19688 1998 Social Marketing Strategies WORLD to Fight Corruption BANK G.S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst I NSTITUTE WBI Working Papers AR.X IS- Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst Abstract It is widely accepted that one of the most critical elements of a country's anti-corruption program is the involvement of civil society but there is less agreement on how such involvement can be encouraged. Social marketing can make an important contribution to the creation of an atmosphere in public life that discourages fraud and corruption. Drawing on lessons from the use of social marketing in public health campaigns (e.g., to reduce smoking and alcoholism, to encourage safe sex and to encourage physical fitness), environmental campaigns (e.g., to promote recycling), education campaigns (to en- courage literacy) and the protection of individual/group rights (e.g., racial and gender equality, gay and lesbian rights) this paper argues that social marketing can also make an important contribution to the creation of an atmosphere in public life that discourages fraud and corruption. It can do so by: raising awareness about the costs of corruption to a country; mainstreaming a concern about corruption within national institutions, increasing the understanding of causal factors of corruption amongst the public and influencing behavior. The Economic Development Institute of the World Bank 1998 Copyrght © 1998 The Intemational Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmenVThe World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.SA The World Bank enjoys copyright under protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. This material may nonetheless be copied for research, educational, or scholarly purposes only in the member countries of The World Bank. Material in this series is subject to revision. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this document are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or the members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. Corruption is a problem that all countries have to confront. Solutions, however, can only be home-grown. National leaders need to take a stand. Civil society plays a key role as well. Working with our partners, the Bank Group will help any of our member countries to imple- ment national programs that discourage corrupt practices. And we will support international ef- forts to fight corruption and to establish voluntary standards of behavior for corporations and investors in the industrialized world. The Bank Group cannot intervene in the political affairs of our member countries. But we can give advice, encouragement, and support to governments that wish to fight corruption-and it is these governments that will, over time, attract the larger volume of investment. Let me em- phasize that the Bank Group will not tolerate corruption in the programs that we support; and we are taking steps to ensure that our own activities continue to meet the highest standards of probity. -James D. Wolfensohn, President of the World Bank 1996Bank-Fund Annual Meetings Speech Contents Foreword .............................................................. vii I. Social Marketing ...............................................................2 II. The Use of Marketing for Social Change ..............................................................4 A. Examples ................................................................5 III. Corruption and Intervention ..............................................................7 A. Understanding Corruption ..............................................................7 B. Strategies to Deal with Corruption .............................................................. 11 IV. Social Marketing and Corruption Intervention ......................................... ..................... 11 A. Social Marketing Lessons for Corruption Intervention ............................................................. 13 B. Strategic Planning in Social Marketing .............................................................. 18 V. Conclusions .............................................................. 19 Annex A: Social Marketing Application to a Corrupt Practices Intervention Program ........... ........... 21 Annex B: Outline of a Seven-Step Marketing Plan for a Corruption Intervention Program .............. 25 Endnotes .............................................................. 27 Bibliography .............................................................. 29 Figures Figurel: Conceptual Framework of the Dynamics of Corruption and Proposed Response System ...............................................................5 Tables Table 1: Causes That Have Used Social Marketing ...............................................................7 Table 2: Types of Bribes ..............................................................8 Table 3: Examples of Corruption Practices ......................... .......................................9 Table 4: The Evolution of the Communications Task ............................................................... 14 Table 5: Social Marketing Message Strategies ................................. ............................. 15 Table 6: A Typical Promotion Mix .............................................................. 16 Table 7: Promotional Mix for Influencing Corrupt Behaviour ................................................... 17 Foreword T he link between governance and economic cation campaigns and the protection of individual/ development is perhaps one of the most group rights, this paper argues that social market- topical issue in the development arena ing can also make an important contribution to today. The Economic Development Institute (EDI) the creation of an atmosphere in public life that is a leader in the practical applications of good gov- discourages fraud and corruption. ernance principles to development policy. As part Rick Stapenhurst is a Public Sector Man- of its Governance Program, the Regulatory Reform agement Specialist at the World Bank, and and Private Enterprise Division (EDIRP) has fa- Gurprit Kindra is an Associate Professor at the cilitated a series of anti-corruption workshops, University of Ottawa. The authors would like seminars and surveys in more than a dozen coun- to acknowledge the comments of Ed Campos, tries in Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe Judith Zaikowsky and Jac Van Beek and the as- and Latin America. Participants in these workshops sistance of James Quigley and Elsa Pilichowski have included politicians, senior public officials, in production. The views expressed herein are leaders from civil society and representatives from entirely those of the authors and do not neces- international and bilateral agencies. Workshop and sarily represent the views of the Economic De- seminar participants have outlined innovative ways velopment Institute or the World Bank. to increase transparency and accountability, and reported the progress in more traditional reform Danny Leipziger activities in the civil service, budgeting, and finan- Division Chief Regulatory Reform and Private Enterprise Division cial management. Economic Development Institute It is widely accepted that one of the most criti- cal elements of a country's anti-corruption program is the involvement of civil society but there is less agreement on how such involvement can be en- couraged. This paper contends that social market- ing can make an important contribution to the creation of an atmosphere in public life that dis- courages fraud and corruption. Drawing on les- sons from the use of social marketing in public health campaigns, environmental campaigns, edu- vii Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption C orruption reports unfold in the news as a "cancer." It violates public confidence in media on a daily basis and clearly dem- the state and endangers social cohesion. Grand onstrate that it is not something that is corruption-where millions of dollars change exclusively, or even primarily, a problem of devel- hands, is reported with increasing frequency in oping countries. Recent events in Europe and rich and poor countries alike. Petty corruption North America have shown all too clearly that cor- is less reported, but can be equally damaging. A ruption isnotatopiconwhichthedevelopedcoun- small bribe to a public servant for a government tries have any moral high ground. service may only seem a minor transgression, Corruption is a complex issue. Its roots are but when such bribes are multiplied a million grounded in a country's social and cultural history, times, their combined impact can be enormous. political and economic development, bureaucratic If left unchecked, the accumulation of seemingly traditions and policies. To generalize, corruption minor transgressions can erode legitimacy of tends to flourish when institutions