TOOLKIT Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving Sustainable Outcomes with Indigenous Peoples in Latin America and the Caribbean Team composition and acknowledgments A multi-sector team with specialists from the Water participate in the World Bank Latin American and and the Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global Caribbean Indigenous Peoples Dialogue through Practices of the World Bank carried out this work. Foro Indígena Abya Yala for their comments The Team was led by Lilian Pena-Pereira Weiss (Sr. and guidance throughout the preparation of the Water and Sanitation Specialist), co-led by Dianna Toolkit and for their support connecting the Team Pizarro (Sr. Social Development Specialist) and with national level Indigenous organizations. The Miguel Vargas -Ramirez (Sr. Water and Sanitation Team would also like to thank the governments Specialist), and supported by Ximena Traa-Valarezo and WSS agencies in Panama, Nicaragua, (Social Development Consultant), Franz Rojas (Sr. Paraguay, Argentina, Peru, Colombia and Bolivia Water and Sanitation Specialist), Fernando Laca for their extensive and generous collaboration, (Sr. Water and Sanitation Specialist), Koffi Ekouevi openness and time throughout the organization (Sr. Economist Specialist), Ella Lazarte (Water and and realization of the visits. Additionally, the Team Sanitation Specialist), Graciela Sanchez Martinez benefitted from advice and insights from several (Sr. Social Development Specialist), Santiago experts in the fields of WSS and Indigenous Scialabba (Social Development Specialist), Sophie peoples’ engagement, including representatives Theis (Consultant), Ananda Paez (Consultant), from the Inter-American Development Bank, Sophie Ayling (Consultant) and Elizabeth Eiseman the German Development Bank (KfW) and the (Consultant). The graphic design of this document Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation was carried out by Shinny Montes. The main author (COSUDE) as well as several NGOs involved in the of the document was Clémentine Stip (Junior WSS sector and Indigenous stakeholders outside Professional Associate). of the countries chosen for the field visits. Finally, this work would not have been possible without The Team would like to express their gratitude the financial support of the Water Partnership to the regional Indigenous representatives who Program. DISCLAIMER The conclusions and recommendations presented in this document were gathered by the team based on interviews with stakeholders and were complemented by a desk review. The views expressed herein do not by any means reflect official positions or opinions of any of the countries visited or that of the World Bank. Table of Contents Executive Summary 7 I Introduction 13 II Background: Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Services for Indigenous Peoples: The Last Mile 14 III Respect 23 1. Understanding the Country Context 25 a. Legal and Institutional Framework 25 b. Stakeholder Mapping and Engagement 28 c. Building a Project team to work with Indigenous Peoples 32 2. Prioritization of Investments and Understanding Local Contexts 36 a. Mechanisms for Demand Identification and Prioritization of Investments 36 b. Mechanisms for Demand Response 37 c. Justifying the Viability of Interventions in Indigenous areas 40 3. Designing an Effective Intercultural Engagement Strategy 41 a. Mechanisms for Communication 41 b. The Central Role of Consultations 44 c. Gender Aspects 48 IV Ownership 53 1. Building on Existing Institutional Structures for Service Provision and Management 54 a. The Importance of a Strong Social Fabric 54 b. Establishing Responsibility for Service Provision and Management 55 c. Capacity Building for Service Provision and Management 57 2. Culturally Appropriate Solution Design 59 a. Deciding on System Scale 59 b. Water Source and Climate 60 c. Water Use 61 d. Technological Choice 62 3. Systems Construction 67 a. Different Construction Models 67 b. Beneficiaries Contributions 68 c. Specific Provisions for Procurement 70 d. System Handover 72 V Sustainability 75 1. Sustainable Behavior Change 76 a. Hygiene 76 b. Sanitation Behaviors and Products Reuse 80 2. Financial Arrangements 82 a. Paying for the Water Service 82 b. Tariff Setting and Collection 83 3. Tailored Technical Assistance 84 a. Mechanisms for Technical Support to Indigenous Areas 85 b. Monitoring and Evaluation 86 c. Citizen Feedback and Grievance and Redress Mechanisms 88 VI Final Remarks 91 Anexos 95 Annex 1 Detailed Legal Framework 96 Annex 2 Institutional Frameworks in the Countries Visited 100 Annex 3 Stakeholder Mapping Examples 102 Annex 4 Diagnosis Example – Water for People “Formato 001” 105 Annex 5 Payment Mechanisms for Water Services 108 Annex 6 Nicaragua Financing Policy 110 Annex 7 Different Management Models Witnessed 111 Annex 8 SIASAR as a Tool to Measure Sustainability 114 Annex 9 Stakeholders Interviewed 115 Annex 10 Toolkit Methodology 119 References 120 List of Figures Figure 1. Access to Piped Water Services in LAC Countries, Indigenous vs. Non-Indigenous 16 Figure 2. Access to Improved Sanitation Services in LAC Countries, 16 Indigenous vs. Non-Indigenous Figure 3. Incorporating Respect, Ownership and Sustainability in the Project Cycle 21 Figure 4: A beneficiary demonstrates her water tap in Panama 33 Figure 5: Signs posted for construction of a water pipeline, translated by the local Q’OM community, Argentina 34 Figure 6: Certificate (left) and Mission Statement (right) of the Boquerón Alto WSS Committee, Bolivia 58 Figure 7: Map of water points and associated community systems elaborated in conjunction with community members, Argentina 61 Figure 8: Ceramic filter, Paraguayan Chaco 64 Figure 9: Left: Potatoes treated with chemical fertilizer (left) and potatoes treated with processed urine fertilizer (right). Right: UDDT with drying material 65 Figure 10: Young girls clean the communal sink; Project Tayakome 77 Figure 11: Woman demonstrating the use of a Tip-tap in La Guajira 78 Figure 12: Tariff calculation and water bill, Phalta Orko, Bolivia 83 List of Boxes Box 1. Sustainable Development Goal 6 20 Box 2. Respect for Indigenous Peoples’ Unique World Vision 24 Box 3. A Good Practice from Nicaragua - the MEPAS 35 Box 4. The Demand-Responsive Approach 38 Box 5. Water and Cosmovision for the Q’OM in Argentina 63 Box 6. Urine diverting dry toilets – the success story of Bolivia 65 Box 7. A financing policy to foster sustainability 69 Box 8. Examples of Hygiene Promotion Initiatives 77 Box 9. Local Technical Assistance Providers – the Case of Peru 86 Executive Summary The objective of this Toolkit is to provide To effectively and permanently close this coverage practical guidance and operational tools to gap, LAC countries need to extend WSS services promote the inclusive delivery of sustainable sustainably and inclusively to Indigenous Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) services to communities. Local service providers in Indigenous Indigenous peoples in Latin America and the communities have historically been more likely Caribbean (LAC). to “slip” into failed service provision than in non- indigenous communities.4 The field work carried The World Bank estimates that 43 percent of the out for this Toolkit indicated that adoption5 and use approximately 42 million Indigenous peoples in LAC of WSS systems is lower and slower in Indigenous live in poverty and that 24 percent live in extreme communities6 largely because of investors’ and poverty.1 These poverty rates are more than twice the service providers’ lack of knowledge and limited levels found among the non-indigenous population. attention to Indigenous peoples’ unique social and While the number of Indigenous peoples living in cultural characteristics. Oftentimes, Indigenous poverty has fallen over recent years, the poverty communities are avoided by WSS project planners gap between Indigenous and non-indigenous Latin and proponents due to their lack of understanding Americans has stagnated or, in the worst cases, of how to carry out projects in collective or semi- widened. autonomous Indigenous territories, the remoteness of these areas, and the high associated per In LAC, Indigenous peoples are 10 to 25 percent less capita cost of a potential operation, among other likely to have access to piped water and 26 percent reasons. In general, the WSS sector has lacked less likely to have access to improved sanitation a participatory framework tailored to Indigenous than the region’s non-indigenous population.2 Lack peoples with specific principles to guide stakeholder of access to WSS services perpetuates chronic engagement processes, participatory strategies, poverty by contributing to poor health, infectious and the selection and implementation of investments skin and gastrointestinal diseases, and malnutrition, to promote sustainable outcomes for WSS projects among other ailments. Extending the human right3 with Indigenous peoples. The preparation of this of access to WSS services to Indigenous peoples Toolkit recognizes the need for further analysis and represents the final step for many LAC countries to work beyond the traditional approaches to work in reach universal water coverage. rural areas, to be able to deliver suitable results for and with Indigenous peoples. 1 World Bank, 2015. 2 World Bank LAC Equity Lab, 2015. http://globalpractices.worldbank.org/teamsites/Poverty/LACDataLab/Site Pages/services.aspx 3 In 2010 the United Nations (UN) Resolution 64/292 acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realization of all human rights. 4 Data from the Sistema de Información de Agua y Saneamiento Rural (SIASAR), a regional information system owned and managed by member countries to track rural WSS indicators related to access, quality of services and overall sector sustainability. See Annex 5 for more information on SIASAR. 5 Adoption means the acceptance of and ownership over a given WSS system, including community consultations, understanding of water-related diseases and health consequences of poor WASH, construction and future operation and maintenance. Definition from Perez, E., et al. (2012). 6 See also Coimbra, C. et al. (2013) and Barber, M. and Jackson, S. (2011). 7 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean This Toolkit draws on the findings of interviews, The recommendations in this Toolkit specify how consultations, and field visits carried out in 37 to take these characteristics into account in the Indigenous communities7 in seven Latin American delivery of WSS services to Indigenous peoples countries (Panama, Nicaragua, Paraguay, while combining them with established good Argentina, Peru, Colombia and Bolivia) where the practices for good quality and sustainable WSS World Bank or other development actors have service delivery to low-income groups, particularly implemented WSS projects. A multi-disciplinary in rural areas. These good practices for sustainable World Bank team, which included WSS engineers, service delivery in the WSS sector (such as the anthropologists, social specialists and economists, demand-responsive approach, participatory among others, carried out the fieldwork. Through approaches, trainings and communication with interviews with all the stakeholders (governments, users, water committees establishment, sanitation WSS institutions including their decentralized units, behavior change, etc.) are emphasized throughout Indigenous organizations, NGOs, other development the document as field work demonstrated that agencies and beneficiaries) involved in the roll- these elements, together with other provisions out of these projects, this on-the-ground work was for governance and socio-cultural tailoring, are able to synthesize lessons learned from a range of critical for successful interventions with Indigenous perspectives from actual interventions. The lessons peoples. from the field presented in this Toolkit were also informed by a desk review, interviews with WSS, The Toolkit identifies three key principles that drive NGOs and Indigenous experts and representatives successful WSS projects with Indigenous peoples: outside of the countries chosen for the field visits. respect, ownership and sustainability. When Indigenous peoples As opposed to other low-income groups, Indigenous peoples often: actively participate in the (i) subscribe to organizational and governance structures that are different development of a WSS from the rest of society; (ii) maintain project and their customs, extensive traditional knowledge around their land, natural resource base, traditional, knowledge and and environment; (iii) utilize unique practices and cultural norms around organizational structures and water collection, storage, distribution, sanitation and hygiene; and (iv) hold are respected throughout strong beliefs and practices around the the project cycle, they are well-being of the collective versus the individual, leading to a higher degree of more likely to develop social cohesion, unique traditions and structures of community organization, ownership over the services and different norms around communal contributions. and the results tend to be sustainable over time. 7 The communities were located in rural, peri-urban and urban settings in order to ensure the widespread applicability of this Toolkit. 8 The Toolkit analyzes each of these principles in projects and budget availability be public. In depth and provides concrete recommendations addition, WSS institutions need to include on how specialists designing a WSS project with personnel with the expertise and capacity Indigenous peoples can best incorporate these to guide and advise on institutional policies principles throughout the project cycle. and strategies to effectively reach Indigenous peoples. This document targets project managers and field practitioners tasked with the implementation of Though project teams can be under WSS interventions in Indigenous areas, but it also pressure to fast-track implementation, time provides guidance for policy makers and Indigenous requirements should not deter them from leaders aiming to articulate specific demands from carrying out informed consultations and the WSS sector in their countries. respecting a thorough participatory process. The Toolkit’s key policy-level recommendations Women are strong behavior change agents for each of the three principles of engagement are and keepers of traditional knowledge. Women summarized below. should be engaged from project onset so that their views and local know-how and influence Respect requires the recognition of Indigenous can be incorporated throughout the project. peoples’ unique and valuable world views and forms of organization through their active involvement Ownership builds on the principle of respect for throughout the project cycle. engaging with Indigenous peoples and allows a community to define the value of WSS services for WSS sector institutions need to build their community and actively participate to design, a meaningful dialogue with Indigenous implement, use and maintain its WSS system organizations, traditional structures and accordingly. authorities to ensure that Indigenous priorities are effectively integrated in the sector. At the community level, Indigenous Indigenous authorities at national and regional beneficiaries and their local traditional levels have the capacity and interest to define authorities must be involved in all key sector priorities, develop policies, and prioritize decision-making processes throughout the investments, and should play an active role in development and implementation of WSS the design and implementation of projects that projects to ensure that the intervention meets would benefit their populations. These priorities community needs and respects their world can be articulated in a jointly developed vision and cultural practices. A successful national strategy that outlines a methodology engagement strategy respects traditional for fair and transparent investment targeting, hierarchies and cultural preferences in ongoing participation, project implementation, establishing clear rules for: participation, and specific relevant cultural dimensions. communication of key information among stakeholders and decision-making processes. WSS sector institutions need to specifically target investments to Indigenous territories A demand-responsive approach is essential and tailor approaches for engagement, for building ownership; however, it should be intervention design, and operation and tailored to Indigenous contexts by providing maintenance support to these territories in technological options based on traditional order to close current regional coverage knowledge, practices, and local capacity, and gaps. Investment allocations must be fair developing culturally appropriate community and transparent and the eligibility criteria for contribution schemes to foster ownership. 9 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Even when local capacity and interest want to pay for WSS services, findings does not exist for system operation and reveal that Indigenous beneficiaries maintenance, ownership is critical to ensure recognize the importance of WSS services effective communication and a functional and are willing to provide a meaningful relationship with external service providers. contribution to sustain them, through either monetary or “alternative” payment models Sustainability in the provision of WSS services (such as in-kind work or locally-produced requires user ownership combined with specific, materials). institutionalized mechanisms for O&M that reflect Indigenous peoples’ customs and norms, including The sustainability of decentralized tailored technical assistance and active beneficiary services requires the establishment by involvement. the WSS sector of technical assistance and institutional support mechanisms in To avoid the failure of WSS services over particular for the O&M phase, involving the long-term, adequate time and resources periodic site visits, just-in-time professional have to be invested in the “soft” side8 of support, and the mobilization of external these interventions to promote a respectful parties, as necessary. In Indigenous areas, approach and the development of ownership this regular technical support should work by Indigenous beneficiaries. Consultations with existing traditional structures, aim to and knowledge of local traditional strengthen local capacity, and be defined structures should inform the design of through consultations. sound management structures for the WSS services, for example to create and build In addition, the graphic below displays a summary of capable and credible local water committees the main technical recommendations of the Toolkit with sustainable financing arrangements. along the structure of the subproject cycle according to these principles. The page numbers indicate the Though there is a general perception that specific sections corresponding to these concepts Indigenous peoples should not and do not in the document. 8 As opposed to the “hard” or infrastructure side of interventions, the “soft” side consists in all the social, technical and capacity-building work carried out in addition to infrastructure delivery. 10 To identify the 1 2 To prioritize 1 2 To design an 1 2 Respect appropriate indigenous investments in a effective intercultural Pag. 23 5 3 5 3 5 3 and WSS actors to transparent, inclusive, engagement strategy: 4 4 4 engage in demand and respectful manner: identification: • Understand the legal and • Assess whether the existing • Identify, with the community, institutional framework for the prioritization mechanism acceptable and inclusive Indigenous and WSS sectors effectively represents local consultation modalities that enable demand meaningful input from women • Map the stakeholders, their mandates, and relationships • Follow a demand-responsive • Establish clear rules and approach that respects cultural procedures for participation and • Build a multi-disciplinary WSS norms decision-making project team with Indigenous peoples-specific skills • Consider using a social discount • Ensure adequate budget for social rate to better reflect the value of analysis and consultation the investment To establish service 1 2 To design a culturally 1 2 To balance system 1 2 Ownership Pag. 53 provision and 5 appropriate WSS 5 construction costs 5 3 3 3 management 4 solution: 4 and effective 4 structures: ownership promotion: • Consult beneficiaries’ preferences • Incorporate community • Agree with beneficiaries on the for service provision and practices, beliefs, and quantity and nature of their management model preferences into system scale, contribution to construction technologies, and solutions • Establish management • Plan flexible procurement arrangements over the WSS service • Solicit and learn from traditional processes that respond to local early in the project process knowledge on source protection, preferences, geographic and climate, water treatment, and supply chain challenges • Ensure transparency through clear sanitation rules, statutes, and communication • Ensure contractor’s capacity to mechanisms • Balance technical and work with Indigenous peoples acceptability criteria • Diagnose technical and • Organize a ceremony for system management capacity needs of • Present options for community handover to officially transfer the service provision and management approval through iterative and system to the community after entity and develop trainings participatory process construction Pag. 75 Sustainability To secure long-term 1 2 To establish fair and 1 2 To provide tailored, 1 2 behavior change 5 transparent tariffs 5 long-term technical 5 3 3 3 around the WSS 4 that cover service 4 assistance: 4 service: provision costs: • Incorporate cultural norms • Highlight the distinction between • Strengthen the technical around sanitation and payment for water and payment assistance providers’ capacity to hygiene into technological for water service work with Indigenous communities options and tailored training and authorities • Establish tariffs transparently to • Study the potential for reuse cover service provision costs • Use Indigenous-specific indicators from a cultural and market to track progress and establish standpoint • Consider use of alternative public information systems for payment mechanisms, such as transparency labor for operation and maintenance • Establish culturally appropriate mechanisms for beneficiary • Support management entity to feedback and grievance redress establish rules for tariff compliance Project Cycle: 1 Pre Identification 2 Identification 3 Design 4 Construction 5 PostConstruction 11 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean In the projects visited, these essential components of This disconnect made evident the need for a project sustainability were not always incorporated. comprehensive framework for collaboration among In particular, fieldwork revealed a serious disconnect stakeholders when working with dispersed rural between the stated priorities for the sector with Indigenous communities10 for sustainable WSS Indigenous peoples and the specific approaches service delivery. The toolkit aims to provide such a applied at the project level. Where some of these framework, consolidating existing knowledge in the essential components were being incorporated into sector and connecting practitioners with specific the project cycle, they often missed other important approaches and tools to overcome constraints, fill components that would promote a holistic and more knowledge gaps, and better serve marginalized successful engagement.9 Indigenous communities. 9 These findings align with analysis of participatory projects in Manzuri, G., and Rao, V. “Localizing Development - Does Participation Work?” The World Bank: Washington, DC. 2013. 10 Though the field work involved visits to urban, peri-urban and rural settings, the team found that those Indigenous peoples living in the most remote areas maintained their cultural norms and practices the most, while those closer to cities considered themselves less Indigenous. As such, the recommendations of this Toolkit are tailored to rural Indigenous peoples, though they also applied in some peri-urban cases such as Panama and Bolivia. 12 1. Introduction Indigenous peoples in Latin American and the local customs, instills a sense of ownership in the Caribbean (LAC) are 10 to 25 percent less likely beneficiaries and promotes services sustainability. to have access to piped water and 26 percent The resulting projects oftentimes fail, discouraging less likely to have access to improved sanitation further investments in the territories. The significant solutions than the region’s non-indigenous gap in Indigenous peoples’ access to WSS population.11 Historically, Indigenous peoples have services, a basic human right15 that is closely been marginalized from the development process linked to economic and social wellbeing, alongside in their own countries and still suffer discrimination the lack of established tools in the sector to guide from the mainstream societies today.12 Oftentimes, engagement in Indigenous territories, motivated the Indigenous territories are overlooked or avoided by creation of this Toolkit. The objective of the Toolkit Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) project planners is to provide practical guidance and operational and proponents13 given their lack of understanding tools to improve the inclusion of, engagement of how to engage or carry out projects14 in collective with, and delivery of sustainable WSS services or semi-autonomous Indigenous territories, the to Indigenous peoples in LAC in order to remoteness of these areas, and the high associated permanently close the WSS service gap.16 per capita cost of a potential operation, among other reasons. From a political economy standpoint, The Toolkit summarizes the findings of interviews, policy makers may lack incentive to focus on these consultations, and field visits carried out by a groups where they do not participate actively in multi-sector, multi-national World Bank Team in the political sphere and do not represent a large 37 Indigenous communities17 located in urban, pool of potential political support. When WSS peri-urban and rural areas in seven LAC countries implementing agencies do carry out projects in (Panama, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Argentina, Peru, Indigenous territories, they generally do not have Colombia and Bolivia) where the World Bank or the tools or experience necessary to ensure that other development actors had implemented WSS the WSS system is built in a way that respects projects with Indigenous peoples. 