WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 369 \WTP3sq Work in progress for public discussion Sept r 1 '? Fron Farmers to Fishers /-/ I'co/"- I)i-//u'. -('( Dams P(it I4 # $, , RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 302 Baldry, Calamari, and Yameogo, Environmental Impact Assessment of Settlement and Development in the Upper Leraba Basin No. 303 Heneveld and Craig, Schools Count: World Bank Project Designs and the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 304 Foley, Photovoltaic Applications in Rural Areas of the Developing World No. 305 Johnson, Education and Training of Accountants in Sub-Saharan Anglophone Africa No. 306 Muir and Saba, Improving State Enterprise Performance: The Role of Internal and External Incentives No. 307 Narayan, Toward Participatory Research No. 308 Adamson and others, Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow: Can Economic Incentives Really Help? No. 309 The World Bank/FOA/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supply and Demand Balancesfor Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potash, 1993/94-1999/2000 No. 310 Elder and Cooley, editors, Sustainable Settlement and Development of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area: Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeting No. 311 Webster, Riopelle and Chidzero, World Bank Lending for Small Enterprises 1989-1993 No. 312 Benoit, Project Finance at the World Bank: An Overview of Policies and Instruments No. 313 Kapur, Airport Infrastructure: The Emerging Role of the Private Sector No. 314 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Ramos, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Ecuador No. 316 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Making the Most of Global Trade No. 317 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Guide to Best Practice No. 318 Taylor, Boukambou, Dahniya, Ouayogode, Ayling, Abdi Noor, and Toure, Strengthening National Agricul- tural Research Systems in the Humid and Sub-humid Zones of West and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action No. 320 Srivastava, Lambert, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Development No. 321 Srivastava, Smith, and Forno, Biodiversity and Agriculture: Implications for Conservation and Development No. 322 Peters, The Ecology and Management of Non-Timber Forest Resources No. 323 Pannier, editor, Corporate Governance of Public Enterprises in Transitional Economies No. 324 Cabraal, Cosgrove-Davies, and Schaeffer, Best Practicesfor Photovoltaic Household Electrification Programs No. 325 Bacon, Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, Estimating Construction Costs and Schedules: Experience with Power Generation Projects in Developing Countries No. 326 Colletta, Balachander, and Liang, The Condition of Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Convergence of Health, Nutrition, and Early Education No. 327 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Martin, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Paraguay No. 328 De Geyndt, Social Development and Absolute Poverty in Asia and Latin America No. 329 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996 No. 330 Echeverria, Trigo, and Byerlee, Institutional Change and Effective Financing of Agricultural Research in Latin America No. 331 Sharma, Damhaug, Gilgan-Hunt, Grey, Okaru, and Rothberg, African Water Resources: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development No. 332 Pohl, Djankov, and Anderson, Restructuring Large Industrial Firms in Central and Eastern Europe: An Empirical Analysis No. 333 Jha, Ranson, and Bobadilla, Measuring the Burden of Disease and the Cost-Effectiveness of Health Interventions: A Case Study in Guinea No. 334 Mosse and Sontheimer, Performance Monitoring Indicators Handbook No. 335 Kirmani and Le Moigne, Fostering Riparian Cooperation in International River Basins: The World Bank at Its Best in Development Diplomacy (List continues on the inside back cover) FISHERIES SERIES Technical Paper Series No. 147 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs in Asia: Studies of India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the ASEAN Region. Francis T. Christy Jr., David James, et al. No. 148 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs in Latin America: Studies of Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. David de G. Griffith, Jean-Paul Troadec, et al. No. 149 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs inAfrica: Studies of Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Mauritania, Morocco, and Senegal. Daniel Pauly, Francis Poinsard, et al. No. 150 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, International Cooperation in Fisheries Research. Jean-Paul Troadec, et al. No. 151 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Tropical Aquaculture Development: Research Needs. P. Edwards, E. A. Huis- man, et al. No. 152 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Small-Scale Fisheries: Research Needs. Francis T. Christy, Jr., et al. No. 153 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Small Pelagic Fish Utilization: Research Needs. David James, et al. Discussion Paper Series No. 135 A Strategy for Fisheries Development No. 165 Fisheries Development, Fisheries Management, and Externalities No. 217 Managing Fishery Resources No. 240 Managing Redundancy in Overexploited Fisheries No. 329 Managing Transboundary Stocks of Small Pelagic Fish: Problems and Options Policy and Research Series No. 19 Study of International Fishery Research Booklet Study of International Fishery Research: Summary Report WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 369 Fisheries Series From Farmers to Fishers Developing Reservoir Aquaculture for People Displaced by Dams Barry Costa-Pierce The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 1997 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the proce- dures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data in- cluded in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denomninations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissem- ination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A. ISSN: 0253-7494 At the time this paper was written, Barry Costa-Pierce was a consultant in the Agriculture and Forestry Systems Division in the World Bank's Agriculture and Natural Resources Department. Cover photo: A raft of floating cages used for bighead carp culture, with guard house, in Durian Tungal Reservoir, Melaka, Malaysia. From "Cage and pen fish farming: Carrying capacity models and environmental impact." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1984. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Costa-Pierce, Barry A. From farmers to fishers: developing reservior aquaculture for people displaced by dams / Barry A. Costa-Pierce. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no. 369. Fisheries series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-3995-8 1. Fishery management-Developing countries. 2. Fish-culture- Developing countries. 3. Freshwater fishes-Developing countries. 4. Forced migration-Economic aspects-Developing countries. 5. Dams-Social aspects-Developing countries. 6. Fishery management-Indonesia. 7. Fish-culture-Indonesia. I. Title. II. Series: World Bank technical paper; no. 369. III. Series: World Bank technical paper. Fisheries series. SH322.C67 1997 333.95'615'091724-dc2l 97-25585 Contents Foreword vii Preface viii Acknowledgments ix Abstract x Executive summary 1 Introduction 4 Engineering issues in reservoir fisheries 7 Types of reservoirs 7 Dam crest elevation 8 Drawdown 9 Bottom clearing 10 Position of reservoir outlets 10 Reservoir turnover events 11 Transition: From tropical river to reservoir 12 Siltation 12 Aquatic vegetation 13 Changes in ecological balance 13 Predicting capture fisheries yields in a new reservoir 15 Reservoir capture fisheries 16 Sustaining reservoir capture fisheries 16 Successful models of reservoir capture fisheries 18 Reservoir culture fisheries 22 Aquaculture systems 22 Aquaculture production networks 26 Carrying capacity 28 Site selection for cage aquaculture 29 An ecosystems approach to planning reservoir fisheries 30 Organic pollution as a misplaced resource 30 Drawdown agriculture, agroforestry, and erosion control 32 v FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUAcULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS Economic and sociological issues of resettlement 33 Planning for resettlement fisheries 33 Resettlement in Saguling and Cirata through intensification of integrated land-water ecosystems 37 Accelerated learning in Cirata 39 Equity effects of resettlement fisheries 40 Nutritional impacts of resettlement fisheries 42 Lessons from Saguling and Cirata 43 Institutional, planning, and management needs in developing reservoir fisheries ecosystems 45 Institutional concerns, constraints, and coordination 45 Long-term management concerns 47 Demonstration, extension, and training 48 Needs in strategic applied research 49 Disseminating information 50 Conclusions and recommendations 51 Key ingredients for successful reservoir fisheries 51 Recommendations 52 Notes and references 53 Boxes 1 Factors affecting the fish yield of reservoirs 15 2 Combined uses of reservoirs 28 3 World Bank guidelines for resettlement 34 4 The economics of Saguling and Cirata 39 Figures 1 Dams and reservoirs affect a range of natural systems-including the human system 5 2 Regulation allows the redistribution of water from the rainy to the dry season 7 3 The dam crest determines the economics of a dam project 8 4 Bottom outlets lead to deeper oxygen penetration and higher fish production 10 5 The ecosystem of a new reservoir undergoes several phases before maturity 14 6 Zonation has helped sustain capture fisheries in Indonesian reservoirs 20 7 An aquaculture production network is a dynamic system 27 8 Integrated fisheries systems open up a range of possibilities for employment and environmental rehabilitation 31 9 A consultative process is needed that puts social, environmental, and engineering objectives on an equal footing 36 10 Resettlement fisheries grew rapidly in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs 38 Tables 1 Sediment discharge rates of selected Asian rivers 13 2 Yield characteristics of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in floating net cages 23 3 New employment opportunities and wages of people resettled at the Cirata Reservoir, 1992 40 4 Survey respondents involved in new occupations at the Cirata Reservoir, by type of employment, November 1992 42 5 Institutions responsible for managing and monitoring activities at the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs 46 vi Foreword Sustained population growth in developing coun- ernment, assisted by the World Bank and the tries has led governments-with the support of inter- International Center for Living Aquatic Resources national financial institutions-to increase their Management, has been giving displaced farmers a efforts to provide electric power and irrigation water way to rebuild their lives: shifting from rice and cas- by harnessing rivers. The need for hydropower and sava farming to fish farming, using the water that irrigation has long been considered more important flooded their land. than the effect of these efforts on downstream fauna The success of the fish farming efforts in the or the disruption of the livelihoods of millions of Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs inJava attests to the people in flooded areas. Fish and other aquatic life potential for creating employment in reservoirs that that could have been preserved with appropriate are in place and under construction around the technologies have been lost forever, and many reset- world. The World Bank will continue to emphasize tled farmers have not fully adapted to the changes the need to adopt an integrated approach to the use forced on them. of large reservoirs during project planning-to Progress has been made in applying existing ensure that these projects are environmentally sus- and new technologies-including fish ladders, ele- tainable and improve the living standards of the peo- vators, and hatcheries-to prevent the damage to ple affected. The search for new technologies will aquatic life that results from the construction of not cease until a sound balance is struck among the large dams. But until recently little had been done needs to raise living standards by expanding sup- to deal with the effects large dams have on people, plies of electric power and irrigated land, to protect a far more important problem. and enhance the environment, and to improve The lack of an integrated management human settlements in the flooded areas. approach for large bodies of water has prevented most planners and reservoir authorities from con- AlexanderMcCalla sidering using the water for purposes other than Director hydropower or irrigation. But the Indonesian gov- Department ofAgriculture and Natural Resources vii Preface Although the development of fish cage culture tech- factors would be employment generation, domestic nology in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs inJava, fish supplies, and export of value added fish Indonesia, was motivated by the displacement of products. more than 100,000 people by the flooding of the The Betania hydropower reservoir in the reservoirs, the lessons learned go beyond the issue Department of Huila, in Colombia, is a good exam- of involuntary resettlement. The development of a ple of fish cage culture development under a dif- technologically, economically, and financially viable ferent set of conditions. Before flooding, the area fish culture system in Indonesia-a coordinated was used by large land owners for extensive cattle effort by the Directorate of Fisheries, Padjadjaran grazing. Working closely with the reservoir author- University in Bandung, the International Center for ity, private entities planned the development of a Living Aquatic Resources Management, and reset- tilapia cage culture model based on technical pack- tlement specialists from the World Bank-was made ages from Asia. The high demand for fish in the possible by adapting cage culture technologies from domestic market, particularly in Bogota, has helped other Asian countries (such as Nepal) and by apply- sustain this effort. ing research to develop approaches that suited the In other places reservoirs may create new reservoir conditions and the social fabric of the dis- employment opportunities for subsistence farmers placed farmers and communities. Because of this or for communities in which development options approach and the results it yielded, this effort has are limited or absent because of semiarid condi- far-reaching implications. tions. And if the reservoirs are used for irrigation, If the work on the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs there would be an added bonus for downstream were to remain merely a bibliographic reference on fields because fish waste enriches water. resettlement issues, the effort expended in prepar- There are hundreds of thousands of hectares of ing this paper and its companion video and instruc- large reservoirs around the world. Although not all tional manuals would be a sunk investment. The of them may be suitable for fish cage culture, the World Bank and other development agencies need potential for creatingjobs, raising incomes, increas- to take an active approach, one that leads to the ing domestic fish supplies, and exporting value replication of this experience while taking into added fish productsjustifies an active role for devel- account the many variables that differentiate large opment institutions and governments in develop- reservoirs around the world. ing integrated use plans for large reservoirs. In many heavily populated areas the main fac- tors motivating reservoir fisheries development are Eduardo A. Loayza similar to those in Indonesia. But in many others Fisheries Development Adviser (especially semiarid, low-density areas) the main Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources viii Acknowledgments My work for the World Bank in Indonesia and in phases of its evolution. Eduardo Loayza, Guy Le Washington, D.C., would not have been possible Moigne, Ron Zweig, Gloria Davis, and Michael without the kind assistance of many world-class pro- Cernea at the Bank have also given invaluable assis- fessionals. In Indonesia, I would like to thank the tance to me and to this work. The World Bank pro- staff of the Indonesian Directorate General of vided funding to develop a video on the fisheries Fisheries and the West Java Provincial Fisheries ecosystems in Indonesian reservoirs, titled "Farming Service, especially Pepen Effendi and T. Asikin; the the Waters: Java's Blue Revolution" (available from Indonesian State Electric Company (PLN) ,Jakarta, the World Bank, Environment Department, Social and its Pikitdro, Bandung, office, especially Kodyat Policy and Resettlement Division, 1818 H Street Samadikun, Adhi Satriya, Komar Sudjana, and Mr. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433). Sudarwanto; and Padjadjaran University, especially At the International Center for Living Aquatic Sutandar Zainal, Mr. Rusydi, and Nani Djuangsih. Resources Management (ICLARM), special thanks At the World Bank, I'd like to give special thanks are due to Ian Smith, Roger Pullin, Jay Maclean, to Scott Guggenheim, who made many invaluable John Munro, Catalino de la Cruz, and Harlan contributions to this project and related work in all Lampe for their expert assistance in this project. ix Abstract Hydropower and irrigation projects involving reser- resettlement and environmental rehabilitation has voirs can displace thousands of people from their tra- received little attention despite reports from a grow- ditional lands and deprive them of their livelihoods. ing number of projects showing unexpectedly high If poorly planned, they can also lead to environ- returns from fisheries. In some years the total mental degradation. Solutions to these problems income from fisheries in reservoirs has exceeded must be found-solutions that are technically feasi- the income generated from electricity sales. ble, sustainable, environmentally appropriate, and The Saguling-Cirata reservoir project in West acceptable to the people who are resettled. Java, Indonesia, was the first to demonstrate the Such solutions demand an ecological view-a potential of a planned, "ecosystems" approach to view of reservoirs as ecological resources with far resettlement fisheries. This environmentally ori- more value than as mere water storage units. The ented resettlement effort fully utilized the new formation of a reservoir is a dramatic reordering of water surface for aquaculture and capture fisheries nature that creates a suite of complex, dynamic and developed supporting production, economic, aquatic ecosystems. With proper planning, these and marketing infrastructure. More new jobs were new ecosystems can make potentially much more created in the support industries for reservoir fish- valuable contributions than those to national eries than in the fisheries themselves. energy or to agricultural production. Indeed, they The development of fisheries is complex, how- offer to the people who can adapt to living and ever, since it requires a great deal of preparation working with them new opportunities for employ- and planning not only for the water-based fisheries ment, and they can dramatically increase the pro- systems, but also for the land-based infrastructure, duction of aquatic protein. seed, feed, and other market and agricultural sup- This paper explains how the planned, integrated port systems that are vital components. But as the development of fisheries ecosystems in reservoirs Saguling-Cirata project shows, if the right condi- not only can mitigate the negative social conse- tions are in place, the planned development of quences of dam construction, but also can enhance reservoir fisheries can be an effective way to create the economic benefits from hydropower and irriga- alternative livelihoods for people displaced by a tion projects in many developing countries. reservoir, greatly enhancing the economic and The use of integrated reservoir fisheries and social benefits from hydropower and irrigation aquaculture development as a tool in large-scale projects. x Executive summary Many nations have few or no indigenous energy new opportunities for employment, and they can sources and limited funds to increase oil imports or dramatically increase the production of aquatic develop nuclear power. With both coal-fired and protein. nuclear power plants increasingly seen as likely to impose unacceptable economic and environmental Economic and social benefits of reservoir costs for present and future generations, hydropower fisheries development has emerged as the best alternative for the vast major- ity of developing countries. The successful fisheries ecosystems developed for Today, the technical and engineering aspects of farmers resettled in the Saguling-Cirata reservoir river basin development projects are straightfor- project in WestJava, Indonesia, serve as a model for ward. What deters the development of hydropower the use of integrated reservoir fisheries and aqua- resources are the persistent problems of resettle- culture development in large-scale resettlement ment and the economic and social disruption that and environmental rehabilitation. The Saguling accompany the creation of a new storage reservoir. and Cirata hydropower reservoirs, flooded in 1985 Viable solutions to these problems must be and 1988, covered an estimated 12,300 hectares, found-solutions that provide productive new including 5,783 hectares of rich rice-growing land, enterprises and alternative livelihoods for the hun- with a financial loss to farmers of an estimated $5.21 dreds of thousands of people displaced by reser- million a year. But by 1993 fish cages in the reser- voirs and that mitigate environmental degradation voirs were producing more than 10,000 tons of fish caused by poorly planned hydropower projects. a year, worth an estimated $10 million. These solutions must be technically feasible, sus- Such projects have received little attention tainable, environmentally appropriate, and accept- despite reports from a growing number of them able to the people who are resettled. showing unexpectedly high returns from fisheries. Such solutions require a new view of the situa- Indeed, in some years the income from fisheries in tion, one that treats reservoirs notjust as water stor- reservoirs has exceeded the income from electric- age units, but as far more valuable ecological ity sales. For example, in 1978 the Ubolratana resources. The formation of a reservoir is a dra- Reservoir in northeast Thailand produced fish matic reordering of nature that creates a suite of from capture fisheries worth 40 million baht, while complex, dynamic aquatic ecosystems. With proper electricity sales generated just 30 million baht. planning, these new ecosystems can make poten- The Saguling-Cirata project in Indonesia was tially much more valuable contributions than those the first to demonstrate the potential of a planned, to national energy or, through irrigation, to agri- integrated ecosystems approach to resettlement. cultural production. Indeed, they offer to the peo- This project fully utilized the new water surface for ple who can adapt to living and working with them aquaculture and capture fisheries and developed 1 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS supporting production, economic, and marketing has traditionally been the main source of animal infrastructure. Reservoir fisheries were developed protein, consumer recognition of the product is as part of a regional development effort promoting high, access to capital is good, and fish marketing local recycling of resources from one productive and transport infrastructure is excellent. enterprise to another and the creation of complex * Adequate availabilities of seed fish (finger- interactions among enterprises. lings) and feed. Among the people resettled in the Saguling- * Farmers' sophisticated traditional knowledge Cirata project there was widespread acceptance of of fish and fisheries systems. the change from land-based to water-based liveli- * The ready availability of capital from com- hoods. In surveys the displaced people evaluated pensation money and other sources, allowing the cage aquaculture as easy, enjoyable work allowing displaced people and others to make immediate much leisure time, in contrast to the back-breaking investments in new fisheries enterprises. toil they had been accustomed to in their rice and vegetable fields. Among the displaced people who Reservoir aquaculture schemes developed, in had increased their incomes and status since reset- their initial phases, low-cost cages appropriate to, tlement, most were involved as owners or workers in and conserving of, available capital. They were then water-based businesses. intensified as capital availability and market The integrated fisheries systems increased the demand increased. For the poorer segments of soci- number and variety of jobs and the number of ety, mini-cage or subsistence systems and no-feed higher-payingjobs. This occurred in an area where cage culture systems have been successful in the lack of growth in employment in rice and veg- Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. For entre- etable production had been a major concern in the preneurs with more capital, semi-intensive and 1970s and where the capacity of rice-based agricul- intensive systems (single and biculture cage sys- ture systems to absorb more labor had been pro- tems) have proved profitable. There is a wide range jected as virtually nil. of cage aquaculture systems. To ensure success, sys- More new jobs were created in the spin-off-or tems where the "seed, feed, and need" are clearly support-industries than directly in the new fish- present must be selected for development, and a eries enterprises. Of the thousands of people dis- "market-driven technological approach" is needed. placed by the flooding of the Saguling and Cirata Successful reservoir capture fisheries schemes in Reservoirs, an estimated 7,600 were employed Asia use self-perpetuating species with short life directly in the reservoir fisheries enterprises by cycles that can be heavily fished with low-cost gear 1992, and 22,800-30,400 in the new support indus- and are owned and managed by local people. tries created. Successful species in reservoir capture fisheries have The development of reservoir fisheries was been the tilapia (Indonesia, Sri Lanka), freshwater accompanied by new forms of community organiza- sardines (clupeids) (Thailand), and indigenous tion that are knowledge-based, relying on skills and carp (India, Sri Lanka). Selective fishing of preda- education. Fisheries cooperatives, schools, a labor tors has increased total yields and allowed the service, and a fish farmers organization are active. manipulation of reservoirs' fish species composition in order to build large populations of herbivorous Ingredients of success and omnivorous fish that have contributed substan- tially toward meeting human needs. Dam operations The success of the development of aquaculture in play an important part in the success of reservoir reservoirs in West Java, Indonesia, is due to four fisheries. The extent and timing of changes in water main factors: levels in a reservoir and the size of the minimum * The presence of large, unsaturated markets in pool of water maintained affect the production and a densely populated region where freshwater fish yield of both capture and culture fisheries systems. 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Recommendations monitoring and reporting system should be estab- lished. It is recommended that the environmental Development planning for integrated fisheries impact assessments routinely required at the initial ecosystems to support resettlement and social and stages of hydropower and irrigation projects should environmental rehabilitation should be included in be expanded to cover social and resettlement con- the policy and operational guidelines for all water cerns. These assessments should be conducted regu- resource projects in developing countries, espe- larly as part of a continual monitoring process the cially for dam-reservoir, irrigation, watershed, and first 10 years after the impoundment of a reservoir. river basin development projects. Such planning Where there are major water resource develop- should also be included in regional development ment projects with social and environmental plans wherever World Bank-financed projects impacts, multidisciplinary river basin commissions affect water resources and riparian ecosystems. need to be formed that include fisheries experts The rehabilitation of natural ecosystems dam- and planners. These commissions should be aged because of water resource development pro- funded under project loan agreements, remain in jects, and the adaptation of the displaced population operation for a minimum of 10 years after project to a new "fisheries culture," should be seen as a loan agreements are signed, and be responsible for process and broken down into specific phases, with contributing to the development and management objective milestones of progress in each phase. To of the fisheries ecosystems approach as part of the ensure that these milestones are met, an effective rehabilitation and monitoring process. 3 Introduction Many developing countries need to dam rivers to world it is these problems, not technical or engi- develop modern irrigation systems and hydropower neering problems, that are the main obstacles to in order to meet the urgent food and energy needs increased hydropower development. of their burgeoning populations. In many areas But hydropower and irrigation development agricultural development is impossible without reli- projects contain possible solutions to the problems able water supplies during the dry season. And for they create. Reservoirs are more than just water nations lacking oil resources, hydropower provides storage facilities; they are also complex, dynamic a domestic energy source that avoids the potential aquatic ecosystems. These new ecosystems offer long-run health and safety effects of coal-fired and vast, virtually untapped opportunities to dramati- nuclear power plants. As a result, the number of cally increase the production of aquatic protein, multipurpose dams is increasing rapidly, especially especially in Asia, and to generate new employ- in the developing countries of the humid Tropics. ment. Yet empirical studies of the potential of reser- The International Commission on Large Dams voir fisheries to help ease the problems of records more than 37,000 large dams (those with resettlement and assist in rehabilitating the natural reservoir surface areas greater than 10 square kilo- environment are surprisingly rare, despite the obvi- meters) in operation worldwide (ICOLD 1992). ous attractiveness of this solution. In Asia develop- The number of smaller dams is unknown, but it is ment of reservoir fisheries was not widely likely to be in the hundreds of thousands. considered outside of Sri Lanka until the mid- Although hydropower avoids the long-term con- 1980s. sequences of polluting or potentially more danger- As dam and reservoir construction speeds along ous energy sources, the problems posed by in developing countries, the vast majority of water resettlement and loss of traditional lands that development projects-whether for irrigation, accompany a new reservoir are long-lasting. New drinking water, or hydropower-still fail to plan for reservoirs often flood rich agricultural land that has fisheries development. Project managers rarely call been settled for generations. The unfamiliar new on fisheries experts to do more than assess possible water ecosystems often exacerbate conflicts pitting environmental impacts. When fisheries experts are local people against national interests, rural self- asked to play a larger role, they are often involved sufficiency against urban demands, and traditional much too late in the process, as part of the "cleanup against modern development models. Figure 1 crew" for resettlement programs gone awry. Too shows the complex web of effects of dams and often, fisheries are an afterthought that, at best, must reservoirs. fit into power or irrigation schemes as a secondary There are few simple solutions to the perplex- benefit. As a result, reservoir fisheries often fail. ing social and environmental problems of water Fisheries that develop spontaneously in project development projects. Indeed, in many parts of the reservoirs or as an afterthought to water develop- 4 INTRODUCTION Figure I Dams and reservoirs affect a range of natural systems-including the human system Dam and reservoir Atmospheric system Earth crustal system Local weather Earthquakes and climate Hydrological system Groundwater Sedimentation Erosion Limnological conditions Water balance Water quality Aquatic biological system Terrestrial biological system Substrate for aquatic Cultivable land production Cattle and other livestock Useful aquatic plants Big game and other useful species Nuisance aquatic plants Rare or endangered species Useful aquatic animals Nature preserves and game parks Nuisance aquatic animals Forest harvest and dearance Rare or endangered species Intentionally introduced species Human system Resettlement Livestock production Urbanism Public health Manufacturing Transport Fishing Service industries Education Hunting Commerce Historical continuity Agriculture Tourism and recreation Source: Pantulu 1979. ment projects tend to be low yield. But that is not the transition from a "terrestrial" to a 'water" society. always the case. Reports from a growing number of Successful transitions remain the exception. What is projects that provided little or no additional capital needed is to develop indigenous, interdisciplinary for developing and managing new fisheries opera- management teams capable of assessing, planning, tions have shown unexpectedly high returns from implementing, and monitoring an integrated set of reservoir fisheries. In some years large reservoirs in technical, social, and operational solutions to the Asia and Africa have generated more income from complex problems of local resettlement-difficult fisheries than from electricity sales. tasks under the best of conditions. Also needed are Although reservoir fisheries offer an attractive more intensive project planning and attention to solution to the problems of resettlement, making process. If people feel left out ofthe process of devel- them work can be extraordinarily difficult. For tra- opment, they will not participate in the changes tak- ditional people whose lives are inextricably linked to ing place. the land, the shock of losing their homes and land, This paper examines the development and man- combined with the appearance of a new body of agement of integrated reservoir fisheries and aqua- water in their midst, can be unbearable. There is an culture as a strategy for creating new jobs and urgent need to identify acceptable means of easing business opportunities for displaced people. Few 5 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEoPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs such reviews have been done to verify the employ- percent by the year 2000 if current plans to develop ment and production potential of integrated reser- its vast hydropower potential proceed. In voir fisheries ecosystems. Nor has any road map of Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the technical and operational requirements been and the Philippines reservoir surface area could developed that lays out the range of possible aquatic increase by more than 1,000 percent (Costa-Pierce protein production systems for development. and Soemarwoto 1987). Moreover, little applied social research has been The paper makes frequent reference to a case done on ways to help smooth the transition from study ofthe Saguling-Cirata reservoir fisheries reset- land-based livelihoods to water-based ones for reset- tlement project in Indonesia, one of the more suc- tled people. cessful and well-documented working models in The paper reviews key technical, social, eco- Asia. The report reviews technical issues, and then nomic, and institutional concerns in developing sets out a practical ecosystems model of reservoir fisheries as a means of support for people affected fisheries development. It emphasizes key issues, by large-scale resettlement projects. These con- constraints, needs, and operational and managerial cerns are particularly relevant in Asia, where reser- challenges faced in the Indonesian project and oth- voirs are growing in number. The region's reservoir ers, and details planning concerns for future pro- surface area will expand by an estimated 500-600 jects in resettlement fisheries. 