are weak and public institutions to the extent that even economic policies distort the marketplace.' It dis- noncorrupt officials and members of the public torts economic and social development, by engen- see little point in remaining honest.4 dering wrong choices and by encouraging compe- Forms of corruption need to be contained for tition in bribery rather than in the quality and price practical reasons. Faced with the challenge of main- of goods and services; nowhere does corruption taining or improving standards of public service cause greater damage than in developing countries.2 delivery, no country can afford the inefficiency that Too often, corruption means that the world's poor- accompanies corruption. While apologists for cor- est must pay for the corruption of their own offi- ruption may argue that corruption can help grease cials and of companies from developed countries, the wheels of a slow-moving and over-regulated although they are least able to afford its costs. economy, evidence indicates that it increases the Moreover, available evidence shows that if corrup- costs of goods and services, promotes unproduc- tion is not contained, it will grow. Once a pattern tive investments, and leads to a decline in the qual- of successful bribes is institutionalized, corrupt ity of public services.5 Indeed, recent evidence sug- officials have an incentive to demand larger bribes, gests that rather than expedition public service, engendering a "culture" of illegality that in turn corruption may be more like "sand in the wheels" breeds market inefficiency.3 in Tanzania, a recent corruption survey showed that The argument is not simply a "moral" or people paying bribes to public officials actually re- "cultural" one. Corruption has been described ceived slower service than those who did not.' 1 2 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst In its simplest terms, corruption can be de- in the public sector through civil society participa- fined as the abuse ofpublicpowerforpersonalgain tion (the democratic process, private sector, me- or for the benefit of a group to which one owes alle- dia). Thus, reform is initiated and supported not giance. It occurs at the intersection of public and only by politicians and policy makers, but also by private sectors, when public office is abused by an members of civil society. official accepting, soliciting, or exporting a bribe. To date, much focus has been placed on the As a single transaction, corruption takes place where strengthening of public institutions to help curb there is a meeting of opportunity and inclination. corruption, and on the political, economic and ad- Klitgard (Klitgard 1996) has developed a simple ministrative reforms that can reduce corruption. model to explain the dynamics of corruption: It is generally recognized that civil society plays a *. *| , critical role in curbing corruption, but to date little ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~attention has been placed on how civil society can be brought into national efforts to curb corrup- In other words, the extent of corruption de- tion. The World Bank, through the Economic De- pends on the amount of monopoly power and dis- velopment Institute, has implemented training cretionary power that an official exercises. Mo- courses for journalists in various countries, high- nopoly power can be large in highly regulated lighting the importance of raising public aware- economies; discretionary power is often large in ness in anti-corruption strategies. This paper sug- developing countries and transition economies gests an additional tool: the use of social marketing. where administrative rules and regulations are of- Social marketing has been used to change people's ten poorly defined. And finally, accountability may attitudes andlor behaviour in different situations also be weak, either as a result of poorly defined (e.g., the anti-smoking campaigns in Canada or ethical standards of public service, weak adminis- the promotion of birth control in South Asia); this trative and financial systems and ineffective watch- paper examines the applicability of social market- dog agencies. ing techniques in anti-corruption strategies and Such a taxonomy is important, as it points to programs. interventions that can curb corruption in these set- tings. Successful strategies to curb corruption will I. Social Marketing have to simultaneously seek to educe an official's Marketing, as an academic discipline, is concerned monopoly power (e.g., by market-oriented re- with the study of exchange transactions. Exchanges forms), discretionary power (e.g., by administra- have occurred since time immemorial and markets, tive reform) and enhance accountability (e.g., where exchanges take place, have existed for thou- through watchdog agencies). sands of years. Yet, marketing, as a field of study is Such mechanisms, when designed as part of a relatively new. Until the time of the Industrial Revo- national effort to reduce corruption, comprise an lution, exchanges were regarded as strictly an eco- integrity system. This system of checks and bal- nomic activity. But, the Industrial Revolution caused ances, designed to manage conflicts of interest in much social unrest and there was a growing feeling the public sector, limits situations in which con- that there were also social consequences when ex- flicts of interest arise or have a negative impact on changes occurred. This led to the enactment of many the common good. This involves both prevention laws during the latter part of the nineteenth century and penalty. An integrity system embodies a com- to protect consumers. At the turn of the century, a prehensive view of reform, addressing corruption group of economists who were a little more practi- Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Comrption 3 cally oriented split and started a new discipline which museums looking for more patrons, public school was later titled "marketing"7, systems seeking public support, nations looking to For the first seven decades of the twentieth increase their exports or to attract investments, anti- century, marketing was regards as strictly an activ- cigarette groups, etc. "The choice facing those who ity performed by businesses. In fact, it was incon- manage nonbusiness organizations is not whether ceivable to many that marketing could be regarded to market or not to market, for no organization as anything but a business activity8 910. In the late can avoid marketing. The choice is whether to do 1960's, Eugene J. Kelley, editor of the Journal of it well or poorly, and on this necessity the case for Marketing, called for papers ". . .that should stimu- organizational marketing is basically founded." late discussion of marketing's role in modern soci- Kotler and Levy's article generated much ety and add to the existing fund of marketing discussion and for the next five years, a debate knowledge." The result was two classic articles among academics ensued. On the one side, pro- which appeared in the January 1969 issue of the ponents of the new school of social marketing above-mentioned journal. (also referred to as "nonbusiness marketing" and The first article by William Lazer1' examined "not-for-profit marketing") argued as the above how marketing affects society and demonstrated authors did, that since organizations and causes the need for business people to become more soci- were performing marketing activities, they etally conscious. Failing to do this, Lazer argued, might as well do it properly. The opponents such would lead to more government intervention and as Luck and Bartels felt that the scope of mar- less control for organizations to run their own af- keting should be bounded. Bartels"3 felt that fairs. This was the beginning of a completely new traditional marketing had enough problems and school of thought which has been labeled both that attention should not be diverted in other "Macromarketing" and "Societal Marketing." directions. Marketing originated with major The second article, by Philip Koder and Sidney emphasis upon the physical movement and dis- J. Levy"2 led to the broadening of the whole con- tribution of products and this is where the em- cept of marketing. They claimed that, "Marketing phasis should remain. Luck claims, "The core is a pervasive societal activity that goes consider- concept of marketing is the transaction. A trans- ably beyond the selling of toothpaste, soap, and action is the exchange of values between two steel. Traditional marketing principles are transfer- parties." The controversy was put to rest after a able to the marketing organizations, persons, and landmark article by Bagozzi'4 was published. He ideas." In the past, nonbusiness organizations did agreed that marketing was the study of exchange use some public relations and publicity activities, transactions but showed, very elegantly, that but students of marketing typically