84388 What Do Existing Household Surveys Tell Us About Gender and Transportation in Developing Countries? Julie Babinard and Kinnon Scott, The World Bank A Access to affordable, reliable, and safe transportation is ccess to affordable, reliable, and safe transporta- critical in improving the welfare of individuals in develop- tion can be critical in improving the welfare of ing countries. Yet, transport data are limited overall, and . individuals and households in developing coun- data that address the different patterns of use by women tries. Transportation opens up earnings opportunities, and men are even scarcer. A few studies have shown, facilitates schooling and health care, and allows house- however, that women and men have different transport holds to take advantage of other services and infrastruc- qeeds and constraints. Typically, analysis of these topics ture. To maximize the effect of transportatiOn spending has been hampered largely by the costs involved in car- on development, policy makers need to understand the rying out the large-scale transportation surveys needed constraints that all individuals and households face in to provide such data. There are household surveys, how- using transportation. Traditionally, transport planning ever, that can provide further insights i-nto how women models have not considered women's speCific travel pat· and men use transportation in the developing world. Four terns. This failure to address the different travel and common household surveys-income and expenditure transport needs of men and women resulting from their surveys, living standards measurement study surveys, social and economic roles reduces the effectiveness of demographic and health surveys, and multiple indica- transportation spending and policy and can have a nega· tor cluster surveys-are reviewed to identify the extent rive effect on economic growth and poverty reduction. to which they can provide transportation planne~s and Dedicated transport surveys, carried out at the researchers with relevant data. The results are mixed. household and individual levels, provide much of the Substantial data on one or two aspects of transporta· information needed for policy in the sector, and trans· tion, such as cost and mode used to visit education and port planners and policy makers rely heavily on them. health facilities, are available across countries; however, However, few such surveys are conducted in developing the surveys contain little information on other important countries. Surveys that allow disaggregation of access factors, such as mode choice, security, and travel pat- and use patterns by gender are costly in terms of time terns. A marginal influence on surveys to expand the data and other resources and therefore are done infrequently. 1 collected on gender and transportation may be possible. Most countries cannot afford to implement such surveys Stand-alone transport surveys, however, will continue to at any given time and are even less able to carry out the be needed to foster the production of gender statistics in transportation in developing countries and the incorpo· 1 The 2003 National Household Travel Survey by the Department of ration of gender differences into transport decisions. Transport of South Africa was a nationwide effort to provide strategic insight into the travel patterns and transport problems of households; it provided a unique example of what can be done to survey the demand Copyright 2011 by the International Bank for Reconstruction and for transport of women, The technical report highlighting the sur- Development, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Published with vey results can be found at hnp:/lwww.transport.gov.za/projects/nts/ permission. TechnicaiReport.html. 213 214 WOMEN'S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 multiple rounds of a survey that are needed for trend solely by the husband in almost three-fifths (59%) of analysis. Other sources of data need to be found if policy households (Odufuwa 2007). In particular, women tend makers in developing countries are to incorporate gender to have less access to cars; studies have shown that in considerations into transport policy. households where there is a private car, men usually get The purpose of this paper is to explore other household priority for its use. This lack of access to private vehicles and individual data sources that exist in developing coun- is reflected in women's less frequent travel and shorter tries to determine whether they can provide insights into distances traveled than men's (Anand and Tiwari 2006; transport and gender issues. Most countries carry out house- Hanson and Hanson 1980). The greatest disparity in hold surveys that, although not designed to provide specific access to cars has been observed in rural areas, where transport sector data, may contain useable information for three times more men than women use this mode of policy makers. Exploiting such household surveys could be travel (Venter et al. 2007). a way to improve transport policy for women without mas- sive expenditures. Additionally, unlike dedicated transport surveys, which are done as stand-alone efforts, the surveys Affordability of Transport Modes that form part of a country's national statistical system are more likely to be repeated, thus ensuring the availabiliry Transportation costs can represent a significant share of future data. Finally, the methodology of these surveys of households' budgets in most developing countries. is often fairly standardized, which facilitates cross-country Goddard and Diaz (2000) found transport to account comparisons. for between 8% and 16% of households' budgets in a To determine what rype of gender data are available number of developing countries in Africa. Women