations assumed. If so, this may induce worse hous- ing outcomes for females and female-headed families. Thus, in addition to providing insights into the efficiency of the judicial system, this chapter is relevant for housing and poverty alleviation policies. There is a sizable literature on disparities in judicial decision mak- ing, but most of it has focused on the socioeconomic characteristics of the judges or on the gender and ethnic origin of the defendants. Peresie (2005) finds that the gender composition of the bench affects federal appellate court outcomes in sexual harassment and sex discrimination cases. In contrast, Schanzenbach (2005) concludes that judges' race and sex have little influence on prison sentences in general but do affect racial and sex disparities. Manning, Carroll, and Carp (2004) report that younger judges are less inclined to accept allegations of age discrimina- tion. Mustard (2001) finds that blacks, males, and offenders with low education and income levels receive longer sentences in federal courts. This chapter forms part of this tradition but departs from it in at least three dimensions. First, most of the research conducted so far reflects the situation in developed countries, especially the United States. The efficiency of institutions in general and legal institutions in particular, however, is generally considered to be much worse in less-developed coun- tries, which makes Uruguay an interesting case. Second, our study focuses on housing market­related cases, an area that has been neglected both by the literature on judicial disparities and by the literature on housing discrimination, which has focused on access to mortgage credit (see, for instance, Ladd 1998). Finally, our study focuses on disparities produced by the gender of the defendant in proceedings that are not related to sex issues (for example, sexual harassment). We find that, all else remaining equal, the presence of women is associ- ated with foreclosure proceedings that take two to three months longer than similar cases against male defendants. This represents a delay of more than 10 percent of the time taken by the average case. Also, in comparison with all-male defendants, the presence of women in the defendant party increases by 25 percent the probability of being granted an extension in eviction cases. gender differentials in judicial proceedings 279 Gandelman (2008) presents evidence of lower probabilities of homeownership for female-headed households in Latin American coun- tries. Although not specifically tested, the evidence presented in this study may explain that result. Favorable legal treatment of women is a partial equilibrium result that may seem "positive" for women. This favorable treatment is likely to be transparent for all actors in the market, and therefore one could expect a general equilibrium result in which the market internalizes the court's favorable treatment in the form of harsher conditions in the housing market. Methodology and Legal Background Before 2002, no laws in Uruguay were intended to address explicitly the situation of women in housing market­related issues. With passage of Law 17.495 in 2002, this changed. The law now addresses one specific situa- tion: women who are pregnant during the wintertime. This law complements an older one (Law 13.405) authorizing judges to extend the time for eviction up to 120 days in cases of force majeure (circumstances beyond our control). This new law requires judges to take into account whether a pregnant woman, a child under 14 years old, or a person above 70 years old lives in the house when granting an extension of terms during the wintertime. The law establishes that the presence of a pregnant woman in the house has to be considered as a case of force majeure. Commenting on this law, parliamentarians have stated that all of these cases involve especially vulnerable people. Although no other laws explicitly protect women, it is widely accepted that women are treated more favorably than men in housing market­ related cases. It is a matter more of judicial practice than of law: judges seem to take gender differentials into consideration, for example, when granting extensions of the terms to evict or dispossess. In that sense, establishing the specific determinants of differential treatment in judicial practice seems to be a necessary starting point. In other words, we need to start by determining what favorable treatment of women means with regard to judicial practice. One possible approach would be to search for gender patterns in judges' final decisions, as in the literature cited in the introduction. How- ever, this approach is not applicable to the cases studied in this chapter because of the type of proceedings considered. The cited literature studies criminal cases where the content of the final decision can vary with the circumstances (the judge can find the defendant either innocent or guilty). In contrast, the content of the final decision in the cases studied for this chapter (taking for the final decision the one that orders dispossession, eviction, or the auction sale of the mortgaged property) is always the same. 280 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild The relevant variable is the time (forgone income) that it takes for the claimant to achieve that decision. Therefore, instead of a consequentialist approach, we take a procedural approach to determine the differential treatment in the judicial practice. One of the most important determinants is the duration of the proceed- ings, that is, the time that elapses from the moment a case is submitted to the court until the end of the proceedings. For this reason, we have analyzed, case by case, the duration of the proceedings and differentiated between those with female defendants and those with male defendants. Five types of judicial proceedings are related to the housing market and are therefore part of this investigation: · The mortgage foreclosure process is the legal action to force the sale of mortgaged property in order to obtain payment for the outstand- ing balance of a loan, a debt generated on the purchase of said prop- erty, or a debt generated by condominium expenses. This action ends with the auction sale of the mortgaged property to a new owner. · The annulment of promissory purchase agreement and the annulment of purchase agreement are the proceedings initiated on the breach of the obligation to pay the installments of a purchase or a promissory purchase agreement. These proceedings seek to have the agreement annulled and the property restituted. The action is concluded when the court orders the annulment of the agreement. · Eviction is a legal proceeding that the owner has to initiate for the dispossession of an occupied property. For instance, when a person simply enters into a house without the owner's permission and there is no rental agreement, either verbal or written, an eviction process has to be initiated. This is concluded only when a court orders the occupiers to evict. · If the former debtor occupies a property that has been auctioned, an action in rem needs to be initiated for the dispossession of the