ignored the there are exchanges other than the typical one whole area. Since "every organization performs where A gives B and B gives A. His description marketing like activities whether or not they are of exchanges would include the situation where recognized as such," the authors see a great oppor- A gives B and B gives C and in return, A derives tunity for marketing people to apply their skills to satisfaction with the whole transaction. For ex- this increasingly interesting range of social activ- ample, a donor gives blood to the Red Cross ity. Examples of people or organizations who could and this blood is given to someone in need. The benefit include: political candidates, colleges re- donor's benefit is the sense of social satisfaction cruiting students, causes seeking funds, police de- received from aiding someone who is in need of partments attempting to improve their image, the blood. Following the debates before and 4 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst during 1974, it has been generally agreed that The first level is where cognitive change is de- social marketing is here to stay and that it has sired. Here the aim is to create awareness and knowl- many benefits to offer to society. edge and the marketing approach is quite straight- forward. Marketing research is used to identify the A. What is Social Marketing? groups that most need the information and their Social marketing has been defined in a number of media habits are identified. The messages themselves ways. Lazer and Kelley"5 include the social conse- are formulated on the basis of target audience analy- quences of marketing policies, decisions and ac- sis and are carried to the audience through advertis- tivities, a perspective which looks at marketing's ing, publicity, personnel, displays, exhibitions and output as well as input. Most scholars would cat- other means. Effectiveness of the campaign (increase egorize this approach as societal marketing or in comprehension) can later be measured by macromarketing. Some authors include in their postsampling members of the target groups. definitions the concept that the ultimate goal of At the second stage, we attempt to induce af- social marketing is to improve personal and soci- fect. This is more difficult because here, the target etal welfare'6 1". Although this is most often the market has not only to comprehend something but case, it is not universally true. For example, family must take a positive/negative position regarding the planning is a good idea to many but some reli- proposition. At the next level, the aim is to induce gious groups might be opposed to it. Social mar- or help people to change some aspect of their keting has been used successfully by both the pro- behaviour, for example to stop smoking. This is life and the pro-choice movements. The definition much harder to achieve than cognitive affective or that appears to make the most sense, at least to us, even one-shot action changes. People must unlearn is the one proposed by Kotler and Zaltman:18 old habits, learn new ones, and maintain the new Social marketing is the design, implementa- pattern of behaviour. The most difficult task is tion, and control of programs calculated to when we attempt to alter deeply felt beliefs or val- influence the acceptability of social ideas, and ues of a target group such as getting someone to involving considerations of product planning, change their beliefs about abortion. Here, the hu- pricing, communication, distribution, and man psychological system resists information that marketing research. is disorienting. A long and intense program of in- Synonymous terms that might be used are so- doctrination is required and even then the chances cial cause marketing, idea marketing or public issue for success are small.21 marketing.'9 Social marketing is fairly new and although Il. The Use of Marketing for Social Change there have been some very interesting success The most basic fact about social marketing is that stories, it is far more difficult to get people to it is universal in nature. Social campaigns are quite alter their behaviour than to get consumers to similar throughout the world although the empha- change their favourite brand of soap or tooth- sis placed on various causes will be different be- paste. The same basic principles, however, are tween one country and another. For example, used. In preparing a marketing plan, one must physical fitness and the demarketing of cigarettes decide on what objective is being sought. There are very important causes in developed countries are various levels that one might seek to achieve while family planning, basic hygiene, and corrup- and as one goes up to hierarchy each step be- tion might be a bigger issue, in those countries that comes more difficult.20 are less developed. In the following section we will Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 5 discuss specific applications of social marketing Problem: To increase the prevalence and along with their related impacts. duration of breastfeeding (Brazil) Brazil, in areas where the lowest income groups A. Examples live, is known to have unclean conditions, inad- Problem: To reduce consumption of equate medical services, poor nutrition, and un- tobacco products (Canada) clean water. Bottle feeding, under these conditions In recognizing the importance of marketing in is not safe and in fact was the cause of the prema- implementing social programs, Canada's De- ture deaths of many babies. The Brazilian Minis- partment of Health recently commissioned a try of Health with the collaboration of UNICEF major study of the possible impact of "plain resolved to take up the issue. A massive social mar- packaging" on the consumption of tobacco keting program was introduced during the 1980's. products. The report concluded that "plain Relevant segments were identified and targeted. packaging" as part of an overall social market- These included the doctors, the health services, the ing campaign would have a significant impact hospital, industry, government officials, and of in reducing the consumption of tobacco prod- course, mothers. The campaign was an overwhelm- ucts, particularly among younger people.22 ing success. Increases in the duration and practice of breast-feeding were recorded in all income Problem: To improve traffic safety groups and the declining trend in breast-feeding (OECD) had been stayed and reversed.24 In recognition of the fact that every year 120,000 people are killed on the roads of OECD countries, Problem: To reduce unintended a social marketing approach to traffic safety has pregnancy, particularly among teenagers been advanced. This approach was also used in (United States) Australia in the 1 980s to promote the use of hel- Each year in the United States more than 1.1 mil- mets for bicyclists.23 lion teenage girls become pregnant; more than 80 percent of them do so unintentionally. The Planned Problem: To improve 'fair play" in sport Parenthood Federation ofAmerica (PPFA) has been (Canada) committed to eradicate unintended pregnancy In 1986, Otto Jelinek, then Minister of Ama- since its inception in 1916. A program devised in teur Sport in Canada was concerned about the 1984 proposedvarious solutions including sexedu- violence that was occurring in sports in general cation, changing society's attitudes about sexual- and particularly in hockey. Consequently he set ity, contraceptive practices, available abortions, etc. up the Fair Play Commission which consisted Despite criticism from some quarters, PPFA has of famous Canadian sports celebrities such as achieved many of their goals and continues cam- Wayne Gretsky, Jean Belinson and Diane Jones- paigning to help all Americans, adults and adoles- Konigorsky. After developing an extensive mar- cents alike, become "sexually literate."25 keting plan the program was instituted and many changes were made to make the sport safer. Problem: CIDA Program to increase The program continues under the supervision public supportfor international of the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sports. development (Canada) Although the problem is ongoing it is generally As approved by Parliament, the official devel- agreed that much progress has been made. opment assistance (ODA) program is one of the 6 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst main instruments with which Canada advances Problem. To encourage church attendance the goal of international social justice. Most (United States) Canadians agree with spending public moneys NefF9 illustrates how social marketing campaigns for humanitarian aid. However, the Public Af- have had a dramatic affect on increasing attendance fairs Branch of CIDA want to also generate pub- at churches. lic support for its long-term development ef- forts. A program was developed to communicate Problem: To encourage recycling the message to the public. A large part of this