6 Engineering issues in reservoir fisheries To develop sustainable, productive fisheries, the undergo large annual fluctuations in water levels requirements of fisheries ecosystems must be and may be dry for part of the year. demonstrated to engineers so that they can be Multipurpose reservoirs serve the functions of taken into account in the operations of dams. The both storage and flood control. The objective is to water in a reservoir can be envisioned as a series of control the peak flood wave and to attain greater layers (Bernacsek 1984). Dam engineers have much dry season flow than is possible with storage reser- control over the presence or absence of these water voirs. Most modern reservoirs, and all those associ- layers and their size, features that have fundamen- ated with the newer hydropower dams, are of this tal implications for the sustainable development of type. Flood control is achieved by drawdown of reservoir fisheries. This section provides an over- water levels in the rainy season, and storage is view of reservoir engineering issues-the types, accomplished by engineering adequate reservoir designs, and operations of reservoirs-as they affect size and depth. fisheries.1 Figure 2 Regulation allows the redistribution Types of reservoirs of water from the rainy to the dry season Discharge below dam Dams are constructed to regulate a river by achiev- (cubic meters per second) ing control over the discharge of water. Regulation Unregulated river makes it possible to redistribute water from the rainy to the dry season (figure 2). Dams are associ- Minimum discharge ated with three types of reservoirs: storage, flood undesired flooding iver regulated by control, and multipurpose. downstream /sorage reservoir Storage reservoirs store water from the rainy season . / - - - for downstream use in the dry season. Storage behind the dam reduces peak discharge during the I rainy season so that water use is more or less uniform during the dry season. Reservoirs are kept near the River regulated normal upper storage level, and fluctuations in their r e byntrol rsrvoir surface area are small. Storage reservoirs are used River regulate mainly for irrigation and water supply. by multipurpose Flood control reservoirs control the peak of the reservoir rainy season flood and prevent downstream flood- ...............RainDy...................... . ... ...... , seasonH season I s"eason ing. They fill during the rainy season, and the water Jan 'Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec is used during the dry season. These reservoirs Source: Bemacsek 1984. 7 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPlACED BY DAMS Dam crest elevation elevation produces hydraulic pressure across tur- bine blades, situated at an optimum intermediate The dam crest elevation-the highest elevation of elevation (Bernacsek 1984). Electricity production the dam above sea level-determines the econom- requires the continuous management of reservoir ics and the possible range of functions of a multi- water levels to keep them above the normal mini- purpose dam project. Because it defines the size of mum operating water levels of the dam. Maximum a reservoir, it also determines potential fisheries electric power generation is attained at maximum yields, as well as the area of land to be inundated water levels. and thus the resettlement needs. In addition to size, Today, however, choices of dam crest elevations the dam crest elevation determines other morpho- are not based simply on technical equations of metric characteristics of the reservoir, such as power generation capacities or river basin mor- shape, water levels, and depth-important factors phology, geology, or engineering. Choices are also in the development of fisheries. influenced by resettlement considerations, the Economics drives the choice of the dam crest amount of land to be inundated, and other social elevation. Hydroelectric engineers attempt to and political factors. For example, the proposed achieve the highest dam crest elevation possible so dam crest elevation of the Pa Mong dam in the Lao as to maximize the height of reservoir water levels People's Democratic Republic was changed from above the turbines and thereby achieve the highest 250 meters to 210 meters to reduce the estimated possible hydraulic head and electricity output (fig- number of people who would be displaced in that ure 3). Hydraulic head is the drop in elevation from country and in Thailand from 250,000 to 60,000. In the intake to the tailwater discharge. The drop in Indonesia the dam crest elevation of the Saguling Figure 3 The dam crest determines the economics of a dam project Dam crest elevation ----------------------- Maximum permissible - - 0 -- ---O-- Freeboard elevation+- ----- ------------------- flood level jL 3m +. Normal upper storage level ------------------I -----t------------------- - - Maximum available flood control Live levels in mu purpose dams storage | @.S l Normal operating level > Minimum level fr maximum/ electricity genrto I Minimum drawdown lFood control valves Maximum available . o level L storage levels nta~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a stDorbagdeLQ . Power plant f l r ^ 2 J \ \\ ~~~~~~~~~~turbines I IF FL , ,\ Tailwater - \0 discharge elevation Source: Bemacsek 1984. 8 ENGINEERING ISSUES IN RESERVOIR FISHERIES dam was lowered from 650 to 645 meters to reduce * Cut off fish migrations. resettlement. In Mozambique the dam crest eleva- . Strand fish, both during spawning and at tion of the Cabora Bassa dam was lowered to pre- other times. vent the inundation from extending into a * Destroy spawning areas by uncovering them, neighboring country (Bernacsek 1984). leaving them to be trampled by animals and humans during the dry season. Drawdown . Reduce or destroy fish habitats and spawning grounds, weed beds, and the supply of bottom (ben- The two main factors in dam operation that have thic) foods. documented effects on reservoir fisheries produc- tion are the size and the rate of drawdown. Rapid changes in water level are particularly dan- Engineers use drawdowns to maintain water levels gerous, as they upset ecological balances between within limits specified to meet the primary goals of producer (food) organisms that feed higher-level the dam (power generation, irrigation). Drawdown consumers such as fish. can result in highly erratic water levels and changes Engineers typically control reservoir water levels in the size of the minimum pool of water in the according to a design rule curve. Before construc- reservoir. The extent and timing of water level tion of a modem, multipurpose dam, hydraulic changes and the size of the resultant pool of water engineers examine available data or collect primary have important effects on fisheries. data on riverine water flows, their seasonal variation, Most Asian reservoirs are multipurpose and the magnitudes of river flood cycles over as long hydropower and irrigation reservoirs subject to sig- a period as possible. Using information on seasonal nificant water drawdown. Bhukaswan (1980) has flows and flood probabilities, engineers then con- stated that the most important factor influencing struct design rule curves, which put strict limits on fish production in Asian reservoirs may be fluctua- the upper and lower water levels to be maintained tions in water levels. In Sri Lanka De Silva (1985) for the optimal economic operation of the dam. found a positive correlation between reservoir In many developing countries there are insuffi- water level and tilapia yields two years later. cient data on flood levels (the maximum flood level Changes in water level affect nearly all aspects- is usually chosen at a one-in-i0,000-years flood), so structural and functional-of the aquatic ecosystem that a design curve must often be redone after the in reservoirs. Water level changes have both positive first few years of experience with a new dam. This and negative consequences for fisheries. Positive lack of data is one reason that many dams have been changes include these: over- or underdesigned, leading to, for example, * If water levels are lowered after an unwanted insufficient inflows because flood cycles were over- aquatic species (such as a predator) spawns, the estimated, or vice versa. eggs and spawn of the species may be stranded, Bernacsek (1984) has pointed out that the eliminating or reducing its population. design rule curve is more a safety feature to protect * If water levels are raised, nutrients (such as against natural variability in inflow and user- cattle manure) washing from the dried areas of the dependentvariations in outflow than a precise guide reservoir's shallows (its littoral zone) may raise fish to the water levels that should be maintained at any production by increasing the production of the one time. He argues that incorporating the needs of aquatic ecosystem and thus the survival of new fish fisheries into reservoir management requires a shift recruits. from using the design rule curve as a safety valve * If water levels are raised during the spawning toward using it as an operational target for water lev- season, fish spawning and recruitment may increase. els. In this management approach a dam operator Negative changes stem primarily from lower would attempt to maintain a particular water level at water levels, which can: a specific time. Because that would make it easier to 9 FROM FARMERS To FISHERS: DEVELOPINC RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS predict water levels, fisheries planners would be bet- percentage of reservoir areas should be kept ter able to forecast yields and determine potential uncleared in the Tropics, although a number of benefits for end users. Nevertheless, the bottom line studies address this issue in the temperate zone. for fisheries planners is that it is impossible for engi- neers to maintain a reservoir at a constant level Position of reservoir outlets under current operational guidelines. In the Tropics the position of a reservoir's outlet Bottom clearing strongly influences the reservoir's nutrient content, oxygen conditions, and fish production (figure 4). For engineering purposes, only the bottom areas Positioning the outlet in the bottom waters near the spillway and sluice gates of a dam must be (hypolimnion) of a reservoir helps avoid thermal cleared. But for fisheries the issue of whether to stratification. If a reservoir is permanently strati- undertake the major effort and expense of clearing fied, inflows of warm river water will course through the reservoir bottom is much more complex. only its surface waters, leaving its bottom waters Leaving the reservoir bottom uncleared makes unaffected (see section below on turnover events). the use of many types of fishing gear, such as trawls A bottom outlet enables dissolved oxygen to pene- and seine nets, impossible. But leaving organic trate to the depths of the reservoir, expanding the materials such as trees, brush, and grasses on the productive area for aquatic life and leading to reservoir bottom provides essential habitats for fish higher fisheries production (Sreenivasan 1986). and for aquatic organisms on which fish feed. Multiple outlets can offer more flexibility in Ploskey (1985) suggests that bottom clearing is operation and avoid conflicts between uses of the preferable for reservoirs in North America, but rec- reservoir water. Surface and bottom outlets can be ommends retaining some uncleared areas to pro- vide extra habitats for fish. For African reservoirs, Figure 4 Bottom outlets lead to deeper oxygen Bernacsek (1984) believes that the long-term bene- penetration and higher fish producion fits of bottom clearing for fisheries activities out- 12 weigh any benefits from keeping trees and other D oye vegetation as habitat and food for fish. (milligrams per liter) De Silva (1988a) reviewed the effects of bottom Fish abundant clearing in Asian reservoirs and identified both neg- ative and positive consequences. He found that bot- ----- tom clearing provides extra niches for fish, increases X J Fsh scarce the role of birds in predation and nutrient cycling, Fsh absent and reduces erosion and siltation. But he also found 'WA that it impedes fishing, leads to eutrophication and adverse effects on water quality, and results in the 0 12 leaching of toxic organics such as trihalomethanes. Dissolved oxygen De Silva concluded that although quantitative (milligrams per liter) evaluation of the effects of bottom clearing is impos- _ sible at present, there is convincing evidence that , fish stocks are larger where the reservoir bottoms have not been cleared. This finding would lead to a l recommendation to keep some areas uncleared to increase fish populations and yields. No scientific or economic studies are available that would help in formulating specific recommendations on what Source: Sreenivasan 1986. 10 ENGINEERING ISSUES IN RESERVOIR FISHERIES used for flood control or irrigation, while mid-level deoxygenated water and large quantities of hydro- outlets can be used for drinking water to avoid gen sulfide that rise to the surface suffocate nearly excessive iron and hydrogen sulfide and to prevent all aquatic life. Turnover events in the Saguling a need for excessive filtration and other problems Reservoir in Indonesia during January-February caused by using algae-laden surface waters. 1993 killed 850 tons of fish (Sutandar 1993). In the Jatiluhur Reservoir, in WestJava, Indonesia (at 94.6 Reservoir turnover events meters above sea level), a turnover killed 1,560 tons of fish in aquaculture cages, causing losses estimated In the lowland Tropics the water column of reser- at 3.5 million rupiah (Rp) and putting an estimated voirs is essentially mixed from top to bottom. Wind 215 farmers out of business (Suara Pembarvan, action can stir the water column to nearly the depth Jakarta, January 10, 1996). of the bottom. At altitudes above 200-300 meters in Indonesia has two distinct seasons, determined the Tropics or at increasing latitudes from the equa- by its prevailing wind patterns: a dry season from tor, reservoirs are thermally stratified-that is, the April to August, when winds come from the south- reservoir water is stratified in layers of differing den- west (or "Australian" direction), and a wet season sity, with warmer, less dense water overlying colder, from September to March, when northeast mon- heavier water. Sreenivasan (1970) showed that in soon winds from the Indian Ocean buffet the India lowland reservoirs north of 140 north latitude nation. Since inundation in 1985, turnover events were stratified, whereas south of this latitude only have occurred regularly in the Saguling Reservoir reservoirs at elevation were stratified. (650.5 meters above sea level) at the onset of West Where stratification occurs, bottom waters Java's upland rainy season. Turnovers have also become laden with suspended sediments and nutri- affected the Cirata Reservoir, at 60 south latitude ents from watersheds and the surrounding basin and 225 meters above sea level, but to a much lesser while surface waters become nutrient-poor. As sed- extent: in 1991, when 300 tons of fish were lost in iments and nutrients accumulate in bottom waters, Saguling, only 10 tons were lost in Cirata. In 1992, dissolved oxygen plummets to zero and hydrogen however, an unusually dry year with poor rains, no sulfide reaches toxic concentrations. Hydrogen sul- turnover events occurred in Saguling or Cirata for fide has reached such high levels in the bottom the first time since inundation (Effendi 1992). waters of some reservoirs that it has corroded tur- Observations of turnovers during three rainy sea- bines and other structures. sons in Saguling showed the following characteristics: Many hydropower reservoirs in the Tropics are * Conditions varied across the reservoir, with located at elevation in order to maximize hydraulic turnover occurring in one bay but not in others, head to the turbines and increase power output. In perhaps because individual bays received cooler reservoirs above 200-300 meters annual turnover water from localized cloudbursts in the mountains. events can occur, in which toxic bottom water rises * Some turnovers seemed to be caused by the to the surface. Water column turnovers are initiated entry, at the onset of the wet season, of cool rain- by a seasonal cooling of surface water to a tempera- water that caused bottom water displacement rather ture similar to that of bottom water or by the entry than surface cooling. of cooler water from upland rivers or tributaries * Strong drawdowns during the rainy season during heavy rains that sinks to the bottom (since it increased the frequency of turnovers. is cooler than surface water) and forces the bottom * Turnovers were followed by dense, blue-green water to the surface. Turnovers are exacerbated by algal blooms because of the movement of bottom strong drawdowns. nutrients to the surface. Sudden turnovers in reservoirs have led to cata- * Farmers who reduced stocking density in strophic fish kills, including losses of hundreds of cages tended to survive even the worst of the tons of fish in floating cage aquaculture systems. The turnover events. 