11 World Bank LAC Equity Lab, 2015. http://globalpractices.worldbank.org/teamsites/Poverty/LACDataLab/Site Pages/services.aspx 12 Davis, S. “Indigenous Peoples, Poverty and Participatory Development: The Experience of the World Bank in Latin America.” » Multiculturalism in Latin America. Palgrave Macmillan UK. Pp. 227-251. 2002. 13 “Project teams” refers to the implementing agency, the government and other development partners who are involved in implementing WSS initiatives on the ground. 14 “Project” refers to any WSS intervention at the community-level. 15 In 2010 the United Nations (UN) Resolution 64/292 acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realization of all human rights. 16 The Toolkit applies to both water and sanitation services. Where specificities apply to either water or sanitation, they are flagged in the document. 17 The term “communities” will be used throughout the document to refer to urban, peri-urban and rural communities. 13 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean 2. Background Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Services for Indigenous Peoples: The Last Mile The map on the next page provides an overview of the number of Indigenous peoples in each Definition of Indigenous country of Latin America and the percentage of total Peoples as per World population they represent. Bank Indigenous Peoples Policy (OP/BP 4.10) A Persistent Coverage Gap between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Populations Indigenous peoples are understood to be “distinct, vulnerable, social and While the number of Indigenous peoples living in cultural group,” with the following poverty has fallen over recent years, the socio- characteristics: (a) self-identification economic development gap separating them from as members of a distinct Indigenous other Latin Americans has stagnated or, in the worst cultural group and recognition of cases, widened.18 The World Bank estimates that this identity by others; (b) collective 43 percent of Indigenous peoples in Latin America attachment to geographically distinct live in poverty, and 24 percent live in extreme habitats or ancestral territories in poverty. These percentages are more than double the project area and to the natural the poverty levels found among Latin America’s resources in these habitats and non-indigenous people.19 territories; (c) customary cultural, This disparity translates to greater gaps in access to economic, social, or political basic services for Indigenous peoples, and thus greater institutions that are separate from inequality, reduced development opportunities, and those of the dominant society and serious health and socio-economic repercussions.20 culture; and (d) an Indigenous In particular, Indigenous peoples lag behind in access language, often different from the to both improved water and improved sanitation official language of the country or services. In LAC, access to improved Water Supply region. and Sanitation (WSS) services for Indigenous peoples represents the final step for many countries to achieve universal improved21 coverage.22 18 In 2010 (the latest census data available), Indigenous peoples represented eight percent (approximately 42 million) of LAC’s total population and owned or controlled 23 percent of the land through collective tenure regimes. World Bank 2015 and Rights and Resources Initiative, “Who owns the World’s Land? A global baseline on formally recognized Indigenous and community land rights.” 19 World Bank. “Indigenous Latin America in the Twenty-First Century.” 2015. Washington, DC: World Bank. 20 World Bank. 2003. World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People. World Bank. World Bank. https://openknowledge. worldbank.org/handle/10986/5986 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. 21 According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) standards, an improved drinking-water source is defined as one that, by nature of its construction or through active intervention, is protected from outside contamination, in particular from contamination with fecal matter. Access to improved water supply services is thus defined as the number of people with access to an improved source of drinking water with a minimum level of quality and quantity. Similarly, an improved sanitation facility is defined as one that hygienically separates human excreta from human contact. Access to improved sanitation is thus defined as the number of people with access to an improved sanitation facility. 22 According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) 2015 data, LAC presents over 90% access of improved water and 83% access to improved sanitation solutions. 14 15 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Despite a general expansion of basic services access to piped water for Indigenous versus non- over the last decade, only 71 percent of indigenous people is 43 percent in Colombia, Indigenous peoples have access to piped water, 34 percent in Panama, 26 percent in Nicaragua compared to 90 percent of non-indigenous and 21 percent in Peru. Figure 2 highlights the peoples. These gaps are even more pronounced access gap for Indigenous populations in various in some countries. The percentile difference in LAC countries. Figure 1 Access to Piped Water Services in LAC Countries, Indigenous vs. Non-Indigenous (Source: LAC Equity Lab23) Ecuador Guatemala Chile Mexico El Salvador Bolivia Peru Costa Rica Nicaragua Venezuela Brazil Panama Colombia 2010 2002 2002 2010 2007 2012 2007 2011 2005 2001 2010 2010 2005 97% 97% 100% 93% 93% 94% 86% 87% 87% 84% 82% 84% 80% 77% 77% 76% 75% 74% 69% 69% 65% 65% 61% 61% 60% 60% 53% 42% 40% 39% 20% 0% Indigenous Non-indigenous Figure 2 Access to Improved Sanitation Services in LAC Countries, Indigenous vs. Non-Indigenous (Source: LAC Equity Lab) El Salvador Chile Nicaragua Bolivia Mexico Costa Rica Peru Brazil Ecuador Venezuela Panama 2007 2002 2005 2012 2010 2011 2007 2010 2010 2001 2010 100% 96% 92% 92% 86% 80% 77% 79% 76% 69% 70% 67% 67% 65% 60% 55% 43% 43% 44% 40% 40% 34% 36% 26% 20% 20% 10% 0% Indigenous Non-indigenous 23 World Bank LAC Equity Lab, 2015. http://globalpractices.worldbank.org/teamsites/Poverty/LACDataLab/Site Pages/services.aspx. Notes: The data reported is based on the most recent census available. The indigenous population was estimated using self-identification in all cases, except for Peru where indigenous people (IPs) are defined by mother language of the household head. In Bolivia only individuals older than 15 were asked if they self-identified as indigenous; thus the reported value extrapolates the percentage of indigenous population in the segment 15 years of age or older to the segmend 14 years of age ou younger. In Nicaragua, creoles and mestizoa are not included as IP though they are usually listed as IP in official data. Update 9/18/2014. 16 The gap is even starker when it comes to access within the limited investments targeted to rural areas, to improved sanitation. The average difference in a more concerted effort to benefit Indigenous peoples access to improved sanitation between Indigenous is needed. and non-indigenous populations is 26 percent. In Ecuador, this difference reaches 36 percent, in A Tailored Approach to Achieve Sustainable Panama 45 percent, and in Venezuela 42 percent. WSS Services with Indigenous Peoples One of the reasons for the coverage gap is that Historically, LAC countries have focused on the approximately 50 percent of LAC’s Indigenous construction of physical infrastructure to extend peoples live in rural communities that are oftentimes WSS services. This is reflected in the technical remote. As such, they suffer from the typical socio- makeup of the teams that work in public WSS economic inequalities found between urban and agencies, in the indicators and targets established rural populations.24 In LAC, investment in rural for the sector, and in the budget and timeframe WSS services has traditionally been eclipsed by the allocated for WSS systems’ construction. However, urban sub-sector, which has the triple advantage achieving sustainable WSS services goes beyond of stronger political weight, clearer institutional extending access to improved WSS infrastructure. set-up (such as well-established, urban-focused It requires that communities, which, given their water utilities) and greater economies of scale location, often are responsible for managing than the rural sub-sector. In addition, government their own systems, present the commitment, the investment in rural areas tend to focus on the capacity and the necessary assistance to operate most populous and accessible communities to and maintain the systems. The “soft” side of the detriment of isolated areas, where Indigenous WSS investments, including social aspects and communities often reside. participatory approaches, are essential to the long- term sustainability of the services. However, Indigenous peoples lag behind compared to other populations within the rural sub-sector as well. The challenge of achieving sustainable service In rural Nicaragua, improved sanitation coverage is provision is more pronounced in Indigenous territories at 72 percent for the non-Indigenous population, as than non-indigenous territories. The “standard” opposed to 63 percent for Indigenous peoples.25 This WSS project approach is not always appropriate for number lowers to 19 percent when considering only Indigenous peoples. Their unique cultural, social, the Indigenous peoples from the remote and isolated linguistic, and geographic characteristics are often Alto-Wangki y Bocay area. In addition to coverage, overlooked in the rush to deliver infrastructure. As the sustainability of Indigenous communities’ rural a result,26 many Indigenous communities do not WSS systems is “at risk” in 70 percent of Nicaraguan develop a sense of ownership over the systems, Indigenous communities compared to 55 percent of which limits the long-term sustainability of the the systems in non-indigenous communities. Even investment. 24 To cite an example, regionally, Indigenous people living in urban settings are 1.5 more likely to have access to electricity and 1.7 times more likely to have access to piped water than their rural counterparts. (World Bank 2015). 25 Source: the Rural Water and Sanitation Information System (SIASAR). 26 As outlined in the Ownership section, this rush is one of the several causes of lack of ownership. 17 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean LAC Countries and International Movements to Promote the Inclusion of Indigenous Peoples As opposed to other low-income groups, Indigenous peoples often: (i) subscribe Over the past three decades, the Indigenous to organizational and governance peoples’ movement has made significant progress structures that are different from the in LAC in regard to the acceptance and adoption rest of society; (ii) maintain extensive of specific rights for Indigenous peoples. These traditional knowledge around their land, rights are founded on the concept that Indigenous natural resource base, and environment; peoples are and have a right to be different and (iii) utilize unique practices and cultural respected, and that they have unique governance norms around water collection, storage, and social structures, cultures, knowledge, distribution, sanitation and hygiene; and territory, and control over their natural resources, (iv) hold strong beliefs and practices as well as unique aspirations and visions for their around the well-being of the collective wellbeing. The most notable advance in Indigenous versus the individual, leading to a higher peoples rights in Latin America is reflected in degree of social cohesion, unique the overwhelming number of countries from the traditions and structures of community region that have ratified the International Labor organization, and different norms around Organization (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples communal contributions. Convention No. 169 (ILO 169), which emphasize Indigenous peoples’ rights to economic and social wellbeing, including improved sanitation and health. Of the 22 countries that have ratified27 ILO 169, 15 are from LAC. In efforts to implement ILO 169 The development of this Toolkit confirmed that and recognize Indigenous peoples’ rights, many tailoring WSS services to Indigenous peoples’ countries in the region have also adopted specific needs improves the sustainability and management sector policies and programs in education, health, of the services. Furthermore, the services natural resource management or administration of can become catalysts for broader community public resources to promote inclusion of Indigenous development initiatives, resulting in numerous peoples and recognition and respect for their vision positive externalities. This was witnessed in for development. Bolivia for instance, where water committees were raising funds and planning additional community However, more often than not, the recognition development projects or in other countries where the of these rights on paper has not translated into legal status of the water committee was leveraged concrete improvements for Indigenous peoples or to mobilize resources from external sources. recognition of their unique vision, contributions to Unfortunately, many WSS agencies in LAC do not society, or aspirations to live by a different world have specific units, policies or trained specialists view. As mentioned above, most countries still do with the resources, time, tools, and methodologies not have the necessary resources or skills to extend to effectively engage with Indigenous peoples and tailored WSS services to Indigenous territories, and to tailor strategies, solutions, and service delivery discrimination remains a barrier in the deployment accordingly. of interventions to Indigenous areas. This Toolkit 27 The ratification of ILO 169 requires that a Country adopt within its constitution the Convention’s internationally recognized principles and rights for Indigenous peoples. 18 provides the motivation and the know-how to put process to document that the Indigenous Peoples these conventions into practice for the WSS sector. Plan and the overall intervention affecting/benefiting the Indigenous peoples has their broad community Beyond Closing the Coverage Gap: The World support. Bank’s Approach The World Bank’s Water and Sanitation Sector The Bank’s Indigenous Peoples Policy (OP/BP Agenda. The Water Global Practice’s agenda 4.10). The World Bank’s commitment to environmental focuses on extending universal and sustainable and social sustainability is enshrined in 10 operational access to high quality WSS services. Access to environmental and social policies, commonly referred such sustainable services over time is an essential to as the Bank’s safeguards. The Bank’s Policy on component of reaching the World Bank’s Twin Indigenous peoples, OP/BP 4.10, is one of two Goals of poverty reduction and shared prosperity. social safeguard policies that are applied to all Bank From an intervention standpoint, this focus includes investment lending. OP/BP 4.10 defines the term providing adequate and cost-efficient infrastructure, “Indigenous Peoples”28 and establishes that all Bank tailoring technical solutions and levels of service to investment operations must: (i) respect Indigenous the context of each beneficiary group, adopting a peoples’ human rights; (ii) identify, assess, and demand (user)-responsive approach, promoting avoid/mitigate or compensate for adverse impacts cost recovery at least for O&M costs, integrating on Indigenous peoples; and (iii) adopt the necessary water resources management (WRM) in order to measures to ensure that Indigenous peoples receive ensure reliable water availability29 and strengthening culturally appropriate intervention benefits when they WSS sector institutions in order to ensure lasting are present within the intervention’s area of influence. and good quality service provision. This strategy The processes required by the Policy to achieve is fully aligned with the UN’s new Sustainable these objectives include: (i) the preparation of a social Development Goals (SDG) related to WSS, in assessment to identify and assess potential impacts particular Goal 6 (see Box 1). The Toolkit is or benefits of the project on the affected/beneficiary aligned with and fully supports both the World Indigenous population; (ii) a process of free, prior and Bank’s Water Global Practice’s sector strategy informed consultation with the affected/beneficiary as well as the Bank’s Indigenous Peoples Indigenous communities and/or their representatives policies.30 Furthermore, the practical guidance both to inform the social assessment, as well as to of the Toolkit goes beyond strategy to provide identify specific actions (proactive and/or mitigation) a set of concrete recommendations to put these that should be incorporated into intervention design; policies into practice. (iii) the preparation of an Indigenous Peoples Planning Framework, in cases where subproject In many Latin American countries, Indigenous areas are unknown, and once project areas are peoples represent the last mile to universal and known, an Indigenous Peoples Plan that documents sustainable WSS services coverage. Meeting the the specific actions and processes adopted by the Twin Goals will require reaching Indigenous peoples intervention (proactive and/or mitigation); and (iv) a with quality lasting WSS services. 28 As the term “Indigenous peoples” has a broad and wide set of definitions, the definition provided in the Bank’s Policy was used to define field visits. See methodology section for the definition. 29 Within the Toolkit, WRM is only addressed through a focus on source protection and preservation through seasonality. A broader discussion of water resource management is beyond the scope of the Toolkit. 30 These recommendations are also aligned with the World Bank World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People. 19 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Box Sustainable Development Goal 6 01 “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.” The specific targets for Goal 6 which directly relates to this Toolkit are as follows: 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management. Field Research as Background on the Report Structure of the Toolkit The recommendations in this toolkit were developed This Toolkit is organized around the three underlying and tested through field research investigating principles that revealed essential to extend actual WSS interventions in 37 Indigenous sustainable WSS coverage in Indigenous territories: communities in seven countries (See map on Respect, Ownership and Sustainability. These next page). These communities were selected for principles build on each other: Respect is required to the study based on the presence of an ongoing foster Ownership, and both Respect and Ownership or recently closed intervention in each country’s are key for Sustainability. In order to illustrate this Indigenous territories, the inclusion of noteworthy evolution, these principles compose the three main implementation arrangements or methodologies, sections of the document.31 Each section contains and representation of diversity in socio-cultural detailed information on how to integrate the key and geographical contexts to ensure the broader principle into the project cycle as well as critical applicability of the Toolkit (for more information, questions WSS practitioners should consider see Annex XX: Methodology for the Toolkit). In when designing and implementing WSS projects in each community, key informant interviews were Indigenous territories. The figure below illustrates conducted with indigenous communities and their the progression of the document. WSS institutional representatives on the process of introducing a WSS intervention into the community. The document also provides practical tools The lessons learned in the toolkit also build on and examples in the annexes. These tools are a desk review and interviews with WSS and represented by a “ ” inserted throughout the text Indigenous peoples experts, as well as Indigenous in the corresponding sections, where the number stakeholders outside of the countries chosen for the on the symbol refers to the corresponding annex field visits. where this tool can be found. 31 This division is meant to help point out specific moments in the project cycle when these concepts can be applied for a more practical implementation of the Toolkit recommendations, but by no means indicates that respects is only relevant during identification, or that sustainability shouldn’t’ drive interventions from the onset. 20 Figure 3 Incorporating Respect, Ownership and Sustainability in the Project Cycle 1. Understanding 1 2 2. Prioritization 1 2 3. Desiging and 1 2 the Country 5 3 of Investments 5 3 Effective 5 3 context and 4 and 4 Intercultural 4 Relevant Actors Understanding Engagement Respect Local Contexts Strategy 1. Building on 1 2 2. Culturally 1 2 3. Systems 1 2 Existing 5 Appropriate 5 Construction 5 3 3 3 Institutions 4 Solution 4 4 for Servic Design Ownership Provision and Management 1. Sustainable 1 2 2. Financial 1 2 3. Tailored 1 2 Behavior 5 Arrangements 5 Technical 5 3 3 3 Change 4 4 Assistance 4 Sustainability Project Cycle: 1 Pre Identification 2 Identification 3 Design 4 Construction 5 PostConstruction The project cycle graphic above will be repeated next to each chapter, to indicate at what stage of the project the recommendations should be applied. 21 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean NICARAGUA Population 6.8% 8.9% 37 Indigenous Indigenous communities COLOMBIA visited Population 3.5% 17 Indigenous PANAMA groups Population consulted Indigenous 12.3% 170 Additional stakeholders Indigenous interviewed BOLIVIA Population PERU Population 62.2% 24% Indigenous Indigenous PARAGUAY Population 1.8% Indigenous ARGENTINA Population 2.4% Indigenous Visited areas marked in color 22 1 2 3. Respect 5 3 4 The recognition and respect for Indigenous peoples’ values, cultures, traditional organizations, and preferences in designing and implementing WSS projects. 23 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Respect is one of the key principles of the UN’s The relationship between governments, Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples32 Indigenous peoples and external actors has been and is probably the most important principle tarnished by a deep accumulation of mistrust and guiding any engagement with Indigenous peoples, betrayal. For this reason, the only possible organizations or leaders. Indigenous peoples entry point to effectively engage and work throughout the world have suffered historic injustices, with Indigenous peoples is one based on genocide, and dispossession of their lands, respect for differences in world views and territories, and resources in the name of colonization, approaches. This respect must translate into nation building, assimilation, and development. In treating Indigenous leaders and communities as many LAC countries, Indigenous peoples have only equal partners in the development process with officially gained the right to participate in their national a unique set of knowledge and contributions to societies as equal citizens within the past fifty years. make (see Box 2).33 Moreover, the principle of The full enjoyment of this right has been severely Respect also includes fair political attention and hampered, however, by social norms condoning investment allocation, two basic elements in discrimination and racism and structural barriers that developing any unserved area. perpetuate exclusion and segregation. Box Respect for Indigenous Peoples’ Unique World View 02 Each indigenous group has a specific “cosmovision” or world view, i.e., “the structured view of nature and the universe in relation to man”34 that is rooted in a shared ancestral experience. This world vision has emerged over time from Indigenous peoples’ interactions with their land, environment and the associated stories they have passed down over generations. This world view guides Indigenous peoples’ relationships to each other, their community, their environment, their governance systems, concept of time, and resilience in often very challenging natural environments. Their millennial knowledge transferred from one generation to the next is what has equipped them to survive and thrive within these environments with little or no external intervention, so this knowledge is in many cases specifically adapted to the local environment and deeply held. For successful engagement with Indigenous peoples and a joint development process to improve their quality of life, it is essential to understand how this world view will influence a community’s organization, decision making, engagement with internal and external actors, timeframes, behaviors and belief system around water, sanitation and hygiene, among other basic services.35 At the moment of intervention identification, the important aspects to consider are the Indigenous group’s organization at the national, regional and communal level and any protocols to engage these actors. During intervention preparation, preliminary consultations and desk research can help incorporate relevant decision-making rules and participation norms in the engagement strategy. The more detailed design of a specific project’s management and technological characteristics should take into account results from the consultation process about a community’s preferences and traditional knowledge. Specific guidance on how to incorporate a specific Indigenous community’s cosmovision into an intervention is outlined throughout this Toolkit. 32 UN. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. General Assembly A/RES/61/295. Adopted on 13 September 2007. 33 Tinoco, M., et al. “Water Co-operation between Cultures: Partnerships with Indigenous Peoples for Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services.” Aquatic Procedia. 2, Pp. 55-62. 2014. also outlines the request from Indigenous communities in Nicaragua to be treated as partners in the development process. 34 Broda, J. “Political Expansion and the Creation of Ritual Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Inca and Aztec Cosmovision.“ Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 25 (01). February 2015. pp 219-238. 35 Jiménez, A., Cortobius, M., Kjellén, M. 2014b. provide an analysis of existing literatura on Indigenous peoples’cosmovision, WSS services and the need for such an approach. 