Recycling of solid wastes can be treated as a market- program was actually social marketing, even if ing problem. Shrum et. al.,30 proposed a marketing it wasn't labeled as such.21 framework for selling "recycling" to consumers. Problem: To provide members of a singles Problem: To encourage family planning group with a program that would be and safe sex (Viet Nam) appealing to them (United States) DKT International is a U.S.A. based non-profit, The growth of singles groups is an American humanitarian organization implementing social phenomenon of the post-World War 1I period. marketing and communication programs for With the erosion of the nuclear and extended family planning, AIDS prevention and public family these groups developed to address the health. It is active in over 25 countries in Af- concerns of adult singles in a couple oriented rica, Asia, the Middle East, and South America. society. Thousands of these groups now operate The first major activity that DKT undertook in throughout North America and the competition Viet Nam was a social marketing program de- to attract members is quite intense. Consider- signed to complement and support the program able insight into these types of groups was gained of the Ministry of Health. DKT designed a pro- from marketing research that was performed for gram to promote, distribute and sell condoms the Westport Unitarian Singles Group, one of at a small fraction of their cost. A detailed so- the most successful singles organizations in the cial marketing plan was prepared in 1996.3' United States.27 All of the above examples have shown or expected to show successful results, although the Problem: To encourage safe and sober process is slow and the problems never com- driving (USA) pletely resolved. Although not all inclusive, The Reader's Digest Foundation, in partnership other examples of causes where social market- with the National Association of Secondary School ing has been used are shown in Table 1. Principals launched a two year, US$1 million so- As difficult as it is to bring about successful cial marketing campaign to deliver a sober mes- social marketing to fruitration, it is even tougher sage to teenagers all across America. One thousand to do so in some of the lesser developed countries, teams from top advertising agencies competed in particularly those with a strong socialist orienta- creating posters for the campaign, with the win- tion. In these countries marketing often has a bad ners receiving a trip for two to Paris. Copies of the image and is a misunderstood managerial philoso- winning posters were sent to 20,000 schools na- phy32. Typically, the people here have little or no tionwide and 700 schools competed for college marketing or professional management training, scholarships by devising programs to promote so- and they operate in a rigid, bureaucratic, and fre- ber driving.28 quently corrupt environment. Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 7 Table 1: Causes That Have Used Social Marketing Public health campaigns to: Environmental campaigns to: - reduce smoking - encourage clean air and water - reduce alcoholism - energy and water conservation - encourage physical fitness - recycling - discourage use of hard drugs - protect plants and animals - control overeating - encourage proper nutrition Protecting rights of - encourage immunization individuals and groups: - encourage sanitation practices - gays and lesbians - encourage safe sex - racial equality - eliminate birth defects - children from being abused Education campaigns to: Other issues: - encourage literacy - family planning - be better prepared for the - abortions (pro-life and work force pro-choice) - retrain for different types of jobs - prison reform - encourage culture - gun control (music, art, etc.) - drinking and driving intervention Image campaigns for: - fair play in sports - cities, nations, fundraisers, and - auto driver safety nonbusiness organizations that market causes (museums, universities, unions, police departments, churches, etc.) In the following sections of this paper, we A. Understanding Corruption will attempt to apply the principles of social marketing to a corruption intervention program. 1. WHAT IS CORRUPTION? Those who talk about the peoples of our day III. Corruption and Intervention being given up to robbery and similar vices, will Social marketing might provide one approach find that they are all due to the fact that those to curb corruption by promoting awareness and who ruled them behaved in like manner. attitudinal change. Anti-corruption attitudes, in Niccolo Machiavelli, turn, translate into a variety of mechanisms that The Discourses, III(29) reward appropriate or punish inappropriate behaviour-thus reducing the level of societal A fundamental principle underlying the effi- acceptance of such practices. cient functioning of any organization is that In order to discuss the relevance of social no personal or family relationship should play marketing for fighting corruption, it is first nec- a role in economic decision-making- essary to understand the complexity of the cor- whether by private economic agents or by ruption itself. government officials. The assumption under- 8 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst Table 2: Types of Bribes Category Bribes may be paid for: A * Access to a scarce benefit * Avoidance of a cost * Receipt of a benefit (or avoidance of a cost) that is not B scarce, but where discretion must be exercised by state officials c * Services connected with obtaining a benefit (or avoiding a cost) such as inside information D * To prevent others from sharing in a benefit * To impose a cost on someone else Source: Transparency International, National Integrity Systems, The Ti Source Book, 1996. lying the role of public sector officials is that significant economic value, routinely de- they know what they are doing and are neu- mand bribes, kickbacks, percentages or other tral and impersonal in their pursuit of the so- "gifts" from those seeking government ten- cial welfare.33 Within this context, corruption ders and sales. in the public sector can be viewed as occurring Such practices occur in all countries to vary- when politicians and/or public servants improp- ing degrees, regardless of levels of social and eco- erly and unlawfully enrich themselves or those nomic development. They are most likely to close to them by the misuse of the public power occur where public and private sectors inter- entrusted to them-- "the misuse ofpublic power act-especially where public officials have a di- for private profit."34 This definition is consis- rect responsibility for the provision of a public tent with a variety of sources including the service or the application of specific regulations World Bank (For example, the World Bank or levies. For corruption to take place, there Corruption Action Plan Working Group defi- must be a public official, discretionary power, a nition is "the abuse of public office for pri- misuse of that public power by the public offi- vate gain"35). Two categories of corruption are cial and a benefit (in money or in kind). Two recognized in the literature: general cases occur-the provision of services * "Petty," practiced by underpaid civil servants or contracts according to the rule ("grease" pay- who come to depend on small 'contribu- ments to expedite a procedure that should have tions' from the public to meet basic needs been carried out anyway) and the second, where or to help pay a perverse form of tithe to transactions are against the rule (a bribe is paid their superiors for the right to hold a public to obtain services which the official is prohib- sector job and profit from the many oppor- ited from providing). Types of bribes are out- tunities for extortion that it offers. lined in Table 2. * "Grand," practised by high public officials The areas of government activity most vulner- who, in the process of making decisions of able to corruption include: Social Marketi ng Strategies to Fight Corruption 9 * Public procurement and contracting. ing permits). * Licensing (the granting of import or export Such practices can become pervasive within permits, for example) a country when it is widely accepted as an inte- * Rezoning of land. gral part of a bureaucracy's corporate culture. * Revenue collection (taxation or customs Often, rather than acceptance, citizens come to duties). tolerate demands for small payments as a work- * Government appointments. able way of obtaining necessary or desired ser- * Local government (granting of drivers li- vices (which is eroded if payments rise too high censes, passports and business or build- or perceptions of scarcity prove to be incorrect). Table 3: Examples of Corruption Practices Grand corruption practices (associated with bureaucratic Petty corruption practices discretionary power) * Revenue officials practicing * Ministers 'selling' their extortion by threatening