11 Transition: From tropical river to reservoir Damming a tropical river to create an artificial lake Krishnarajah 1983). Some reservoirs in degraded has dramatic effects on all parts of the former water- watersheds in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan have shed ecosystem. The effects on the production and lost more than 60 percent of their storage capacity fertility of riverine fish species occur immediately and become uneconomic in less than 50 years after the new reservoir is filled and continue over (Sreenivasan 1986). the next 5-10 years. As the new aquatic ecosystem How much silt a river carries depends on the evolves, the biota respond-mainly to the operation erodibility of soils, the health of the watershed of the dam and to the land use practices in the ecosystem, and especially the areal extent of watershed. The direction of change in the new human impacts on riparian and upland areas. aquatic ecosystem can be managed in a positive way Land uses in watersheds that have the most serious that is compatible with reservoir engineering oper- effect on siltation are deforestation; clearing of ations-given adequate expertise, institutional will, upland and riparian land for agriculture, especially and financial resources. For a new "ecosystems man- shifting cultivation; nonpoint pollution from agri- agement" strategy to evolve, operational engineers culture, especially nutrients and pesticides; over- and fisheries planners need to be concerned with grazing and trampling of soils and vegetation by water quality and siltation, vegetation, the distribu- animals; sand and other mining; and the use of tion and composition of fish species, and changes heavy machinery in site preparation, clearing, and in their production. finishing. The effects of erosion and siltation from Siltation degraded watersheds are particularly notable and concentrated during the rainy season, when large Reservoirs receive large deposits of silt carried from plumes of brown water and terrigenous matter can the watershed by tropical rivers. In intact watershed be seen entering reservoirs. Silt and soil particles and river ecosystems tropical rivers carry tons of silt retain large quantities of nutrients, which acceler- and associated terrestrial materials to the coast, ate the growth of plant plankton (phytoplankton) replenishing deltas and coastlines and contributing and lead to plankton blooms. Under tropical con- vital nutrients to coastal zone fisheries ecosystems. ditions, this additional nutrient input leads to the But excessive silt and nutrient loads due to uncon- development of enormous, thick, green scums of trolled development of watersheds can dramatically algae on the surface of reservoirs, cutting off light reduce reservoir storage capacities and set in to the underlying water. Boom and bust cycles of motion nutrient cycles with destructive effects on plankton populations then occur, as algal growth fisheries. Several of the major Asian rivers have becomes self-limiting because of light deprivation among the highest reported sediment discharge and the algae suddenly dies, depleting the water of rates in the world (table 1; El-Swaify, Aryad, and oxygen and causing massive fish kills. 12 TRANSITION: FROM TROPICAL RIVER TO RESERVOIR Table I Sediment discharge rates of selected Asian nized that the process is occurring. Deep reservoirs rivers with little shallow area (littoral zone) are largely Sediment discharge free of weed problems. But shallow reservoirs with River (millions of tons a year) large littoral zones have huge problems with water Haiho (Chsna) 85 hyacinth, water lettuce, and Salvinia. Yellow (Huangho) (China) ,080 Aquatic weeds can have severe effects on dam Yangtze (China) 478 operations and fisheries. Infestations can be so Pearl (Zhu Jiang) (China) 69 Mekong (Vietnam) 160 thick that their weight undermines the foundation Irrawaddy (Myanmar) 265 of the dam. Weeds can consume prodigious quan- Ganges/Brahmaputra (Bangladesh) 1,670 Indus (Pakistan) 100 tities of nutrients, leaving little for the development Source: Sreenivasan 1986. of an aquatic food web to feed fish. Aquatic weeds also interfere with fishing. The long-term economic viability of operations Controlling aquatic weeds is difficult once the and the integrity of reservoirs as productive aquatic problem gets out of hand. Millions of dollars have ecosystems depend on the management of land use been spent on single control methods, whether in the watershed and upland areas. In Southeast chemical, biological, or mechanical. Water Asia degradation of watersheds, proliferation of hyacinth control in the Saguling Reservoir, for nonsustainable agricultural practices, and pollu- example, cost the Indonesian State Electric tion due to urbanization and industrialization are Company an estimated $300,000 a year. Experience the most serious threats to both reservoirs and shows that control is possible only through an inte- coastal zones. Some commonsense recommenda- grated approach combining mechanical means, tions for mitigating the severe degradation of Asian community efforts, judicious application of chemi- watersheds are to: cals, and biological control using the weeds' natural e Develop afforestation methods as part of an enemies (Pieterse 1977). integrated plan for rehabilitating river basin ecosys- tems. Changes in ecological balance * Develop mixed grasses, vegetation, and tree crop agro-ecosystems that control erosion and pro- Damming a tropical river leads to three major vide viable livelihoods. changes that affect the ecological balance as a reser- * Control riparian erosion through buffer strips, voir forms: planting combinations, or mechanical control meth- * From a flowing water (lotic) ecosystem to a ods such as riprap (stones lining stream banks). standing water (lentic) ecosystem. * From a benthic to a pelagic food web. Aquatic vegetation * From a nutrient-poor ecosystem to a nutrient- rich one. The second major concern in the transition from a tropical river to a reservoir is the accumulation of In addition, dams may cause the extinction in a aquatic vegetation in the calm waters of the new river of anadromous and other migrating fish and lake. Most tropical rivers contain a plethora of of fish requiring specific spawning grounds. In aquatic vegetation that becomes trapped in the still India, for example, the Indian shad (Hilsa ilisha) waters of the new reservoir (the transition from a and the mahaseer (Tor khudree) have become extinct "lotic" to a "lentic" ecosystem). Reservoirs are nutri- in the Cauvery River system (Sreenivasan 1986). ent and sediment traps. When aquatic vegetation Tropical rivers generally are turbid and narrow makes its way into this environment, it undergoes in their upper and middle reaches. As a result, in explosive growth. A major economic and environ- most inland areas of Southeast Asia the predomi- mental problem can arise before it is even recog- nant riverine fish species are tactile (as opposed to 13 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS visual) feeders that depend on river bottom (ben- the shallows near the shorelines. Species that can- thic) food webs. There are few riverine fish with not find suitable space, cannot adapt, or face new open-water (pelagic) life cycles or food webs competition from species that they might be (Fernando 1980; Fernando and Holcik 1982). encountering for the first time are flushed out of Native carp species (family: Cyprinidae) that feed the system and lost. In such situations the open- on bottom resources dominate the fish species com- water (pelagic) zones can be nearly devoid of fish position of most rivers in the region. species. In addition, displaced people who resettle Fewer fish species occur in reservoirs than in the near the new lake often fish heavily in shoreline original rivers, primarily because reservoirs have areas, depleting and destroying the remaining river- fewer habitats than rivers. In addition, the lower tur- ine fish populations. bidity in reservoirs helps predators to be more The deposit of nutrients from a turbid, tropical effective in hunting prey. And a new fishery reduces river ecosystem into a nutrient sink (for example, a populations of valuable species, leaving slower- new lake ecosystem) causes a rise in fisheries pro- growing, less desirable fish (Wadjowicz 1964). ductivity in the first few years after inundation. The change from a lotic to a lentic ecosystem Balon and Coche (1974) describe this change in leads to changes in the spatial distribution and food aquatic ecosystem as a four-phase process: (1) habits of native riverine fish species. A "toilet bowl" unbalanced fertility (or eutrophy), (2) vulnerable effect occurs in the transition from river to reser- stability, (3) stabilization, and (4) maturity. A fifth voir. Riverine fish species that normally inhabit phase, unbalanced eutrophy, occurs where there is shallow-water, benthic ecosystems seek similar nutrient pollution and adverse land use practices depths and habitats in the new reservoir and choose (figure 5). Figure 5 The ecosystem of a new reservoir undergoes several phases before maturity E 700- Diversity of species 40- S 600- CL 8 500- - / \ ~400- Eo *.. E Fish production - CZ z20 -1 )i Q Z 20- o 300 . i j .1 l ,! 'I' -u Vulnerability-stability 'O 90- < 1 "~' (number of species) X i 200_ - - " i g\2,,--' Farmnland runoff, >70- 10se 50 -- Nutrient load sewage 50 Dam' closed 1958 1 963 1 967 1 972 1 978 Unbalanced Vulnerable Stabilization Maturity Unbalanced eutrophy stability eutrophy Zambezi River | Lake Kariba Source: Balon and Coche 1974. 14 TRANsITION: FROM TROPICAL RIVER TO RESERVOIR During the filling of new reservoirs nutrients are leached from soils and other organic matter, result- Box 1 Factors affecting the fish yield ing in a fertile aquatic ecosystem. Successfully of reservoirs adapting fish species initially increase in popula- Factors increasingyield tion, and fish production rises. The initial burst in * Extent of shoreline development (coves, bays) fish production during the first few years after inun- *Existence and extent of marginal vegetation dation often is not sustainable. Fish production . Average depth of less than 18 meters declines rapidly as the reservoir basin reaches its - Conditions that permit passage of migratory fish basal level of fertility. At maturity, fish populations * Introduction of species well adapted to lentic environment and their food organisms become adjusted to the * Existence of permanent fisheries permanent fertility level of the basin and nutrient * Use of modern fishing gear balances resulting from inflows, outflows, and * Enforcement of fishery regulations runoff (Bhukaswan 1980). . Management and financial assistance to fisheries Year to year, however, fish production patterns Factors reducingyield may differ greatly from these general outlines. Each . Erosion in reservoir watershed areas reservoir has different nutrient inflows that vary . Reduction of water flow into reservoir according to dam management practices, rainfall . Large seasonal fluctuations in water level n Fish species composition favoring predatory and amount of runoff and river input, and addi- species tional nutrient loads from human activities. - Pollution in reservoir watershed areas Outflows similarly can vary widely, depending on Note: Based on reservoirs in Brazil. demand. Other factors also affect the fish yield of Source: Paiva 1976. reservoirs (box 1). The challenge is to develop cost- effective monitoring and management systems to lakes in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. ensure the optimal use of fisheries resources for They found that total capture fisheries yields and human needs and for maximum economic benefit. yields per unit of area in Asian reservoirs were related more to morphometric features (water Predicting capture fisheries yields area, catchment area, ratio of catchment area to in a new reservoir water area, mean depth, shoreline development index) than to biological features. They argued The combined influences of the age, size, depth, that morphometric factors will be more effective shape, catchment area, and hydrological regime of than other factors in predicting fisheries yields in a reservoir largely determine its biological produc- Asian reservoirs for several reasons: Unlike mor- tivity. Fisheries management practices and human phometric factors, biological factors vary signifi- impacts (such as pollution) also affect a reservoir's cantly from year to year. Morphometric factors are productivity. The magnitude of the influence of easily measured for large numbers ofwater bodies. these factors and the synergies among them are dif- And morphometric factors are not influenced by ferent for each reservoir. The challenge is to deter- cultural factors. mine which physical or limnological factors exert Soemarwoto and others (1990) characterized an overriding influence on fisheries productivity the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs on the basis of under different seasonal regimes.2 14 morphometric and hydrological variables. To delineate predictive factors relating physi- Assembling an Asia-wide database characterizing cal, hydrological, and chemical features to capture reservoirs according to such morphometric factors fisheries yields in Asia, Moreau and De Silva (1991) might be an effective approach for predicting cap- reviewed data on a large number of reservoirs and ture fisheries yields from Asian reservoirs. 15 Reservoir capture fisheries Sustaining reservoir capture fisheries yields of just 10-37 kilograms per hectare a year even with annual restocking of tilapia. The yields of reservoir capture fisheries are con- In efforts to enhance and sustain reservoir cap- strained by the priorities given to water use for ture fisheries, the main technical issues to be con- human needs, as well as by a number of other envi- sidered are these: ronmental and social factors. One of the most * Preservation and enhancement of natural important points to recognize with any capture fish- stocks, including mitigation of physical barriers to ery is that the aquatic ecosystem itself imposes lim- breeding. its on yields and that no amount of management * Selective fishing to control populations of and fisheries enhancement will increase the pro- predator fish. duction of wild fish stocks beyond certain biological * Stocking and protection of stocked material limits (Munro, Iskandar, and Costa-Pierce 1990). In (for example, protected nursery areas). a well-managed, shallow, tropical reservoir, capture * Creation of new spawning grounds or preser- fishery harvests normally do not exceed 50-150 vation of existing ones. kilograms per hectare a year. Larger, deeper reser- * Regulation, participatory community man- voirs can be expected to yield substantially less agement, and habitat preservation. because much of the water and the benthic ecosys- tem lie in the deoxygenated hypolimnion below the Mitigatingphysical barriers thermocline. Capture fisheries yields from Asian reservoirs There are few true anadromous fish (those that are usually low, seldom more than 50 kilograms per migrate to spawn in fresh water) in Southeast Asia. hectare a year (Yap 1987). The exception in Asia is But elsewhere in Asia, and in Africa, Australia, and small, shallow reservoirs stocked with a prolific the United States, populations of anadromous fish African fish, the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis have been decimated by dams and aqueducts. In mossambicus). Average capture fisheries yields of India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka the Indian shad shallow Indonesian reservoirs with tilapia are (Hilsa ilisha), mahaseer (Torkhudree), and mountain 200-400 kilograms per hectare a year (Hardjamulia labeo (Labeo fischeri) have virtually disappeared and Suwignyo 1988). Similar reservoirs in Sri Lanka since the construction of reservoirs on a number of produce 283-307 kilograms per hectare a year (De river systems. Silva 1988b). Deep reservoirs (more than 30 To combat such losses in India, broodstock of meters) yield much less even with repeated stocking major and minor Indian carp species are trans- of tilapia. For example, the 36.4-meter-deep ported from the river to pens in the reservoir, where Jatiluhur Reservoir in West Java produced average the fish breed at the onset of the monsoons 16 RESERVOIR CGyruRE FISHERIES (Sreenivasan 1986). Unlike in Latin America and or occasional supplemental stocking of self- the former Soviet Union, however, there has been sustaining (naturally reproducing) species and little work in Asia on fish passageways and ladders repetitive restocking of nonreproducing (or occa- (Pavlov 1989; Quiros 1989). sionally reproducing) species. Fernando (1980) summarized a strategy for stocking fish in Asian Controlling predators through selectivefishing reservoirs: * Give priority to managing indigenous species In Asian reservoirs the guiding principle of fisheries from riverine and wetland areas in the vicinity. management is to increase the production and * Do not automatically stock on an annual or yield of fish that feed at the lowest levels of the seasonal basis in order to harvest stocked fish with aquatic food web, mainly herbivorous and omnivo- resident fish. Most Southeast Asian reservoirs have rous fish. Predators, because they reduce the resident populations of predators that can decimate biomass of fish harvests, need to be controlled or the small stocks of