property. The new owner has to initiate this legal proceeding in order to access the property. The same happens when the debtor of a purchase agreement that has been annulled occupies the property. This action is concluded when the court orders the dispossession of the property. Before filing any of these claims, plaintiffs are required to submit certain basic information before the Caseflow Coordination Office (Oficina Dis- tribuidora de Turnos). This office assigns the court that will be in charge of the case and the term and provides a case number that will accompany the file through the process. Once the information is submitted, there is no chance to change the court that was assigned, not even by resubmitting information, since this case will always appear as a "precedent," and all related cases will be sent to the same court. gender differentials in judicial proceedings 281 Data With the support of the Supreme Court of Justice of Uruguay, we obtained access to the database of the Caseflow Coordination Office. The universe of cases for this investigation was defined on our review of the following data- base: 1,337 foreclosure proceedings, 66 annulments of purchase agreements, 388 actions in rem, 56 annulments of promissory purchase agreements, and 590 evictions that were submitted to the Caseflow Coordination Office in 2002. Therefore, there is a potential set of 2,437 judicial proceedings.1 Once we identified all of the case numbers, we went to the court offices involved to investigate the files, the Supreme Court of Justice having sent letters to each one of the offices requesting that the files be made available for our review. While reviewing the files, we found that 154 actions were related not to real estate but to other issues such as vehicles. Other files were not available for our review. Reasons for this included files were on a judge's desk (ongoing cases) or were "lost" at the office (most of those were not ongoing cases); 215 files were unavailable. We also realized that, even though some cases appeared in the Caseflow Office's database, they had never been submitted to the court. A possible explanation is that agreements were achieved in the time that elapsed between the submission to the Caseflow Office and the filing of the claim; 56 cases were in that situation. Many private transactions occur when legal proceedings have already begun. In fact, 19.5 percent of the investigated cases were closed because the parties entered into private transactions. For all of these rea- sons, 2,012 cases were included in our database. Finally, due to inconsis- tencies in the judicial files, we ended up with a database of 1,973 cases.2 The creation of the database with all of the relevant information for this investigation was the most time-consuming stage of the research, since courts in Uruguay keep hard, not electronic, copies of the files. Each file has many pages, with copious handwritten notes, which make it difficult to process. Two types of courts were involved in our investigation: the Juzgados de Paz Departamentales de la Capital and the Juzgados Letrados de Primera Instancia en lo Civil. The former are in charge of the eviction processes and other types of legal actions involving small amounts of money. Cases involving larger amounts are assigned to the latter courts, which are spe- cialized by subject and where judges have more experience because they are more advanced in their careers. Since there is one office per term, we reviewed files in 38 offices of the Juzgados de Paz and 20 offices of the Juzgados Letrados Civiles: · 829 of the cases investigated were submitted to the Juzgados de Paz. A female judge was in charge of about 90 percent of these cases. · 1,144 cases were submitted to the Juzgados Letrados. A female judge was in charge of about 70 percent of these cases. 282 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild With respect to the presence of women defendants, in 24 percent of the cases investigated (450 cases), all of the defendant party were men, while in 30 percent of the cases (562 cases), all of the defendant party were women. In the rest of the cases, the defendants included both men and women. Although the cases investigated were submitted to the court during 2002, not all of them were closed. In fact, 18.8 percent of total cases were still ongoing when the data were gathered:3 three evictions, 14 actions in rem, 347 foreclosures (246 ongoing and 101 in which the property had already been auctioned, but the title deed was still pending), and seven annulments. Only 26 percent of cases had completed all of the legal stages of the judicial proceedings. Table 8.1 describes the ongoing and closed cases and the reason for the closure. While some plaintiffs obtained the desired result by completing all of the legal steps required, others entered into a private transaction with the defendant. The table shows that private transactions were more common in the foreclosure process than in other proceedings, represent- ing 27 percent of foreclosure cases. Only 11 percent of the foreclosure proceedings completed all of the legal stages leading to the transfer of title deeds, but 9 percent of cases reached the auction stage. In some cases, the plaintiff simply decided not to continue with the pro- ceeding and gave notice of that decision to the court (2 percent of cases). In other instances, the plaintiff did not communicate with the court but failed to continue with the proceeding (for example, by not submitting the required briefs). Files found to be inactive for a long time are sent to the court's archives, and such cases are considered closed unless the plaintiff files a brief requesting that the case be continued; 18 percent of the cases investigated were in that situation. Basic Results As noted, one of the most important determinants of differential treatment in judicial practice is the duration of proceedings. Table 8.2 corroborates that the duration of the proceedings varies in some cases when women are defendants. From the beginning of the foreclosure proceedings until the auction sale of the properties, when there is a female in the defendant party, proceedings last from 50 to 70 more days than in cases with all-male defendants (the variation depends on whether the comparison is made with mixed male and female or with all-females cases). With respect to evictions and actions in rem, we consider the time that elapses from the beginning of the litigation until the case comes to an end with the court's order to evict or dispossess the property. Again looking at the means, there seems to be a positive correlation between the duration of eviction cases and the presence of female defendants. Cases against all-female defendants take longer than cases with both male and female defendants, which, in gender differentials in judicial proceedings 283 Table 8.1 Basic Statistics, by Status of Case Annulment of Promised Action Purchase purchase Case Eviction in rem Foreclosure agreement agreement Total Ongoing cases 3 14 246 1 6 270 Between auction and title deeds 0 0 101 0 0 101 Cases closed (completed all stages) 224 144 123 6 23 520 Cases closed because of