24 Respect This section provides recommendations for project team (its role and composition) it may not demonstrating respect for an Indigenous community seem relevant to carry out an analysis as detailed in background research on country and community as the one described below, especially given that context, prioritizing investment areas and target changes at the legal or institutional level are often communities, and designing an effective intercultural beyond the scope of an intervention. However, the engagement strategy. The section starts with definition of a new WSS intervention does provide guidance on assessing relevant aspects of the legal the opportunity to bring these actors – who may not framework and institutional landscape, including regularly coordinate – together to discuss issues state obligations to uphold Indigenous rights and at the intersection of their areas of competence. service delivery to Indigenous communities, actors Through this platform, actors from both the and their responsibilities in service delivery, and Indigenous peoples and WSS sectors can voice criteria to consider when building an effective project their priorities and needs to inform project design. team with the capacity to work with Indigenous Project teams may also find that these exchanges peoples. Next, the section discusses prioritization of provide inputs to larger institutional strengthening WSS investments, including mechanisms to identify and coordination efforts, like the establishment of demand from a community, respond to demand, a WSS-Indigenous peoples group (like the Mesa and justify the viability of investing in Indigenous Interinstitucional de Agua y Saneamiento para el communities. Finally, the section addresses key Chaco,36 in Paraguay) or the beginning of a national criteria for designing an effective intercultural strategy planning process. engagement strategy throughout the project cycle. Begin with a review of the national legal 1. Understanding the 1 2 framework associated with Indigenous peoples Country Context and 5 3 and the WSS sector. In particular, project teams Relevant Actors 4 should review the relevant legal framework that dictates the government’s formal engagement and The first step to design a WSS intervention mandate with the country’s Indigenous peoples with Indigenous communities is to establish a to understand how Indigenous peoples, their constructive engagement with the right actors. rights and territories are recognized by national This requires a clear understanding of the legal and laws, how government entities and other actors institutional framework for Indigenous organizations are to engage with them, and whether a specific and the WSS sector, who the relevant actors are, provision (or any rules) for the provision of WSS how they make decisions from both a legal and services to the country’s Indigenous peoples is cultural stand point, how they are organized and legally mandated. In addition, reviewing the legal resourced, and a multi-disciplinary and strengthened framework facilitates a basic understanding of the project team. mandated roles and responsibilities within the WSS sector for service delivery to rural and Indigenous a. Legal and Institutional Framework peoples, and whether within that mandate specific rights, processes, or sociocultural adaptations are A country’s legal and institutional framework required. This step is required by the World Bank’s provides a blueprint for project teams to understand Indigenous Peoples Policy as part of any project’s the rules of engagement at the national, regional social assessment, and the results have to be and community levels and the actors to involve documented in the project’s Indigenous Peoples in identifying priorities for a WSS intervention Plan or Planning Framework. This task is most focused on Indigenous peoples. Depending on the often carried out by the consulting team or social 36 The Mesa Interinstitucional de Agua y Saneamiento para el Chaco is a multi-stakeholder platform whose representation is led by SENASA, the rural WSS agency, and convened by the WSS Direction (Dirección de Agua Potable y Saneamiento), which is also the entity leading policy-making for the WSS sector nationally in Paraguay. It is composed of all the governmental agencies working in the Chaco (including the National Emergency Secretariat) and includes representatives from all the NGOs working in that region, as well as representatives from interventions funded by multi- lateral agencies like the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank. 25 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean specialists charged with the social assessment. In other countries in the region, as in Peru and The legal framework represents an important entry Mexico, recognition of Indigenous peoples’ land point to understand the local structure and enabling rights has been limited to collective titling at a environment, and will in turn provide a source of community - rather than ethnic - level, thus breaking inputs to the definition of participatory processes. up broader connections and governance structures based on ethnicity. As a result, the community’s In LAC, the most common legal instrument that general assembly makes all decisions around outlines Indigenous peoples’ rights is ILO 169. communal self-government, and communities often ILO 169 holds the status of an international treaty; participate in broader regional networks (often mixed once ratified by a country, it is incorporated into with other ethnic groups) that then link to national that country’s constitution. In LAC, the following level organizations. For example, the Amazonian countries have ratified the ILO 169: 1 Argentina, Indigenous communities in Peru participate in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, local federations that are represented in regional Dominica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, organizations or coordinators that are then Mexico, Nicaragua Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. represented in two national organizations, namely In addition, many LAC countries have also passed the Inter-ethnic Association for the Development constitutional reforms or Indigenous peoples of the Peruvian Selva (Asociación Interétnica de laws. 1 These laws usually outline the nationally Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana –AIDESEP) and the recognized Indigenous communities, their unique Confederation of Amazonian Nationalities of Peru or special rights for self-governance and land (Confederación de Nacionalidades Amazónicas and natural resource ownership and use, specific del Perú - CONAP). Other countries have systems requirements for consultation and participation that are hybrids, recognizing variant levels of self- and, if applicable, the legal arrangements for governance and autonomy in decision-making and public resource transfers. An assessment of the land rights. implications of these laws for the design of the WSS intervention can inform the engagement strategy, WSS services management and land and infrastructure ownership, for example. Bolivia, 2010: What is the Level of Autonomy of the Country’s Ley Nº 031 Marco de Indigenous Communities? Autonomías y Descentralización The level of autonomy of a country’s Indigenous communities will dictate how a project team In Bolivia, as part of the country’s process engages with them (through a representative to officially become a plurinational State, Indigenous organization, the government, or current reforms are underway to allow directly). It depends largely on the country’s formal recognition of the Indigenous peoples’ territory, for indigenous territories to be registered systems for self-government, and management of and recognized with the same legal and resources. Most countries still delegate the role administrative status as municipalities. of basic infrastructure and service provision to Once implemented, this reform will allow municipal or national agencies, rather than transfer indigenous authorities to directly receive public resources directly to Indigenous authorities. resource transfers from the State and This distribution has historically limited Indigenous manage these resources and service peoples’ ability to exercise their autonomy regarding basic services management and can provision as would any municipality. lead to their exclusion from certain interventions. Within these autonomous territories, In Colombia and Bolivia, however, this is slowly decision-making power over natural starting to change. Examples of countries where resources depends on the country and is semi-autonomous or autonomous territories and set by the legal framework. systems of self-government are recognized include: Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, and Bolivia. 26 Respect use of public resources, and better alignment Colombia, 2014: between WSS sector policies and the broader Presidential Decree 1953 Indigenous policies for the country. Project teams can encourage this type of coordination by requesting and facilitating the joint articulation In October of 2014, Colombia passed a of intervention priorities and organizing regular meetings on project progress with actors from Presidential Decree to establish a special the WSS sector and Indigenous organizations. regime with the functions, financing, monitoring, control, and strengthening In some countries, the organizational structures mechanisms through which Indigenous governing Indigenous communities have been territories will receive public resource created and imposed by the governments and are transfers to autonomously and directly perceived by the communities as illegitimate, or manage the provision of education, even as an attempt to undermine their traditional governance systems. In other cases, the perception health and basic water and sanitation of these externally imposed structures may have a services within their territories. varied level of acceptance depending on the ethnic group or community. Understanding these potential intricacies of legal versus traditional Indigenous government structures is essential in designing an How are the Country’s Institutions Structured effective engagement strategy and identifying the for Indigenous Peoples and WSS? right actors to engage first. Based on the entities identified in the legal Project teams should note whether or not framework analysis, review the institutional the entity in charge of WSS service provision framework for Indigenous peoples and WSS. has a specific strategy to reach Indigenous This step involves understanding how Indigenous peoples. Does the entity target investments towards peoples are organized and how the government and Indigenous areas and adopt culturally appropriate WSS sector interface with them, taking into account measures for intervention approaches? Where both legal and customary or “traditional” structures. no such strategy – or policy prioritizing the roll- This requires identifying the various organizations out of services to Indigenous peoples – exists, its involved in government and WSS sectors 2 to development could be proposed as a component of determine who to consult and engage throughout the the engagement process, or even as a component of project cycle and which public agencies might have the intervention. If Indigenous peoples are part of the a key role in facilitating this process. The public service area defined in the organization’s mandate or entities charged with promoting Indigenous mission, specific lines of action should be defined to peoples’ policies should serve as the first reach them with tailored approaches. For example, in reference point for WSS agencies planning to Bolivia, there are limited national policies or programs extend services to Indigenous communities. that ensure the Indigenous cultural adaptation of methodologies for WSS projects. However, Bolivia In many of the countries visited, there was a does have a well-developed regulatory framework government agency (such as the Vice-Ministerio for the WSS sector that requires the application of de Asuntos Indígenas in Panama, the Ministerio community development and training methodologies, de Cultura in Peru, or the Instituto Paraguayo del incentives and requirements for the establishment Indígena in Paraguay) responsible for coordinating and legalization of water committees,37 and a specific and promoting Indigenous peoples’ policies and menu of WSS alternatives. This well-developed programs. Although the degree of coordination tool provides a strong platform for the adaptation between these entities and WSS agencies varies of Indigenous-specific consultation approaches, greatly, improved coordination opens the possibility as it already mandates thorough engagement with for more effective engagement, more efficient beneficiary communities. 37 Community-based organizations composed of community members who volunteer to manage their WSS systems. 27 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Key questions: What level of autonomy is recognized under national law in regards to Indigenous peoples land rights, self-government, resource management, and service delivery? Is this a common approach for the entire country or have these rights evolved over time with different Indigenous peoples enjoying different levels of rights? Does the Government include within its administrative structure a Ministry, Vice Ministry or agency that is mandated to promote Indigenous peoples rights and policies in the Country? Does this agency have any specific policy, strategy or dialogue with Indigenous peoples that would be relevant or could serve as a platform for WSS policy-setting, service provision or engagement with Indigenous authorities? Does the Government have a specialized approach or sector strategy regarding basic services, in particular WSS, for Indigenous peoples? If not, can one be prepared or adapted within the context of engagement? Who is the rural WSS sector institution? Is it well-structured and does it have a decentralized presence close to Indigenous territories? Does the institution have experience working in Indigenous communities? If not, can the project strengthen the rural WSS institutionally towards enhancing the WSS-Indigenous peoples approach? b. Stakeholder Mapping and Engagement mapping exercise will identify the key agencies, or counterparts, for developing WSS projects, building Identify the key actors for the intervention, on the list of actors and autonomy structure identified mapping their respective roles, relationships, earlier. The stakeholder mapping should capture the political and social weight, and level of interest mandate of each actor as well as identify coordination, in the project’s benefits. resourcing, accountability, and reporting relationships between actors.39 This is a key element to building For stakeholder38 mapping 3 it is essential that strategic allies early in the project cycle and avoiding the WSS specialist works very closely with a social conflict by helping to define an overall engagement, scientist or specialist who fully understands the participation, and consultation strategy that ensures Indigenous legal framework, organizations, actors, respect for Indigenous customary authorities and and social and cultural context. The stakeholder representation structures. 38 Stakeholders are people directly or indirectly affected by a project, who have an interest in it. 39 NetMap is one tool that can complement the stakeholder mapping by providing a methodology with specific questions to analyze power dynamics between institutions. More information is available at https://netmap.wordpress.com/about/ 28 Respect Potential stakeholders include: Specific areas of intervention a. Authorities in charge of the WSS sector (water authority, water utility, regulator, ministries of finance, health, environment, etc.) at the central, regional and local level. N b. Authorities in charge of representing or interacting with Indigenous peoples at the central, regional and local level. For example, ministry or vice-ministry responsible for Indigenous affairs at the national level. c. Indigenous governments at the local level (community or aggregation of communities) C recognized as the representatives of potential Indigenous beneficiaries. d. The Indigenous organizations at central, regional and local levels without a formal structure of representation, including organizations that represent communities and/ N R C or other sub-regional organizations, as well as organizations with specific advocacy agendas and/or capacity for training and project implementation. e. Local authorities from municipalities and/or provinces and technical teams responsible for WSS services locally (for example, the municipal water and sanitation R units, UMAS, in Nicaragua). f. Community leaders and relevant local-level organizations, such as Indigenous and non-indigenous women’s organizations and community associations, schools, or C health posts, and water committees where applicable. g. NGOs working in the WSS sector and/or with Indigenous peoples. N R C h. Local actors who may interact with potential Indigenous beneficiaries around land C use and resource management (farmers and other rural groups, among others). Legend: N National R Regional C Community For each stakeholder, identify, where applicable: Their relationship to other actors and existing coordination and reporting The level they operate at (national, regional, community) and how these levels relate to In most cases, distinct engagement strategies one another should be pursued at the national, regional and community levels. During intervention Their role in Indigenous peoples prioritization, the project team would primarily representation and engage stakeholders at the national level. The identification of specific intervention areas should Their role in the Indigenous peoples’ be done in conjunction with national and regional autonomy structure actors. Finally, communal-level stakeholders Their role in WSS policy and sector strategies are most relevant in the definition, design and implementation of specific projects within a larger Their role in WSS service provision national or regional intervention. More details on and project development in Indigenous engagement strategies can be found in the next communities and territories section. 29 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean The first point of contact for strategic or policy dialogue and investment planning should happen at the national level. In addition to working closely with the national WSS agencies and government agencies charged with Indigenous peoples’ policies, national Indigenous organizations should also be engaged National in early discussions. During the interviews conducted for this study, national organizations representing Indigenous peoples’ interests emphasized their desire to be involved in decision- making regarding the screening and selection of targeted Indigenous territories. The scope of discussions that should take place early on with national organizations include: consultation on sector policies and strategies, national intervention design, safeguard approaches, identification of sub-regions or territorial beneficiary areas, operational strategies, and roles in monitoring and evaluation (M&E). This is also an important level to define prioritization criteria and to emphasize a focus on Indigenous areas. At the regional level, there tends to be a greater level of familiarity and understanding of community demands, systems and experiences. It is often the regional level WSS agency staff and Indigenous governments or organizations that Regional serve as the most effective interlocutor between the project team and the potential beneficiary communities. At this level, organizations or territorial level governments can also play a critical role in supporting the prioritization of beneficiary communities because they have closer and more regular interactions with the communities they represent. In addition, regional level stakeholders are ideally suited to help with M&E and provide or facilitate ongoing technical assistance to communities over the project life cycle. This level is where the demand originates, agreements on WSS services governance are established, adequate technology and system designs are defined, financing and O&M Community arrangements are agreed, and investments are implemented. Although some countries and Indigenous groups have established protocol for entering an Indigenous community, in practice, approaching communities with the support of regional or national Indigenous authorities or organizations (or other NGOs with ample experience and credibility among the communities to be approached) proves effective. Indeed, they tend to know the local actors, can easily work through the potential intercultural barriers and facilitate communication and trust building. 30 Respect The table below outlines more specifically the tasks that each stakeholder-level should be involved in. Task National Regional Community 1. Formulation or implementation of WSS policies and strategies for Indigenous peoples and the sector X 2. Advice on application of Indigenous peoples legal framework and strategies X 3. Overall project design, implementation arrangements, leading institutions, macro level project objective, scope and financing X 4. Coordination of engagement and initial approach at community level, intercultural mediator and interlocutor X* X 5. Prioritization of communities based on community needs and demands X X 6. Direct engagement and participation with the Indigenous community, including the selection of the most appropriate technology, selection of the water source, preparation of the engineering designs and works implementation, definition of X X the WSS systems management model (eg. formation of water committee, O&M arrangements, tariffs, etc), etc. 7. The provision of technical assistance and institutional support role once the system is in operation X 8. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) of the WSS systems at a local, regional and national levels X X X 9. Implementation of regional/local grievance redress mechanism and communication and information flow at the regional level X X 10. National monitoring and response to grievance redress mechanism X X * Depending on country size and level of decentralization. Beyond national level organizations, there may Interinstitucional de Agua del Chaco in Paraguay) to be relevant Indigenous organizations or NGOs address the particularities of the region. This type of working at the regional level. In the Chaco region, coordination is key in promoting aligned interventions there are many collaborations happening between and sharing best practices in the sector and in the NGOs at the transboundary level (Red Chaco region where organizations are working in similar across Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay) and geographical, physical and cultural contexts, or with among organizations within a given country (Mesa one Indigenous group across country boundaries. 31 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Key questions: Who is responsible for intervention targeting mechanisms, project cycle definition and implementation, and, finally, provision of technical assistance and institutional support once the system is in operation? Can their responsibilities be strengthened through the intervention? If Indigenous organizations and/or beneficiaries are not participating in the WSS service delivery scheme, how can they be further integrated in defining the responsibilities outlined above? Are there other national Indigenous organizations or NGOs that are active in the sector but do not officially represent Indigenous peoples? If so, do they have a bias, experience, or affiliation with certain Indigenous groups or regions or do they demonstrate a capacity and understanding of Indigenous peoples at a national level? What are their potential roles in supporting strategic engagement on overall policy and strategy issues and/or investment prioritization and service delivery? Are there other actors, such as local farmers, non-indigenous communities, or concessionaires that could threaten the project design, in particular the water source, and implementation? Are there local dynamics that could undermine participatory processes and project success and sustainability? c. Building a Project team40 to work with showed the importance of approaching consultations Indigenous Peoples and participatory processes as a gateway towards a deeper understanding of Indigenous communities, Engaging and working effectively with but also with a specific work plan and WSS-related Indigenous peoples requires local staff capable questions to be answered to avoid dispersing these of assessing needs to design a locally-tailored valuable conversations. approach. In this sense, the inclusion of social specialists with in-depth understanding and To complement the work of the social specialist, experience working with Indigenous peoples in additional training can be provided to WSS the specific regions or areas where a project will engineers in sector agencies to increase their be implemented is essential for both implementing understanding of Indigenous peoples in order to agencies and contractors. These social specialists ensure more effective provision of infrastructure must have an understanding of the WSS sector and and training to these populations. Such training also of the project cycle of WSS interventions to ensure equips engineers to work more proactively with the that all consultations carried out throughout the Indigenous peoples specialists mentioned above. project specifically inform the intervention. Field work Most project teams interviewed had the mandate to 40 The project team includes the implementing agency, which is usually the government entity responsible for the provision of WSS services in the country or within a sub-sector, though it may also be an NGO, a private operator or a consortium of government agencies. In Bolivia, EMAGUA – Entidad Ejecutora de Medio Ambiente y Agua – and FPS – Fondo Nacional de Inversión Productiva y Social – are in charge of infrastructure construction while SENASBA – Servicio Nacional para la Sostenibilidad de Servicios en Saneamiento Básico – accompanies with social work and capacity building. 