to levy discretionary powers surcharges on taxpayers and importers unless bribes are * Officials taking percentages on paid, in which case unjustifiably government contracts, which are low tax assessments are made often then paid into foreign or goods are passed for bank accounts importation without payment of any duty at all * Officials receiving excessive hospitality from government - Law enforcement officials contractors and benefits in kind, extorting money for their own such as scholarships for the benefit by threatening to impose education of children at foreign penalties unless bribes are universities paid-which are frequently less than the penalty the offense * Officials contracting government would attract if it went to court business to themselves, either through front companies and * Providers of public services (i.e., partners or even openly to drivers' licenses, market stall themselves as consultants permits, passport control) insisting on payments to speed * Political parties using the up service or prevent delays prospect of power, or its continuation, to levy large 'fees' * Superiors in the public service on international businesses in charging their subordinates, return for government contracts requiring them to raise set sums each week or month and to pass these upwards Source: Langseth, Stapenhurst, and Pope, The Role of a National Integrity Systern in Fighting Corruption, World Bank, 1997. 10 G S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst i t somie cases, corrupt practices may have been estimated economic and efficiency costs introduced by external influences-evident in include38 some former colonies. - An additional 3-10% increase for the Each culture has different perceptions and price of a given transaction to speed up practices with respect to corruption-acceptance the delivery of a government service. of what is reasonable and appropriate differs widely. - Inflated prices for goods-as much as 15- Differences often have more to do with how busi- 200/6-as a result of illicit gains through ness is conducted (giving presents and hospitality, government-imposed monopolies. for example) than with attempts to 'buy' favourable - Diverted tax revenues because of graft and decisions. Examples of petty and grand corruption corruption that can cost the government are provided in Table 3. as much as 50% of its tax revenues. - Overbilling on procurement contracts or 2. THE COSTS OF CORRUPTION the purchase of expensive and unnecessary Corruption is damaging because it distorts goods and services with the result that gov- choice. Many decisions in the public realm that ernments can payprices anywhere from 20- should be taken for the public good, with due 100% higher than necessary. regard for norms of public sector efficiency and * Gains obtainedthrough corruption are unlikely sound governance, are instead based upon con- to be transferred to the investment sector, but siderations of private gain, with little attention rather are transferred to foreign bank ac- paid to their effects on the wider community. countsorconsumedforpersonalenjoyment. Consider, for example: In summary the costs of corruption accrue in * Thepublicprocurementprocess, if corrupted, three main areas. leads to the finding of inappropriateprojects Waste of resources with taxpayers money-sold to the highest, - if corruption takes the form of a kick- best-connected bidder (diverting public back, it serves to diminish the total funds from more efficient uses and reduc- amount available for public purposes. ing the amount of resources available for - corruption results in a substantial loss in legitimate and more productive public use). productive effort (the prospect of payoffs - Economic life is damaged by increasing the can lead officials to create artificial scar- cost of goods and services, promoting un- city and red tape). productive investment in projects that are - corruption represents a rise in the price not economically viable or sustainable, of administration. contributing to a decline in standards and * Distortion of allocation can even increase a country's indebted- - corruption causes decisions to be weighed ness and impoverishment. Recent econo- in terms of money, not human need (pub- metric research suggests, for example, that lic housing, for example, is designed for there is a negative association between the poorest families , not those who can high levels of corruption and economic pay the most) growth36 and other case studies indicate - a corrupt act represents a failure to achieve that illegal payoffs can increase the cost public sector objectives. and lower the quality of public works * Failure to lead by example projects up to 30 to 50%37. Some other - perceived by the people, corruption in Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 11 government lowers respect for consti- fidence; piecemeal and uncoordinated reforms; tuted authority and so the legitimacy reforms that are overly reliant on laws and regula- of government. tions; reforms that overlook those at the top; fail- - if the elite politicians and senior civil ser- ure to establish institutional mechanisms that out- vants are widely believed to be corrupt, live the reformers; and failure of the government the public will see little reason why they, to draw in private sector opinion leaders and de- too, should not mis-behave.39 vice effective communications programs. Anti-corruption campaigns cannot succeed CAUSES OF CORRUPTION without public support. A change in attitudes is According to the World Bank's 1997 World Devel- essential if systematic change is to occur. Two broad opment Report, causes of corruption include: complementary strategies can have an impact- * Where public officials have wide discretion * Public awareness programs focused on the and litde accountability. harm done by corruption, the misuse of * Inappropriate policy environment: e.g., dis- public money, denied access to public ser- torted prices. vices, and the public duty to complain when * Lack of checks and balances (e.g., weak public officials act corruptly. "watchdog" agencies and institutions, in- * Empowering civil organizations to moni- cluding Parliament). tor, detect and reverse the activities of the * Weak enforcement mechanisms (e.g., lack public officials in their midst-drawing of judicial independence; weak prosecutorial on the expertise of accountants, lawyers, institutions). academics, non-government organiza- * W'here the benefits of corruption are greater tions, the private sector, religious leaders than the consequences of being caught and and ordinary citizens. disciplined (e.g., where public sector sala- It is the raising of public awareness that can ries are low). be directly affected and reinforced by the proposed social marketing program. B. Strategies to Deal with Corruption The pervasive nature of systematic corruption sug- IV. Social Marketing and Corruption gests that the strategies needed to combat malfea- Intervention sance must be broadly based and involve action on The three key aspects of the recommended many fronts. In documented experiences, success- World Bank strategy are Economic and Sector ful campaigns against corruption incorporate mea- Policy Reform, Institutional Strengthening and sures that reduce the opportunities for-and ben- International Cooperation. The ambitious pro- efits of-corruption, increase the likelihood that gram addresses issues arising from the National it will be detected and make it more likely that a Integrity System framework, including public transgressor will be punished. sector wages, legal and judicial review, govern- A broad approach to dealing with corruption ment procurement and financial management, has emerged from case studies of and attempts to and civil service reform. Social marketing can remedy systematic corruption. Problems in the past make an important contribution to the creation include: limits of power or commitment at the top; of an atmosphere in public life that discourages overly ambitious promises leading to unrealistic and fraud and corruption through achievement of the unachievable expectations and a loss of public con- following objectives: 12 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Dynamics of Corruption and Proposed Response System Factors Driving Corruption Indicators National Integrity System ~Ai . . | ~~~~~ ~ ~~~Public Positive Outcomes: Negative Outcomes awareness I + * t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~onducive environment 2sSi¢o:vn:wledg C ognitive, affecdive, and ~~~~~ ~~~evaluation behavioural changes Aversion I .s022E: gm g1g*g. Demand :> : for change Public Decision Making Process Social Marketing for Corruption Intervention * Marketing strategy* * Product * Price * Distribution channels * Promotion and segmentation * Client analysis * Positioning Dynamics of Corruption Response Mechanism * For details, see Annexes 1 and 2 Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 13 * Raising awareness of the costs of corruption sults in a supportive, collaborative and positively to a country, its organizations and its citizens. reinforcing manner. People want facts before they * Mainstreaming a concern for corruption are prepared to act. Thus, a successful campaign within national institutions. begins with the recognition of the scope of the * Increasing understanding of causal factors problem and a clear understanding of its causes. and the variety of manifestations of corrup- Reformers have to be able to identify those areas tion amongst the staff of national institu- of public administration where corruption is most tions and the public. likely to occur and be able to isolate and remedy * Influencing behaviour of corrupt and po- the conditions that have helped it flourish. At the tentially corrupt individuals. working level, measures may include improved su- The prerequisites for a successful social mar- pervision of civil servants to ensure that they are keting campaign reside in effective execution of the not abusing their positions for personal gain. many other proposed actions outlined in the World Campaigns should commence with awareness BankAction Plan. Furthermore, and of critical im- initiatives that stress both the importance of good portance to successful social marketing, the host government to economic prosperity and the im- society must have an environment that enables a pact of corruption on good government. This mes- free press to expose corruption. The critical mea- sage will not strike a responsive cord unless spe- sures to support this environment are freedom of cific examples of corruption are used to punctuate information laws, defamation and 'insult' laws that the problem being presented. Effective execution cannot be used unreasonably to threaten and fet- depends upon appropriate positioning, congruent ter the press, increased professional standards, no and achievable objectives, tailored appeals, people discrimination against newspapers by withdraw- empowerment, use of a broad promotional mix, ing government advertising, insurance of profes- and immediate reinforcement. sional standards of independence and responsibil- ity, and no censorship. Within this context, a social 1. POSITIONING marketing campaign contributes by creating a re- The sponsor of reform must have credibility within ceptive attitude to the many structural, procedural government and amongst the public. Since cor- and administrative changes that will have to take ruption occurs within government, an outside place throughout the public institutions of the host sponsor would effectively instill public confidence country. Reform will be forthcoming if there is in the motives and resolve of reformers. Newly internal pressure for change. Application of social elected parties with reform mandates often serve marketing approaches aim to generate that pres- such purpose. The additional weight of the World sure by creating new norms of acceptable behaviour. Bank will likely contribute to credibility and help Please refer to Annex A for a Summary look at to launch any program of reform. various social marketing Concepts/Principles, and The overall strategy must have strong commit- how these might be applied to a hypothetical Cor- ment from political leaders to combat corruption rupt Practices Intervention Program. wherever it occurs. It also means that they must sub- mit to very careful scrutiny. Prevention and chang- A. Social Marketing Lessons for Corruption ing systems should be the primary focus of the ac- Intervention tions as outlined in the Action Plan. One logical Experience in social marketing indicates that people approach to execution of the Action Plan would be must be shown what they can do to produce re- to adopt comprehensive anti-corruption legislation 14 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst Table 4: The Evolution of the Communications Task Stages of taking and maintaining action Communications objective Awareness * Create awareness and interest, change values Knowledge, evaluation * Persuage, motivate Aversion, action * Create action Maintenance * Maintain change to then be implemented by agencies perceived to have driven to a large extent by target group pcrcep- integrity. Local reformers may have to consider es- tions of the seriousness of the problem, levels of tablishing one or two key anti-corruption agencies empowerment and associated guilt, etc. Clearly, at the outset of the reform program. perceptions would be different for those in very The reformers must respond to a general cyni- senior positions of authority to those further re- cism by preparing a detailed marketing program, moved from power. Positioning of specific segments relying on concerted, multi-channel efforts directed would have to be determined within the country at attitudinal and structural change. Government of interest. "Marketing" research would be an ap- activities and procedures most prone to corrup- propriate starting point. tion should be identified and reform strategies ini- tiated. Measures might include:40 2. CAREFUL FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES * Ensuring that the salaries of political lead- The World Bank's document Helping Countrie. Curb ers, civil servants adequately reflect the re- Corruption addresses many aspects of prevention, sponsibilities of the posts and are as compa- enforcement and institution building. The Bank can rable as possible with those in the private also play a role in raising public awareness through sector. assistance in designing and executing a campaign in * Purging payrolls of ghost employees and partnership with local reformers based upon the les- instituting safeguards to prevent their reap- sons learned through social marketing. Formative lis- pearance. tening and subsequent planning will ensure a holis- * Adjusting legal and administrative remedies tic, congruent and honest program. Such an outcome to include deterrence mechanisms (revoca- will be possible if undertaken within the context of a tion of illegally awarded contracts, for ex- model or framework for understanding how public ample). servants are making decisions and taking actions. * Forging a creative partnership between gov- Understanding derived social marketing sug- emnment and civil society to conceptualize re- gests, for example, that a campaign should focus forms in the areas of prevention, enforcement, primarily upon: public awareness and institution building. * The harm done by corruption. As indicated in Annex 1, positioning of the * The fact that the corrupt are stealing the message for purposes of combating corruption is public's money. Social Ma rketzng Strategies to Fight Corruption 15 * The public's rights to services-at a given price evolution of communications objectives is provided or at no cost at all. in Table 4. * The public's duty (and the proper procedure) to Social marketing strategies must be adapted report corrupt activities and speific individuals. for the stage of development for each target mar- The focal point of a campaign would most ket. The major challenges at each stage are: logically be the public servant and stakeholders with Precontemplation stage challenges are to over- whom they interact. Campaign objectives will come public servants tendencies to selec- evolve with the changes in attitudes and behaviours tively ignore or screen out social messages. of target groups. One way of conceptualizing the Education, propaganda and media advocacy Table 5: Social Marketing Message Strategies Fear-especially appropriate for health promo- wrong. This appeal is appropriate to the issue tion programs. Worth considering. of anti-corruption. Guilt-while many campaigns rely on guilt Peer Influence-often, target groups are most to grab attention and solicit support, the trend easily influenced by members of their own age, is shifting to more positive, inspiring mes- race, cultural or socio-economic background sages because of the recognition that guilt because they can identify with them. Appropri- messages tend to foster feelings of apathy, ate to the tailoring and delivery of messages to frustration and helplessness. different target groups. Consistency-after committing to a given po- Testimonial-messages based upon the as- sition, people are more likely to behave in a sumption that audiences will respond to those manner consistent with that position (thus once who have changed behaviours and are benefit- behaviour has been changed, it is often appro- ing. Suggested for later stages in the campaign. priate to have people wear buttons or use bumper stickers to support a cause). Suggested Humour-positive emofional appeals, such as strategy for later stages of the campaign. humour, love, pride, and joy are often used by communicators. Should only be used with core Authority-Using a figure of authority (knowl- in this context. edge