transaction 46 21 298 4 9 379 Cases closed because plaintiff desisted 25 2 14 1 2 44 Cases closed because of inactivity of plaintiff 177 44 129 1 1 352 Cases closed for other reasons 69 38 190 3 7 307 Total 544 263 1,101 16 48 1,972 Source: Authors' compilation. turn, take longer than cases against all-male defendants. In any case, the average differences reported are small, and a t test of mean difference can- not reject the null hypothesis of equal means. Another important determinant is the extension of deadlines for evic- tion or dispossession. In cases of both evictions and actions in rem, defen- dants are allowed to request more than one extension of the deadline for being evicted or dispossessed, and the judge decides whether to grant such extensions and, if so, for how many days. (This is the typical case of the previously mentioned Law 17.495.) If judges take into consideration the presence of women, either when they make the decision to grant an extension or when they decide the length of the extension, then women 284 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild Table 8.2 Basic Statistics by the Presence of Women Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Time from beginning of case until Auction Eviction Dispossession Only males Mean 571 299 346 Standard deviation 335 205 281 Cases 62 99 25 Males and females Mean 642 306 372 Standard deviation 321 218 260 Cases 205 43 80 Only females Mean 618 309 381 Standard deviation 332 226 335 Cases 85 76 39 Total Mean 624 304 370 Standard deviation 326 214 284 Cases 352 218 144 Source: Authors' compilation. are indeed treated more favorably than men and the proceedings where women are involved will probably last longer than the merits of the case would have predicted. Table 8.3 therefore reports that, in evictions and actions in rem, there were extensions of terms in 268 cases, and in 72 percent of those cases (194 cases) the defendant party included a woman (either by herself or with a man). In 36 percent of cases (97 cases) where an extension occurred, defendant parties were made up only of women, and in 28 percent of cases (74 cases) the defendant party was made up only of men. That is to say, of the 252 evictions and actions in rem against all- male defendants, the judge granted an extension in 74 cases (29 percent). In the 265 cases involving all-female defendants, the judge granted an extension in 97 cases (37 percent). When women are defendants, the amount of days granted for an exten- sion increases. Table 8.4 shows that the average extension in cases with all-female defendants is 15 days, which is three days longer than in cases with all-male defendants. These averages include many cases in which the gender differentials in judicial proceedings 285 Table 8.3 Extensions of Terms by the Presence of Women Frequencies Percentages No Yes Total No Yes Total Only males 178 74 252 35 28 32 Males and females 162 97 259 32 36 33 Only females 168 97 265 33 36 34 Total 508 268 776 100 100 100 Source: Authors' compilation. Table 8.4 Amount of Days of Extension by the Presence of Women Average Standard deviation Cases Only males 12.3 27.9 252 Males and females 13.9 28.9 257 Only females 15.0 30.3 265 Total 13.8 29.1 774 Source: Authors' compilation. extensions were not granted (either because the defendant never requested them or because the court denied them). Only considering those cases where extensions were granted, the average extension time is 40 days. Econometric Results The evidence presented so far is unable to control for joint interactions of relevant variables. In order to do so, we ran several multivariate regres- sions, and in order to check the robustness of our results we consider three subsets of the sample. The results with respect to gender are summarized in table 8.5. The first row refers to the whole database, the second row is restricted to cases located in Montevideo, and the third row considers only cases of all-male or all-female defendants (that is, the cases of both male and female defendants are dropped). The annex presents a more detailed report of the regressions. With respect to foreclosures, in column A of table 8.5, we consider the time elapsed from the beginning of the case until the auction takes place. As for evictions and actions in rem, in columns B and C, respectively, we consider the total amount of time from the beginning of the litigation until the case ends with a court order to evict or dispossess, respectively. In these two types of cases, it is possible and relatively common to ask for 286 Table 8.5 Summary Regression Results Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G a Estimation method OLS OLS OLS Probit Tobit OLS Probita Complete database Female 69.3 23.8 27.1 8.9% 16.16 55.0 29.2% (35.3)* (34.9) (38.6) (0.03)*** (7.60)** (25.3)** (0.04)*** Only houses located in Montevideo Female 81.2 19.8 26.1 8.6% 16.80 59.7 19.7% (40.8)* (32.9) (45.6) (0.03)*** (7.67)** (26.7)** (0.04)*** Only cases against all males and all females Female 95.7 23.5 8.4 6.8% 12.69 49.8* 0.0% (52.2)* (42.1) (54.9) (0.03)* (8.65)* (30.9) (0.25) Source: Authors' compilation. Note: OLS = Ordinary least squares. Cluster standard errors in parentheses. a. Marginal effects. * Significant at 15%. ** Significant at 10%. *** Significant at 5%. gender differentials in judicial proceedings 287 one or more extensions. Therefore, in column D, using a probit model, we estimate the probability of such an event. To estimate the determinants of the total extended time, we need to consider that this variable is truncated at 0, and therefore we estimate a Tobit model in column E. Finally, we consider all types of cases together. Column F reports the determinants of the total time elapsed from the beginning until the end of the case, and column G reports the probability that the case was still ongoing when the field stage of this study was implemented (taking more than four years). This chapter focuses on gender-based differential treatment. Our per- ception is that the mere presence of a female in the defendant party (either solely or together with a male defendant, as opposed to proceedings against all-male defendants) changes the duration of the proceedings. Therefore, we define a dummy variable Female that takes the value of 1 if at least one of the defendants is female. Exploding the information available in our database, we define several control variables. Female Judge is a dummy variable taking the value of 1 if the judge in charge is female and 0 if the judge in charge is male (79 percent of all cases are under a female judge). As noted, the Juzgados Letrados deal with more complex cases than the Juzgados de Paz. We therefore define a dummy Type of court that takes the value of 1 for the Juzgados de Paz (42 percent of cases) to control for this complexity. The type of lawyer hired by the defendant may also affect the outcome. Private defense takes a value of 1 when the defendant hires a private lawyer (18 percent of all cases). Although we consider only cases in courts in the capital city, the prop- erty in question may not necessarily be located in Montevideo. For cases involving property located in