32 Respect provide services to Indigenous peoples, but not all Figure 4 were equally equipped to do so. A beneficiary demonstrates her water tap in Panama Institutions can strengthen their implementation teams by: hiring specialized consultants, collaborating with an organization that has this expertise, or implementing a special training program for the existing engineering and social teams. For example, in Paraguay, Asunción-based Servício Nacional de Saneamiento Ambiental (SENASA) successfully hired a consultant specifically to manage Indigenous topics in El Chaco (this person identified as Indigenous and had particular knowledge on the area of intervention), and in Argentina, the project team hired the NGO Fundación Gran Chaco to support the application and monitoring of social processes. Alternatively, the project team can establish agreements directly with Indigenous organizations to support cultural mediation and engagement with communities. This can help increase ownership at many levels and serve to build longer-term capacity for Indigenous organizations as active partners in WSS projects. Regardless of the approach, the consultants, organization, or newly specialized staff should oversee the consultation process and ensure that the beneficiaries’ (and traditional authorities’) inputs are the basis of the decision- making process. Hire staff who speak the local Indigenous language(s) on project teams – or the serve as both cultural and linguistic interpreters. contractor’s social team - to enable more fluid For example, the NGO Water for People in Bolivia communication with the Indigenous community has Quechua-speaking staff accompany all field and show respect for their culture, which in turn visits to translate when beneficiaries prefer to contributes to earning their trust. Many communities speak their own language. In the Peruvian Amazon, rely heavily on a few community members who are the Programa Nacional de Saneamiento Rural fluent in both Spanish/Portuguese and their native (PNSR) hires local social specialists who speak the languages to serve as intercultural interpreters Indigenous languages. In the Paraguayan Chaco, or facilitators with external parties. However, to the District Authorities (Intendentes) always work avoid the risk of an over-reliance on these few with interpreters from the local communities. From actors, and/or any potential manipulation of this a project perspective, linguistic realities should be role, it is essential to ensure broad community assessed at the outset, taking into account potential understanding of concepts through communicating gender differences within communities (see Gender in local languages. In some cases, implementing section in the Ownership chapter). When necessary, agencies’ regional decentralized staff may speak the project team should ensure that socialization or the language, but more often than not, they depend training tools are delivered in relevant Indigenous on regional indigenous organizations or NGOs to languages as well. 33 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Figure 5 Signs posted for construction of a water pipeline, translated by the local Q’OM community, Argentina Develop specialized tools and training curricula carrying out consultations to validate the applicability targeted for Indigenous peoples, adapting existing of the instruments with the intended beneficiary documents where applicable. Most implementing groups. This adaptation is important given that rural agencies have training manuals, brochures, videos, Indigenous peoples may not identify or assimilate and training curricula for community interventions. information as well if materials use symbols or These tools are particularly important for training on animals from urban or foreign contexts. Staff hired topics such as water committee constitution, O&M as Indigenous peoples specialists should also and tariff setting and payment. Social specialists oversee the application of the instruments in the trained to work with indigenous people should project cycle. A good example of such tools is the be in charge of developing culturally appropriate Water and Sanitation Manual (MEPAS) developed instruments (printed or methodological)41 and in Nicaragua (see Box 3 below). 41 Alternative communication, training and socialization methodologies can also be employed such as radio programs, storytelling or role play when appropriate, as literacy levels may be low in some communities. 34 Respect Box A Good Practice from Nicaragua - the MEPAS 03 The Nicaragua rural WSS agency FISE has institutionalized a policy to implement rural WSS projects irrespective of the source of financing, the Manual for WSS Projects (MEPAS, Manual de Ejecución de Proyectos de Agua, Saneamiento). FISE has elaborated an annex for this manual dictating the specific provisions to be applied in the Northern and Southern Caribbean Coastal Regions (RACCN and RACCS). To reflect the local reality and engage with Indigenous and Afro-descendant communities in a culturally appropriate manner throughout the project cycle, this annex includes regional adaptations related to: • The methodology to carry out consultations, • Technical specifications, • Costs, • Counterpart funding, • Project timelines and • Procurement rules. The customized strategy also includes a monitoring system to ensure that traditional authorities participate in the project cycle, that communities approve the project design, that training is provided to the beneficiaries in the local language, and that the beneficiaries are organized to protect the water source and operate and maintain the system once it is built. During the identification stage, an assessment of the the skills and environment for successful projects capacity of project teams to work with Indigenous in Indigenous areas. Accordingly, tailored capacity peoples can help identify important gaps and the building can be designed and carried out – or teams relevant training and resources needed to foster adequately complemented - prior to implementation. Key questions: What relevant Indigenous institutions, organizations and/or authorities does the project team need to communicate with regularly? What is the capacity of the project team in terms of social specialists and engineers trained to work with Indigenous peoples both at a centralized and decentralized level? What are the language needs of the target indigenous communities? Does the project team have staff who speak the local Indigenous language(s)? What specialized methodology, tools and training curricula can be developed, adapting existing documents where possible, for working with Indigenous peoples? 35 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean 2. Prioritization of 1 2 valuable interlocutor and a key partner for services Investments and 5 3 sustainability. More importantly, the aggregation of Understanding 4 demands through these authorities helps present Local Contexts them as a more unified and strategic ask, thus amplifying the voice of these communities and giving What factors should a project take into account when them a higher profile. Many Indigenous communities choosing which community should be targeted for a in Panama will not engage or allow external parties WSS investment? This section addresses effective to enter if the Saila, or traditional leader, has not decision-making around investment prioritization, coordinated the visit or provided authorization. As including the selection of the community and such, not engaging traditional authorities in this case intervention. Doing so in a way that is respectful may hamper the project team’s ability to capture entails appropriate communication with Indigenous Indigenous communities’ demands. representatives and traditional leaders and ensuring that the criteria for selection and overall selection Oftentimes, national and regional Indigenous process are transparent and cross-checked with organizations can also facilitate the communication relevant actors. between individual Indigenous communities, central governments and funding agencies to ensure the a. Mechanisms for Demand Identification and community’s needs are prioritized. A thorough Prioritization of Investments understanding of the traditional forms of organization at the local level, how communities communicate Involve the right Indigenous representatives their demands, and what bodies represent these in the identification and prioritization process. demands is essential for respectful investment The government rules for targeting and selecting prioritization. If tensions are unveiled between beneficiary areas differ from country to country. organizations, guiding factors should be based on However, there is often a disconnect between levels of representation and technical, economic, the government’s established mechanisms for or other criteria used for investment choices. In prioritization and the actual priorities or decision Nicaragua, Municipal Plans were elaborated to making processes in Indigenous territories. assess community WSS needs in each municipality Not involving any, or not involving the correct and prioritize the most urgent interventions. Through Indigenous representatives is a common mistake a questionnaire, the project team calculated a series of WSS projects that undermines ownership and of WSS indicators that yielded a “priority score.” partnership. The highest priorities in the municipality were then chosen based on funds availability and WSS Develop a clear understanding of the needs, and the final list validated by the Indigenous government’s mechanisms to identify and Territorial Governments and autonomous Regional prioritize needs for WSS services to assess Governments. The use of a scoring system enabled if they reflect the meaningful participation of the project team to agree on communities’ selection Indigenous peoples. Sometimes, communities based on a verifiable and transparent set of factors. interact directly with the central government in order Developing a thorough information system 8 with to convey their need for WSS solutions, while in indicators on WSS coverage and management other cases these demands have to go through a practices can also help project teams identify the municipal or regional representative. For example, in neediest communities and elaborate alternative Panama, in the case of a non-indigenous community, intervention mechanisms, such as institutional requests reach the Ministry of Health through the strengthening and training on specific WSS aspects different levels of regional governments. However that service providers are failing on, for example. this process circumvents the traditional authorities of Validating the list of prioritized communities Panamanian Indigenous territories, the Indigenous with the relevant national and regional Congresses and Councils. Bypassing the territorial Indigenous organizations ensures their support Indigenous authorities can result in projects that of the intervention, alignment with their vision do not respond to a territorial-level development for territorial development and respect for the vision and priorities, and risks alienating a traditional structures. 36 Respect Key questions: What is the process for articulating local-level WSS needs and priorities? Are there points of contention in information sharing in Indigenous territories? Have selection criteria been clearly articulated and communicated? Were these criteria consulted with national level Indigenous organizations or Authorities? Have indicators been developed to help assess community WSS needs more objectively? Is there a leading Indigenous organization widely recognized and respected among Indigenous peoples that could centralize their demands and carry out a first round of prioritization? Have the customary governance structures at all appropriate levels been involved in this process? b. Mechanisms for Demand Response The demand-responsive approach (DRA) applied by Water for People led them to 1) meet the demands When possible, carry out a diagnosis to ensure of the community in full, leaving no beneficiaries that prioritization is transparent. Assessing behind, and 2) foster collaboration with the needs with the community from an early stage beneficiaries from an early stage, respecting their also enables the project team to respond to vision for their own development. In contrast, in the the community’s specific demands (see Box fieldwork for this toolkit, several other programs 4). Carrying out a diagnosis of local needs before were visited where the project prioritization and designing a project can improve transparency design had minimal, if any basis, on the diagnosis of by enabling verification of key information (such community needs. The results were lamentable, with as actual population, demand, restrictions) and toilets built for empty homes and inhabited homes promoting realignment of priorities to maximize the excluded from benefits. To avoid such pitfalls, social project’s positive impact. This is particularly relevant assessments must incorporate practical WSS- when engaging with Indigenous communities since related questions beyond cosmovision and natural oftentimes there is little documented information resources to provide a representative snapshot available at the community level. Additionally, of the state of WSS and hygiene behaviors and indigenous communities usually have little preferences within a community. opportunity to voice their demands, and their demands, when voiced up, often reveal specific Though DRA has been part of the good practices cultural practices and local solutions (such as of WSS development since the 1990s, fieldwork appropriate water sources) that should be taken showed project teams still struggle to successfully into account in the design of the intervention. In apply DRA principles. In many instances, the Bolivia, the NGO Water for People carries out a institutions in charge of the rural WSS sector did not diagnosis of community needs and refines the have the capacity to implement DRA approaches intervention design in that community accordingly. in their regular operations where it was mandated 4 This strategy effectively involved beneficiary by the sector’s strategy or the donor. This pitfall is communities and built on the communities’ value linked to the general fragility of the rural sector, in system of collective wellbeing. particular: weak staffing (in quantity and quality), 37 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean especially in decentralized offices, and overall lack strategy and project implementation, the results of resources to implement a DRA, which is a time were often sustainable. and resource-intensive process. In order to carry out such an approach, rural WSS agencies need staff The entity responsible for social work in Bolivian dedicated to the social aspects of WSS interventions government WSS projects, SENASBA (Servicio and participatory processes in general. Where Nacional para la Sostenibilidad de Servicios en efforts were invested towards a DRA approach, Saneamiento Básico), learned from community there was sometimes a disconnect between the demands that they needed to phase in payment consultations being carried out and project-specific for water services before system construction, so goals, reflecting the need for more coordination community members could get used to the regular between social and technical teams. As such, the fee, and create a reposition fund for the system. weak application of DRA methodologies did not Similarly, community feedback pointed them to always translate into sustainable WSS outcomes. establish women-only water committees in those However, when DRA insights on an Indigenous Aymara communities where women were in charge community’s preferences informed the engagement of decision-making. Box The Demand-Responsive Approach 04 The Demand-Responsive Approach (DRA) became prominent in development literature in the late 1990s in response to the Dublin Principles, wherein water was defined as an economic and social good to be managed at the lowest appropriate level.47 DRA refocuses development on the involvement of the beneficiaries themselves throughout the project cycle. Though this approach is fundamental to the rural WSS sector, it is particularly important when working with Indigenous beneficiaries, whose demands are rarely assessed systematically, respecting traditional authorities, prior to an intervention. The guiding principle of DRA is that WSS services provision must be driven by demand from the users, who therefore become central actors in the initiation, planning, implementation and management of the services. This model provides an alternative to supply-driven interventions, where WSS systems were built according to assumed needs without consulting the beneficiaries on their actual demands. In the case of Indigenous peoples, DRA promotes • Carrying out consultations throughout the engagement process and according to a culturally appropriate strategy (see next section), • Using the information gathered in project design, implementation and O&M. DRA can be challenging to apply in Indigenous communities given the particularities of indigenous social organization, belief systems, and lack of trust in outsiders, and sometimes project teams struggle to gather concrete input on project design from DRA processes with indigenous communities, unsure how to translate information on cultural beliefs and cosmovision into tangible and sector- relevant project guidance. DRA involves users from a very early stage to foster ownership over their WSS services by enabling beneficiaries to choose the level of service they want and are willing to pay for. To apply DRA successfully with Indigenous communities, the approach should be carried out with respect for: Continue 42 World Bank and WSP. Summary of Proceedings from the Regional Workshop on Demand-Responsive Approach. Volume 1. June 23-26, 1997. Mangochi, Malawi. 38 Respect • The traditional Indigenous structures and cultural norms for the consultation processes (such as consulting with the traditional authority first, before opening the dialogue with the broader community), • The definition and validation of demands (by coordinating with Indigenous organizations and consulting with beneficiaries to corroborate needs identified by higher-level representatives), and • Community participation overall (through consultations on specific preferences and traditional knowledge to include in technological solution design and seeking community approval in an assembly on the technological choice). The recommendations in this Toolkit align with DRA principles and provide specific guidance for conducting DRA and interpreting DRA results in Indigenous contexts. In particular, the section on Designing an Effective Intercultural Engagement Strategy (in this chapter) highlights mechanisms for communication with Indigenous communities and points out when to use consultations to gather specific project-related information from Indigenous beneficiaries throughout the project cycle. The Ownership chapter guides project teams through the application of the knowledge gathered through consultations in the choice of a management model and technological solution that respond to the community’s demands while balancing Indigenous-specificity with technical expertise. The section on Systems Construction also specifically addresses Indigenous beneficiaries’ contribution to the construction of their system and the importance of a handover ceremony in officially transferring the system to the Indigenous community. Finally, the Sustainability chapter builds on rural WSS sector best practices regarding behavior change, payment for services and technical assistance provision and explains how these important components should be addressed in an Indigenous context. An important element of demand-response for actors. These issues may have occurred at the level Indigenous peoples lies in understanding past conflicts of a specific community or a whole area or territory, relating to WSS in a given group or community. The and may touch on water resources, lack of previous historical context and past issues may influence a consultations before an infrastructure intervention, or group’s willingness to engage with or trust outside disregard for traditional rules and norms. Key questions: Has the project team carried out a diagnosis of local needs to corroborate that the intervention meets the demands of the target Indigenous community? Can these priorities be verified through consultations in a sample group of communities or through focus groups with Indigenous organizations? Has the project team put in place provisions for Indigenous women to participate in these processes? (see gender section in the Ownership section) Does the target Indigenous areas present any past issues or stories of trauma linked to resource management, WSS or development in general? 39 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean c. Justifying the Viability of Interventions in interventions (health benefits, disability-adjusted life Indigenous areas years, access to water for productive uses) all have associated social benefits that can be better valued When assessing the viability of interventions through the application of a social discount rate. in Indigenous areas, use social and economic Other benefits to take into account and evaluate benefits metrics beyond a traditional ERR qualitatively (these may be out of the scope of the analysis. Apart from demand identification, project project but could be considered) are: teams may find justifying the viability of projects in remote Indigenous areas difficult due to their high per- At the community level: increased community capita costs. Most WSS projects require a traditional participation around WSS management, cost-benefit analysis to justify carrying out an representation of women, capacity-building investment. Historically, the economic rate of return through targeted trainings responding to used for WSS interventions has not consistently community needs, improved communication shown investments in Indigenous territories to be with the local (non-Indigenous) government economically viable, especially for those projects and WSS entities, recognition of cosmovision that require water transfers over large distances to and traditional knowledge in project design remote areas or expensive extraction and treatment and implementation. systems for difficult-to-access or highly contaminated local water sources. However, traditional economic At the regional and national level: increased assessment tools do not always successfully capture or improved coordination with the WSS and are able to quantify all the beneficial dimensions sector, articulation of WSS-related priorities when providing WSS services to Indigenous peoples. for Indigenous areas, recognition of traditional Benefits related to redressing social imbalances, organization and structure, recognition of ensuring human rights, or reasserting national cosmovision and traditional knowledge in sovereignty in certain territories have intrinsic value sector priorities and methodologies. for policy makers and the population as a whole, but they are elusive to quantify in a project cost-analysis. Additionally, when defining the methodology of Often, additional qualitative economic analysis intervention, the priority of providing sustainable based on interviews with Indigenous authorities and services – wherein investments do not have to be future Indigenous beneficiaries helps substantiate repeated in the same communities due to lack of the overall set of benefits associated with improved maintenance and ownership over their systems – access to WSS services. can be weighed qualitatively. By using a social discount rate, the potential In the countries visited, tangible motivations for benefits of projects in Indigenous areas that investing in remote Indigenous areas despite seem too costly at first sight may be captured potentially high costs included: equity measures, more realistically. The Discount Rate Guidance redress for impacts linked to historical conflicts, as Note36 produced by the Sustainable Development part of territorial strategies or retribution for previously Department at the World Bank provides some incurred environmental damages. Furthermore, the insights on the social discount rate, which consists recognition of the human right to access to water in using lower discount rates where beneficiaries and sanitation44 in 2010 acknowledged that clean may not experience such fast or high growth as drinking water and sanitation are essential to the the national average, proposing to not discount realization of all human rights and further strengthens future costs and benefits at all in the most extreme the argument for focusing on Indigenous areas and cases. The benefits usually associated with WSS closing the ‘last mile’ of the service gap.45 43 World Bank. “Discounting Costs and Benefits in Economic Analysis of World Bank Projects.” 2016. 44 Through UN Resolution 64/292 in 2010. 45 Jiménez, A., Cortobius, M., Kjellén, M. “Working with indigenous peoples in rural water and sanitation: Recommendations for an intercultural approach.” SIWI, Stockholm. 2014a. 40 Respect Key questions: Would the application of a social discount rate be relevant as part of the economic analysis? If yes, has a comprehensive set of social benefits (common factors like health benefits, time use, and complementary ones such as increased participation and representation) been taken into account? 3. Designing an Effective 1 2 potential project and receive inputs and participation Intercultural Engagement 5 3 commitments from potential stakeholders and Strategy 4 beneficiaries. This participation can take the form of informed conversations about the project with Consultations are recommended at every stage a platform for questions and answers, feedback of the project cycle, for a variety of actors and provision by the future users and approval of key objectives. At the outset of a project, the project decisions. When well-conducted, consultations also team should initiate discussions to identify the most avoid miscommunication around the intentions of acceptable, effective, and inclusive format that the project team and the availability of resources. consultations should take throughout the project The consultation process is essential in building trust cycle. Defining the terms of consultations at the where there might be fundamental disagreements outset of a project lays the foundation for respectful (between central government and Indigenous and informative engagement with the community. organizations for example) and in ensuring that local knowledge is respected and incorporated into a. Mechanisms for Communication and projects. Engagement Ask indigenous organizations’ and authorities’ Use appropriate consultation methodologies recommendations for the proper modalities of when launching a WSS intervention to ensure engaging with communities. These modalities the meaningful participation of all Indigenous include announcements, assemblies, focus groups beneficiaries. Informed consultations are a two- discussions, key informant interviews, and are way street: project teams provide information on the described below. 