have to policy makers in the transportation field, four com- been found to spend a greater share of their income mon household surveys are reviewed here: household on public transport than men. A study in Kampala, budget or income and expenditure surveys (HBS-IES), Uganda, revealed that women spend as much as 29% living standard measurement study (LSMS) surveys, of their income on public transport (Kamuhanda and demographic and health surveys (DHS), and multiple Schmidt 2009). High costs o£ public transportation indicator cluster surveys (MICS). Examples of each type can make services particularly prohibitive for women of survey are used to illustrate the extent to which they when it comes to reaching their workplaces. As a result, provide data on transportation. The paper concludes women appear to work closer to home beyond a fixed with recommendations for changes that could be made cost threshold (Srinivasan 2005). Also, women tend to to allow greater analysis of how transportation and gen- walk, and they rely on public transportation primarily der interact to affect an individual's welfare. for longer journeys. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN TRANSPORT Travel Patterns and Trip Purposes of Women The literature on gender and transport in developing Studies to determine women's travel needs in urban countries is not extensive. However, the work that has and rural areas of developing countries have found been done identifies some important areas for transpor~ that women's travel patterns rypically derive from the tation and development policy. Dissimilarities between multiple tasks they must perform in the household and men and women exist in relation to trip purpose, fre~ the community (Hanson and Hanson 1980; Rosen- quency and distance of travel, mode of transport used, bloom 2005). Women have multiple roles-as earn- mobility constraints to access other sector services such ers, child care providers, household managers, and, as health, and complexiry of trip making. often, maintainers of community and social networks (Moser 1993). Owing in part to these multiple roles, women's travel patterns are more likely to be character- Accessibility and Transport Choice ized by more frequent and shorter trips than those of men (Hanson and Hanson 1980; Odufuwa 2005). The Understanding and measuring accessibility is essential to complexity of the trips made by women often is greater assess the transport constraints that individuals may face than by men, as women combine trips for shopping and in reaching work and non work opportunities (Srinivasan household errands with their journey to work to save 2005). Women tend to have access.to fewer transport time ..Minimizing travel time and choosing work oppor~ choices, thereby constraining their abiliry to travel. Men tunities shorter distances from home allows women to are often given priority in terms of household trans- minimize their travel time and balance the overlap~ port decisions. A survey in Lagos, Nigeria, showed that ping schedules of work and household responsibilities the decision to acquire a private automobile was made (Anand and Tiwari 2006). GENDER AND TRANSPORTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 215 Quality and Security Concerns Household Budget-Income and Expenditure Surveys Studies have revealed that women are more willing than men to use public transport, independent of their car HBS-JES are designed to collect information on house- access, particularly if public transport can be provided hold expenditures, produce or update the weights for in a clean, comfortable, and regular fashion with city- consumer price indices, and provide inputs for national wide coverage (Okoko 2007). Women, however, can be accounts. Countries often add modules on income to particularly concerned with issues of trust in the role of their HBS to facilitate the measurement of national public transport conductors and security. income as well. Most HBS-IES also collect a restricted set of basic questions on household members related to demographics, edu<;ation, and employment status. DATA AND METHODOLOGY With the exception of agricultural modules (included for income purposes), no other specific topics are tradition- The selection of surveys for reviewing data on gender ally collected in HBS-IES. Data are always collected at and transportation was based on three criteria. First, sur- the household level, but some surveys also contain indi- veys were chosen for their frequency likelihood, as the vidual expenditure diaries. The advantage of HBS-IES more often specific data are collected acrooss countries as a data source is that these surveys are done in most and across time, the greater is the potential usefulness of countries and are done fairly systematically-annually the data. Second, to be useful, surveys needed to collect in some parts of the world (Eastern Europe) and every data at the individual level. Finally, surveys were chosen 5 years in other areas (Latin America). Thus, one can based on a judgment, a piiori, of each survey's potential compare transport patterns across countries and, more usefulness.' A general description of the four types of relevantly perhaps, over time within countries. The surveys reviewed is presented. - drawback of these surveys is that they are often difficult to obtain at the unit level. Permission is usually on a case-by-case basis. Living Standard Measurement Study Surveys LSMS surveys were developed by the World Bank in the Demographic and Health Surveys 1980s to provide new and better quality data on house- hold behavior and on the interaction of households and DHS are designed to collect data on health-primarily policy. To meet these goals, LSMS surveys were devel- maternal and infant health-but they may also contain oped as multi topic household surveys gathering infor· data on household demographics and assets. The surveys, mation on a wide range of household and individual started in 1984, usually include basic characteristics of the characteristics that affect welfare. Samples, while small household and the respondents, child health, education, to ensure quality control, are almost always nationally family planning, fertility and fertility preferences, HIVI representative. 