Montevideo, we use the address of the house in dispute to locate the neighborhood. Using information from the House- hold Survey conducted by the National Institute of Statistics, we then divide the sample according to the implied socioeconomic level of the neighborhood in which the property is located: low, middle-low, middle- high, and high (9, 27, 41, and 22 percent, respectively, of the 1,616 prop- erties located in the capital city). Using this same strategy, we also infer average household income and average home value. Uruguay has a population of about 3.3 million people divided in approximately equal shares between Montevideo, the capital city, and the rest of the country. The household survey divides Montevideo into 62 neighborhoods and all other urban areas into 37 zones. In our database, we have cases corresponding to 61 of Montevideo's neighbor- hoods and 30 zones for the rest of the country. Using this division, we calculate the average household income, the average rent, and a comfort index, taking values from 1 to 9 depending on the number of appliances available at the household, and merge them with our database. We find the three measures to be very highly correlated, and therefore we use only one (Household Income measured in U.S. dollars) in our estimation to avoid collinearity problems. 288 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild In foreclosure proceedings, we control for the size of the debt leading to the legal dispute; in foreclosure cases, the value of the original mortgage is available as well. Even though it is probable that the credits related to the cases in our database are not mortgages, creditors are nonetheless willing to lend more to individuals with larger collateral. Therefore, the original mortgage can be used as a proxy for the value of the house in the foreclosure regressions. For the proceedings in which we do not have a proxy for the value of the house, we use our data on foreclosures to estimate a proxy. Using the 1,101 foreclosure cases, we calculate the average house value (mortgage) by neighborhoods in Montevideo and by zones in the rest of the country and impute this average to annulments of promissory purchase agree- ments, annulments of purchase agreements, evictions, and actions in rem. Finally, in order to avoid spurious results, we adjust the standard errors of all regressions for the cluster structure of the income and house value variables.4 We find that, after controlling for other variables, the presence of women is associated with longer foreclosure proceedings. In particular, when women are present it takes between 70 and 95 extra days (column A of table 8.5) to reach the actual auction. Considering the average time to get to an auction, according to our estimates using the whole sample, this represents an 11 percent increase in time. When the sample is restricted to Montevideo, the duration of judicial proceedings increases by 13 percent. Finally, when restricting the comparison to cases with all-male and all- female defendants, cases against women take 16 percent longer than cases against men. Although the point estimates suggest that evicting female defendants or recovering property from a female through an action in rem takes about 20 extra days (column B of table 8.5), these estimates are not statistically dif- ferent from 0. But, when all eviction and action in rem cases are considered together, we find that the presence of women is associated with a greater probability of being granted an extension (column D). The unconditional probability of obtaining an extension is 33 percent, and the marginal effect of Female is 9 percent, according to the estimation using the whole sample or restricting it to Montevideo. The marginal effect when comparing all- female and all-male defendants is 7 percent. Thus the average defendant party with a female presence has an approximately 25 percent greater like- lihood of obtaining an extension than an all-male defendant party. Accord- ing to column E, using the whole sample, female defendants are granted 16 extra days of extension with respect to male defendants. This result is robust in the database restricted to Montevideo but is only significant at the 15 percent level using all-male and all-female defendants. Finally, columns F and G use information for all cases. The result on the extension of the proceeding in the Female row of column F can be seen as a weighted average of columns A, B, and C, whereby female presence gender differentials in judicial proceedings 289 translates into proceedings that take between 50 and 60 more days. Finally, column G reports that female presence is associated with a greater prob- ability that the case is still not finished, but with differences between types of judicial proceedings. If these ongoing cases were to finish today, we would have to include in our estimation many proceedings that have been in court for four years. Therefore, the estimations of columns A, B, C, and G should be taken as the minimum effect of female presence. The rest of the variables included in the regressions present reasonable results (see the annex to this chapter). The lower the income of the house- hold and the lower the value of the house, the longer it takes to auction the property in foreclosure proceedings. In the same regard, our results suggest that the lower the value of the house, the longer it takes to evict someone from it. As for dispossessions and extensions of time, we find no statistically significant evidence of an effect for household income or the value of the property.5 The result in foreclosure proceedings is in line with the perception that paternalistic judges benefit women and lower-income households. Likewise, the larger the debt, the longer the extension of the foreclo- sure proceedings. The dummies for debt quartiles suggest that the rela- tion is nonlinear. Although we find no statistically significant effect for the second and third debt quartiles, the proceedings corresponding to the largest debts (fourth quartile) last about 40 percent longer (from 260 to 300 extra days). More complex cases in which the defendant hires a private lawyer to defend him take longer for all types of proceedings and increase the probability that an extension will be granted. The extension of time (valued at the mean duration) is on the order of 25 percent in foreclo- sure proceedings, about 40 percent in evictions, and about 60 percent in dispossessions. Conclusions Before 2002, Uruguay had no laws intended to address explicitly the situation of women in housing market­related issues. As of today, only one law specifically takes the situation of women into consideration. This chapter confirms the perception that, even though there is no legal tradition of explicitly addressing the situation of women, in practice courts do treat women more leniently than men. In that context, this study presents field evidence from judicial proceedings that the gender of the defendant affects the duration of the case. All else equal, proceed- ings against female defendants take longer and women are more likely to be granted extensions than men. Given that female-headed