41 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Assembly Announcement Focus group Key discussions stakeholder interviews Description • Also called community meeting • Information is shared with • Meetings held in smaller • Interviews carried out with the community, either at an groups, often targeting single informants identified • Common platform for decision-making assembly, a public meeting a specific sub-group of for their particular in Indigenous communities where attendance is not the community such as perspectives, expertise • Convened by the local traditional obligatory or through other elders, women, young or role in the target authorities with attendance from the communications means people, or the future WSS community (Indigenous entire community (posters, media, radio, house committee members. authorities, teachers, visits) community organizations • Can be used throughout the project • Appropriate when leaders, randomly cycle to share information on progress • Can be used to disseminate consulting on a specific selected beneficiary, or collect beneficiary financial information, eligibility criteria, topic and when in-depth local government, contributions project scope, objectives and information is sought representative of a WSS rules of engagement institution, specialists) • Involves a questions and answers • Session should be session for all to participate • Anyone may participate, though structured around a • Platform to interact with the information sharing is often particular topic and set of higher-level authorities/ • Participation of the local authorities one-way questions organizations (mayor, municipal technical staff), the local Indigenous authorities, the • Can provide a platform for • Carried out during implementing agency or contractor conflict resolution pre-identificationand staff, including social specialists for identification to inform facilitation, and all future beneficiaries intervention design (community members) of the WSS systems • Can help delve into a particular topic or issue Benefits The presence of the majority of the Provides a quick way to share key The smaller size Allows for in-depth community often represents a positive information on the project helps gather insightful discussion of certain topics social pressure to contribute and contributions from with key actors promotes transparency When using written material, informants with time to can help document important elaborate with follow-up Especially helpful at the Ideal to formalize community approval project information and remind questions beginning of an intervention and decisions community members later on to gauge different Can provide a safer space perceptions and understand Announcements from traditional for discussion as informants communication rules in the authorities can be very effective may feel less threatened target community with people of the same sub-group Allows for groups who may feel uneasy speaking up in an assembly to voice their preferences and concerns Look out for Communities may want to hold a closed May not include a space for Not appropriate for official Not appropriate for assembly where the project proponent discussion approval as it may not official approval as it only or local Indigenous interlocutor will provide community-wide represents one person’s be invited to present. The project Can be perceived as top-down representation perspective proponent would then be asked to leave information sharing during community deliberations and the Subject to community Subject to community This modality requires rules: some Indigenous rules: some Indigenous conclusions or decisions then presented participation (or at least approval) in a separate open assembly. communities may have communities may have from local Indigenous authorities specific rules about certain specific rules about certain May not necessarily provide an ideal Most effective when the sub-groups (women, youth) sub-groups (women, youth) platform for the participation of all information communicated meeting among themselves meeting with outsiders, in groups builds on the results of previous or with outsiders, in which which case facilitators can participatory sessions case facilitators can be be considered Norms regarding gender roles in considered public spaces should be considered This does not provide a way This modality requires and potentially counterbalanced with to check if beneficiaries have This modality requires approval from local proactive steps to include women and understood the information approval from local Indigenous authorities marginalized community members shared as intended Indigenous authorities This modality requires mediation from This modality requires local Indigenous authorities participation (or at least approval) from local Indigenous authorities 42 Respect Based on inputs from traditional authorities, flexibility for designs and activities to respond to an intercultural engagement strategy should community feedback. In Indigenous territories, be defined for the project that respects building and establishing trust takes time, as people traditional hierarchies and cultural preferences can be reluctant to engage until they see results, in establishing clear rules for participation, and traditional decision-making processes require communication of key information among time. A clear framework and/or protocol regarding stakeholders and establishes how decisions what information will be shared, by when, and how are made and documented. Highlight point people decisions will be made and documented can greatly for the project team to communicate with, relevant reduce these timeframes. protocols for organizing meetings in the community, including prior information requirements, community In La Guajira, Colombia, the Regional Government, preferences regarding meeting structures, noteworthy Gobernación, imposed that no requests be community rules regarding individuals’ participation, made of beneficiaries until they could see the and how to document procedures, conclusions, and physical system working, under the assumption decisions (attendance list, meeting agreements or that Indigenous beneficiaries would not believe acts, pictures, etc.). Also include particular requests a system was coming or want to contribute to its on the format of training (participants, organization) construction until that moment. The project team and the topics the project team plans to cover. In this respected this request and worked with Indigenous strategy, include provisions to incorporate women’s authorities and local NGOs to agree on system perspectives into the consultation process throughout type and carry out the whole intervention, and only the project design and implementation.46 involved beneficiaries once results were visible. These idiosyncrasies require flexibility on the part of Carrying out proper and respectful consultations project teams to assure community members of the may require additional time during project beneficial nature of a project through information design and implementation. Though project sessions at project onset. For example, in Misiones, teams can be under pressure to fast-track Argentina, the traditional leaders, Caciques, require implementation, time requirements should not deter consultations to be carried out in two stages: one them from carrying out informed consultations and day with only indigenous peoples present in order respecting a thorough participatory process. If a to strengthen their governance system, so that program’s scope includes numerous communities the second day they can be consulted by non- and timeframes to secure financing are short, one indigenous utility representatives. Fulfilling such a solution is to agree on the scope and procedures demand would lengthen the consultation process, for more in-depth community level consultation and doubling its time, however respecting this timeline participation processes through for an example, was essential for the intervention to build support an Indigenous Peoples Planning Framework. This from the Caciques and their communities. Time approach, however, requires that certain flexibility is and resources wisely invested in the culturally allowed for in project design so that the community appropriate identification of projects and priorities and preferences can be incorporated the preparation of an engagement strategy prior to making investments. Continuously sharing can greatly reduce future implementation information in accessible ways throughout this delays, while ensuring that the full benefits of process will help keep stakeholders well informed interventions in Indigenous areas are realized of project stage and procedures, while building in and further sustained. 46 For additional guidance on designing an intercultural approach, see Jiménez, A., Cortobius, M., Kjellén, M. 2014a. 43 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Key questions: Which modality and platform is best suited to share information and consult with the beneficiaries at project onset? Are there subgroups (such as women) that may feel uncomfortable expressing themselves in a public setting like an assembly? If so, how can they be encouraged to participate without jeopardizing local traditions? Are there particular traditional communication rules that influence information sharing in the community or neighborhood? Would it facilitate the process to have an Indigenous or local intermediary provide initial explanations and allow for internal deliberations prior to having external actors participate? Have the traditional authorities and/or the beneficiaries indicated certain preferences related to the timeline or sequencing of information-sharing and consultations? Does the timeline of the proposed intervention respect and account for local communication rules and processes? b. The Central Role of Consultations sources, payment schemes, and responsibilities should be achieved and documented prior to Free, prior and informed consultation with making any final investments decisions for a broad community support is the requirement of given community. As part of their methodology for the Bank’s Policy on Indigenous peoples. The engaging with Indigenous peoples, FISE in Nicaragua principles behind each word are critical to ensure has established a series of such sessions to present meaningful consultation. Beneficiaries should feel the technology options to a given community free to be present and express their views, even and give them all the information necessary for if they contradict what the project proposes or its decision-making around their preferred solution. The intended outcome. Information should be provided information collected during consultations should be to stakeholders in an accessible and timely way, carefully recorded to ensure it is taken into account at prior to the consultation to allow for meaningful and all points of project development and implementation. informed feedback. Throughout project and solution Additionally, continuity in the social team assigned identification, these consultations should take place to particular projects can help guarantee that the in the form of community meetings, key informant consultations inform the process as a whole and interviews and focus groups, and should always avoid harming the trust relationship built during the entail at least two iterations – where information initial stages. Mechanisms should be designed for is provided, communities have the opportunity to every project to ensure ongoing participation, two- analyze and deliberate this information, and provide way information flows, and grievance redress during informed feedback, and then proposed solutions all stages of the project cycle (see Citizen Feedback are reported back – demonstrating how feedback and Grievance Redress Mechanisms section in the has been incorporated. Sustainability chapter). Broad community support to move forward For projects with multiple works or lack of specificity with a project based on agreed designs, water in project areas, the World Bank uses a tool called 44 Respect an Indigenous Peoples Planning Framework47 The table below summarizes the different topics to to establish upfront the rules of the game for address in consultations and the relevant moment engagement, consultation and preparation of specific in the project cycle. The elements brought up here measures for project design and delivery adaptation are described in more detail in specific sections of through the preparation of Indigenous Peoples the document, however this is meant to provide a Plans. If such a Framework has been prepared in roadmap for consultations along the project cycle. proper consultation with Indigenous organizations Where applicable, separate consultations should be and representatives, the community level processes conducted for men and women (see Gender section are normally clear and more efficient. in the Ownership chapter). Project cycle phase Topic of the consultation Methodological comments Modality Pre-Identification Information gathering for These interviews of representatives project conceptual scope from various national and regional level 1 2 organizations aim to respond to the questions Legal and institutional under sections III-1 and III-2. They may 5 3 framework also help identify protocols and rules for 4 Stakeholder mapping engagement in the target community. Investment prioritization Budget restrictions Pre-Identification Introduction of the project This may not be a ‘consultation’ per se but team to the community is an important first step to approach the 1 2 through the traditional community. authorities 5 3 4 Pre-Identification Agreement on Decision- This first consultation should help define a clear making processes, project procedure for future consultations, decision- 1 2 cycle and project criteria, making processes and their documentation. and particular procedures for 5 3 community engagement Particular care should be taken in validating perceived benefits not to raise expectations 4 Perceived and expected beyond the scope of the project through clear benefits from the intervention communication on the intended intervention. General expected As part of the ‘rules of the game,’ expected contributions and community contributions and responsibilities responsibilities from the should be discussed (and can be addressed community/ beneficiaries and in more detail later in the design phase). This existing community economic is also a good moment to ask about existing contribution schemes community economic contribution schemes and gauge if a tariff or alternative payment would be appropriate. Identification Corroboration of community Can separate sessions with those to be demands for WSS services responsible for WSS services management and identification of training and the rest of the community, or men and 1 2 needs women. 5 3 4 Continue 47 More information on this tool can be found on the World Bank website. 45 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Project cycle phase Topic of the consultation Methodological comments Modality Identification Management model Present options for WSS services management. Discuss specific tasks, 1 2 responsibilities and community rules. 5 3 If the choice is to have a WSS committee, the mechanisms for its formation and composition 4 should be established at this stage. If elected, a specific session can be organized. If the services are to be managed by any other third party, this entity should be presented and the relationship and responsibilities around management discussed clearly. Identification Community approval of A decision (vote) may be taken at the end management model of the previous session or may occur in a 1 2 specifically organized assembly. This may also take the form of an agreement. Either 5 3 way, this moment and associated decision 4 need to be documented. Design Traditional knowledge, Take into account traditional knowledge of community cultural norms and the local environment, natural resources and 1 2 preferences around WSS uses climate/seasonality aspects. Contributions and hygiene should be discussed based on existing 5 3 community economic contribution schemes Other local actors and (if any) and the need for a tariff or alternative 4 potential conflicts payment explained as needed to the Past experiences with the community members. WSS sector Inputs from the session should inform the Expected community elaboration of a menu of technological contributions options that respects required technical standards while incorporating traditional Identifying location for system knowledge (see relevant section for more construction details). Preferences on system handover Verification of long-term availability of water resources Design Presentation of an adapted This session should provide a platform menu of technological options, for community members to get to know 1 2 including O&M implications for each option and its O&M and economic tariff levels for each option implications (tariff or alternative). This is in 5 3 part a presentation from the project team Management model and should be done in a way that is easy 4 Community contributions to to understand for Indigenous beneficiaries construction (scale model, pilot latrine, pictures, diagrams, photos or videos, for example). Community contribution to system construction (and a rotating fund, if applicable) should be defined at this point. If necessary, several sessions can be organized for more in-depth sessions on each topic. Continue 46 Respect Project cycle phase Topic of the consultation Methodological comments Modality Design Community approval of the A decision (vote) may be taken at the end technological option for water of the previous session or may occur in a 1 2 specifically organized assembly. This may Household validation for also take the form of an agreement. Either 5 3 sanitation solutions proposed way, this moment and associated decision 4 Community approval of tariff or need to be documented. alternative Community approval of These may be organized as separate contribution to construction sessions for different topics. Design Presentation for approval of The project team presents the final design to the final design the community and the associated payment 1 2 structure. As before, this presentation should be done in a format easily understandable 5 3 by the community. If there are concerns or 4 requests for modification, the project team can justify the technical reason for each aspect or adjust the design. Final Approval and endorsement may be delayed to a separate session. This moment and associated decision need to be documented. Design/ Meeting requested by As needed throughout the project cycle. Construction/Post- the community (leader or Construction members) 1 2 Training workshops 5 Conflict resolution 3 4 Post-Construction System handover A culturally appropriate ceremony to formalize the ‘transfer’ of WSS infrastructure to the 1 2 community and inaugurate the systems, with 5 emphasis that formal ownership resides now 3 with the community. 4 Key questions: Have the principles of free, prior and informed consultation been respected? Has broad community support been achieved and does the scope of this support cover all critical aspects of project design? What instruments do the Indigenous communities use to deliberate and document community decisions? Are there mechanisms in place to thoroughly record or document the process? Does the engagement strategy include a comprehensive plan and timeline to address all the topics outlined in this section? 47 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean c. Gender aspects focus groups with women helped identify the need for a communal water point to wash clothes and provide Incorporating women’s perspectives into the such a meeting point. The project subsequently built consultation process throughout the project this into the system to provide a meeting point for cycle ensures the project will serve all members women to gather around water and carry out their of the community, but engaging with women chores while socializing. Seeking women’s input can requires specific provisions when working help incorporate traditional knowledge and cultural with Indigenous peoples. As in other rural or norms around WSS into projects. vulnerable groups, women oftentimes play the key role of managing water in Indigenous communities. Understanding women’s needs related to a WSS Indigenous women have a traditional link to water by project entails gathering information on: shouldering the primary responsibility to fetch water, use it to cook and wash, and treat it before giving it Women’s domestic uses of water (e.g. to their families. Women who do not have access to drinking, cooking, hygiene, cleaning) piped water often spend many hours traveling to a water source, which directly affects their quality of Women’s productive uses of water (e.g. life and productivity. For instance, in the peri-urban homestead gardening, livestock tending, neighborhood of Ibeorgun in Panama, water is only livelihood activities like pottery) available for a few hours per day starting at 1 am. Women and even young children have to wake up Beliefs and current practices around water, in the middle of the night to collect water from a sanitation, and hygiene nearby standpipe. Preferences related to water sources for Field visits showed that due to this close daily these needs (e.g. quality, cost, location, interaction with water, Indigenous women hold quantity) and transmit traditional ecological knowledge. Women tend to know about traditional practices Gender dynamics differ between Indigenous of water harvesting, preservation and purification, communities and cultural norms require and have historically passed that knowledge specific strategies of engagement with women. down to younger generations. For example, in This desire was voiced repeatedly during field visits. the Argentinian Chaco, Wichi women pointed out Some Aymara communities in the Bolivian highlands certain plants that indicated the proximity of a water left all decision-making to women and refused source. Women also play a vital role in promoting to allow men on their WSS committees, whereas the behavior change necessary to encourage in Ecuador sometimes women are not allowed to Indigenous peoples to consume piped water rather speak in public but will influence and have the final than potentially contaminated water from the river, say in decision-making once outsiders have left the practice handwashing, or employ sanitary facilities. community. Ideally, a thorough consultation process As expressed by a Guna woman from Panama, will provide space to discuss women’s concerns “mothers understand that polluted water makes their and needs and ensure they are incorporated in children sick and so they will push the community to subsequent steps of the project cycle. However, a adopt clean water and teach children to use latrines community’s specific cultural norms around gender if that means their families will be healthier.” will influence a project team’s ability to carry this out. In the Paraguayan Chaco, Ayoreo women demand Working directly to address women’s priorities can to be approached first when projects involve WSS, help dispel some misconceptions. Water collection even before the community’s leaders, because is often used as an example of a socialization ritual they are traditionally in charge of managing those that, if taken away through the installation of a piped resources. In this case, parallel consultations for system or household solution for example, could men and women were recommended, but project threaten the social fabric of a community. However, in teams should make sure to verify that traditional Nicaragua, while the overall beneficiary’s preferences authorities are informed and supportive before were to piped system with household connections, taking such measures. 48 Respect Overall, women were more willing to share their Learn from experiences from other sectors knowledge and experience on WSS in women- (health, education, local government) that only spaces. Separate, sex-disaggregated focus have worked with the community to engage group discussions for men and women is standard women and promote women’s participation practice for participatory needs-assessment and qualitative research. Not only do they reduce Consider steps for culturally appropriate inhibitions to sharing opinions, sex-disaggregated engagement, such as choosing women focus groups often show stark differences in men facilitators to work with groups of women, and women’s opinions on the same topic when working with existing women’s groups or interviewed separately. forming women’s groups that can discuss issues in private before raising them to men, Three general norms around women’s participation or engaging male allies with decision-making emerged in fieldwork: (i) women are involved in power who listen to women’s demands community decision-making with men; (ii) women advise men behind closed doors but do not Project teams can decide to what extent they seek speak in public; and (iii) women actively make to influence gender norms in the community. In decisions and their opinion matters more than communities where gender norms do not formally men’s, particularly on issues considered to be in allow women to participate publicly, there is significant the domain of women, like WSS. Although each of scope for projects to create opportunities for women these different participation modalities allowed for to share their input in ways that are acceptable and women to express their needs and preferences to non-threatening to the community. Teams can also a certain extent, the degree of women’s power to explain that this approach is necessary to ensure voice their opinions and influence decisions in the that all members of the community benefit from the community can vary significantly, in ways that are WSS intervention being developed. When possible, not necessarily correlated with the participation secure community leader’s permission for engaging modality. For example, in some contexts women with women in private. do not participate publicly but maintain substantial influence through private channels, and in other Consult women on format and content of training settings where women appear to participate actively, they would like to receive, keeping in mind these vocal women may not be representative of traditional norms and technical soundness. other women in the community, given their social Women in Paraguay expressed their wish to receive status or family ties to community leaders. training on water for productive uses (bread making, products they could sell, small-scale gardening) Project teams can investigate if women’s as part of an upcoming project in their community. participation in community-level decision-making Women may also make specific requests regarding effectively represents their water-related needs and the format of these trainings: specific modes of preferences through the following approaches: information sharing, for example all oral (especially if literacy is low), or focus on anecdotal evidence Consult Indigenous community leader(s) rather than expressed opinions. In the Argentinian to understand community rules around Chaco, women requested to use the consultations which women can participate in community as a way to document the traditional stories of their decisions, which decisions, and when and community around natural resources management. how they can participate The outcome was transcribed and printed along with one of the women’s illustrations. This same group Ask women from different segments of the also requested the construction of a women’s center, community what their perception is of their where consultations and all project-related meetings ability to raise their concerns and influence with women were to be held subsequently. This community decisions project contribution helped create a safe space for these women to share their knowledge and opinions. 