introduced fish. fished out. * Never stock predator fish in countries where Exerting intensive, selective fishing pressure on the availability of protein food-not sport fishing- predator fish has been a successful management is the overriding concern. tool in many Asian countries. The main predator * Promote the introduction of self-perpetuat- fish of concern in Southeast Asian reservoirs are ing species. native carp (Hampala macrolepidota), catfish (Clarias * Develop cage aquaculture, especially in reser- spp., Macrones spp., Mystus spp., and Wallago spp.), voirs dominated by predators. and snakeheads (Channa spp.). Success in reducing * Introduce pelagic and deep-water fish where predator fish populations has been notable in the the reservoir ecosystems and gear are appropriate. Gandhi Sagar Reservoir in India and the Ubolratana * Use large fingerlings for stocking and encour- Reservoir in Thailand (Bhukaswan 1980; Costa- age selective fishing of predators before stocking in Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990a). In Gandhi Sagar small reservoirs to increase fish yields. longline techniques are used for fishing predators. In Ubolratana longlines, gill nets, baited traps, cast Fish that are introduced can be either indige- nets, harpoons, and hooks and lines are used to nous or exotic. Because of the increased concern catch predators, which have decreased both in size about the environmental impact of introduced and in number. Forage fish such as native carp and species in many Southeast Asian countries, Costa- pelagic sardines now dominate catches. Pierce and Soemarwoto (1990a) developed guide- lines for introducing exotic species. Introducing and stocking species The stocking of self-reproducing fish species, especially of the tilapia, has been very successful in Stocking involves adding fish to a reservoir from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka (Baluyut hatcheries or other outside sources. Stocking is 1983; De Silva 1987 and 1988b; Sarnita 1987; done for several purposes: to enhance the yield of a Guerrero 1988; de los Trinos 1992; Hardjamulia reservoir by altering the balance of species, to fill an and Suwignyo 1988). Repetitive restocking of fish to ecological niche perceived to be vacant, to make up enhance or rehabilitate fish populations, however, for a lack of natural reproduclion, to replace fish is not always the best or most appropriate way to that have died catastrophically, to provide food or increase fish stocks and production. Indeed, from a sport, to control nuisance weeds, to provide food cost-benefit perspective, many fish restocking pro- for desirable fish, and to provide employment grams are difficult to justify. But fisheries depart- (Bhukaswan 1980). Two types of stocking programs ments throughout the world are often compelled to have been conducted in Asian reservoirs: one-time conduct stocking programs because of pressure 17 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS from the public and politicians to "do something" because of lack of financial resources and of people to enhance the fish populations in unproductive with appropriate training, among other socioeco- lakes and reservoirs. nomic problems. Creating spawning grounds Successful models of reservoir capture fisheries Spawning conditions for most reservoir fish species deteriorate over time because of shoreline degrada- Successful reservoir capture fisheries in Southeast tion and fluctuations in water levels (Walburg 1976). Asia range from self-sustainable, non-restocking To improve spawning conditions for desired species, enterprises to "put and take," or regularly existing knowledge on the place and timing of restocked, intensively managed capture fisheries. spawning and on environmental factors that trigger Three notable examples of successful capture fish- spawning can be combined with field observation to eries using an ecosystems management concept are identify the areas, the seasons, and the biological fac- tilapia in Indonesia and in Sri Lanka and freshwater tors that are key in the spawning of both desired and sardines in Thailand.3 Reservoir capture fisheries in undesired species. Artificial spawning areas can be all three countries produce fish at a competitive created in key sites to expand fish populations. price for local consumption. These important mod- els illustrate the diversity of sustainable paths that Protecting,fisheries through regulation and community may be taken to develop fisheries in small to management medium-size reservoirs. Even the most elaborate fisheries management and Capturefisheries integrated with other reservoir uses regulatory system will collapse unless measures are through zonation in Indonesia taken to protect fish populations. Although com- munities and governments can take such measures Suwignyo (1974) attributes the success of separately, protection will be impossible if both do Indonesian reservoir capture fisheries to the devel- not take action. opment of a self-sustaining concept-achieving a Fisheries regulations and controls fall into sev- balance between the carrying capacity of the water eral common categories (Munro 1983): body and fishing pressure through zonation. * Closed areas-bans on fishing in the main Indonesian scientists and government officials con- spawning grounds and in nursery areas for the most tributed to the design of a zonation system that has important species of a fishery. allowed development of productive capture fish- * Closed seasons-bans on fishing during the eries in four reservoirs of the Brantas River basin in spawning and nursing periods of important species. EastJava: Selorejo, Karangkates, Lahor, and Wlingi. * Gearregulations-bansorseasonalrestrictions The four reservoirs, the subject of collaborative on the use of gear. studies by Institut Pertanian Bogor (Bogor * Size regulations-restrictions on keeping fish Agricultural University), BIOTROP (Bogor), and below a certain size or weight. the Indonesian Department of Public Works, serve * Limited entry-quotas on fishers and on the as test beds for institutional and planning mecha- gear they can use and limits on time spent fishing. nisms that may help to sustain capture fisheries in * Prohibitions-bans on use of fishing gear and small tropical reservoirs. methods that cause indiscriminate damage to The Indonesian reservoirs are multipurpose stocks, such as seines, trawls, poisons, and explosives. reservoirs for electricity generation, drinking water supply, irrigation, and flood control. To ensure that It is questionable whether such regulations can fisheries do not hamper these functions in any way, be enforced in many tropical nations, however, a zonation pattern was developed for the reservoirs 18 RESERVOIR CAITURE FISHERIES that delineated four fisheries zones: a prohibited grams per hectare, a year (Suwignyo 1974). Fishing zone, a conservation zone, a regulated zone, and an in the four reservoirs is regulated through restric- open, or unregulated, zone. tions on the mesh size of gear. The mesh size must The prohibited zone is the area closest to the exceed 6 centimeters, which was found to be the dam and is closed to fishing for security and safety size of tilapia after first spawning. reasons. It includes the area around the dam and Initially the main concern of reservoir engi- installations connected with dam functions, and neers was to ensure that the water was "clean" and dangerous areas near the outflow. The conserva- that fisheries did not conflictwith the main purpose tion zone is also closed to fishing. It contains fish of the reservoirs-water storage. The managers suc- spawning and nursery grounds, including river ceeded in achieving at least the second goal: cap- mouths and nesting sites. In the regulated zone cap- ture fisheries developed after dam construction in ture or culture (aquaculture) fisheries are allowed a manner that ensured that there would be no con- but regulated by limits on catch, size, or gear or by flict with the primary activities of irrigation and closed seasons. The open zone, where there are no power generation. regulations on fishing, exists only in large reservoirs in Indonesia. Capturefisheriesforfreshwater sardines in Thailand The location and size of the zones are not fixed and may differ in every reservoir. And a reservoir In Thailand indigenous species have been devel- may not have all the zones. The number and size of oped in reservoirs ranging in size from 1,200 to the zones in a reservoir are related to its size and 4,100 hectares. Yields are low, averaging 47 kilo- morphometry. Figure 6 shows the delineation of grams per hectare a year (Chookajorn and fisheries zones in the Selorejo (400 hectares), Bhukaswan 1988). In some years, however, gross Karangkates (1,500 hectares), and Lahor (260 returns from reservoir fisheries have exceeded hectares) Reservoirs. the revenue from electricity. For example, the In the Selorejo Reservoir the prohibited zone 41,000-hectare Ubolratana Reservoir in north- (zone 1) includes the area along the dam wall, the east Thailand produced fish worth 40 million intake area delineated by the trash boom, and the baht in 1978, while electricity sales generatedjust spillway. The conservation zone (zone 2) comprises 30 million baht (Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto the areas where the Konto, Kwayangan, and 1990a). Ngantang Rivers enter the reservoir. All other open- The main fish in the Ubolratana Reservoir is a water areas are in the regulated zone (zone 3). small freshwater sardine (Cludeidichthys aesarnensis) Selorejo does not have an open zone because it is a that occupies the pelagic areas of the reservoir small reservoir with heavy fishing pressure. It was (Sirmongkonthaworn and Fernando 1994). The estimated that 113 people fish the reservoir every sardine is fished with simple technology (light day, with a fishing pressure of 751 person-hours a traps and nets) and used as a low-cost food or ren- day (Hermanto 1978). dered into fish sauce for export to Bangkok Although government fisheries agencies have (Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990a). The sar- stocked a number of species in Selorejo, fisheries dine represents a solution to one of the most have been dominated since the reservoir's intractable technical problems in large tropical impoundment by a wild, nonnative fish thatwas not reservoirs: finding a suitable species to inhabit the stocked, the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis large, nearly devoid open-water fisheries zone mossambicus). Tilapia comprise about 70 percent of found in the great majority of these reservoirs the hook and line catch and more than 80 percent (Fernando and Holcik 1982). of fish captured by nets. An interesting feature of the sardine fishery is its Yields are high for capture fisheries in the small social setting. Out-migrations from northeast reservoirs, totaling 120-140 tons, or 300-350 kilo- Thailand to Bangkok due to a lack of rural employ- 19 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS IBRD 28381 Selorejo Reservoir Kwayangan Figure 6 Zonation has helped sustain g aver capture fisheries in Indonesian reservoirs I Prohibited zone 2 Conservation zone 3 Regulated zone 4 Unregulated zone Ngantang Dam, intake, Karangkates Reservoir River and spillway 0 0.5 Kilometers Dam, 0 0 4 and spillway Konto River Kilometers River * IPHILIPPINES;: BRUNEI : PACIFIC OCEAN Lahor Reservoir _. / i004000;0%Xt>n2 <'2 0002KALIMAN"TAN >0,<:0 y0f *; :_ 0 0 5 n g0+XEv:: >> M0W ? f0000g ;00;:> .IRAN !z - ava Sea ~~~~~~~~~~~JAYA ~ 2 Ja~~~~~~~* I N D 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~N E S I Locat 0 i0 ion oN00ln j0f reservoir - 0ST-RALIA This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The Dar and boundones, colors, denominations ond spillway 05 any other information shown on this tmap do not imply, on the port of The Kilometers World Bank Group, ony judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any - Connection tunnel endorsement or occeptonce of such boundaries. Source: Suwignyo 1974. January 1997 ment opportunities had taken their toll. But Capturefisheries for tilapia in Sri Lanka because of the development of the pelagic sardine fishery, fishing families now migrate seasonally Sri Lanka has an estimated 175,000 hectares of between the Gulf of Thailand and the Ubolratana reservoirs (Fernando and De Silva 1984), expected Reservoir in the northeast. to increase to 250,000 hectares by 2000 (De Silva 20 RESERVOIR CAPrURE FISHERIES 1992a). Relative to land area, Sri Lanka has a model for sustainable aquatic ecosystems manage- greater area of freshwater reservoirs than any other ment. The fisheries involve little coordination nation, estimated at 3 hectares of reservoir surface between communities and government and have per square kilometer of land and expected to not been developed on a scientific basis. According increase to 4 hectares by 2000 (De Silva 1983). The to De Silva (1988b), capture fisheries in these reservoirs, among the most studied in the world, are dominated by catches Basic questions as to when to commence fish- of an imported, exotic species, the Mozambique ing and what the initial fishing pressure tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) (De Silva 1988b). should be in newly impounded reservoirs are Inland reservoir fisheries in Sri Lanka yield being solved or attempted to be solved 27,000-30,000 tons a year for an average fish pro- through intuition rather than scientific rea- duction of 283-307 kilograms per hectare a year soning. (p. 25) (De Silva 1988b). Fish yields from the commercial fishery have The only regulations imposed on the reservoir been shown to be positively related to fluctuations fisheries has been a minimum mesh size of 50 mil- in the water levels of the reservoirs. In the limeters and a prohibition on the use of seines. In Parakrama Samudra Reservoir fish yields were sig- addition, fishermen's cooperatives sometimes nificantly related to the mean water levels in the pre- agree to cease fishing during dry years for brief peri- vious three years (De Silva 1986). ods (two to three months) every two to three years Despite the success of the Sri Lankan reservoir when yields decline. The effects of these measures fisheries, their management cannot serve as a are not known (De Silva 1988b). 21 Reservoir culture fisheries Culture fisheries, or aquaculture, can dramatically * Technical factors. There should be adequate increase fish yields in reservoirs. Depending on the supplies of fish seed and feeds and aquaculture river basin's fertility and on technical, socioeco- equipment. nomic, and marketing considerations, a wide vari- * Availabilityoftrainedmanagers.Expertiseinaqua- ety of aquaculture systems can be developed that culture management is essential. Trained personnel are vastly more productive than capture fisheries. understand the fundamentals of aquaculture pro- For a reservoir aquaculture development pro- duction systems: stocking, feeding, disease prevention ject to succeed, however, adequate consideration and treatment, and harvesting and marketing. must be given at the planning stage to sociocultural, * Political stability. Aquaculture has acquired a infrastructural, economic, marketing, and other reputation in some areas as a high-risk venture. If vital factors. political risks are added, an aquaculture project is * Socioculturalfactors. It is essential to assess the doomed. acceptability of fish as food among consumers, to * Traditional knowledge offisheries. In many parts estimate the fish consumption rate of the target of Asia there are "fisheries cultures" that have tra- group, and to determine the product form and sizes ditional knowledge of aquaculture and fisheries sys- preferred by the group. For religious or other rea- tems handed down through the generations. In sons, some cultures are primarily vegetarian or pre- many of these societies farmers are as expert as sci- fer protein from other animal sources. entists. But other cultures have little experience * Economic and marketingfactors. Planners should with "water farming." assess the market and price competition from alter- * Laws and regulations. Taxes, permits, import native terrestrial and aquatic protein sources, espe- duties, and regulations on sales, species, and drugs cially from lower-cost fish caught seasonally (or can determine the success or failure of aquaculture. year-round) in wild fisheries. They should also esti- mate the capital and operating expenses of pro- Aquaculture systems ducers and the resulting cost of fish to the consumer. There are two general types of reservoir aquaculture * Infrastructure. The condition of a country's systems, water-based and land-based. The main basic infrastructure-roads, communications, mar- advantages of water-based aquaculture systems are keting (refrigeration), airports-might present that they do not take up scarce land and they inten- constraints to aquaculture development. sify the productive use of the lake water surface, an * Environment. Suitable sites must be available, underexploited resource. The primary water-based water quality should be good and temperatures aquaculture systems are cage culture and pen culture. appropriate, and there should be no chemical or Land-based aquaculture systems are capital pesticide pollution or fish diseases. intensive. They require facilities for holding and 22 RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES raising fish-ponds, tanks, silos, or concrete basins ations for the cage culture of many fish species in (raceways)-and infrastructure for water supply and reservoirs fully floating. Common carp, one of the flows. Developed to serve as hatcheries and nurs- most important food fish, is one example. The spawn- eries in support of cage and pen systems in reser- ing of common carp in cages in reservoirs has been voirs, however, land-based aquaculture systems can successful in India using