households have a lower probability of attaining homeownership in Uruguay, our 290 eduardo gandelman, néstor gandelman, and rothschild results suggest a possible explanation for the poor female outcomes in the housing market. The favorable treatment of women by the courts is a partial equilibrium result that may seem "positive" for women in the sense that, even when they do not have the right to stay there, they manage to remain in their current homes longer than men. A necessary condition for development of the housing market (for example, mortgage financing) is the efficiency of the available legal rem- edies for dealing with a breach by a debtor. If it is more difficult to take over the collateral of women debtors, the market might impose stricter contract conditions on women than on men. In this sense, it is possible to conjecture that the general equilibrium result of the court's favorable treatment of women may be to create more difficult access for women to long-term financing for acquiring a house and ultimately a lower probability of attaining homeownership. Similarly, if females and female-headed families are more likely to be granted exten- sions in eviction cases, landlords may reasonably request harsher guaran- ties in order to rent their properties to them. Annex: Regression Results Table 8A.1 Regression Analysis Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Estimation method OLS OLS OLS Probit Tobit OLS Probit Female 69.3 23.8 27.1 0.25 16.16 55.0 4.08 (35.3)* (34.9) (38.6) (0.09)*** (7.60)** (25.3)** (0.37)*** Female* (promissory ­3.78 purchase agreement) (0.52)*** Female* (purchase 1.48 agreement) (0.35)*** Female* (foreclosure) ­4.04 (0.41)*** Female* (action ­4.05 in rem) (0.26)*** Household income ­0.2 ­0.0 ­0.0 ­0.00 ­0.00 ­0.0 ­0.00 (0.1)*** (0.1) (0.2) (0.00) (0.02) (0.0) (0.00)*** House value ­0.6 ­0.5 0.9 0.00 0.01 ­0.2 0.00 (0.2)*** (0.2)** (1.3) (0.00) (0.14) (0.2) (0.00) Debt (2nd quartile) 66.3 291 (44.8) (continued) Table 8A.1 Regression Analysis (continued) Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem 292 Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Debt (3rd quartile) 7.0 (41.6) Debt (4th quartile) 264.9 (46.8)*** Female judge ­110.0 28.1 ­15.2 0.12 5.71 ­85.7 0.12 (40.2)*** (47.7) (39.6) (0.11) (10.83) (27.6)*** (0.08) Private defense 160.2 123.8 221.4 0.43 27.81 119.1 0.46 (51.1)*** (30.5)*** (60.8)*** (0.09)*** (7.60)*** (28.2)*** (0.11)*** Type of court (de Paz) 180.8 138.8 6.7 ­0.20 11.22 ­200.2 ­0.76 (76.9)** (66.7)** (63.4) (0.13) (8.36) (25.2)*** (0.11)*** Control for type of case included Constant 617.6 113.5 261.3 ­0.67 ­77.32 573.7 ­5.67 (55.6)*** (89.8) (104.7)** (0.19)*** (16.08)*** (40.3)*** (0.27)*** Observations 364 222 146 789 787 731 1,912 R-squared 0.22 0.08 0.13 0.13 Mean dependent variable 621.9 305.2 364.2 0.336 13.5 474.9 0.188 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: OLS = Ordinary least squares. Cluster standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 15%. ** Significant at 10%. *** Significant at 5%. Table 8A.2 Regression Analysis (Montevideo) Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Estimation method OLS OLS OLS Probit Tobit OLS Probit (coeff.) (coeff.) Female 81.2 19.8 26.1 0.24 16.80 59.7 4.00 (40.8)* (32.9) (45.6) (0.09)*** (7.67)** (26.7)** (0.43)*** Female* (promissory ­3.31 purchase agreement) (0.68)*** Female* (purchase agreement) Female* (foreclosure) ­3.95 (0.49)*** Female* (action ­4.13 in rem) (0.40)*** Household income ­0.1 ­0.0 ­0.1 ­0.00 ­0.01 0.0 ­0.00 (0.1)** (0.1) (0.2) (0.00) (0.02) (0.1) (0.00)*** House value ­0.8 ­0.4 1.8 0.00 0.02 ­0.3 0.00 (0.3)*** (0.2)* (1.1) (0.00) (0.14) (0.2) (0.00) Debt (2nd quartile) 113.3 (50.6)** Debt (3rd quartile) 21.2 293 (49.2) (continued) Table 8A.2 Regression Analysis (Montevideo) (continued) 294 Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Debt (4th quartile) 301.5 (59.2)*** Woman judge ­142.8 22.3 ­26.6 0.12 4.74 ­103.1 0.05 (49.4)*** (46.7) (41.5) (0.12) (10.93) (29.9)*** (0.11) Private defense 173.1 131.2 233.8 0.39 26.28 132.2 0.50 (54.4)*** (28.5)*** (65.4)*** (0.09)*** (7.63)*** (28.9)*** (0.14)*** Type of court (de Paz) 185.9 43.5 ­0.5 ­0.21 9.48 ­176.8 ­0.65 (84.1)** (24.2)* (72.3) (0.13) (8.54) (26.1)*** (0.11)*** Control for type of case included Constant 589.7 203.9 285.8 ­0.61 ­72.43 527.2 ­5.79 (54.6)*** (72.8)*** (112.5)** (0.19)*** (16.22)*** (44.3)*** (0.31)*** Observations 256 218 137 764 762 610 1,578 R-squared 0.28 0.08 0.14 0.14 Mean dependent variable 605.9 300.9 374.7 0.340 13.8 445.8 0.155 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: OLS = Ordinary least squares. Cluster standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 15%. ** Significant at 10%. *** Significant at 5%. Table 8A.3 Regression Analysis (All Male vs. All Female) Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Estimation method OLS OLS OLS Probit Tobit OLS Probit Woman 95.7 23.5 8.4 0.19 12.69 49.8* 0.00 (52.2)* (42.1) (54.9) (0.10)* (8.65)* (30.9) (0.25) Woman* (promissory 0.06 purchase agreement) (0.82) Woman* (purchase agreement) Woman* (foreclosure) 0.01 (0.29) Woman* (action ­0.15 in rem) (0.00) Household income ­0.0 ­0.0 0.2 ­0.00 ­0.02 0.0 ­0.00 (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.00) (0.02) (0.1) (0.00)*** House value ­0.6 ­0.3 ­0.6 0.00 ­0.04 ­0.4 0.00 (0.3)* (0.3) (2.2) (0.00) (0.16) (0.2) (0.00) Debt (2nd quartile) 121.0 (76.0) Debt (3rd quartile) ­24.7 (53.3) 295 (continued) Table 8A.3 Regression Analysis (All Male vs. All Female) (continued) 296 Foreclosures Evictions Actions in rem Evictions and actions in rem All cases Time from beginning of case until Probability of Total extended Total case Probability case Auction Eviction Dispossession extension time duration is still ongoing A B C D E F G Debt (4th quartile) 263.3 (66.5)*** Woman judge ­158.3 17.5 10.2 0.11 6.62 ­72.9 0.10 (57.9)*** (51.3) (101.6) (0.17) (14.14) (40.2)* (0.15) Private defense 264.0 111.5 240.2 0.26 22.34 112.6 0.39 (86.1)*** (38.3)*** (153.2) (0.11)** (9.34)** (37.3)*** (0.17)** Type of court (de Paz) 349.6 49.2 ­55.9 ­0.10 20.11 ­177.4 ­0.67 (92.9)*** (34.2) (55.5) (0.18) (12.57) (33.5)*** (0.17)*** Control for type of case included Constant 539.1 215.7 268.2 ­0.50 ­69.78 532.2 ­5.76 (61.6)*** (101.2)** (163.1) (0.23)** (19.89)*** (55.3)*** (0.00) Observations 136 172 59 503 503 366 945 R-squared 0.30 0.06 0.12 0.13 Mean dependent variable 595.1 305.7 377.5 0.332 13.9 425.3 0.134 Source: Authors' compilation. Note: OLS = Ordinary least squares. Cluster standard errors in parentheses. * Significant at 15%. ** Significant at 10%. *** Significant at 5%. gender differentials in judicial proceedings 297 Notes 1. The most common eviction proceeding is when a tenant stops paying the rent due, and the landlord initiates the eviction process. In 2002 there were about 3,000 such cases. Although we acknowledge that it would have been interesting to have these cases in our database, they were not included for two reasons: (a) we were unable to collect a database of more than 5,000 cases, and (b) we preferred to focus on the other types of proceedings, which are more directly related to homeownership. 