49 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Take into account women’s language above, illustrations and transcription of oral requirements. Indigenous women oftentimes have storytelling is a strong tool to tease out women’s less ability to understand and speak Spanish or perspectives and traditional knowledge. Portuguese than men due to lack of educational opportunities and limited external contacts. When Soliciting and responding to women’s input necessary, socialization or training tools delivered in makes for a more respectful and effective project. relevant indigenous languages will help foster their Women’s needs should be explicitly sought out in understanding and participation. Written materials consultations throughout the project in a format that may not always be effective depending on literacy is culturally acceptable as well as representative of levels. As in the Argentina example mentioned all women in the community. Key questions: How are decisions currently made in the community? Who has input and who has the final say? What are current modalities in which women participate in community decision-making? What is the perception of women in the community regarding their ability to express their opinions and influence community decisions? Do certain women have more influence in the community and, if so, how well do they represent other women? Are there existing women’s groups or forums for women to discuss their needs with one another and voice their opinions? What are norms surrounding outsiders’ ability to hold discussions with women, and what are ways to make this more culturally acceptable? For example, would female facilitators make sex-disaggregated focus group discussions acceptable? Do consultations, trainings and workshops include specific provisions to ensure meaningful consultation of women and capitalize on their position as behavior change agents in their families and communities? Are there any social or cultural rituals that could be affected by the installation of a WSS system? If so, have these been frankly discussed and assessed with beneficiary women? Where are there opportunities for the project to incorporate women’s views, preferences, and local traditional knowledge into the project? What are the language requirements of the women in the target Indigenous community? Does the team have staff speaking that language and a methodology for non-written languages, if applicable? 50 Respect Key recommendations for RESPECT Understanding the Country Context and Relevant Actors for Indigenous peoples and WSS 1 Understand the legal and institutional frameworks of the country that pertain to Indigenous peoples and become cognizant of engagement rules and protocols for Indigenous organizations, i.e. who to contact and how. 2 Identify key actors from both: (i) Indigenous representation; and (ii) Government - both WSS sector and Indigenous interlocutor. Carry out a stakeholder mapping exercise, mapping the different roles and responsibilities at the intersection of the WSS sector and Indigenous organizations and authorities, with particular attention to intervention targeting mechanisms and responsibilities along the project cycle. 3 Identify the existence of any country (or sub-national) WSS strategy targeting Indigenous peoples; if inexistent, try to build one for the project context. Such a strategy should aim at aligning the local Indigenous peoples’ framework with the WSS sector and have a systems wide or transformational impact beyond a specific project. 4 Assess the previous experience and existing capacity of the project team (and collaborating organizations) in working with Indigenous peoples on WSS-specific projects and topics. Based on the results of this assessment, define a tailored training program to strengthen relevant areas in Indigenous peoples-specific aspects and/or complement the teams with social experts and trained engineers. Prioritization of Investments and Understanding Local Contexts 1 Understand the intervention prioritization mechanism in place and use this knowledge to assess and verify that the projects being proposed are representative of Indigenous territorial priorities and local demands. 2 Carry out a diagnosis before an intervention to ensure the project responds to each community’s needs in a way that respects their customs and traditions. 3 Wherever possible, follow a demand-responsive approach that respects the cultural norms of the target Indigenous group and use resulting insights to tailor implementation. 4 Study the local historical context and how the particular Indigenous community may have interacted with WSS or broader water/development projects in the past to inform the engagement strategy. 5 When assessing the viability of interventions in Indigenous areas, account for social and economic benefits beyond a traditional ERR analysis through qualitative work. Consider using a social discount rate. Continue 51 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Designing an Effective Intercultural Engagement Strategy 1 Identify the best mechanism to engage relevant stakeholders, ensuring that those subgroups that may not speak up in front of others have a platform in which they can comfortably participate. 2 Assess the local social fabric and incorporate existing ties and rules in consultations and implementation arrangements. 3 For all participatory processes, follow the principles of free, prior and informed consultation and ensure well documented broad community support for critical design elements. 4 Establish and agree early on systems to ensure ongoing participation, two-way information flows, and grievance redress during all stages of the project cycle. 5 Invest time upfront in designing appropriate approaches and align project timelines with traditional decision-making processes. 6 Actively engage women from the project’s onset and throughout its development, implementation and post-construction social work to ensure that their views and traditional ecological knowledge are taken into account. 7 Design and carry out tailored training for women so they can best fulfill their role as behavior change agents. 52 Ownership 1 2 4. Ownership 5 3 4 Ownership is a community’s commitment to adopt and use WSS services and to operate and maintain the system. 53 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Ownership is achieved when a community 1. Building on Existing 1 2 recognizes the value of WSS services and Institutional Structures 5 takes responsibility to care for its WSS system. for Service Provision 3 4 Ownership builds on a foundation of respect and Management and reflects a community’s commitment to define, implement, use and look after their WSS Assessing community social organization can solutions. The beneficiary group’s ownership over help inform the model of service provision and not only the physical infrastructure (the system) but management that will be most effective for the also the service provision (the process) ensures community. Water committees may function well in that the project will have a lasting impact. To communities with high social cohesion, but in other promote ownership, Indigenous beneficiaries and Indigenous communities, working with a water their traditional authorities must be engaged and utility or a hybrid/third party model may be more involved in all the key decision making processes productive. Water committees that are formed early from the identification stage to design, construction, in the project cycle, that receive training and support service delivery, and O&M. To achieve ownership, from another technical entity, and that establish the representative Indigenous authorities must transparent regulations to define the responsibilities be fully on board and serve as an entry point of the committee and of the beneficiaries, tend to be for communication with the community. The most successful over time for developing ownership technological solutions developed for Indigenous and sustainably maintaining the system and service territories should be demand-based and tailored delivery. The community managed model is the to their culture and environment in order to be fully most popular in LAC rural areas. adopted and used. As mentioned in the Respect section, the project team needs to have skilled a. The Importance of Social Cohesion and staff that can spend ample time with the beneficiary Collectivity communities to build trust, mutual understanding and allow for meaningful participation throughout project The stronger the social cohesion or fabric, design and construction. This also requires ongoing the reciprocity between community members, technical assistance during the implementation and the open communication between the phase in activities such as supporting the beneficiaries and the service provider, the more consolidation of the WSS governance structure by likely the beneficiaries are to value and pay for helping a WSS committee to attain legal status, the WSS services they receive. In general, well- and the provision of continued training to ensure organized Indigenous communities are more likely technical information is passed on appropriately. to sustain WSS services. This was demonstrated in the peri-urban Guna community of Ibeorgun This section discusses steps to promote ownership in Panama, where IDAAN affirmed that it was and buy-in from an Indigenous community. First, much easier to collect contributions than it was in the section discusses how projects can build on neighboring areas where Indigenous populations and integrate with existing institutional structures for lived amongst non-indigenous Panamanians. service provision and management, and provides Similarly, in Cochabamba, Bolivia, the closer to the guidance on developing tailored trainings to build city (further from their traditional way of life) and capacity to manage a WSS system. Next, the section the larger the community was, the more the social walks the reader through culturally-appropriate fabric and traditional organization was stretched solution design including decisions to be made with thin. In these communities, field work showed communities on aspects of the system like scale, water higher levels of social conflict, a lack of respect for source, and technology. Finally, the section suggests the water committee’s governance and rules, lower considerations for systems construction, including willingness to pay for WSS services, and disinterest different construction models, contributions from in carrying out their responsibilities towards the WSS beneficiaries, specific provisions for procurement, services in general. These dynamics help identify and system handover to the community. the rules to be established for the functioning of a 54 Ownership local WSS governance structure and can inform any Locally managed through the creation of a training needed around its operation (for example water board or committee at the community on elections of board members or arrangements for or neighborhood level. Examples of locally tariff collection). managed water systems can be found in Nicaragua and Bolivia. The limitation The social cohesion in a community can be assessed of this model is that as communities and as part of an early-on diagnosis by evaluating how neighborhoods grow in size (most likely in much community members organize (Are there peri-urban or urban settings), the social fabric community organizations? How many community of groups often erodes and users become members do they represent? How often do they more like customers. The committee, which meet? What is their say in community decisions?) is oftentimes made up of local volunteers, and how trusting they are of other community may consequently have more difficulty members (Are there family ties between may managing the users and their compliance households? Would community members leave with payments and usage rules critical for their children under the care of a neighbor?). system sustainability. Utility managed, as is the case for the systems operated by IDAAN in Panama. The Key questions: success of this model depends on the utility’s overall performance and the availability of social specialists and technical staff trained How strong is the social cohesion and to work with Indigenous peoples. the reciprocity in a given Indigenous community and how can it be taken Managed through a hybrid system with into account to promote sustainable participation of a third party entity. This services? may be done through technical assistance Does the local social cohesion lend itself from an NGO, the water utility or the local to community-management? government to a water committee, as in the cases studied in Nicaragua and Bolivia, or through private sector participation, as in the case studied in the Amazonian region of Peru. In Peru, the PNSR hired a company to operate the 65 systems they built in b. Establishing Responsibility for Service indigenous communities. Provision and Management The choice between these different service Hold consultations to define the entity or provision and management models depends group responsible for service provision on the setup of the local sector. For example, and management of the WSS system and in Nicaragua, where municipalities receive the associated services. Even if the country institutional strengthening from the central has a clear “go-to” model in the sector, the final government (FISE) to provide technical assistance management model choice must be in line with the to rural communities, the establishment of a water local traditional Indigenous structure and the effort committee at the community level, supported by that Indigenous community members want to invest municipal governments, is the norm, and the sector in the management of their system. Respecting is very well equipped to ensure the sustainability of the beneficiaries’ opinion regarding the O&M of this model. Similarly, in Panama water committees their system is key to build ownership on their part. are created and trained before and during project Systems can be: construction for administration and management of 55 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean the water system installed. In Argentina, regional responsibility for service provision and management water utilities are set up to manage WSS services was rotated every year among community for all residents (urban and rural) of each Province. members. This practice shows particularly strong In the case of the Chaco Province for example, social cohesion among members of the Indigenous the SAMEEP Water Utility is directly in charge of community. providing WSS services to Indigenous areas. Training. Rural water committees in Panama Though field work did not evidence a one-size- received specific capacity building on system O&M, fits-all solution for management of WSS services tariffs and conflict resolution in order to prepare in Indigenous communities, successful service them for their role as service providers. provision and management models visited all involved entities with clear communication For the water committee model to be successful, mechanisms with the WSS services users, however, it should be constituted as early in the taking into account traditional authorities and project implementation process as possible. trainings to build capacity where needed. 7 Early constitution of the water committee enables committee members to engage in the realization of Results from field investigation showed that the system, making decisions related to its nature, for disperse rural areas the most successful construction, and management, and increasing management in the projects visited was done their overall knowledge and ownership of the through WSS committees with clear statutes system. Committee members also have more time and regulations, with support (regular and good to prepare for their management roles. quality technical assistance) from an outside entity (state/provincial/municipal WSS unit/utility In more concentrated areas, the most effective WSS or NGO). The results of the mapping exercise management model may be to collaborate with a and the consultations carried out during solution water utility equipped with a strong social team with identification (see Respect chapter) should be used Indigenous peoples expertise. to inform the method by which the water committee is created and how its members are elected, Clear communication mechanisms with the WSS respecting the traditional structure of authority in services users. In peri-urban areas of Panama, IDAAN place at the community or neighborhood level. has established a schedule of visits to the Indigenous communities they serve to regularly check up on Clear communication mechanisms with the WSS users’ satisfaction and communicate information on services users. Water committees in Nicaragua hold services, with a specialized social team, in addition to assemblies at least twice a year, sometimes up to the utility’s existing communication systems. once every month, for community members to voice their concerns, demands and appreciation. Even in Taking into account traditional authorities. In cases of household rainwater harvesting systems in successful examples of such collaboration, the Paraguay, community members explicitly expressed Indigenous community usually enters into an their wish to have a community representative agreement wherein service provision is ‘delegated’ responsible for centralizing demands of technical to the utility. assistance for repairs to the Municipality. Training. Developing partnerships between firms, Taking into account traditional authorities. In La NGOs and the public sector can also promote Guajira, Colombia, in order for a committee to capacity building, as was done in Argentina through be recognized by the community, the Traditional the involvement of Fundación Gran Chaco to train Authority would automatically have to be the head the local water utility SAMEEP in working with of the committee. In Boquerón Alto, Bolivia, the Indigenous peoples of the region. 56 Ownership Peri-urban areas showed successful examples of c. Capacity Building for Service Provision both models above, with WSS committees working and Management best in those communities further from the city with stronger social fabric. As the communities’ Ensure adequate and ample training on size and proximity to urban areas served by major administration, tariff setting, and technical water utilities increased, the water committees’ operation and maintenance of WSS services performance or relevance tended to decrease. throughout the project cycle. In general, water committees constituted through the project are The presence of a well-defined management more likely to require in-depth training than an model that is appropriated by the community established service provider like a water utility. This is a key element to service sustainability as it section focuses on topics linked to the training of increases the likelihood that the users will be community members in the management of their committed to paying for services to support WSS services. If local government or a WSS utility continuous O&M of their systems. is in charge of service provision, their capacity to work with Indigenous peoples should be assessed as indicated in the Building a Project Team to work with Indigenous peoples section of the Respect chapter. Key questions: Design trainings based on consultations with Are consultations designed to identify beneficiaries on their particular needs, interests, a preference on the part of the and preferences for training delivery. beneficiary Indigenous community regarding the management of the Particular training needs can be identified, such as: system? Language, literacy, Does the target Indigenous community fall within the service area of an The need for separate sessions for men and existing WSS service provider? Does women (see Gender Aspects section in the this service provider have the capacity Respect chapter), to work with Indigenous peoples? Would the establishment of a water Pre-existing knowledge on water resources committee be appropriate/feasible in management, the target community or should other Administration and technical WSS concepts management models be explored? (note that these may be shared through Is there a traditional structure that the collective traditional knowledge in the form of management model should be adapted stories, for example), for or include? Cultural norms and practices around WSS Who would the Indigenous and hygiene, and beneficiaries trust to be responsible for system management and O&M? Traditional structures to take into account in assigning responsibility for service provision management and O&M. 57 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Support water committees in establishing In communities that neither have water committees statutes and regulations for the functioning of the nor clear responsibilities assigned to community committee. In the successful cases visited, these members for system maintenance, broken statutes and regulations contained clear rules for system infrastructure usually remains unused the training of community members on O&M topics until an outside actor like the municipality notices and for the election of committee board members. In and repairs the system if funds are available. several cases, the committees even had mandates This was the case in some communities of the to cut the service of those who did not pay. Some Paraguayan Chaco, where households waited for committees developed innovative rules that focused the municipality to fix their rainwater harvesting on ensuring long-term sustainability. For example, systems as there was no clear agreement on in Boquerón Alto, near Cochabamba in Bolivia, all maintenance responsibility. In contrast, when community members participate in monthly WSS there is an officially established water committee meetings and are fined for not attending. This allows that has received ample training on administration, an easy rotation among water committee members, tariff setting and technical maintenance throughout as the entire community is trained and aware of their the project, the committee takes responsibility to system’s demands and issues and the requirements correct the issue or seeks immediate help from for sustained service provision. specific authorities or partners. Figure 6 Certificate (left) and Mission Statement (right) of the Boquerón Alto WSS Committee, Bolivia The section on Financial Arrangements (Sustainability chapter) outlines the important notions to include in trainings on tariff setting. 58 Ownership Key questions: Do consultations tackle the community’s training needs and preferences? How will these inform the training plan? Does the training plan address the clear definition of rules regarding WSS services in place (service cuts, payment, responsibilities)? 