water hyacinths as substrates play a vital part in the long-term sustainability of for egg collection (Tripathi 1987). For an acceptable new, water-based (reservoir) aquaculture systems. survival rate after hatching, however, common carp require zooplankton feed of an increasing size until Cage culture they reach about 40-50 grams, when they readily accept feeds with lower protein content. The remain- In cage culture fish are raised in circular, square, or ing technical problem is the need for a technique that rectangular net bags suspended in the water, either would enable common carp to be raised from hatch- floating from a raft (offshore cage culture) or fixed ing to 40-50 grams in floating net cages. Experiments to the bottom near the shore in the littoral zone. In to date have proved unsuccessful or uneconomic nearshore cage culture the four sides of the net bag compared with land-based hatchery and nursery are attached to stakes driven into the reservoir bot- methods (Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990). tom. Floating cage culture is more suitable for reser- Floating hatcheries and nurseries for tilapia, voirs subject to large fluctuations in water level. however, are well developed, making rapid expan- Cage culture can be practiced intensively, semi- sion of the cage culture of this species in tropical intensively, or extensively. The intensity of opera- reservoirs possible. The water-based hatchery and tions depends mainly on the economics-the nursery technologies for tilapia are well known and availability of fingerlings and feed and the market are economically competitive with land-based demand for fish products. methods (see Beveridge 1987, Behrends and Lee Cages can be used as hatcheries, nurseries, or 1990, and Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1995 for grow-out systems, depending on the development discussion of the techniques and economics). of the aquaculture production network (see section below on such networks). Multispecies stocking has Single cage systems. In the Saguling and Cirata been carried out where species are compatible with Reservoirs commercial cage aquaculture is con- each other or where a 'janitor" fish is stocked at low ducted in net bags (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) floated from density to prevent algae from clogging nets or to a raft of bamboo and oil drums. The cages are clean parasites off a commercial species. stocked with approximately 300 kilograms of com- mon carp fingerlings averaging 50-100 grams. Hatchery and nursery systems. Technical problems Three to four months later, 1.0-1.5 tons of fish of remain to be solved in order to make the entire oper- 300-500 grams can be harvested (table 2). Table 2 Yield characteristics of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in floating net cages Stocking Harvest Total Average Total Average Length Survival Food vofume weight Number volume weight Number of of cycle rate Feed conversion Cage (kilograms) (groms) of fish (kilogroms) (grams) fish (days) (percent) (kilogroms) ratioa 1 300 71.6 4,190 905 217.4 4,162 90 99 1,328.2 2.2 2 300 68.1 4,407 1,225 283.8 4,316 82 98 1,536.5 1.7 3 300 68.2 4,397 982 241.8 4,062 90 92 1,441.9 2.1 4 300 74.8 4,009 1,168 293.6 3,978 89 99 1,677.8 1.9 a. Food conversion ratio is the dry weight of feed in kilograms divided by the wet weight of fish in kilograms. Note: The cages (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) were stocked at 2.4 kilograms per cubic meter (300 kilograms per cage) and fed at 3 percent body weight per day with a commercial feed of 24-26 percent crude protein. Stocking and management followed the practices used by the majority of farmers in the cage culture industry documented in Bongas, Saguling Reservoir. Source: Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990. 23 FROM FARMIERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DA_MS Rusydi and Lampe (1990) estimated that a Nearly all the tilapia were produced in biculture farmer operating three cages would have a net oper- cage operations in which common carp were raised ating income of $500 per fish crop. With the possi- in inner cages and tilapia in outer cages. The inner bility of three crops a year if sufficient fingerlings cages were 7 x 7 x 3 meters with 1.5-centimeter and feed are available, the income potential for the mesh. The outer nets were also 7 x 7 meters, but had single cages is excellent. As a result, this type of cage a total depth of 3.5-4.0 meters, so that the tilapia aquaculture has expanded rapidly in the Saguling had a space 50-100 centimeters in depth below the and Cirata Reservoirs in Indonesia. carp cage. Farmers' stocking and harvest cycles were struc- Biculture cage systems. Costa-Pierce and tured around the facts that common carp were Hadikusumah (1990) demonstrated the feasibility reported to grow faster than tilapia and that market of a biculture cage system in which common carp preferences in Jakarta were for tilapia of 200-300 were raised in small-mesh cages floated above or grams. Tilapiawere stocked at an average weight of placed within larger cages used for raising tilapia. about 25 grams in outer nets, and common carp, Common carp fingerlings in two cages (2.4 x 4.0 x averaging about 50 grams, were stocked in inner 1.2 meters) with net mesh of 2-3 millimeters were nets. The total stocking weight was 300 kilograms of placed in a single outer net (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) with common carp and 150 kilograms of tilapia. Feed 4-centimeter mesh. The outer nets were stocked was given only to the common carp. The feed with two sizes of tilapia, with mean weights of 84 (24-25 percent protein) was given three to five grams and 208 grams. Feed was given at a rate typi- times a day at 30 kilograms per cage per day, for a cal for common carp nursery culture, while a main- total of 2.5-3.0 tons over a common carp grow-out tenance ration was fed to the tilapia. Common carp period of two and a half to three months. At the end in nurseries within the tilapia cages had significantly of the period common carp were harvested at an higher net production, higher mean weight at har- average weight of about 330 grams. vest, and lower food conversion ratios (FCRs, the The tilapia remained in the outer net while ratio of the dry weight of feed to the wet weight of another common carp groNw-out cycle was initiated. fish produced, in kilograms) than carp in nets with After another two and a half to three months the no tilapia on the outside. It was hypothesized that second batch of common carp was harvested at a the low FCRs were due to increased food availability, size similar to that of the first cycle, and then the which occurred because the tilapia kept the nets free tilapia were harvested. After the total of six months of attached organisms. In addition, a second crop of the tilapia averaged about 250 grams. fish was produced from the same feed inputs, since In one year four crops of common carp and two the tilapia were eating these organisms and recycled crops of tilapia were taken. Assuming conservative feed and fish waste from the carp nets above them. survival rates of 90 percent for common carp and By 1993 at the Saguling Reservoir, cage farmers 95 percent for the tilapia, each three-month carp in the Bongas area were observed practicing an cycle produced about 1.8 tons, and each six-month important newcommercialvariation ofthis biculture tilapia cycle 1.4 tons. If enough fingerlings were cage system, reflecting the innovativeness of farmers available, 10 tons of fish could be harvested for and the presence and evolution of traditional knowl- every 49 square meters of water surface using this edge systems in the new reservoir aquaculture indus- method, or 204 kilograms per square meter per try. The production of tilapia in cage aquaculture year. This production rate is among the highest had grown substantially in the Bongas cage culture recorded for any animal protein production system. industry, from zero in 1989 to an estimated 15 tons a day in 1993. By that year five fish transport vehicles Subsistence cage and mini-cagesystems. Costa-Pierce were carrying 3 tons each of freshly harvested tilapia and Hadikusumah (1990) estimated the capital each day from Saguling to Jakarta. costs for the 7 x 7 x 2.5 meter commercial cages in 24 RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES the Saguling Reservoir in 1989 at Rp 491,200 (in stocked at high densities (for tilapia, 4-12 kilo- 1989 US$1 = Rp 1,796). They developed improved grams per cubic meter, and for carp, 1-6 kilo- construction methods that reduced capital costs to grams). Prospects for low-cost, extensive (no-feed) Rp 274,500. They also engineered a cage system that cage culture of carp and tilapia are often over- did not require expensive oil drums for flotation looked or underestimated. In extensive cage cul- but instead used bamboo, for a total capital cost of ture microphagous (small-particle-feeding) fish are Rp 177,500. raised at low stocking densities and are provided no Shortly after inundation 64 percent of the people feed or fed agroindustrial wastes, such as rice or displaced by the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs maize bran, which has a low protein content (less remained below the Indonesian poverty line than 10 percent) and is inexpensive. (Suwartapradja and Achmad 1990). Thus, the major- Extensive cage culture of herbivorous or omniv- ity of displaced people lacked the capital to invest in orous fish at low stocking densities (tilapia at even the lower-cost commercial cage models. As a 0.02-0.69 kilogram per cubic meter and Chinese result, the development of intensive mini-cage and carp at 0.12-0.55 kilogram) in naturally or artifi- subsistence cage systems was undertaken (Costa- cially enriched water bodies (mesotrophic to Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990; Schmittou 1992). eutrophic) is a viable option for producing low-cost The capital costs for constructing a 17-cubic- food fish. The Chinese silver and bighead carp meter subsistence bamboo cage were Rp 60,000. (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Aristichthys nobilis) Fish production in such cages ranged from 136 to and tilapia (principally Oreochromnis nriloticus) are the 153 kilograms over periods of 86-90 days. It was cal- fish most commonly raised in extensive cage culture culated that, with proper management over succes- in Asia, principally in cages in reservoirs in China, sive 90-day grow-out cycles, two bamboo cages could Nepal, and Singapore (Chookajorn 1982; Coche provide an Indonesian family three fish of about 1982; Hai and Zwieg 1987). Net production in no- 250 grams every day. The cages were durable, last- feed cage culture for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus ing more than two years in the reservoir (six cycles, and 0. mossambicus) ranges from 0.3 to 7.5 kilo- three per year in 1987-89) with minor repairs. grams per cubic meter, and for the Chinese silver Low-cost, one-cubic-meter mini-cage models and bighead carp from 0.6 to 2.8 kilograms. Fish were developed in Indonesia. by Schmittou (1992). culture periods range from 72 to 180 days for tilapia The total capital costs of such a cage were estimated and 72 to 420 days for Chinese carp. at Rp 40,000, and the common carp production Successful extensive cage aquaculture requires achieved was 200 kilograms per cage every three that cages be sited in rich water bodies where con- months. The net income per cage (with interest) centrations of plankton and detrital and suspended was estimated at Rp 112,000. organic matter are adequate to support fish that are These cage aquaculture models have tremen- confined to small spaces and have nonspecific, dous potential to attract poor villagers with little filter-feeding habits. Eutrophic and hypereutrophic capital into cage aquaculture. The mini-cage mod- water bodies are therefore excellent locations. els could also serve as economic and biotechnical precursors to larger business ventures by small Pen culture farmers. At the Saguling Reservoir many who owned small cages eventually saved enough of their A pen culture system consists of an enclosed area of earnings to become commercial cage owners. shallow water, usually a cove, backwater, or bay shel- tered from strong winds. Netting is attached to Extensive cage culture of Chinese carp and tilapia. stakes (wood, bamboo, or metal) driven into the Prospective sites for cage culture are normally con- reservoir bottom. Pens require a flat reservoir bot- sidered for their potential to sustain intensive cul- tom or one that slopes toward the main part of the ture in which formulated feeds are given to fish reservoir and fairly stable water levels. 25 FROM FARNIERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DANIs Most fish pens are operated as semi-intensive developed markets for fingerlings and market-size aquaculture systems: they are fed, fertilized, cleaned, fish. and harvested regularly. In a well-developed aqua- A fully developed aquaculture production net- culture production network, pens can serve multiple work is important not only because of the efficien- purposes. They can be used to raise fish to market cies it generates, but also because of the important size. They can also be used to supply fingerlings to social and economic benefits that it produces. The other aquaculture systems in the reservoir or to sys- development of such a network is an evolutionary tems outside the reservoir. And, if operated as a process-even in Asia, where aquaculture is most hatchery, they can be used to conserve and enhance advanced. The network grows and changes shape as reservoir capture fisheries populations. Seeded with new production systems and market linkages arise large broodstock, pens produce small fish (recruits) to meet new demands. This process is illustrated by that can "leak out" through the meshes and colonize the evolution of an aquaculture production net- the reservoir, enhancing capture fisheries. work for common carp in the Bandung regency of Pen systems are successful only where there are WestJava. no large fluctuations in water levels such as those In West Java the traditional aquaculture pro- that occur in reservoirs associated with hydropower duction network for common carp, dating to about dams. For example, as a result of the routine 15-20- 1910, linked pond hatchery systems to rice-fish meter drops in water level in the Saguling Reservoir, nursery systems and family ponds for grow-out (fig- leading to an unacceptably high risk of crop losses, ure 7). While urban markets provided a demand for pen systems did not develop there, even though large fish (0.5 kilogram or more), the demand in they were demonstrated to farmers. To avoid fish traditional markets in the rice-growing regions was kills due to rapid drawdowns, additional canals and for fish ofjust 50-200 grams. Most of the fish from a sump pond were dug into the bottom of pens near rice fields was sold in local markets for local con- the fence. As water drained from the pen, fish were sumption, but family ponds also produced large fish directed by the canals into a sump pond. for sale in the cities (Costa-Pierce 1992d). Nevertheless, after the first few years rapid draw- By 1976 the technical and economic feasibility downs led to the stranding and loss of fish, and of intensive culture of common carp in concrete farmers moved to other, less risky aquaculture raceway systems had been demonstrated. These sys- systems. tems proved profitable, and by 1985 more than 5,000 running water systems were operating. Fish Aquaculture production networks markets expanded with the increased demand from a rapidly growing population. At the same time, An aquaculture production network comprises the running water systems created increased demand inputs, supplies, and markets that sustain an aqua- for fingerlings of 80-100 grams. This demand was culture system. Such networks range from isolated, not matched by an expansion in the rice-fish nurs- undeveloped networks to segmented, integrated, ery systems, however, and fingerling shortages and and highly developed systems. Well-developed, seg- price increases occurred. mented aquaculture industries have distinct hatch- During the late 1970s and 1980s pesticide use on ery, nursery, and grow-out sectors, with markets for rice skyrocketed in Indonesia, which at that time farm-raised fish of all sizes. In the most under- purchased about 20 percent of the world's rice developed networks single farmers (or farm fami- insecticide. By the early 1980s traditional practices lies) must invest in and manage their own hatchery, of fish culture in rice fields nearly disappeared. The nursery, and grow-out systems and raise fish of all small fish traditionally marketed in the rice-growing sizes, though marketing only large fish (food fish). areas became scarce, and rural people were Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand have deprived of a vitally important, low-cost, traditional highly segmented aquaculture industries and well- source of protein. 