3 Data are collected at the individual, AIDS knowledge, attitudes and behavior, infant and child household, and community levels.' Previous work has mortality, maternal health, nutrition, and socioeconomic shown that the LSMS surveys have the potential to con· indicators based on asset ownership. 6 In specific countries, tribute to knowledge on transportation in general even additional modules are applied. Data are collected at the though it is not a specific topic area (Baker and Denning individual and the household levels. The fact that the DHS 2005). LSMS surveys have an additional advantage in are implemented systematically in many developing coun- that, for the majority of surveys, governments have made tries makes them a potentially valuable data source if they the data sets publicly available.' contain any relevant information on transport. Addition- ally, the DHS are publicly available and can be accessed on the DI-iS website upon registration. 7 1 For example,_ while many countries c.arry out labor force surveys with great frequency, they were not included as their focus is narrow Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and of little relevance to the gender and transport linkages discussed here. 1 The few exceptions are in coumries where conflict, violence, and MICS were first carried out in 1995 to provide the data social unrest can make it impossible to visit certain areas. needed to monitor progress on the goals adopted at 4 Further information on LSMS surveys is available at http://www 6 Information on the DHS comes from Vaessen et al. {2005) and the .worldbank.orgllsms/. 5 Not all governments have allowed open access. For information on DHS website at http://www.measuredhs.com. 1 how to obtain the survey data sets or to download many of them, see For more information on DHS or for registering to obtain data sets the LSMS website at hnp:l/www.worldbank.org/lsms/. go to hnp;//www.measuredhs.com. 216 WOMEN'S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 the 1990 World Summit for Children.' A second round Transport Access was done in 2000 and a third was done in 2005-2006. More than I 00 countries implemented MICS in the third No overall measure of transport access can be constructed round. The fourth round is planned for 2009-2010, and from any of the surveys. The LSMS surveys provide the the frequency is expected to increase from every 5 years most detailed data, with trip and use information col- to every 3 years, given the importance of many of the lected for some specific activities such as health, educa- indicators that are monitored with these surveys. The tion, and labor (see section on journey length and reasons main topics covered by MICS are nutrition, child health for travel), but the overall use or demand for individual and mortality, water and sanitation, housing, reproduc- transport needs cannot be determined. In addition, while tive health and contraceptive use, literacy, child protec- LSMS surveys do collect community-level information tion, labor, domestic violence, and other issues related on transportation (e.g., community access to paved and to children and their welfare. A core questionnaire exists unpaved roads, existence of bus service), there is a lack for each round of the survey, with each country doing of information on the choices an individual has in terms some degree of customization given its circumstances of transportation for specific activities. This situation and health issues.' limits the assessment of preferences in transportation Twelve data sets or questionnaires were reviewed to and access. determine the surveys' ability to inform transport policy HBS-IES can pr<>vide individual expenditures on from a gender perspective. From the pool of LSMS sur- mode of transport, by urban and rural areas, allow- veys, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2001 ), Guatemala (2000), ing more analysis of transport access and gender dif- Malawi (2004), and Panama (2003) were included. Gua- ferences. Brazil's household expenditure survey (POF) temala was picked for the extra transportation questions reports the number of individuals with expenditures on that had been added for a specific policy concern. Only modes of transportation the week before the survey. The one HBS-IES survey was included: Brazil's household survey results for 2002-2003 appear to indicate that expenditure survey (Pesquisa de Orcamentos'Familiares women tend to rely on public bu.ses, informal private (POF) 2002-2003]. 