2. Culturally 1 2 employed household level rainwater harvesting Appropriate 5 3 usually had low ownership of the systems and Solution Design 4 limited community mobilization for O&M, either to carry it out themselves or to ask an outside actor (like This section presents several aspects for decision- the municipality) to do so. Despite the lower O&M making with the community on culturally appropriate requirements of these simple household systems, solution design, including the reach and scale of the the decentralization of responsibilities and low levels system, water sources, water uses, management of technical assistance generated a systemic lack of model, and technological choice. Indigenous ownership and resulted in infrequent maintenance communities’ locally specific knowledge on water and consequent contamination of the systems. resources and traditional water treatment can be of Regardless of the system scale, agree on a clear tremendous benefit in informing solution design. management arrangement and a systematic technical assistance mechanism with the a. Deciding on System Scale users to ensure the transparent establishment of O&M responsibilities, tariff levels, payment Take into account the community’s norms and procedures and the level of service. preferences regarding system scale, including: proximity to the house, level of interactions with others, community organization and reciprocity for O&M and management, existing sanitation Key questions: practices, and relationship to the water source, to name a few. Water systems can be constructed at the household level, community or neighborhood What is the most appropriate scale for level, or multi-community level. In field visits, the WSS system, given the traditional Indigenous peoples, depending on their location, structure of the community, their O&M expressed preferences for the three different capacity and existing WSS institutional scales. Most of the successful cases encountered, structures (such as proximity of a WSS however, used small-to-medium community WSS Utility or community interest in forming a water users association)? systems.48 In these successful cases, there was a clear mechanism for community engagement and systematic technical assistance. Communities that 48 The Team did not have the opportunity to assess any multi-community level systems. Argentina was the only place the Team visited where Indigenous communities were organized at a multi-community level and requested a large aqueduct system. The system had not been built at the time of the visit, rendering conclusions on sustainability difficult to make 59 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean b. Water Source and Climate Change that respects traditional organization, community practices and land ownership for conflict mitigation. Incorporate local traditional knowledge on water A good practice that draws on the World Bank’s resources in intervention design. Indigenous safeguards involves the community (or project) peoples’ traditional knowledge of their land and purchasing the land where the water source is natural resource base is a major contributing factor located, or negotiating for that land to be transferred to their resilience in often very challenging natural into the community’s name. In Nicaragua, there are environments, over millennia. This knowledge, successful examples of title transfers from nearby which has stood the test of time and elements, is landowners and from community members to the critical when identifying water sources, assessing community as a whole. This is particularly relevant potential impacts of seasonal changes, threats of where water use allocation is tied to land rights. If contamination, and topography for the most effective other local actors use the area around the water design. Failure to engage and incorporate this local source – for example farmers or another community knowledge into project design can jeopardize the – stakeholder engagement and mediation may viability of the system and undermine ownership. be required to ensure the rules around source Indigenous peoples often live on the land of their protection are respected for its sustainability over ancestors, where meaningful tradition and history time.49 In Panama, the water committee of the are attached. Most indigenous communities Ipeti Embera community explained that they had recognize the value of water as a source of life and gathered enough money through tariff collection to as life itself. Oral tradition collected in this study tells purchase land around their water source to protect of animism and anthropomorphic figures protecting it from nearby farming activity. the sources of water, which are often considered sacred and a place of social interactions essential Incorporate Indigenous communities’ climate to maintain the local social fabric. Balance the change concerns in source choice and system traditional value of a water source with technical design for long-term sustainability. These concerns to promote use and ownership, concerns may include increasing seasonality carrying out specific information sessions on and variability of a water source, nearby pollution the benefits of sources new to the community from cattle, industrial or other sources that may (such as quality of groundwater) if needed. be exacerbated by floods and droughts, and intensifying weather events. Many of the Indigenous Provisions for source protection over time will communities interviewed acknowledged and depend on the local land rights and community deeply felt the consequences of climate change arrangements. In many LAC countries, the provision in their everyday lives. For example, many and formalization of rights for potable water use have people complained of the delay of the first rain by been gaining priority over other uses, with programs several months and the crop-destructing intensity in Peru focusing specifically on ensuring that of the rain when it did come. Many Indigenous Andean and Campesino communities have rights to communities are also concerned with the depletion an adequate amount of water for the population’s of groundwater and surface water resources. In use before irrigation rights are recognized. Drawing the Argentine Chaco, communities pointed out from the legal analysis and stakeholder mapping that they used to be able to walk to the river, but exercises carried out earlier in the project cycle, that now they had to use a bike or motorbike in project teams can work in conjunction with a order to get to the closest water point. In Paraguay, community to devise a water source protection plan elders in Ebetogue, Municipality of Filadelfia, 49 In-depth analysis of conflict resolution techniques is beyond the scope of this Toolkit. Carrying out an assembly and inviting these other stakeholders to discuss directly with Indigenous authorities may provide a good starting point to this dialogue. 60 Ownership complained that the younger community members were not absorbing traditional coping mechanisms Key questions: anymore, such as the use of a root shaped like an onion, the “IBI,” which retains water like a sponge, Where has the Indigenous community and is used in case of extreme droughts to find traditionally collected their water from? small pockets of water. Recording this type Is this technically compatible with the of knowledge and ensuring these ancestral project options? Is training on alternative practices are perpetuated in WSS interventions water sources needed to justify other could help communities adapt to difficult options to the Indigenous community? climate conditions in the future. Is there a plan for source protection? Are there specific land and water rights provisions to include in this plan? Figure 7 Map of water points and associated community systems Does the community own the land at the elaborated in conjunction with community members, location of the source, and if not, can it Argentina be ceded or purchased? Are traditional accounts of climate and variability resilience being recorded and incorporated into project design? c. Water Use The beneficiary community’s water use practices help determine source location and system design. In general, the amount of water used by Indigenous communities depends to a great extent on the amount of water available. In water-rich Panama, the average per capita water use in Indigenous areas is 50 liters (13.2 gallons) per person per day, compared to 25 liters (6.6 gallons) per person per day in the Kasiche Desert Community of La Guajira, Colombia. Note that these numbers are very low compared to the average urban water use of 200 and 6050 liters per person per day in each country respectively. Where water is scarce, the burden on women and children to fetch 50 Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios (SSPD). “Informe Anual de los Servicios Sanitarios en Colombia.” 2007. 61 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean water is larger, and water conservation concerns are more important. Water uses also differ between Key questions: Indigenous communities, with some groups, like the Guarani, reporting more rituals around water uses. Have the target beneficiaries been In La Guajira, two types of reservoirs were found in consulted on their water use habits and each community: one for human consumption, and concepts of fairness regarding water another one for animal consumption, since water sharing, distribution and pricing? for animals is of utmost importance to the Wayúu lifestyle. Wayúu communities also demonstrated What traditional knowledge on water traditional knowledge for reservoir protection, which use should be taken into account shows that conjunctive use has been practiced for in technology selection to promote a long time. Water supply for appropriate hygiene adoption? and sanitation behaviors must also be considered Does the project plan to propose the (see Long-term Behavior Change section in the option of water meters? Will this be Sustainability chapter). incorporated into the consultation and training plans? In general, field visits revealed openness towards the idea of having water meters. Indigenous informants associated meters with a fair allocation of water quantity and price. Water meters are a new concept in most Indigenous communities given that water use is mostly determined by available supply. However, provided d. Technological Choice with information around water uses, water-sharing, water-savings and pricing, some of the Indigenous Appropriate solutions combine what is communities interviewed expressed their approval technologically sound from a WSS expert of installing water meters to ensure that those with standpoint (in terms of water quantity, highest water use bear the economic burden and quality, and reliability) with local and cultural pay accordingly. This was the case in Ibeorgun, preferences. These two components are by no Panama, where Guna women laughed as they each means mutually exclusive, but the added work acknowledged how many family members were that their combination represents often deters using their household water supply and identified project teams from consulting with Indigenous which neighbors would pay the highest price once beneficiaries on technology adaptation. In the the program rolled in and meters were installed. In Paraguayan Chaco, one of the communities general, many Indigenous communities interviewed visited complained about an intervention from deemed volumetric charges to be a fair way to the Ministry of Housing wherein single-size water allocate payment for water services. tanks had been installed for rainwater harvesting 62 Ownership in all homes, regardless of family size or water use. of Panama City where water could be naturally As a result, families often ran out of water and had filtered using that medium, these women had to rely on emergency tanker trucks, despite having carried with them the tradition of filtering water in fully functioning rainwater harvesting systems and this way and were successfully treating their current brand new roofs. water source. Similarly, in the Paraguayan Chaco ceramic filters are commonly used as point-of-use Design technologies that are compatible with treatment technology as the clay is easily found in the indigenous peoples’ traditional water treatment neighboring environment. These traditional options systems. For example, in Ibeorgun, a peri-urban are conventionally used to improve water quality Guna community in Panamá, women described and their incorporation into menus of options where the traditional sand filters they were familiar with possible helps incorporate effective existing practices using to treat turbid river water before it entered the linked to water treatment. Traditional Indigenous pipe system to their community. Incidentally, as the knowledge goes beyond source identification and Guna originally lived on sand islands off the coast can provide surprising technological insights. Box Water and Cosmovision for the Indigenous peoples in Argentina 05 In the World Bank’s Norte Grande Project in Argentina, a lot of work was done with the Madres Cuidadoras de la Cultura Q’OM (the caring mothers of the Q’OM culture) during project preparation. They directed the implementation agency (SAMEEP51) team to key locations to find water. As part of a roads intervention, which was implemented before the WSS one, support was given to the women’s organization to rescue the Q’OM culture by recording stories from their oral tradition through the production of bilingual materials. Some of the recorded stories were about water and its importance to life. Water bodies are sacred places for many Indigenous groups in Argentina’s Gran Chaco. For example, the Mocoví Indigenous peoples believe that gods used to live in lakes with feminine spiritual caregiver, the “cuidadoras de lagunas.” In the rivers, little black creatures watch the rivers for any resource abuse. The Guaraní (Indigenous group present throughout the Chaco across Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil), on the other hand, revere waterfalls as the home of the goddess Imaraguí, who ascended into heaven. For the Mocoví and Wichí (Indigenous groups present in Northern Argentina), water is an element of the cosmos and a natural resource that forms part of the indigenous vision of the territory, as it lies on top, inside and below the land. Local informants expressed their concern that water today is contaminated, whereas before it could be drunk straight from the sky, a sacred life-giving resource harvested from the aljibes.52 However, this concern also highlights an understanding of water quality problems and the fact that “Nowadays to have clean water it must be filtered through rocks” (as explained by a local). 51 Servicio de Agua y Mantenimiento Empresa del Estado Provincial, the state company in charge of water services in the Chaco State in Argentina. 52 Household-level rainwater harvesting systems. 63 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Figure 8 The need for flexibility in technical design was Ceramic filter, Paraguayan Chaco exemplified by community members in La Guajira, who expressed a preference for latrines without a door, where the fourth wall is not straight but curved inwards to protect the dry hole on the ground, and the top is left open with no roof for aeration. As opposed to normal latrines, deemed too enclosed and claustrophobic, these “open” designs provide enough space and air flow for beneficiaries to feel comfortable actually using them, rather than reserving them for storage. They also give the user the impression of being outside, which was particularly valued in the Wayúu communities of La Guajira. However, this open space may not provide for the darkness and heat required for a latrine to be considered ventilated (wherein a vent directs flies and odors towards the outside) and thus does not meet the standards of an improved sanitation solution. In general, projects offered Indigenous peoples the same technological solutions they offered non-indigenous communities, with little room for adaptation. Where project budget or the need to scale up does not provide the resources and time for The risk of a prescriptive menu of technical this iterative process, Indigenous beneficiaries must options is that WSS specialists as well as be thoroughly informed, through consultations and beneficiaries tend to limit their desires to the training, on the benefits and features of the different options offered without allowing for adaptations options at their disposal. Field work showed that based on context or local needs. For example, in when solutions were well-understood and approved Paraguay the latrine has become the status quo, by the community, use and ownership ensued, incentivizing isolated indigenous communities to promoting sustainability. Assess community demand what they have seen built in neighboring requests to ensure that they meet standards for villages. The latrines built, however, are not improved sanitation services. In cases where necessarily the most culturally appropriate or health- community demands cannot be incorporated beneficial solution given their lack of ventilation and into design for health or technical reasons or the absence of associated training for appropriate lack of resources, present the hybrid solution to use (see Sanitation behaviors section in the the community and explain clearly why certain Sustainablity chapter). aspects cannot be included. 64 Ownership Box Urine diverting dry toilets – the success story of Bolivia 06 In Bolivia, surprising levels of ownership among Indigenous communities53 for urine diverting dry toilets and associated compost systems could be found. In particular, each family could clearly explain the composting process and had been safely treating and using the toilet outputs with impressive results. For example, potatoes treated with the humus and pesticide made from processed urine showed no sign of worm infestation, whereas the potatoes planted nearby with chemical fertilizers were full of worm holes (see picture below). Figure 9 Left: Potatoes treated with chemical fertilizer (left) and potatoes treated with processed urine fertilizer (right). Right: UDDT with drying material. Each family had been separating urine and storing it in bottles or buckets for planned use as an organic pesticide. The use of urine was highly accepted by the beneficiaries as it built on traditional practices where urine is used for medicinal purposes, as detergent for washing clothes, and as an occasional shampoo treatment for hair. The compost feature for feces was also highly valued by the community as it provided additional autonomy for their lifestyles, which are based on self-sustaining farming practices. All families visited were able – and excited – to give a detailed explanation of both the urine and the feces treatment processes. 53 The NGOs Adra and Water for People had projects in these areas. 65 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Provisions to Include in a Menu of Appropriate Technological Options Based on the findings of this report, the proposed technological solutions should take into account: For water For sanitation Availability, quality and seasonality of the water Type of supra-structure accordingly to users’ source preferences and financing availability Availability of funds, co-financing arrangements Type of infra-infrastructure, accordingly to Availability of materials for construction and the geographic conditions (soil, water table, O&M water sources, etc.) Locally available and traditionally used materials Availability of materials for construction and O&M Number of people to be served (scale), per capita consumption levels and different water Locally available and traditionally used uses materials Geographic conditions (type of soil, water table) Number of people using each unit (scale) Gradient of the ground (wells, gravity-fed Availability of funds, co-financing systems and pumping systems) arrangements Beneficiaries’ capacity to pay, accordingly to the Cosmovision around water and soil type of solution contamination Local traditional experiences, preferences, Local traditional experiences culture and cosmovsion Potential for resource reuse Options for water treatment and water storage Operation and maintenance requirements Operation and maintenance requirements and and arrangements arrangements Though there is a general perception that Indigenous technological options can be drawn up for presentation peoples do not want piped water because it represents and validation from the target community. In all an ‘imprisonment’ of the sacred resource, none of the cases, project teams are responsible for carrying out field visits carried out as part of this work substantiated the sustainability analysis of the proposed solutions this stereotype. Instead, Indigenous peoples seemed to ensure they meet sector quality standards and eager to have access to clean water brought directly can be properly operated and maintained by the to their home. Nevertheless, there may be conflicts responsible entity. Securing approval for a specific associated with harvesting and directing water out of technological option based on full information its natural place. Based on the community demand and in a free, prior and informed consultation diagnosis, the traditional ecological knowledge, environment will help ensure ownership over the and cultural norms around WSS, a menu of specific chosen solutions in the long run. 66 Ownership Key questions: Are there particular perceptions of water that may influence technological designs and overall WSS system adoption and use? How are they being incorporated in project implementation? What traditional knowledge on water treatment should be taken into account in technology selection to promote adoption? Have Indigenous beneficiaries (including women) been consulted regarding their functional preferences for WSS solutions? Are there locally available materials or parts that could be used in technology design? How can these insights be combined with conventional engineering knowledge to identify technological options that respect the local cultural norms and meet standards for improved WSS service provision? 1 2 3. Systems models and specific recommendations on how 5 Construction 3 to adapt them to promote acceptance among 4 Indigenous beneficiaries are presented below: Who contributes labor and/or financing for the construction of the model influences the Hiring a firm or contractor to carry out the community’s sense of ownership over the WSS construction. In this model, the implementing system. A number of options, including some agency handles the bidding process and hires non-traditional possibilities, can be considered the firm. The key for successful implementation for beneficiaries’ contributions to construction and of this model is to ensure that the bidding maintenance of the system in order to cultivate a documents are disclosed to the local people sense of ownership. Procuring locally available and and that they are kept informed throughout familiar construction materials and formally handing the selection and contracting processes. It is over the system to the community also encourage also important to require that the firm have ownership. one or more social specialists on its team with knowledge of the local Indigenous context a. Different Construction Models and language and knowledge of consultation processes. If this option is not feasible, the Choose a construction model that responds implementing agency should request that to Indigenous beneficiaries’ expectations the contractor coordinate its work with the regarding their degree of involvement in the implementation agency’s social specialists. process. While different construction models can In addition, Indigenous peoples sometimes work effectively in Indigenous territories, the degree request training on the construction process of involvement of beneficiaries in the construction and/or to have local people directly involved process should always be discussed and the in the construction. It is also a good practice reasons for their involvement should always be to recommend that contractors (through clearly articulated. The most common construction bidding documents) observe the principle of 67 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean “proximity” and hire locals capable of carrying in the construction of their own system and out the project tasks. These practices build their subsequent ownership over the system. In local capacity and increase ownership particular, field work shows that CDD models are over the WSS system and services by more conducive to ownership. World Bank work directly involving beneficiaries in the on carrying out CDD interventions in Indigenous physical materialization of their system. communities aligns with the findings of this Toolkit and recommends the participation of Indigenous Community-driven development (CDD), authorities, incorporation of local cultural norms and wherein the beneficiaries build their own the local language and strong support and training system with support from the central and/ to communities.56 Regardless of the model or regional government or an NGO.54 More chosen, the integration of the technical and specifically, the beneficiaries are responsible social components throughout the construction for managing funds, procuring goods, process (and the entire project cycle in general) managing contractors and overall works is essential to ensure the success of a WSS implementation with oversight from the project project in an Indigenous community. team. This model has been very successful in Nicaragua where it is called Proyecto Guiado por la Comunidad (community-driven project) and where it has been shown to reduce Key questions: implementation times significantly and build strong community ownership over systems, with oversight from FISE and the municipality.55 Do the beneficiaries have the capacity Before a community is ‘approved’ for this and interest to participate in system implementation model (communities are also construction? What is the best in charge of managing funds), the national rural mechanism to have them participate WSS rector, FISE, evaluates their capacity while respecting local cultural norms? through a standard questionnaire assessing Are provisions in place to ensure the existing levels of community organization articulation of social and technical work and participation, technical, accounting and around a tailored methodology? financial contribution capacity. Although this method fosters ownership over the WSS system from the beginning, the capacity of the community to actually manage the works should be carefully analyzed and, if needed, the project team should enhance b. Beneficiaries Contribution the communities’ capacity before and/ or in parallel to the construction. Close Beneficiaries who contribute to the construction supervision by the project team is also of the WSS systems in some way (cash, required. labor, meter, materials) tend to have higher ownership over the system after it is built. The field visits indicated a strong correlation This was widely confirmed during the field visits. between Indigenous beneficiaries being involved Developing a contribution plan in consultation with 54 For more information on the implementation of CDD projects in the World Bank, see Wong, S. “What have been the impacts of World Bank Community-Driven Development Programs? CDD impact evaluation review and operational and research implications.” The World Bank: Washington, DC. 2012. 55 In some countries, legislation may create different constraints. 56 Seminar on How to Involve Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities in CDD Projects – Thursday, December 17, 2015. World Bank. 68 Ownership the beneficiaries is key in promoting ownership and members’ systems. In the Chaco, community future sustainability of the WSS systems. Various participation was sometimes discarded as a contribution and payment mechanisms were “colonial practice” (practice imposed by the past encountered during fieldwork. 