2. For instance, although the universe was defined with the cases that were initiated in 2002, we found files corresponding to cases that started before that date. These cases were dropped from the final database. We also found cases that started after 2002. These cases were included in the database since they were the continuation of judicial cases initiated in 2002; examples of such cases include actions in rem after a foreclosure mortgage. 3. The fieldwork was carried out between July and September 2006. 4. The clustering adjusts the standard errors for possible intragroup (neigh- borhood or zone) correlation. 5. We explored interactions of household income and house value with the gender dummy and found no differences worth reporting. References Curran, Debra. 1983. "Judicial Discretion and Defendant's Sex." Criminology 21 (1): 41­58. Gandelman, Nestor. 2008. "Gender Differentials in the Housing Markets in Latin America." Research Network Working Paper R-547, Inter-American Develop- ment Bank, Washington, DC. Ladd, Helen. 1998. "Evidence on Discrimination in Mortgage Lending." Journal of Economic Perspectives 12 (2): 41­62. Manning, Kenneth, Bruce Carroll, and Robert Carp. 2004. "Does Age Matter? Judicial Decision Making in Age Discrimination Cases." Social Science Quar- terly 85 (1): 1­18. Mustard, David. 2001. "Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts." Journal of Law and Economics 44 (1): 285­314. Peresie, Jennifer. 2005. "Female Judges Matter: Gender and Collegial Decision Making in Federal Appellate Courts." Yale Law Journal 114 (7): 1759­90. Schanzenbach, Max. 2005. "Racial and Sex Disparities in Prison Sentences: The Effect of District-Level Judicial Demographics." Journal of Legal Studies 34 (1): 57­92. Simon, Rita. 1975. Women and Crime. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Steffensmeier, Darrell. 1980. "Assessing the Impact of the Women's Movement on Sex-Based Differences in the Handling of Adult Criminal Defendants." Crime and Delinquency 26 (3): 344­57. Index Boxes, figures, notes, and tables are indicated by b, f, n, and t following page numbers. A measures of individual popularity, 100, 108­9 Altonji, J., 3 perceived beauty correlated with altruism popularity, 109, 110t, as basis for pro-social 113, 114, 115t, 119, behavior, 45 120­21t, 127 dictator game for analysis questionnaires to assess, 127­31 of, 46 race/ethnicity and, 102, 105, experimental research findings 108, 111, 113, 127 on social preference research findings, 8, 126­27 effects, 46 research goals, 7­8, 97 Anderson, C. L., 5 research methodology, 97­99, Angrist, J., 124­26 100­101, 108, 109 Argentina, adolescent peer sample population for research ranking in on, 98, 102, 105 academic performance and, 102, social network formation and 105, 109, 113, 120­21t, effects, 122­26 123, 124, 127 socioeconomic status and developmental significance of parental education, 102, peer relationships, 98 105­8, 109­11, 113, 127 effects of individual sociometric popularity, 132n.8 characteristics on student ranking of physical popularity, 109­19, 110t, appearance, 100, 101 111t, 112t, 116t, 118t audit studies, 5, 6, 137­38 evidence of discrimination in, Ayres, I., 5 126­27 gender mix of schools and, 116­19 B individual characteristics correlated with, 102­8, Balibar, E., 231 103­4t, 106­7t Becker, G., 4­5 299 300 index Bertrand, M., 5, 43, 138, 159 socioeconomic factors, 139, Blank, R., 3 140­41, 142, 149­50, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, 152­57t 4, 137 wages, 136, 183n.3, 193, Bogomolnaia, A., 20 194­95t, 212t, 215 Bourdieu, P., 231 see also Chile, unobserved Bowles, S., 39, 43 heterogeneity in gender Bowlus, A., 6 differences in labor market Brañas, P., 77 outcomes; employment discrimination Chile, unobserved heterogeneity in C gender differences in labor Carp, R., 278 market outcomes Carroll, B., 278 challenges for researchers Castillo, M., 14, 19 of, 186 Chile, employment discrimination in data sources, 188, 206 race-based, 138 employment experience, research to date, 137, 185 212­14t, 216­20t see also Chile, gender differences hypothesis, 185 in labor market; Chile, individual abilities, 202 unobserved heterogeneity limitations of single variable in gender differences in research, 224, 226­27n.19 labor market outcomes research findings, 202, 215­24, Chile, gender differences in labor 225 market research methodology, 186, controlling for unobserved 206­9, 224, 225 characteristics in research schooling factors, 186, 187t, on, 136 189­92t, 197, 201t, 202, conventional gender gap 212­14t, 215­21, 221t, analysis, 188­202 222­23t distinguishing characteristics, variables of interest, 210t, 211t 136, 186 see also Chile, gender educational attainment of differences in labor workers, 136, 143, 144, market 212­14t Colombia, social services delivery in employment experience at-risk groups, 41 of workers, 143­44, conceptual basis of pro-social 197­202, 200t, 212­14t behavior, 45 fictitious CV research current structure and methodology, 135­36, functioning, 42 136, 137, 138­44, dictator game outcomes, 58, 161­67t, 174­82f 59­62t hours worked, 193­95, efficiency and equity outcomes 196­97t, 215, 216­20t of experimental research labor force participation, 136 on, 92­93t research findings, 8, 144­60, evidence of discrimination, 42, 167­72t 43­44 index 301 experimental research findings discrimination, generally on discrimination in, 7, definition, 3­4, 231 40, 47­49, 50­58, 50t, research methodology, 4­6 51f, 67, 77­78 social construction theory of, hypothetical effects of agent and 231­32 beneficiary preferences, discrimination in Latin America, 39, 43, 44 generally local official discretion in, 44 data sources and research methodology for social methodology, 1­2, 3 preference research, 7, 39, empirical evidence, 1 43­44, 45­47, 49­50, popular opinion, 1 52­53, 79, 79t, 80t, research methodologies, 6­7 81­82, 88­91 target groups, 2 political discrimination in, 48 trends, 41­42 recipient characteristics as see also Argentina, adolescent experimental variable, 48, peer ranking in; Chile, 57, 58, 67, 89­91tt employment discrimination salient issues, 37­39, 41­43 in; Colombia, social sample population for services delivery in; experimental study, Ecuador, emigration 39­40, 48­49, 82­88, 84f, experience and outcomes; 85t, 86tt, 87tt, 88tt Lima, Peru, discrimination significance of experimental in; Uruguay, gender findings, 77­78 discrimination in judicial third party punishment game system outcomes, 67, 72­76t distributive dictator game trust game outcomes, 67, application, 47 68­71t design, 46­47 tutela mechanism and claims research on preference effects of exclusion from, 42, in social service delivery, 94­95n.8 49­50 ultimatum game outcomes, 58, distributive justice, experimental 63­66t, 67 game for analysis of, 47 vulnerable groups as Dominican Republic, 2 beneficiaries of, 40, 47 corruption, in social services E allocation, 37 Costa Rica, 2 Eckstein, Z., 6 economic advancement, individual benefits of group membership, 14 D judicial discrimination and, 277, dictator game 278, 290 application, 46 see also poor population; social preference effects in socioeconomic status Columbia