26 RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES By 1986 the popularity of running water systems aquaculture grew dramatically in the Saguling was on the decline as a result of management fail- Reservoir from 1986 to 1990 and in the Cirata ures, rising feed and fingerling prices, and declin- Reservoir after 1989 (Sutandar and others 1990), ing fish prices. In addition, the higher profitability leading to substantial new fish production from the and lower capital costs of floating cages in reservoirs two reservoirs, estimated at 10,000 tons a year by the had been successfully demonstrated. Owners of end of 1992. reservoir cages began to undercut owners of run- During this period Indonesia's rice sector had ning water systems, exacerbating their financial two massive outbreaks of brown plant hopper pests, problems. Dramatic changes occurred in the aqua- and the resistance of rice pests to a number of com- culture production network. monly applied broad-spectrum pesticides increased Fish markets expanded with continued popula- significantly. As a result, a 1986 presidential decree tion growth, but the number of registered running banned the use of 57 broad-spectrum pesticides on water systems fell by more than 50 percent. Cage rice. These events in the rice sector, combined with Figure 7 An aquaculture production network is a dynamic system Hatc he ~ _ _ _ _ _ Rce fs _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ] 1910-76 s Ms sy M Pod Markets 1976-85 te her 98 Hatchery Rice-fish~ ~ ~~wate 16- systems systems (RWS) / n s 196 _ Mssstm The figure shows the historical development of the aquaculture production network for common carp in West Java, Indonesia. Between 19 10 and 1976 a traditional network developed in which rice-fish systems supplied seed fish for grow-out in family ponds and fish for local consumers in the rice-growing districts. Between 1976 and 1985 fish markets grew as a result of the rapid population growth in West Java, and ponds and rice-fish systems increased in number. Running water systems were introduced, increasing the demand for seed fish and contributing to the growth in rice-fish and pond nurseries. The production of small fish for local markets declined. The year 1 986 marked the beginning of a period of continuing change. Demand for freshwater fish continued to grow, but the number of traditional fish ponds remained relatively constant because of urbanization, and the number of running water systems dropped sharply. The rapid development of reservoir cage culture created new demand for seed fish, boosting the growth of rice-fish nurseries, which still supplied a small amount of fish to local consumers. How will the network evolve? The dashed lines indicate possible future directions of development. Source: Costa-Pierce 1992d. 27 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS the increased demand for seed fish for stocking cage cage area to reservoir area is 1 to 500 (Un, grow-out systems, led to a sharp increase in the area Guggenheim, and Costa-Pierce forthcoming). After devoted to rice-fish culture in West Java and to an measuring the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of expansion of pond hatcheries (Costa-Pierce 1992d). concentrated fish wastes settling from carp cage cul- Many of the changes in WestJava's aquaculture ture in the Saguling Reservoir, the Institute of production network have proceeded with little Ecology (IOE) and the International Center for planning, occurring largely as a result of shifting Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) market forces. The planning to develop cage aqua- recommended that cage aquaculture in thatreservoir culture in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs in be limited to four 7 x 7 meter cages per hectare, or connection with the resettlement, in particular, 22,640 cages, a 1 to 50 ratio (IOE and ICLARM 1989). gave little attention to the tremendous potential The carrying capacity of cages in a reservoir will boost to overall regional development that the care- be higher with higher throughput or water fully planned development of a sophisticated aqua- exchange rates, as in a hydropower reservoir. culture production network can provide. Even so, Although there are no reports available indicating the reservoir aquaculture development probably that reservoirs with high water exchange rates could created far more indirect employment-jobs and support a higher number of intensive cage units, new business opportunities-in hatcheries, nurs- the IOE and ICLARM (1989) proposed this as a rea- eries, and rice-fish culture than direct employment sonable assumption. in the reservoir aquaculture industries. Box 2 Combined uses of reservoirs Carrying capacity In many developing countries the primary or sec- ondary use of reservoirs is as a supply of potable There is a limit to the number of aquaculture units water. In theory there are no conflicts between fish- that a body of water can support before self- eriesandcommunitywatersupplies, sincewatersuit- pollution or negative feedback occurs, reducing the able for drinking is excellent for fish production and vice versa. In Singapore bighead carp (Aristichthys productivity of aquaculture activities. This limit-or nobilis) are kept in cages as biological control agents carrying capacity-is reached more quickly by in drinking water reservoirs (Chookajorn 1982). intensively managed units receiving large amounts The fish, which receive neither feed nor fertilizer, of high-protein feed. are used solely to control noxious algal blooms that contribute to taste and odor problems. Some work has been done to measure the effects But excessive aquaculture development can have of different types of semi-intensive and intensive detrimental effects on the quality of reservoir and cage culture on the water quality of reservoirs lake water. Although there have been few studies of (Beveidge 984; ostaPierc and oem 190). this issue in the Tropics, Beveridge and Phillips (Beveridge 1984; Costa-Pierce and Roem 1990). (1993) have theorized that cage aquaculture that Costa-Pierce (1992b) found that the environmental exceeds the absorptive capacity of its aquatic ecosys- impact of cage culture in the Saguling Reservoir was tem will lead to noxious algal blooms and weed prob- insignificant compared with the impact of the lems, degrading water quality. In India, however, nearly all reservoirs are used for both drinking water 150,000 cubic meters of raw sewage discharged into and fisheries, even when their main purposes are irri- the reservoir each day, the impact of turnovers that gation and hydropower. For example, in the Poondi bring nutrients previously locked in the bottom Reservoir in Tamil Nadu, a drinking water reservoir, waters to the surface, and the impact of routne fluc- productive capture fisheries have been developed -with no detrimental effect on water quality; in fact, tuations in water level (box 2). the reservoir's water quality is well within World Much less work has been done on the larger ques- Health Organization (WHO) standards (Sounder, tion of the limits that self-pollution by cages puts on Franklin, and Sreenivasan 1971; Sreenivasan 1977). The development of fisheries in drinking water reser- the number of cages per unit of surface area or water voirs is not permitted everywhere, however, and is volume. Most guidelines are arbitrary. In Chinese banned in China, for example. reservoirs, for example, the recommended ratio of 28 RESERVOIR CULTuRE FISHERIES Site selection for cage aquaculture due to turnover events, that are subject to landslides during heavy rains, or that receive organic, chemi- The site selected for cage aquaculture is an impor- cal, or industrial discharges should be avoided. In tant determinant of business success or failure. The choosing a site, temperature, oxygen, and pH main criteria for site selection are technical and should be measured two to three times a week dur- social. For a producer, the best site is one in which ing the onset of the rainy season (for four to eight the chosen species will reach optimum market size weeks) at 4:00 to 6:00 a.m. to determine the suit- in the shortest possible time and can be readily sold ability of the site during this most critical period. at a high price in an open market. Technical factors to consider in site selection include these: The social factors to consider in site selection * Exposure. A site should be sheltered from include the following: strong winds, storms, and damaging waves yet have * Marketing. Marketing costs should be kept as relatively constant winds and waves to provide reg- low as possible. In this regard, the best site is one to ular flushing. Interviews with local residents can which buyers can easily come to make direct pur- help in identifying storm patterns, unusual weather, chases and where there is good infrastructure for and the directions of seasonal winds. Sites sur- transporting products from the site. rounded by land whose topography will channel * Vandalism and theft. Sites should be located in storm winds and waves should be avoided. areas that can be easily guarded and are free from * Flushing. Relatively sheltered bays connected to social unrest. a river, a tributary, or an inlet that ensures good flush- * Political and legalfactors. Sites should be accept- ing rates (high water renewal rates) are excellent able to local and other authorities and involve min- sites for cage aquaculture. Sites in hydropower reser- imal legal or regulatory complexity and associated voirs with high water exchange rates are preferred. costs. a Basin morphometry. In a reservoir subject to * Costs and availability of services. Sites should be turnover events the shape of the bottom can either in areas where capital and operating costs and ser- prevent or facilitate the rapid movement of deoxy- vices will allow profitability and where there is tra- genated bottom water to the surface. In the ditional knowledge of complex agricultural systems Saguling Reservoir, which experiences annual and knowledge of hydrobiological and irrigation turnover events, cages in bays protected from the systems. wind and with V-shaped bottoms were unaffected by * Cultural and aesthetic acceptability. Sites for cage turnovers, but cages in unprotected bays with U- aquaculture systems should be culturally and aes- shaped (or plate-shaped) bottoms all experienced thetically acceptable to the community. Ensuring catastrophic fish kills. that a system fits into the local environment and is * Water quality. For semi-intensive and intensive a source of community pride is preferable to con- cage culture, sites in which there have been fish kills tinually battling special interest groups. 29 An ecosystems approach to planning reservoir fisheries Integrated fisheries ecosystems can be adapted to a Organic pollution as a misplaced resource wide range of environmental and social conditions. A pictorial representation of an integrated system In Asia hydropower and irrigation reservoirs incorporating fisheries and aquaculture, drawdown increasingly are being located near the urban areas agroforestry, aquaculture production networks, they serve in order to reduce the costs of power and and land-based markets illustrates the range of pos- water transmission. Because most Southeast Asian sibilities for new productive enterprise that can be nations lack adequate means of sewage disposal, developed to revitalize a society and its economic storage reservoirs near major urban areas generally and ecological systems (figure 8). The system receive large loads of untreated sewage. depicted in the figure is modeled on a development For most Asian nations, diverting this sewage plan for fisheries ecosystems in the Saguling-Cirata stream into centralized sewage treatment facilities is hydropower reservoirs in WestJava, Indonesia. not a solution they will be able to afford at any time There are few models of reservoir ecosystems in the near future (Edwards 1992). If the sewage that have been designed in this way-as interactive stream is untainted by heavy industrial or chemical land-water ecosystems with the aim of increasing pollution, an alternative solution is to divert the the social and economic benefits. Nor has any plan- diluted sewage stream into simple oxidation ponds ning system been devised for developing reservoir for fish culture, as has been successfully done in fisheries and aquaculture as part of a fully devel- Calcutta, India (Edwards and Pullin 1990). More oped aquaculture production network or an overall than 24,000 people are employed in Calcutta's regional development plan. sewage-fed fisheries, which send about 20 tons of An ecosystems management approach provides fish a day to the city's markets, 10-20 percent of the the basis for planning the integrated development of fish consumed by the residents (Gosh 1990). reservoir fisheries and aquaculture. Sustainable fish- Organic pollution from runoff, nutrients, and eries require inputs from outside the reservoir system sewage was also a problem in the Saguling Reservoir (seed fish, feed, capital), which in turn produce out- in Indonesia. As the Citarum River coursed through puts that are of value outside the system or as inputs the city of Bandung, it picked up a large organic for the system itself. Numerous recycling pathways are nutrient load and water hyacinths. The river, evident in such a system. Depending on local condi- dammed downstream by the Saguling hydropower tions, more pathways can be designed to enhance the dam, delivered the nutrients and weeds to the productivity and sustainability of the new, evolving, northeastern sector of the reservoir. productive enterprise systems. An ecosystems Water hyacinths developed rapidly in the reser- approach to planning can help fisheries benefit from voir. Alarmed, the Indonesian State Electric the recycling pathways and can develop complemen- Company (PLN) undertook regular mechanical tary economic uses of the reservoir and basin area. removal of the weeds and erected a weed boom, or 30 AN ECOSYSTEMS APPROACH To PLANNING RESERVOIR FISHERIES Figure 8 Integrated fisheries systems open up a range of possibilities for employment and environmental rehabilitation Tropical Food fish rives, Seed fish5 and recreational ~ ~ ~ ran re nhanced \/ /rrigation hcfsheries No/e Figure imoeeonpens i 9 / Seed93. approac proposed developing, with community fishees harness the fertiliziof t involvement,/low-cost, aquatic plant and no-feed to both mitigtee pollution at a lowlcosnd wedbrrierse t i p we h h ao s t t ducts and waste nutrient stream as \misplace o Smcmall-scaleage thacoldeicoportedintnw,product Ehych goi village crafts enterprise systems. A watehyainthfiltrwa lon,stongibersuiablefisheries eoshuin trieLand-based rnears the r hatcheries Rce-fisu nWLANNING, AND MANAGEMENT NEEDS IN DEVELOPING RESERVOIR FISHERIES ECOSYSTEMS recognized the diversity of possible systems, the There are many, more specific needs for strategic different applicability they might have for differ- applied research in integrated reservoir fisheries: ent farmers, the concept that no one technology * Research is needed to help predictthe timing, is universally applicable, and that the farmer, not magnitude, and duration of reservoir turnovers, to the extension worker, chooses the technology to develop a simple monitoring system, and to deter- apply. There are many ecological niches in tropi- mine whether turnovers are due to surface cooling cal reservoirs, and farmers must be allowed to or to upwellings of bottom waters caused by riverine adopt and modify technologies to suit their cir- inflows. cumstances. * The feasibility of supplementing reservoirs with freshwater pelagic sardines, which occupy the Needs in strategic applied research all-too-often empty open waters (the pelagic zone), should be tested. At Ubolratana Reservoir in Asia has a wealth of experience with reservoir fish- Thailand the development of a small, pelagic fish eries, but little of the information from this experi- helped ensure the food security of the poorest peo- ence is available to support national policymaking ple displaced by the reservoir (Costa-Pierce and and research. In all Asian countries statistics need Soemarwoto 1990a). to be collected and analyzed on the number of cur- * The cost-effectiveness of recurrent stocking of rent and planned reservoirs, on their biological, fish in tropical reservoirs should be compared with sociological, and fisheries management status, and that of stocking self-perpetuating species. Research on researchers' experience with these bodies of should also look at what timing for stocking and water. what size of stocking fish would maximize survival Also needed is market-oriented technology rates and economic returns in reservoir capture research to select the highest-priority reservoirs for fisheries. the development of integrated fisheries. And for * Low-cost pens should be developed to each of these reservoirs market, cultural, and eco- enhance stocks, and artificial spawning sites created nomic assessments should be carried out-to iden- to enhance fisheries. tify the best fish, the best system, and the best * The use and cost-effectiveness ofphysical mit- markets. igation measures (ladders, fishways, diversions) Research is also needed on how the manage- should be examined where there are important ment of dam operations can sustain or enhance fisheries for indigenous migrating fish. fisheries. For example, water withdrawals could be * Biological engineering solutions should be timed to stimulate spawning-by discharging developed to ensure that water flows from dams are enough water to ensure the spawning of riverine retained and released at ecologically appropriate fishes downstream during the crucial spawning sea- times to facilitate the spawning and recruitment of son-or drawdown could be used to control the fish in reservoir capture fisheries or to eliminate spawning of an unwanted species. predatory fish. Research is also needed on the pos- Another research need is to establish the mini- itive and negative effects of drawdowns on reservoir mum water levels necessary to conserve a species. cage aquaculture systems. While Fraser (1975) found that 30 percent of the * Research is needed on the costs and benefits mean annual flow is satisfactory for maintaining of clearing or not clearing reservoir bottoms in dif- salmonid fisheries, such data are lacking for many ferent types of reservoirs with capture fisheries. tropical reservoir fisheries projects. In Tamil Nadu, * Low-cost aquaculture systems should be devel- India, reservoir authorities have agreed to maintain oped that are more affordable for the poorest dis- a minimum water level of 10 percent of the full pool placed residents and that produce fish suitable for level to conserve broodstock and ensure successful meeting nutritional needs and for sale in local spawning (Sreenivasan 1986). markets. 