or trustworthiness) to provide a more poi- gnant and believable message. Suggested for Benefits-messages designed to appeal to ra- early stages of a campaign. tional thought and decision-making (messages that serve the audience's self-interest). Suggested Social Validation-people are more likely to for higher level target groups such as senior act or subscribe to a belief when they see that officials, judges etc. others are doing so. This bandwagon effect might be appropriate once target groups have Celebrity-using celebrities to promote ideas entered Contemplative stages or to reinforce based on the notion that target groups identify behaviours once they have been changed. with certain public personalities and thus will want to adopt the endorsed behaviour. Sug- Moral Messages-appeals that are directed gested for lower level target groups. to the target group's sense of what is right and 16 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst are particularly effective techniques. dia, and the General Public, for example. Or more • Contemplative stage challenges are to under- appropriately, segments might be based on artitu- stand and shape perceptions of perceived dinal or psychographic measures (see Annex A). benefits and costs, perceived social influ- A .clear understanding of segment demo- ences and behavioural control. Clearly mes- graphic characteristics, potential roles in cortrib- sages have to coincide with structural uting to corrupt practices, attitudes to corruption, changes identified in the World Bank Ac- media habits, activities, interests and opinions pro- tion Plan. vides opportunity for formulating appealing mes- * Action and Maintenance stage challenges are sages and suggestions for improvement. to increase perceived benefits and costs, in- The messages to be directed at different tar- crease perceived social pressure and geted groups will differ as will the under:ying behavioural control. strategy to elicit changed behaviour. Alternative * To maintain new behaviouralpatterns, pub- message strategies that could. be considered to lic servants must feel rewarded and subject reinforce the anti-corruption reform actions to regular reminders until new behaviours being developed in a country are outlined in become an ingrained way of life. Table 5. 3. TAILORED APPEALS FOR DIFFERENTIATED 4. EMPOWERING PEOPLE IS IMPORTANT SEGMENTS An often overlooked element of effective social A broad appeal is apt to be lost in the clutter of the change communications is the importance of in- mass media. A more focused approach is likely to creasing people's sense of control. If people do not affect targeted groups in the desired way. Targeted believe that they can make a difference, attempts players are not all the same and so segmenting to raise their level of awareness of corruption or markets will improve campaign effectiveness and provide arguments for behaviour change are not efficiency. Segments could include Public Servants likely to translate into behaviour change. in the Judiciary, Politicians, Senior Bureaucrats, To encourage a sense of control, action Public Servants, those in the Private Sector that should be called for in the message and that ac- frequently interact with the public sector, the Me- tion should be reasonable and relatively easily Table 6: A Typical Promotion Mix Advocate Independent Impersonal * Paid media advertisements * Newspaper columns * Public service announcements * Insight and analysis articles in * Events recognized authoritative journals * Popular magazine articles Personal * Worksite lectures * Peers * Village theatre * Newscasters * In-office 'sales' visits * Family members * Religious figures Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 17 Table 7: Promotional Mix for Influencing Corrupt Behaviour High perceived empowerment Low perceived empowerment High * Action checks * "Pacts" perceived * Audits * Group meetings encouraging seriousness of * Group meetings the discussion of the issues the problem * Town hall/village squate * Generating concern discussions * Publicity * Using opinion leaders * Encouraging greater search for information Low perceived * Increasing awareness of the seriousness of problem the problem * Informing about the seriousness of the problem * Increasing the level of anxiety * Describing the available sources of information * Correcting false impressions achievable. Furthermore, to facilitate decision- The selection of communications channels will making, reformers must provide simple, readily be important to the overall effectiveness of the cam- digestible pieces of information. Positive mes- paign. Alternative channels could be viewed as ei- sages, centred on what each target group can do ther personal or impersonal and as advocate or in- to help solve corruption problems will reduce dependent (see Table 6). feelings of powerlessness. Compilation of "suc- Complementary promotional tools can also cess stories," promoted through "reformed" contribute to influencing behaviour. The appro- opinion leaders can be an important instrument priateness of different tools is driven by the per- of empowerment and change. ceived seriousness of the problem and the sense of empowerment of the target segment. Table 7 pro- 5. USE A BROAD, COUNTRY-SPECIFIC vides some guidelines. PROMOTIONAL MIX In addition to making use of the media, the use Prior to full-scale or more concerted promotion, of a variety of personal approaches would require the reformers must take care of a variety of practical establishment of new 'media' such as the creation of considerations such as ensuring that promotional organizations that enlist ordinary citizens or govern- programs are being developed with host govern- ment staff to become part of a broad-based crusade ments, institutions, or agencies; successes can be against corruption. Through such a 'vigilante or made visible; alternative funding can be secured 'homefront' organization, structured into cells, the before the end of the program; careful and exten- public could be provided more specific instruction sive training can be provided to people who will and training, guided towards directed action and feed- be working in the new or revised structures before back and could be engaged in constructive and on- the formal end of the reform program. going discussions at local levels. 18 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst 6. IMMEDIATE REINFORCEMENT to check consistency and improve credibil- One empowering strategy is to provide some feed- ity, and supply of resources. back or a demonstration of the desired outcome - Education-Social marketing is most effec- that the actions of individuals has produced. A tive when done on a preventative basis, sug- simple measure could be developed that commu- gesting that an anti-corruption education nicates progress or the impact of corruption (an program should be an integral part of a stan- index of costs for a service in comparison to the dardized orientation and training program. same service delivered by a country considered to Introduced at an early stage, anti-corrup- be relatively uncorrupt, for example). tion arguments have a greater likelihood of influencing the beliefs, attitudes and values 7. OTHER SuccEss FACTERS of selected target groups. The broader dis- Focus semination of the message within the pub- - Focus on targeted audience segments lic domain creates higher expectations for chosen on the basis of age, psychographic standards of conduct. profile, knowledge level, literacy/ - Training of new recruits-When recruiting numeracy level, level of social skills and new public servants or making new appoint- their role in contributing to corruption ments within the public service, national in the public sector. public service commissions are well posi- - Use a positive message and focus on pre- tioned to assess attitudes towards corruption vention and structural change. and to provide anti-corruption promotion - Specify the issues in simple terms, allow- and training. The focus of a broader educa- ing the target audiences to reach their tion program is to make target groups aware own conclusions. of the costs of corruption, the roles they are - Focus on the personal relevance of the expected to play and the responsibilities that issue to each member of the audience seg- come with their jobs. Prevention education ment by making it human and relating it of this sort is more cost effective and lasting to directly to their situation. than detection and enforcement approaches. - Specify in very simple terms the desired - Build body ofknowledge-A final education action required to be taken by members element is to provide training programs that of an audience segment and make sure support and complement those identified that the action itself is simple. in the Action Plan (see "Report of the Cor- - Use the desired outcome as a visual proxy ruption Action Plan Working Group- means