study, 39, 46, Ecuador 48, 49­53, 50t, 51f, 53t, economic development, 230 58, 59­62t, 77 educational attainment, 239t 302 index land ownership patterns, 237, theoretical framework, 231­32 237t see also Ecuador public perception of educational attainment and discrimination academic performance prevalence, 3 in Argentina study of adolescent self-perceived racism, 3 ranking of peers, 102, see also Ecuador, emigration 105, 110t, 113, 120­21t, experience and outcomes 123, 124, 127 Ecuador, emigration experience and in Chile studies of gender outcomes differences in employment, data sources, 233, 269, 270, 143, 144, 186, 187t, 271­74 189­92t, 197, 201t, 202, discrimination against families of 212­14t, 215­21, 221t, emigrants, 8­9, 251­53, 222­23t 252t, 254­55t, 267, 268 as discrimination outcome, 2 discrimination outcomes, 268 in Ecuador, 239t economic value of remittances, gender differences in Chile, 202, 229, 230, 233, 234f, 250t 203­5t, 215­21, 225 educational outcomes, 238­40 remittance spending in Ecuador, emigrant experience, 230, 235, 238­40 241­43 social network effects, 123, 124 emigration prevalence, 249t social preference outcomes expert opinion, 245 in Colombia study, 48, individual differences correlated 58, 67 with discriminatory efficiency attitudes, 9, 253, 254­59t, outcomes of Colombia social 261, 262­66t, 264, 267 preference study, 92, 93 marginalization of children of sources of failure in social emigrants in Ecuador, services delivery, 37, 243­45 40­41 media coverage, 241­46, 242f, emigrants. see Ecuador, emigration 269­70, 271 experience and outcomes money lending practices, 238 employment discrimination perceived discrimination, definition, 3 260­61 equality of opportunity public perception, 229, 240­41, principle, 160 246­48, 247t, 248t, 249t, experimental research design, 43 251, 252t, 267 research methods, 137­38 remittance spending patterns, shortcomings of current 233, 234, 236­40, 245, knowledge base, 135, 138 248­51, 251t social preference outcomes in research findings, 9, 267­68 Colombia study, 77­78 research methodology, 8­9, see also Chile, employment 232­33, 269­74 discrimination in; Chile, research to date, 229 gender differences in labor socioeconomic outcomes, 229, market; Chile, unobserved 230, 233­40, 268 heterogeneity in gender index 303 differences in labor market see also Chile, gender differences outcomes in labor market; Chile, equity unobserved heterogeneity outcomes of Colombia social in gender differences in preference study, 92, 93 labor market outcomes; sources of failure in social Uruguay, gender services delivery, 37­38, discrimination in judicial 40­41 system Espinosa, S., 42 Gignoux, J., 160 expectancy effects Gintis, H., 39, 43 expectations of discrimination Gutiérrez, R., 137 among poor, 44 experimental game offers in pro- H social research, 53­54 experimental studies of Heckman, J. J., 6, 124, 138, 194, discrimination, 5­6, 7, 202, 210, 216 14­15, 16, 137­38 Holt, K., 5 F I Ferreira, F., 160 indigenous population field experiments, 5, 6, 137 allocation of social service Flabbi, L., 6 resources in Colombia, 42 Fong, C. M., 39 discrimination risk in Latin Foucault, M., 231 America, 41 Fryer, R., 5 preferences in social services allocation, 48 public perception of G discrimination against, 2 Galeotti, A., 98 selection into groups on Gandelman, N., 279 basis of appearance, Gaviria, A., 42 29­32 gender differences information peer popularity rankings, school as basis for self-selection into gender mix and, 116­19 groups, 16­17 sorting into groups based on discrimination ended by, 15, appearances, 29, 30t 33­34 gender discrimination discriminatory behavior in accounting for unobserved absence of, 14, 15­16 characteristics in research inequities and inefficiencies on, 136, 137 in social services positive discrimination toward delivery, 38 women, 277­78, 279, 290 Internet-based experiments, 17­19 public opinion, 2 interpersonal relationships social preference outcomes in role of trust in, 13 Colombia study, 48, 58, social network formation and 67, 77 effects, 122­26 304 index see also Argentina, adolescent low-income countries, public peer ranking in; self- perception of selection into groups discrimination in, 2 Irarrázaval, I., 42 Luttmer, E. F. P., 39 J M Jackson, M. O., 20 Manning, K., 278 Judicial proceedings, marital status, social preference discrimination in outcomes in Colombia current understanding, 278 study, 77­78 shortcomings of current market tests of discrimination, 4­5 research, 278 McIntyre, S. J., 5 see also Uruguay, gender Mexico discrimination in judicial public perception of system discrimination causes and effects, 2 public perception of K discrimination prevalence, 2­3 Knowles, J., 5 Moberg, D. J., 5 Kuhn, P., 98 Montenegro, C., 136 Moro, A., 6 Mueller, G., 98 L Mullainathan, S., 5, 43, 138, 159 Latinobarómetro, 1­2 Mustard, D., 278 Lavy, V., 124­26 Layne-Farrar, J., 124 N Lima, Peru, discrimination in correlation of personal Newman, J. M., 5 characteristics with Nicaragua, 2 behavior in public Ñopo, H., 22 goods game, 24­27, 25f, Núñez, J., 42, 137 26f, 27t gender differences, 29, 30t O population sample for research on, 17­19, 23­24, 24t Ortiz, R., 42 racial/ethnic differences in, 29­32, 31t P research findings, 7, 15, 33­34 research methodology, 7, 14­15, parental education, 102, 105­8, 19­22 109­11, 110t, 113 sorting into groups based on Peresie, J., 278 personal characteristics Persico, N., 5 versus personal behavior, Peru 28­32 prevalence of discrimination see also Peru experience, 2 index 305 public perception of in delivery of social services, 38 discrimination causes and experimental model, 38, effects, 2 52­53, 77 salience of discrimination issues findings from experiment in in, 14 social services allocation, see also Lima, Peru, 47­48, 57­58, 67, 77­78 discrimination in lessons from Colombia study on Petrie, R., 14, 19 social preference effects, physical appearance 77­78 adolescent ranking of peers in recipient characteristics as factor Argentina study, 101, 109, in, 48, 57, 58 110t, 113, 114, 115t, 119, public goods experiments, 14­15, 19 120­21t, 127 correlation of personal discrimination based on, 15 characteristics with self-selection into groups based behavior, 24­27, 25f, on, 15, 16, 22­23 26f, 27t political economy findings of Peru study, 33­34 in delivery of social services, 37 public perception and discrimination against former understanding political activists in causes and effects of Colombia study, 48, 58, 78 discrimination, 2 sources of social tension in Latin groups perceived as victims of America, 41­42 discrimination, 2 poor population prevalence of discrimination in challenges in discrimination Latin America, 1, 2­3 research, 3 social construction of expectation of discrimination, 44 discrimination, 231­32 poorness as discrimination punishment behavior outcome, 2 experimental game for analysis see also economic advancement, of, 46 individual; socioeconomic experimental research findings status on, 52 Posner, B. Z., 5 see also third-party punishment preference-based discrimination, game 3­4 behavior based on physical R appearance as, 16 in choosing group members, race/ethnicity 16­17 in Argentina