49 FROM FARMERS To FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS * The carrying capacity of semi-intensive and Disseminating information intensive cage aquaculture systems in reservoirs with different water renewal rates should be esti- Closely related to the need for applied research is mated, to test the hypothesis that reservoirs with the need for greater dissemination of information higher rates can support more cages. And the car- on reservoir fisheries. Much information is buried rying capacity of extensive cage aquaculture in in fisheries institutions, mainly in unpublished, in- organically enriched (eutrophic) reservoirs should house, or "grey" literature, although such institu- be compared with that in organically poor (olig- tions as ICLARM, the Food and Agriculture otrophic) reservoirs. Organization, and the Southeast Asia Fisheries * Finally, research is needed to make it possible Development Center do make some of this infor- to conduct fish farming-from hatchery to grow- mation available. Reservoir fisheries literature is out-entirely in floating systems for the many rarely collected and disseminated, and little infor- species that now require land-based systems (such mation has been gathered on the social, economic, as ponds) during some part of their life cycle. and institutional aspects of reservoir fisheries. Making farming systems entirely floating would Moreover, there is no regular mechanism in Asia for relieve pressure on the land surrounding the reser- disseminating information on reservoir fisheries. voir and increase the number of productive enter- Only in China, which has a reservoir fisheries prises that can be located on the reservoir water research institute and a journal of reservoir surface. research published in Chinese, is the information that is necessary for making integrated technical The development of integrated fisheries as a proposals and policy decisions available in one means of environmental and social rehabilitation is place. constrained by the lack of a focal point for solving As a result, for many Asian countries the the many complex and multidisciplinary problems unrecorded experience with reservoir fisheries far they involve. Establishing a "research reservoir" or exceeds the written documentation. Much of this a center for research on tropical reservoirs, reset- experience would be of great value for the grow- tlement, and the environmentwould allow practical ing number of workers who recognize the poten- work to be done on the interface between engi- tial of reservoirs for inland fisheries development neering, ecological, social, and technical problems. in Asia. 50 Conclusions and recommendations The new productive enterprise systems in the * Markets and market access-the presence of Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs have met human large, unsaturated markets in a densely populated needs and have provided local resettlement options region where freshwater fish has traditionally been far beyond what was envisioned in the original the main source of animal protein, consumer development plans. Involuntary displacement and recognition of the product is high, there is good resettlement typically are associated with serious, access to capital, and fish marketing and transport long-lasting, adverse effects, but for the communi- infrastructure is excellent. ties displaced by Saguling and Cirata that have * Inputs-adequate availabilities of seed fish moved into fisheries, the new reservoirs are the (fingerlings) and feed. source of restored incomes and successful develop- * Human capital-farmers' sophisticated tradi- ment. While these successes must be attributed to tional knowledge of fish and fisheries systems. the people and organizations on the ground, an * Financing-the ready availability of capital overall support structure was necessary to provide a from compensation money and other sources, push and to ensure completion of the efforts to allowing the displaced people and others to make develop the integrated fisheries ecosystems. The immediate investments in new fisheries enterprises. World Bank's funding, monitoring, and supervi- sory roles were essential. In a time when large dam Successful reservoir capture fisheries schemes and reservoir projects are under attack because of in Asia use self-perpetuating species with short life their social and environmental impacts, develop- cycles that can be heavily fished with low-cost gear ment planners would do well to study carefully the and are owned and managed by local people. lessons for resettlement offered by cases such as that Successful species in reservoir capture fisheries of Saguling and Cirata. have been the tilapia (Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka), freshwater sardines (clupeids) Key ingredients for successful reservoir (Thailand), and indigenous carp (India, Sri fisheries Lanka). Selective fishing of predators has increased total yields and allowed the manipulation of reser- How reservoir fisheries develop will vary substan- voirs' fish species composition in order to build tially among projects, depending on the physical, large populations of herbivorous and omnivorous economic, and sociocultural context. Even so, there fish that have contributed substantially toward are a small number of core variables that need to be meeting human needs. considered in nearly all fisheries development pro- Reservoir aquaculture schemes developed, in grams. The success of the reservoir culture fisheries their initial phases, low-cost cages appropriate to, in WestJava also depended on four essential condi- and conserving of, available capital. They were then tions in the local area: intensified as capital availability and market 51 FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs demand increased. For the poorer segments of soci- rehabilitation should be woven into long-term ety, mini-cage or subsistence systems and no-feed regional development plans. These plans should cage culture systems have been successful in ensure that people are resettled locally, and given a Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. For entre- vision of a better life, with rural roads, electrifica- preneurs with more capital, semi-intensive and tion, new water-based businesses, and other means intensive systems (single and biculture cage sys- for restoring their lives and building productive tems) have proved profitable. enterprises. Development planning for integrated Dam operations play an important part in the fisheries systems should be included in regional success of reservoir fisheries. The extent and timing development plans wherever World Bank-financed of changes in water levels in a reservoir and the size projects affect water resources and ecosystems. ofthe minimum pool ofwater maintained affect the Third, the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems production and yield of both capture and culture damaged because of water resource development fisheries systems. projects, and the adaptation of the displaced poptu- There is a wide range of cage aquaculture sys- lation to a new fisheries culture, should be seen as tems. To ensure that the systems selected for devel- a process and broken down into specific phases, opment are those where the seed, feed, and need with objective milestones of progress in each phase. are clearly present, a "market-driven technological To ensure that these milestones are met, an effec- approach" is needed. tive monitoring and reporting system should be established. The environmental impact assessments Recommendations routinely required at the initial stages of hydropower and irrigation projects should be This review of options for developing reservoir fish- expanded to cover social and resettlement con- eries as a tool in resettlement at the Saguling and cerns. These assessments should be conducted reg- Cirata Reservoirs and elsewhere in Asia has led to ularly as part of a continual monitoring process the four main recommendations. First, development first 10 years after the impoundment of a reservoir. planning for integrated fisheries ecosystems to sup- After that time, the monitoring process could be port resettlement and social and environmental taken over by universities or NGOs or privatized. rehabilitation should be included in the policy and Fourth, where there are major water resource operational guidelines for all water resource pro- development projects with social and environmen- jects in developing countries, especially for dam- tal impacts, multidisciplinary river basin commis- reservoir, irrigation, watershed, and river basin sions need to be formed that include fisheries development projects. experts and planners. These commissions should Second, hydropower and other water resource be funded under project loan agreements, remain development projects should not be explained as a in operation for a minimum of 10 years after pro- win-lose situation pitting urban interests against ject loan agreements are signed, and be responsible rural, and the interests of the rich against those of for contributing to the development and manage- the poor. Instead, plans for developing integrated ment of the fisheries ecosystems approach as part of land-water ecosystems for social and environmental the monitoring process. 52 Notes and references Notes Technical Paper 11. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 1. Bernacsek (1984) has reviewed in detail the funda- Beveridge, M.C.M. 1984. Cage and pen fish farming: mentals of dam engineering essential for understanding Carrying capacity models and environmental impact. the effects of dams on indigenous fisheries and for FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 255. Food and developing reservoir capture fisheries. Agriculture Organization, Rome. 2. Marshall (1984) performed a similar exercise for . 1987. Cage aquaculture. Surrey, England: Fishing African reservoirs. News Books. 3. China has an estimated 87,000 reservoirs, with an Beveridge, M.C.M., and MJ. Phillips. 1993. area for fisheries development of about 1.5 million Environmental impact of tropical inland aquacul- hectares, about 40 percent of the nation's potential area ture. In R.S.V. Pullin, H. Rosenthal, and J.L. for inland fisheries. In 1988 reservoirs in China pro- Maclean, eds., Environment and aquaculture in develop- duced an estimated 308,700 tons of fish, for an average ing countries. Manila: ICLARM. yield of 214 kilograms per hectare a year (Liu, Zhitang, Bhukaswan, T. 1980. Management of Asian reservoir and Zegui 1992). Although the technology of cage fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 207. 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The development of ichthyofauna ments: A comparative study of the major reservoirs in dam reservoirs with small variations in water level. of Madras State, India. Hydrobiologia 36: 443-59. Ada Hydrobiologica 6(1): 61-79. - 1977. Limnology studies on the Parambikulam- Walburg, C.G. 1976. Changes in the fish populations of Aliyar Project II: Limnology and fisheries of Lewis and Clark Lake, 1956-74, and their relation to Tirumoorthy Reservoir (Tamil Nadu) India. Archiv water management and environment. Research firHydrobiologie80(1): 70-84. Report 79. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and . 1986. Inland fisheries under constraints from Wildlife Service. other uses of land and water resources: Indian sub- Yap, S.-Y 1987. Recent developments in reservoir fish- continent and Sri Lanka. FAO Fisheries Circular 797. eries research in Tropical Asia. Archiv fur Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Hydrobiologica Ergebn. Limnologie 28: 295-303. Supratomo. Personal communication. Perusaahan Zainal, Sutandar. 1993. Personal communication. Umum Listrik Negara (PLN, Indonesia State Electric Lecturer, Department of Aquaculture, Padjadjaran Company), Bandung, Indonesia. September. University, Bandung, Indonesia. March. 56 Distributors of COLOMBIA GERMANY ISRAEL NEPAL PORTUGAL SWEDEN Intoentace Ltda. UNO-Verlag Yozmot Lierature Ltd. Everest Media Interaetional Services (P) Ltd. Livraia Porugal Wennergren-Williams AB W orld Bank Carrenam6No.51-21 PoppalsdorlerAlleaSS PO. Boxa 6055 GPO Box5443 Apartadoe2681, RuaDoCarmv70-74 P0. Eox 1305 Publications ApanadoAereo34270 53115Bonn 3Yohana HasandlarStreet Kathmandu 1200 Lisbon S-171 25 Solna Pubslications SantalbdeCIDBogola, D.C . Tel: (49 228)949020 Tel Aviv 6m1560 Tel: (977 1j 472 152 Tel: (1) 347-4982 Tel: (468) 705-9750 Prices and credit terms oarryfrom Tel: (57 1)285-2798 Fax: (49228)217492 Tel: (972 3) 5285-397 Fao: (9771)224431 Fax: (1)347-0264 Fax: (468) 27-00-71 cotuntry to cotantry. 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Pata 31(37 100,SiCrhittampalan Gardirer Mawatha Harae Tl: (8610) 63338257 751168 WFs 4-5 HaroDun Road Tal: (525)624-2800 00-677 Warzawa Coblabo 2 Tat: (263 4)6216617 Fax: (8610) 6401-7365 Tel: (331) 40-69-30-56/57 DOblin 2 Fax: (52 () 624-2822 Tet: (48 2) 628-6089 Tel: (941) 32105 Fax: (263 4) 621670 Fax: (331) 40-69-30-68 Ta: (3531) 661-3111 E-mre: hilotvloltntnat.mx Fax: (48 2) 621-7255 Fax: (941) 432104 Fax: (3531) 475-2670 URL: htlptltn.net.mx E-mail: books%Ipstiip.alm.com.pl 6E-mais: LHL@nsianka.net URL hftp-JA/h lw.scgwavipslexpoett ersser RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued) No. 336 Francis, with Akinwumi, Ngwu, Nkom, Odihi, Olomajeye, Okunmadewa, and Shehu, State, Community, and Local Development in Nigeria No. 337 Kerf and Smith, Privatizing Africa's Infrastructure: Promise and Clange No. 338 Young, Measuring Economic Benefitsfor Water Investments and Policies No. 339 Andrews and Rashid, The Financing of Pension Systems in Central and Eastern Europe: An Overview of Major Trends and Their Determinants, 1990-1993 No. 340 Rutkowski, Changes in the Wage Structure during Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Europe No. 341 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and C'hellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, Volume I No. 342 Webster and Fidler, editors, Le Secteur informel et les institutions de microfinancement en Afrique de l'Ouest No. 343 Kottelat and Whitten, Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia, with Special Reference to Fish No. 344 Klugman and Schieber with Heleniak and Hon, A Survey of Health Reform in Central Asia No. 345 Industry and Mining Division, Industry and Energy Department, A Mining Strategyfor Latin America and the Caribbean No. 346 Psacharopoulos and Nguyen, The Role of Government and the Private Sector in Fighting Poverty No. 347 Stock and de Veen, Expanding Labor-based Methodsfor Road Works in Africa No. 348 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, Volume 11, Statistical Annex No. 349 Cummings, Dinar, and Olson, New Evaluation Proceduresfor a New Generation of Water-Related Projects No. 350 Buscaglia and Dakolias, Judicial Reform in Latin American Courts: The Experience in Argentina and Ecuador No. 351 Psacharopoulos, Morley, Fiszbein, Lee, and Wood, Poverty and Income Distribution in Latin America: The Story of the 1980s No. 352 Allison and Ringold, Labor Markets in Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, 1989-1995 No. 353 Ingco, Mitchell, and McCalla, Global Food Supply Prospects, A Background Paper Prepared for the World Food Summit, Rome, November 1996 No. 354 Subramanian, Jagannathan, and Meinzen-Dick, User Organizationsfor Sustainable Water Services No. 355 Lambert, Srivastava, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: Rescuing a Global Heritage No. 356 Aryeetey, Hettige, Nissanke, and Steel, Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 357 Adamolekun, de Lusignan, and Atomate, editors, Civil Service Reform in Francophone Africa: Proceedings of a Workshop Abidjan, January 23-26, 1996 No. 358 Ayres, Busia, Dinar, Hirji, Lintner, McCalla, and Robelus, Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management: World Bank Approach and Experience No. 360 Salman, The Legal Frameworkfor Water Users' Associations: A Comparative Study No. 361 Laporte and Ringold. Trends in Education Access and Financing during the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. No. 362 Foley, Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, The Niger Household Energy Project: Promoting Rural Fuelwood Markets and Village Management of Natural Woodlands No. 364 Josling, Agricultural Trade Policies in the Andean Group: Issues and Options No. 365 Pratt, Le Gall, and de Haan, Investing in Pastoralism: Sustainable Natural Resource Use in Arid Africa and the Middle East No. 366 Carvalho and White, Combining the Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Poverty Measurement and Analysis: The Practice and the Potential No. 367 Colletta and Reinhold, Review of Early Childhood Policy and Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 368 Pohl, Anderson, Claessens, and Djankov, Privatization and Restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe: Evidence and Policy Options No. 370 Dejene, Shishira, Yanda, and Johnsen, Land Degradation in Tanzania: Perceptionfrom the Village No. 371 Essama-Nssah, Analyse d'une repartition du niveau de vie No. 373 Onursal and Gautam, Vehicular Air Pollution: Experiencesfrom Seven Latin American Urban Centers No. 374 Jones, Sector Investment Programs in Africa: Issues and Experiences No. 375 Francis, Milimo, Njobvo, and Tembo, Listening to Farmers: Participatory Assessment of Policy Reform in Zambia's Agriculture Sector No. 377 Walsh and Shah, Clean Fuelsfor Asia: Technical Options for Moving toward Unleaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel -~~* ' r C r~ - - - - *- - U _- , - m _~~ ~ ~ - , _ ! ~~~ - 0* I - 0 |~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ '_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ W CD3