of reinforcement. Country and International Strategies," May - Focus on the most effective communica- 1997, p.45). An integral part of such train- tion channel for each segment. ing is to build a body of best practice knowl- Partnership-for a campaign to gain mo- edge for public institutions and disseminate mentum, many other sectors have to be en- such information through local networks. gaged and involved. Some parties include the general public, the media, the private B. Strategic Planning in Social Marketing sector, interest groups, professional associa- In designing effective social-change strategies, so- tions, academia and opinion leaders. Strong cial marketers go through a normal marketing plan- links to these groups will provide a means ning process.41 Like any marketing strategy, the SocialMarketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 19 basic elements consist of (1) the target market and Please refer to Annex 2 for a sample outline of (2) the marketing mix variables of product, price, a typical Social Marketing Plan, applied to a hy- promotion, and distribution that are directed to- pothetical Corruption Intervention Program. wards satisfying the needs of the target market. En- vironmental factors provide the framework within V. Condusions which marketing strategies are planned. Anti-corruption programs cannot succeed without Although the same process of planning is public support. A change in attitudes is essential if used by both marketers of goods and social systemic change is to occur. This paper argues that causes, there are some basic differences. Lamb, two complementary strategies can help achieve this Hair and McDaniel42 describe the unique aspects : raising public awareness about the harm caused of social marketing: by corruption and empowering civil organizations * Target markets: Instead of targeting the most to monitor, detect and help reverse corrupt activi- receptive segments of the market, non busi- ties of public officials. This paper has shown that ness organizations must often select apa- concepts of social marketing can be useful in both thetic or strongly opposed targets. The mis- of these strategies. sion is often to stop people from engaging All four elements of the marketing mix are in activities that appeal to them. relevant to such strategies: the four P's (position- • Nature ofproducts: The concern is with ser- ing, price (or reward), promotion, place (or distri- vices and social behaviour and not with bution) and product) as well as market segmenta- manufactured goods. tion. Two issues are critical: X Nonfinancial objectives: Financial profit is * that people be shown that what they do can not a motivation. achieve results and that they are shown this * Need to attract resources: Cannot recover costs in a supportive, collaborative and reinforc- from sales revenue and thus must secure ing manner; outside funds from donations, grants, etc. * that social marketing activities be tailored * Multiple constituencies: Often depend on to country-specific circumstances. third party payers and so must deal with two This paper summarizes how social marketing or more sets of "customer" constituents. activities might be developed, incorporating these * Public scrutiny: Subjected to on-going pub- various elements and issues. In terms of raising lic scrutiny from government, media and the public awareness, lessons from social marketing general public. They are often expected to campaigns elsewhere suggest that a focus should uphold higher standards of behaviour than be on : the harm done by corruption; the fact that private firms. the corrupt are stealing the public's money; that it * Nonmarket pressures: Face more regulation is the public's right to receive public services at the and direction from external sources. prescribed price; and that it is the public's duty to * Free or inexpensive support: More able to at- report corrupt activities and individuals. In terms tract donations of money, labour, and ser- of empowering civil organizations, it is important vices. to increase people's sense of control; here, the com- * Management in duplicate or triplicate: pilation of "success stories," promoted through Politicians, volunteers, and board mem- opinion leaders can be important. It is important bers often exert managerial influence over to note that such activities need to be part of a paid professionals. larger, holistic anti-corruption program which in- 20 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst cludes both appropriate economic and adminis- trative reforms and the strengthening of govern- ment and civil institutions. The World Bank has long-advocated appro- priate economic and administrative policies as part of their policy dialogue with client coun- tries. In addition, EDI has assisted countries in the design and implementation of anti-corrup- tion programs; to date, such assistance has fo- cused on action planning through National In- tegrity Workshops, awareness raising through media training and working with such institu- tions as Parliament, Supreme Audit Institutions and the Judiciary. In terms of raising public awareness and strengthening civic institutions through social marketing, the involvement of EDI as advisor, educator and, in some cases, partner in social marketing design and execu- tion could be appropriate. In this regard, the authors are developing a pilot "Social Market- ing Strategies for Curbing Corruption" work- shop which will be included in EDI's portfolio of "products." In addition, a substantial contri- bution that the World Bank could make is to de- velop a body of knowledge and experiences in awareness raising and civic institutional strength- ening and make them available to countries that developing anti-corruption programs. In addition, greater awareness raising through training in so- cial marketing and broad communications cam- paigns would stimulate interest within countries to explore the merits of a corruption interven- tion program. W Social Marketing Strategies to Fight Corruption 21 Annex A: Social Marketing Application to a Corrupt Practices Intervention Program Ma arketing is the process of establishing future for your children," a "healthy lifestyle," etc. mutually satisfying product exchange as program incentives. The choice of incentive(s) relationships between any two inter- should be clear, specific, personalized, and provide ested parties. "Product," in this context, refers to immediate benefits for maximum effectiveness. tangible products, services, social message, atti- Promotion is the communication element of tudes, or behaviours. the social marketing program. A well articulated Social marketing attempts to change the per- promotional progam (in harmony with the other ception, attitudes, opinions, or behaviours that programs) should inform, remind, and persuade. underlie an identified target groups corrupt In the context of a corruption intervention pro- behaviour or lifestyle habits. gram, the promotional mix might include village The marketing process always begins with an meetings, in-office presentations, public service analysis of the target group-their attitudes, mo- training programs, billboards, advertisements in tives, needs, and perceptions, versus corruption. media, as well as press conferences, publicity, and The results will ultimately determine how the in- direct marketing methods. tervention message will be promoted and packaged. A corruption intervention program will likely At this point, a number of marketing ingredients involve more than one blend of the marketing mix (the so-called marketing mix) are selected to pro- (the four Ps) or program elements. The selection duce the maximum impact. Typically, the market- of the right blend is critical, and involves creativ- ing mix contains four elements: product, price, ity, analytical skills, and market research. place (distribution), and promotion. A social mar- Social marketing programs are more effective keting plan product usually translates to an idea, when efforts are focused and appropriately posi- belief, or intervention. Distribution or place in- tioned. Clearly, it is not possible to reach every- volves selection of effective opinion leaders, me- body and expect measurable impact. Many pro- dia, and decisions regarding how the message is to grams fail because they try to reach too many be delivered. groups with a generic program. Price refers to the reward. The target market Effective market segmentation (often based on receives in exchange for altering its behaviour or strength of attitudes) can increase the possibility attitude. Social marketing programs often refer to of success in a campaign. For example, in develop- "satisfaction," cash incentives, "honesty," a "better ing the Really Me campaign against alcohol and 22 G. S. Kindra and Rick Stapenhurst No Guilt Hardcores 1 Hardcores 2 x $ value x $ value Petty Grand Corruption Corruption x $ value @