10 Ethiopia (2000) and Haiti (2000) modes (vans, minivans, and moto-taxis), and interme- were the two surveys included from DHS, and for MICS diate modes of transport such ~s taxis more than men the core questionnaire was reviewed.as well as those of (see Figure 1). This finding appears to confirm results Thailand (2005), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006), and from existing transport surveys. In particular, the results Kazakhstan (2006). showed that 65% of all women used public buses in the week before the survey, while only 42% of men did. 11 Men were more likely to use private modes of transport WHAT THE SURVEYS CAN TELL Us such as cars, with more than a third of all men paying for gas (categorized a's gas, ethanol, diesel, kerosene, or Addressing all the issues relevant for understanding liquid gas) while only II% of women did so. gender-specific transportation behavior requires a sub- When distinguishing between urban and rural areas, · stantial amount of data. Four areas were identified the Brazil POF shows that men who lived in rural areas where better data on how gender and transport interact had almost twice the average expenditure on interstate could be of use for transportation planners: (a).access buses compared with men in urban areas, while women to transport by women, (b) affordability, (c) journey from rural areas averaged less spending on interstate length and reasons for travel, and (d) quality of trans- buses than did urban women (see Figure 2). This find- port. The reviewed surveys show several limitations for ing may be explained by the fact that men from rural the analysis of transport access and gender, as these dif- areas are more likely commute to work by interstate bus, ferent types of surveys do not address the full range of whereas rural women are more likely to travel closer to questions of interest. Useful information is being col- home-and most likely on foot-to ·accomplish their lected, however; the most common type of data avail- household and domestic work. · able relate to transport use for accessing health and Although the Brazil POF uses individual diaries, data education facilities. are collected in an aggregated form. Specifically, this practice means that while data are collected for a wide range of transport-related expenditures (see Appendix A for complete list) they are not collected for each trip ~Information describing the MICS is available at http://www.unicef .orglstatistics/index_24302.html. MICS data sets and documentation but instead are aggregated by type of expenditure over are available at http://www.childinfo.or~mics3_surveys.html. the entire reference period (7 days). As a result, the data 9 Most MICS data sets are available from http://www.childinfo.org. 10 A second data set with individual diary information from Belize, 11 the Household Expense Survey 2008-2009, was noc available in time Public buses refer ro the following categories: bus, intercity bus, to be included in this paper. and interstate bus. GENDER AND TRANSPORTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 217 60 5 ' 50 '' ' 4 , "'45-degree " 45-degree 40 ' line line e Gas '' 3 '' c "' e Metro m" ::; 30 ' m ::; e Pjlfking '' 2 "' • Taxi . ' ' ' e e Caa.ya10 51.3 65.8 59.0 The review of the core MICS questionnaire also shows All other communities that the only quasi-individual-level question included d 67.5 87.1 75.8 relates to who is mainly responsible lor fetching water 1-10 67.3 65.4 66.3 >10 50.1 56.2 53.2 (adult female, adult male, female child, or male child). However, because each country can customize the core questionnaire, there can be additional questions related use, individuals who self-report illness or. injury in the to transport. Some, but not many, LSMS surveys gather time before the survey but who did not seek health care information on who collects water and fuel; the Malawi are asked why they did not do so: transport difficulties survey does. are options to this question. A further area of investigation concerning the MICS is The Bosnia and Herzegovina LSMS survey" shows the ability to link household data sets to other data sets in that women pay significantly more than men for trans- individual countries. The MICS data sets do not include port to health care, while in Panama the differences any community-level data that could provide information between genders are insignificant (Table 6). 18 No data on access to roads as well as distance to health, educa- were collected for Malawi. The Panama data show that tion, and other facilities. However, the survey develop- there are also no significant differences in men's and ers recommend that Global Positioning System data be collected as part of the MICS to allow household survey data to be linked to other administrative data sources. 17 The Bosnia and Herzegovina survey of 2001 collected data on It is not clear from the available information how many health transport expenditures for all types of services, some for the countries have collected these data, let alone matched 4 weeks before the survey and some annually. In other surveys, only them to administrative data sets that would allow more transport expenditures for the prior 4 weeks are collected, and typi- analysis of transportation. Some LSMS surveys are gee- cally they are for a specific provider. 1 ~ This survey does nor control for the amount of health care used. referenced and similar analyses could be possible. GENDER AND TRANSPORTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 221 TABLE 6 Transport Costs Related to Health in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2001) and Panama (2003) Time to Health Transport Costs Provider, Transport to Health Provider (Panama) Q. to 5-year-olds BH (mean KM) Panama (balboas) (Panama) Walking(%) Private vehicle{%) Total 4.63 (0.420) Males 5.23 ... (0.485) 4.91 (0.692) 32.9 (2.36) 30.9 (2.36) 10.9 (1.68) Females 7.89 ... (0.655) 4.46 (0.531) 30.2 (2.03) 30.8 (2.55) 13.5 (2.07) NoTE: Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) collects information on all health related transport spending by cype of provider using different reference. For both questions, distance and time of travel were considered as options. Where feasible, MICS are coordinated with the DHS or LSMS sur- veys. To the extent that this coordination is really an integration of the surveys, there may well be further data on transport available periods. Panama data are for past 30 days. KM =konverribilna marka. Standard error in parentheses . .,.. .. Significant at the .01 level. SouRCE: BH Living Standards Measurement Study, 