study of adolescent experimental research, 16 ranking of peers, 7­8, 102, findings of Peru study, 33­34 105, 111, 113­14, 127 prevalence of discrimination, differences in sorting into groups public perception in Latin based on appearances, America, 1, 2­3 29­32, 31t pro-social behavior discrimination in Peru, 14, 34 components and conceptual discrimination risk in Latin basis, 38, 45 America, 41 306 index employment discrimination in Peru study of discrimination, 7, Chile, 138 14­15, 17­22 public perception of regression analysis, 4, 137 discrimination in Latin sampling strategies, 17­18 America, 1, 2 Shortcomings in employment social preference outcomes in discrimination research, Colombia study, 42, 48 135 sorting into groups based on, structural methods, 6 22, 32 Riach, P., 138 reciprocity Rich, J., 138 basis of pro-social behavior, 45 rural areas fear of sanction effects, discrimination against migrants experimental research from, 41, 241, 244, 245 findings on, 52 migration trends in Latin findings from experiment in America, 41 social services allocation, 47, 52, 53­54 S ultimatum game for analysis of, 46 Saavedra, J., 22 regression analysis, 4, 137, 150 Schanzenbach, M., 278 research methodology self-selection into groups Argentina study of popularity additivity of preferences and discrimination in in, 20 adolescence, 7­8, 97­99, based on photographs, 15, 19, 100­101, 108, 109, 21, 22­23, 28t, 29 127­31 basis for, 13­14 Chile studies of gender economic theory, 16 differences in labor incentive-compatible market, 8, 135­36, 137, mechanisms, 20 138­44, 161­67t, 186, perception of personal 206­9, 224­25 characteristics versus Colombia study of social personal performance as preferences in social basis for, 14, 15, 16­17, services allocation, 7, 28­34 39­40, 43­44, 45­47 as preference-based versus Ecuador study of discrimination statistical discrimination, against emigrants, 8­9, 16­17 232­33 public goods game experiment employment discrimination, on, 19­22 137­38 role of trust in, 14­15 experimental approaches, 5­6, Siegelman, P., 6, 138 137­38 Smart, S., 5 gender discrimination in social services Uruguay courts, 279­80 lessons from Colombia study on Internet-based experiments, social preference effects, 17­19 77­78 market tests, 4­5 political economy, 37 index 307 risk of discrimination in delivery T of, 37, 38­39, 40­41 third-party punishment game social preferences of agent in application, 46 delivery of, 38 design, 46 sources of failure in equitable social preference effects in and efficient delivery, 37, Colombia study, 39, 38­39 49­53, 50t, 51f, 53t, see also Colombia, social 55­56, 67, 72­76t services delivery in Todd, P., 5, 124 socioeconomic status Torero, M., 22 in Argentina study of adolescent trust ranking of peers, 7­8, basis of pro-social behavior, 45 102, 105­8, 109­11, 127 experimental game for analysis in Chile study of gender of, 46 discrimination in findings from experiment employment, 139, in social services 140­41, 142, 149­50, allocation, 47 152­57t self-selection into groups based discrimination based on, 15 on, 14­15 discriminator characteristics in in social relationships, 13 Ecuador study, 9 trust game employment discrimination application, 46 research, 137 design, 46 public perception of social preference effects discrimination based in Columbia study, on, 2 39, 46, 49­53, 50t, remittance outcomes in Ecuador, 51f, 53t, 54f, 55, 229, 230, 234­40, 268 67, 68­71t social preference outcomes in Colombia study, 58, 77­78 U sources of tension in Latin America, 41­42 ultimatum game see also economic advancement, application, 46 individual; poor design, 46 population social preference effects in statistical discrimination, 3­4, Columbia study, 39, 46, 16­17, 41, 240 49­55, 50t, 51f, 53t, 58, stereotyping 63­66t, 67 effects of information in Uruguay dispelling, 33­34 legal protections for women, as statistical discrimination, 279, 289 3­4 public perception of stigmatization, 4 discrimination causes and Stixrud, J., 202 effects, 2 structural methods in Uruguay, gender discrimination in discrimination research, 6 judicial system 308 index case characteristics, 281­82, research methodology, 279­80 283t, 284t, 291­96t source of, 278 data sources, 281 Urzúa, S., 202 duration of proceedings as indicator of, 280, 282­85, V 285t, 287, 288­89 econometric analysis, 285­89, victims of discrimination 286t expectations of discrimination, implications for housing access, 44, 53­54 277, 278, 279, 280, public perception, 2­3 289­90 legal protections for women, W 279, 289 manifestations, 9 Waldfogel, J., 5 outcomes for women, 179, Wallerstein, I., 231 277­78, 290 Weinberger, C., 98 research findings, 277­78, 289­90 ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank is committed to preserving Saved: endangered forests and natural resources. The · 10 trees Office of the Publisher has chosen to print · 3 million BTUs of total Discrimination in Latin America on recycled energy paper with 30 percent post-consumer waste, · 904 pounds of net in accordance with the recommended stan- greenhouse gases dards for paper usage set by the Green Press · 4,354 gallons of waste Initiative, a nonprofit program supporting water publishers in using fiber that is not sourced · 264 pounds of solid from endangered forests. For more informa- waste tion, visit www.greenpressinitiative.org. LAT IN AM ERICA N D EVELO P ME NT FORUM S E RI E S L atin America has often been regarded as a region with deep ethnic and class conflicts. The difficulty in assessing these divisions from an economic perspective is twofold: There is little solid, unbiased, and systematic data to provide convincing empirical evi- dence, and there is a dearth of empirical methods to identify specific discriminatory-based behavior, as opposed to related behavior that might only appear to be discriminatory. This book uses a variety of methodological tools--regression analysis, market tests, field experi- ments, audit studies, and structural methods--to explore the extent to which discrimination against women and demographic minorities is pervasive in Latin America. "I congratulate and express my gratitude--which I think would also express the gratitude of millions of excluded people--to all of the authors for their innovative use of new methodolo- gies and data sources applied to the study of discrimination.... A truly healthy democracy requires more from us than merely doing business with other groups in the virtual marketplace of the Internet; rather, we must look into each other's eyes and rec- ognize our common humanity. The strength of a globalized world lies in direct human contact, and in a mutual knowledge and a mutual respect for our cultural diversities. This book testifies that there is indeed a close connection between knowledge and respect; experiments show that providing information on an individual's performance is a powerful antidote to irrational discrimination. It is the responsibility of society's leaders--and indeed, of all of us--to provide equal levels of health care, nutrition, and education to the millions of socially excluded." --Alejandro Toledo, PhD President of Peru (2001­06) ISBN 978-0-8213-7835-9 SKU 17835