2001; Panama Encuesta de Niveles de Vida, 2003. Quality of Transport accessing education and social and economic activities. Potential linkages with community-level data sets might None of the surveys reviewed provided information on~ provide more relevant data but they will still be limited. the quality or safety of various transportation options, Howeve·r, adapting this type of survey for monitor~ which tend to play an important role in a woman's deci- ing transport and gender data could have a substantial sion to travel and in her overall mobility. impact, considering the number of countries in which they are implemented. The LSMS surveys can provide· data relevant for the transportatiOn sector in relation to CoNCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS community access to paved and unpaved roads, existence of bus service, and all-weather road access. In-depth transportation surveys cannot be replaced by Some data on transport affordability can be found in alternative data-sources: data needs for assessing how those HBS-IES th;t include individual diaries of expen- gender and transport interact to affect access and mobil- ditures in addition to the overall household diary. This ity are too great to be covered in multitopic surveys or in information can allow an examination of spending by those with a specific focus on another topic. None of the men and women on transportation. In some cases, the surveys reviewed provided information on the quality or surveys may also provide information on the types of safety of various transportation options, which can be transportation being used. The usefulness of the HBS- important for women's overall mobility. Also, each type IES will depend on the level at which expenditures are of survey serves specific purposes, which are not aimed recorded and entered into the data sets. LSMS surveys at transportation planning in particular: the purpose of also provide expenditure data for some types of trips; MICS is to provide indicators that track the Millennium however, they are usually limited to education and health Development Goals and the goals of the World Summit facilities. for Children; DHS aim to shed light on fertility decisions In terms of household data on travel patterns and trip and maternal-child health; HBS-IES seek to measure purposes, MICS can provide occasional information but expenditures, and LSMS surveys assess welfare and LSMS surveys provide the most substantive information the factors that affect it. However, much remains to be on transportation and gender that relates to health and learned from these surveys and exploiting existing data education. However, the same questions across surveys sets can be useful a·nd cost-effective. In particular, the do not always exist, thus creating some limitations to LSMS surveys reviewed confirmed differences in health cross-country analysis. When individual countries main- and education-related travel: girls are more likely than tain the same questions over time, the surveys can help boys to use public transportation to travel to school; girls assess tendencies and linkages between changes in trans- and women are more likely to pay significantly more portation policy and actual use over time. Additional than boys and men for transport to access education and information exists in some surveys on labor-related health facilities. transportation, what is used, and, in at least one survey, The most relevant data for assessing gender needs and the provision of employer-subsidized transport as well differences in relation to transport access and use are the and in others on firewood and water collection, but they HBS-IES expenditures on transportation, with some of are rarer. these surveys collecting data at the individual level. MICS DHS questionnaires also provide information on typically include questions at the household level related transport use for accessing health care. To the extent that to modes of transport owned by the household and, in DHS link to other data sources (other surveys or through any given country, may collect data on transport use for georeferencing), there may be country-specific opportu- 222 WOMEN'S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 nities to analyze gender and transport. National statisti- across countries may also be possible. DHS are already cal systems are increasingly likely to have georeferenced quite harmonized in terms of the few transport questions, road networks and many countries have administrative which facilitates comparisons across time and space. data on public transportation, such as routes and costs, Third, data on expenditures collected through IES- that could be linked to the household su.rvey data based HBS would be more useful if disaggregated by expendi- on geography. ture, which would increase the costs of data collection, Four recommendations can be made for improving entry, and processing and may not be feasible. However, the surveys reviewed in relation to transport data that in some surveys data are collected at the expenditure focus on gender issues. First, adding more questions level but are then aggregated to the category level when could ensure a focus on transport and gender issuCs. This the data are entered; providing guidance to countries on recommendation is probably most feasible in the LSMS .the benefits of maintaining the expenditure-level data surveys as they are designed to look at the factors that may be effective in increasing the availability of good affect welfare and is less feasible in the MICS as they are expenditure data for men and women. focused on indicators and not the linkages among the Finally, before designing a full transportation survey indicators or cause and effect. DHS already include some for collecting gender data in a given country, transpor- questions that are relevant for understanding the effect tation planners and analysts should investigate existing of transport on health care; it appears unlikely that ques- data sources; depending on the country, there may be· tions related to more general transport use would fit. The substantial information that can be gleaned from existing JES-HBS provide the most potential for new analysis but surveys. [f a country is planning to implement a survey only on expenditures. in the near future, it is worth exploring the possibility of· Second, survey questions could be systematized as adding critical transport questions to that survey. Statis- much as possible. Among LSMS surveys, the questions tical offices are often willing to add specific questions to vary because of the heavy customization of these surveys an ongoing survey for a cost that would be well below to meet country demands for data. Some attention to that of carrying out a dedicated transport survey. Only ensure that questions are similar over time within each after these options have been exhausted would it appear country should be simple to implement and comparability to make sense to invest in an in-depth transport survey. GENDER AND TRANSPORTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 223 APPENDIX A Examples of questions from household surveys are shown in Table A-1. TABLE A-1 Household Survey Questions LSMS Survey MJCS Education Health Water, Health, Registration What is the distance to the kinder- How much did you pay in money or in WS3. How long does it rake to go there, get water, and garten where [CHILD's NAME] is kind for transport costs associated with come back? taken care of? these visits to [HEALTH PROVIDER/ FACILITY]? (question repeated for each WS4. Who usually goes to this source to fetch the water What is the distance .between your provider) for your household? home and school? Adult woman ............................................. 1 During the previous four weeks did you Adult man .............: .................................... 2 How much time does it take to need medical services but did not obtain Female child (under 15) .............................. 3 travel to the school where you were them? - Male child (under 15) ................................. 4 attending? Don't know ................................................ 8 What was the main reason you did not obtain them: C10. Does any member of your household own ... ? How much do you spend for trans- Minor disorder, self-treated .... 1 portation to school each week? Minor disorder, did not treat. 2 Watch No health insurance ............... 3 Bicycle What means of transportation did Too far ................................... 4 Motorcycle or scooter you mainly use from your house to Institution closed .................... 5 Animal-drawn cart the school or educational center? Poor service ............................ 6 Car or truck Too expensive .._ ...................... 7 Boat with motor Bus or taxi ............................... 1 Other ...................................... 8 School bus ............................... 2 BR2. If child's birth not registered with civil authorities: Private car (own or friend's) .... 3 In total, how much time did it take to Why is ... birth not registered? Bicycle ..................................... 4 go -from your house to the (health pro- Costs too much .......................................... 1 Boat ......................................... 5 vider) location where you were seen? Must travel too far ..................................... 2 Horseback ............................... 6 What means of transportation did you Didn't know it should be registered ........... 3 On foot ................................... 7 use most of the time to go to the (health Don't want to pay fine ............................... 4 Other, specify .......................... 8 provider) location where you were seen? Don't know where tO register ....................._5 On foot .................................. 1 Other ..................... ,.................................... 6 By horse or other animal ........ 2 Don't know ................................................ 8 Boat or motor boat ................ 3 Labor and Time Use Bicycle or motorcycle ............ .4 HBS Bus or taxi. ............................. 5 In this job did you receive free Expenditures for Private or own means ............. 6 transportation or money for trans- Ambulance ............................. 7 port to your woik? Bus (local, long distance) Plane, helicopter ..................... 8 Other, which? ......................... 9 Alternative transport (unlicensed motorcycle, van, and How much did you receive last car taxis) month? Taxi Subway, train If you had to pay for the transport, Boat how much would you spend a Airboat month? Ferry boat Gasoline, alcohol fuel, diesel . What means of transport do [YOU] Parking mainly use to go to your job? Tolls Public services (bus, taxi) ........ 1 Transfers (bus-sl!bway-train) Own or friend's car ................. 2 Transport from business .......... 3 Bicycle or motorcycle .............. 4 Boat ......................................... 5 Horse or other animal ............. 6 Other private............................ 7 Don't use (walk) ...................... 8 SouRCE: LSMS questions from Bosnia and Herzegovina 2001 and Panama 2003 questionnaires; MICS questions from Thailand 2006 question- naire; HBS questions from POF, Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics 2003. 224 WOMEN'S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 AcKNOWLEDGMENT Srinivasan, S. 2005. Influence of Residential Location on Travel Behavior of Women in Chennai, India. 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