5 Hispanic colonizers to mandate certain ‘ways of life’) that was not part of the norm for community However, the level of beneficiary participation members. In the Paraguayan Chaco, Indigenous in putting together a project depends to a great peoples tended to be skilled at infrastructure extent on the natural environment and the history building, but they would not work on their own of participation of each indigenous group. For WSS systems without payment, and therefore example, indigenous peoples who depend on their labor could not be considered an in-kind water harvesting through individual solutions contribution. Beyond being engaged in system (aljibes in the Paraguayan Chaco) are less likely construction, however, there are several to feel compelled to participate and contribute to ways that beneficiaries can contribute to the a communal pool of funds, as their service does development of a WSS solution in their own not inherently depend on the construction of a community, such as supporting water source community-level system or of other community protection, system O&M, and administration. Box A financing policy to foster sustainability 07 In Nicaragua, community participation is institutionalized in all of FISE’s projects through the rural WSS agency’s manual for project implementation, which includes an annex with particular specificities for the Caribbean Coast of the country, where the majority of Nicaragua’s Indigenous population resides. Participatory schemes are included in the manuals’ bidding documents for design consultants and contractors. Based on the manuals, Indigenous and non-indigenous beneficiaries pay a contribution to the total cost of the project in installments, which are collected by the water committee. The amount of this contribution was formerly 10 percent, however, the revised manual currently allows for flexibility based on the type of intervention in order to incentivize beneficiaries to take care of their WSS systems. • If a community’s water system is relatively new but has fallen into disrepair due to lack of maintenance, the community and the municipality are expected to provide a higher financial contribution for the system replacement or reconstruction. • If, on the other hand, the intervention consists of building a new system for a community that has not had a new system for 10 years, then the national government will pay for the majority of the system’s construction. As such, the government’s contribution is linked to the community’s level of care for its own system, incentivizing maintenance over the long-term. In parallel, the policy also points the government’s funds allocation towards unserved communities rather than communities that already have a system and request expansion, rehabilitation or a more sophisticated level of service (moving from shared wells to piped connections, for example). In the case of piped systems, each family is also responsible for buying their meter before the system is constructed. This requirement ensures that users are aware of the cost of water and that, despite the ready availability that a household tap brings, they will be conscious of their water use, and pay accordingly. In all cases, contributions should be discussed thoroughly at project onset and agreed in community consultations. 69 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Key questions: In a given context, what is the most appropriate way for the beneficiaries to participate in the development of the WSS system (in-kind, in cash, or other)? c. Specific provisions for procurement the fierce weather, and informants reported that systems would break down very quickly. The use Adjust procurement processes to local realities. of local materials can also help bring down costs Indigenous communities are usually located in and make an easy supply chain for repairs. In the remote areas, where there is no easy access to southeastern Amazon, Rainforest Flow promoted materials and construction equipment. This distance a project where the floor of the sanitation facility can influence the cost of the works and also the in a school was entirely paved with stones the availability of bidders and providers. In Nicaragua children had collected from the rainforest. Other for example, project costs have proven to be examples witnessed through the fieldwork included between two and four times greater in the Caribbean promoting the development of localized sanitation Coast due to lack of access and limited local markets to promote availability of sanitation solution capacity. Though the market is slowly developing components. There are some materials, particularly in decentralized urban centers, construction and for sanitation, that Indigenous peoples may engineering firms tend to concentrate in the nation’s refuse to be in contact with. As part of the World capital, Managua, which is also where most Bank-supported Handwashing Initiative in Peru, common construction materials and tools have to workshops were organized with women to teach be transported from. Keep these specificities in them how to make their own handwashing soap mind and provide flexibility in terms of budgeting using material they could easily procure (recycled and procurement methods to allow for more bottles, water and a piece of laundry soap), creating efficient works contracting and implementation. a locally accessible supply chain for handwashing For example, project teams may want to carry out materials. Provide local supply alternatives – or an assessment of the market before bidding out create a supply chain when necessary – for hygiene works or institutional strengthening interventions, in products like soap and sanitary pads to ensure order to refine the terms of reference and bidding the maintenance of hygiene behaviors developed documents requirements accordingly. through project trainings. When possible, use local construction materials Where access is difficult, collaborating with other that Indigenous peoples are familiar with (sand, sectors reduces costs and increases benefits. pebbles, wood) and establish local supply Combining interventions so that they include chains for important system components and various services at once enable project teams to hygiene products. This is particularly important coordinate material transport, integrated capacity- when dealing with harsh environments like El building to beneficiaries, and has been shown to Gran Chaco and La Guajira, where materials may maximize benefits. Roads construction combined be scarce and travel distances to replace them with water use and management trainings (to avoid very large. For example, the materials used by greywater discharge on the new roads, for example) government projects in El Chaco could not resist increased project impacts in Peru.57 Improving road 57 Remy Simatovic, M. I., Impacto del Programa Caminos Rurales sobre la Democracia y la Ciudadanía en el Ámbito Rural. World Bank. 2007. 70 Ownership access also yields improvements in basic services like access to WSS.58 The Paraguayan Chaco, Key questions: where the most common household water solutions are rainwater collection harvesting systems, would be a good place to combine water and housing What are the conditions of the interventions. Roof rehabilitation could improve local market? Are there providers/ yield for rainwater collection, and the materials contractors available near the could be brought in all at once. beneficiary areas or interested in getting contracts in remote, disperse Ensure that all contractors working with the areas? Indigenous community have the capacity to do Are the interventions budgeted so. Any contractor– whether a firm hired to design the according to the local conditions and technological solutions and conduct consultations local market? or the construction firm – should complement their Are relevant construction materials, team with trained social specialists with Indigenous system components, equipment and peoples-specific experience. Ideally, they should hygiene products readily available in speak the local language and have knowledge of the area? If not, can the project support the local cultural context and of WSS issues, to the development of a local supply ensure those remain a priority. Contractors must chain? Are there alternatives locally also respect the rules defined in the engagement available? strategy. Include these requirements in the bidding documents and to make this agreement official in Can specific clauses be included in the design and/or construction firm’s the firm’s contract. To the possible extent, prioritize contract to require capacity in working firms with experience dealing with the type of with Indigenous peoples and under the conditions encountered in the target Indigenous conditions found in Indigenous areas? area to encourage flexible implementation. Those include procurement of goods in remote areas, difficult transportation conditions, lack of access to specialized equipment, and extreme climatic conditions. 58 GRADE. Elaboración de la Evaluación de Impacto Económico, Social, Institucional y Ambiental del Programa de Caminos Rurales. 2007. 71 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean d. System Handover utility, owns the infrastructure, it is recommended to organize such a ceremony to foster proper use Once the system has been built, organize a and appropriation of the services on the part of the handover ceremony to officially transfer the community. responsibility for system O&M to the relevant group through a ceremony. Often, in dispersed rural communities in LAC, the community will become the owner of the infrastructure and will be Key questions: responsible for its upkeep. In Indigenous territories, it is particularly important that a ceremony be organized around the transfer of assets to ensure Is the system properly finalized and ready that the users have a sense of true ownership over to be transferred to the community? the system and the services it brings. Additionally, the What are the cultural norms and traditions community may have particular beliefs around use to take into account in organizing a and refuse to adopt the system if it is not transferred handover event? properly, even if only symbolically. Even in areas where a national or local WSS agency, or WSS 72 Ownership Key recommendations for OWNERSHIP Building on Existing Institutional Structures for Service Provision and Management 1 Carry out an assessment of the local social fabric and how it may affect service provision and management arrangements. 2 Conduct consultations on Indigenous beneficiaries’ preferences on the most appropriate WSS service provision and management model. 3 Establish management arrangements over the WSS service early in the project implementation process, ensuring they have clear communication mechanisms with the WSS services users and take traditional authorities into account. 4 Provide ample training on administration, tariff setting, and technical O&M throughout the project to the entity responsible for service provision and management. Emphasize the need to have clear statutes, regulations, definition of roles, and transparency mechanisms. Assess the need for these trainings as part of an early-stage local diagnosis. Culturally Appropriate Solution Design 1 Conduct consultations on Indigenous beneficiaries’ preferences for system scale and the different technologies or solutions (including the corresponding costs associated with each solution). 2 Consult with Indigenous beneficiaries on their local traditional ecological knowledge and cultural norms regarding water source, climate change and resilience and traditional practices for water use and treatment. Incorporate these technological insights in the elaboration of a tailored menu of options. 3 Account for traditional understandings of sanitation, waste disposal and hygiene behaviors in the selection of sanitation solutions to promote adequate use and adoption. 4 Elaborate a specific menu of technological options based on community-expressed preferences around functionality and use. Present this menu to the beneficiaries for selection through an iterative consultation process, ensuring that traditional protocols are respected. 5 Study the supply chain for both system repair materials and products necessary for the maintenance of hygiene behaviors (soap, sanitary pads). Where the supply chain is not established, work with the beneficiaries to develop supply mechanisms. Continue 73 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Systems Construction 1 Select the most appropriate construction model to balance sector policy, Indigenous- specific mechanisms, local preferences identified through consultations, and technical requirements. 2 Integrate the social work with the technical aspects of construction to ensure results from the consultations are respected throughout the project cycle. 3 System construction is a key moment to materialize community commitment. Establish a uniform strategy for community members’ contribution to system construction, be it in cash, labor, meter, materials, or other. 4 Assess the accessibility of the community (distance, terrain), the proximity of construction firms, materials and equipment availability, and cultural particularities of Indigenous territories to inform the planning of procurement processes. 5 Contractually require any contractor working with an Indigenous community to have specialized social specialists on their team or to coordinate closely with the social specialists from the project team. 6 Agree on and organize a system handover ceremony to officially transfer the system to the community after construction. 74 Sustainability 1 2 5. Sustainability 5 3 4 For WSS services to be sustainable, it is essential that adequate technology for each context be implemented, and that clear and legitimate mechanisms for O&M and responsibilities be in place in a way that is respectful of Indigenous rules and norms. 75 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Sustainability of WSS services means that and be adapted for cultural beliefs and practices to when components of the WSS system begin to fail achieve learning and behavior change. and service quality to suffer, there is a structure in place and a commitment to repair and restore a. Hygiene them for continued improved service provision The sustainability of WSS services relies on adequate Health benefits associated with improved sanitation resources (availability of water, system components, systems rely on good hygiene practices.59 operation inputs like chemicals and financial Hygiene promotion (personal,60 in household, and resources), appropriate technology, established surroundings) needs to accompany any WSS mechanisms for effective O&M, a clear delegation intervention, but in Indigenous communities proper of responsibilities and, perhaps most significantly, “audience research” will inform hygiene training and a high-level of user ownership of the system. In methods to reflect the community’s current practices Indigenous communities, maintaining consistent and beliefs surrounding hygiene. consultation and engagement throughout the project cycle plays a key role in achieving sustainable WSS In many countries, Indigenous peoples are still less service delivery. likely to employ proper hygiene practices. According to the Rural Water and Sanitation Information System This section provides guidance on developing (SIASAR), analysis of data collected in Panama and training to sensitize community members on hygiene Nicaragua showed that Indigenous peoples are and sanitation and yield lasting behavior change, less likely to wash their hands than non-indigenous discusses how to establish culturally acceptable individuals. In Panama, when asked how often they financial arrangements, and suggests approaches washed their hands after using the bathroom, 82 to provide accessible and responsive technical percent of Indigenous peoples reported “sometimes” assistance, including monitoring and evaluation and 8 percent “never,” while none responded systems, and citizen feedback and grievance and “always.”61 In Nicaragua, while the general redress mechanisms for long-term, effective service Indigenous population has similar handwashing provision. practices to non-indigenous peoples (with Indigenous peoples only slightly more likely to never wash their 1. Sustainable 1 2 hands, 16 percent vs. 6 percent), 68 percent of the Behavior 5 3 more isolated Indigenous population of Alto Wangki Change 4 y Bocay reports never washing their hands. Box 7 outlines two examples of hygiene promotion For the benefits of a WSS intervention to be initiatives that integrated creativity and cultural sustainable, beneficiaries will require sensitization understanding to create effective hygiene promotion to learn and practice appropriate hygiene strategies. In addition, the FOAM62 and SaniFOAM63 and sanitation behaviors. All trainings and behavior change frameworks, which were developed communication work with Indigenous communities specifically for promoting hygiene, are useful tools for need to build on existing, specialized knowledge designing effective hygiene programs. 59 With the arrival of the SDGs, aspects related to hygiene have gained as much relevance as the provision of the sanitation hardware. 60 Key aspects of personal hygiene include handwashing with soap, consumption of treated water and menstrual hygiene management. 61 Sample: 45 communities from the Comarcas (Indigenous territories) registered to date in the SIASAR. 62 Coombes, Yolande and Devine, Jacqueline. (2010). Introducing FOAM: A Framework to Analyze Handwashing Behaviors to Design Effective Handwashing Programs. Water and Sanitation Global Scaling Up Project, Working Paper. Available on: http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/ publications/WSP_IntroducingFOAM_HWWS.pdf 63 Devine, Jacqueline. (2009). Introducing SaniFOAM: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs. Water and Sanitation Global Scaling Up Project, Working Paper. Available on: http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/GSP_sanifoam.pdf. 76 Sustainability Box Examples of Hygiene Promotion Initiatives 08 Hygiene plays a key role in realizing the full benefits of access to improved WSS services. Evidence from fieldwork showed that Indigenous women were more likely than other community-members to be aware of the health consequences of poor hygiene. Women play a key role in promoting hygiene in their communities and are key partners in shifting behaviors long-term. The NGO Rainforest Flow worked with Matsigenka, Huachipaeri and Quecha families in the southeastern Amazon region of Peru, focusing on experiential training that would help integrate hygiene-related knowledge into everyday life. For example, using a mobile laboratory, they carried out water analyses with mothers and showed them bacteria grown on the petri dish from water that looked clean to the eye. A microscope available at the health post provided a similarly eye-opening experience by revealing bacteria floating in clean-looking water. By working so closely with families, the NGO helped mothers better understand how important good sanitation practices are to their health. Figure 10 Young girls clean the communal sink; Project Tayakome Photo courtesy of Rainforest Flow. The sink was built at the school along with the bathrooms in Tayakome. The kids conduct bi-weekly maintenance of the sink as part of their hygiene education with the village health promoter. As part of the project, children are taught about environmental stewardship and good hygiene practices at school and are given responsibility for daily maintenance of the school latrines and surrounding areas. With this practical and technical knowledge, young WSS committee members were able to teach visiting government engineers and health personnel about the eco-friendly way their systems worked. In order to maintain accountability despite the high rotation of teachers, health promoters and WSS committee members are appointed in each community and responsible for house to house visits as well as training each new teacher, thus maintaining the knowledge within the community. The WSS committees established and trained through this project take full care of tariff collection and O&M. The committees contact Rainforest Flow to procure certain system parts when replacement is needed. 77 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean The World Bank-supported Handwashing Initiative in Peru is another successful example of community mobilization around hygiene promotion. Radio shows translated to the local Quechua dialects motivated village-wide games in the central plaza in which children would learn to ‘kill’ bacteria with soap through fun and interactive role-playing. In Peru, the education and health sectors generally have the necessary structure to reach dispersed populations, in particular through municipal units. By coordinating closely with Municipalities, the project ensured that measures for behavior change were maintained over time. After a pilot in 5,000 schools, the handwashing methodology designed as part of the project was integrated into the national environmental education guidelines for teachers in 2011. Design handwashing facilities with locally This conclusion applies to Indigenous communities available, low-tech materials for effective in LAC where social cohesion tends to be stronger. hygiene promotion and sustainable behavior Assemblies and community-level training can change. In La Guajira, an installation called “tip- play on these cultural norms to foster behavior tap” was used to promote handwashing close to change. the sanitation facilities. This device consists of a plastic detergent-type bottle with a handle that is hung onto a tree branch and filled with water. When Figure 11 Woman demonstrating the use of a Tip-tap in La Guajira tipped over by hand or foot-lever tied to a string, water flows through the bottle mouth enabling handwashing without contamination. See Specific Provisions for Procurement section in this chapter for more information. Though field work did not reveal particular pre- existing practices around handwashing specifically (before interventions), cultural norms around cleanliness and care for children provided important entry points for the promotion of improved hygiene behaviors, as shown in the examples of Box 7. In Bolivia, protection of the local environment and associated health impacts encouraged community members to gather their trash and make sure waste products from their dry toilets was properly handled through the use of personal safety equipment (full-body suite, goggles, hair net and mask). WSP highlights that in LAC in general, the sense of a “collective identity” is particularly strong and provides an entry point for behavior change through cultural norms, or ‘what everyone else is doing.’64 64 WSP. Integrating Behavior Change and Hygiene in Public Policy: Four Key Dimensions. Lessons from the Conference “Beyond Infrastructure: Integrating Hygiene in Water and Sanitation Policy in Latin America and the Caribbean.” November 2013. 78 Sustainability Although the hygiene solution should always be tailored to the community’s needs, good practices65 include: Constructing a handwashing facility close to the sanitation solution in order to facilitate handwashing after using the latrine or toilet and before handling foods. Ensuring soap is readily available or easy to procure to promote long-term use (in Soap some communities the water committee would purchase it for the whole community and sell it or distribute it). Including hygiene promotion (personal, in household and surroundings) in the training carried out for any WSS project. Positioning a trashcan next to the latrine/toilet to promote proper disposal of paper and other trash. Positioning laminated graphic instructions, which are adapted to the local context, on handwashing, proper use of latrine/toilets, water filtering, and trash disposal, next to the element, i.e., tip-tap, toilets, water filter, trashcan, and kitchen. Though no active resistance to hygiene behaviors the social team. The latter type of intervention was encountered in the field work, practitioners resulted in communities that were littered with interviewed highlighted that thorough training trash, reported only using constructed sinks for made a real difference in Indigenous beneficiaries’ food preparation (no handwashing) and had acceptance of new behaviors. Two type of disconnected the urine diverter of their toilets to community interventions in Bolivia were very infiltrate the liquid into the soil along with greywater, illustrative of this point. On the one hand, right next to the unprotected well they drew water communities received education campaigns from. None of these dangerous practices were around handwashing, trash collection and safe found in those communities that had received waste handling practices (for dry toilets) in their own training in their own language, and beneficiaries language, while in the other type of intervention, reported that trash collection was important in communities were given little accompaniment from respecting their ancestors’ heritage and land. 65 The Team identified these good practices during the field visits and confirmed their importance with field practitioners. 79 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Key questions: Have consultations revealed local and/or traditional hygiene practices or preferences? How are they being incorporated into the project hygiene training? Will appropriate training be carried out to accompany the infrastructure component to promote hygiene practices? Is there a supply chain in place for soap provision, especially if the project targets an isolated area? If not, how can the beneficiaries be involved in establishing one? Have culturally adapted hygiene promotion materials been developed and rolled out to hang near handwashing facilities after their construction? b. Sanitation behaviors and products reuse were successful in addressing such concerns in their projects through community trainings and by One of the important evidence from the fieldwork building on beneficiaries’ perception and existing is that, contrary to stereotypes, Indigenous knowledge. peoples do use and maintain sanitation solutions, be they latrines or toilets, when those For example, in the Bolivia Altiplano, urine-diverting solutions are developed in close collaboration dry toilets (UDDT) were particularly appropriate with future users and according to their culture, given the strong historical culture of reusing both views and needs. A study of sanitation behaviors urine (in medicinal treatments and agriculture) and in four Indigenous cultures in Bolivia66 showed that humus from treated feces (in agriculture). Indigenous poor latrine use was linked to lack of technical and beneficiaries recounted stories of the cleansing construction support to the Indigenous communities nature of processed urine (after storage in a warm interviewed, leading to fear of using the ‘black hole,’ place) and how their grandparents sometimes used where evil creatures could breed and children fall. it as shampoo. As such, Indigenous beneficiaries Indigenous beneficiaries interviewed also reported perceived the UDDT as part of a larger cycle of safe that latrines were not built according to the traditions and productive reuse and reported using it regularly they use for their homes, which in turn gives them and teaching their children to do so. Box 6 presents the reputation of being too dark, too closed, and additional evidence of this successful reuse story. unsafe. Others reported not understanding what Examples of de facto reuse were also observed in the latrines were for, or complained that they had Panama, La Guajira (Colombia) and Peru, mostly bad experiences using the latrines (flooding in for irrigation purposes and linked to lack of disposal the rainy season and the presence of large flies solutions for greywater. However, the success of due to the heat of the sun). However, field work reuse remains subject to demand for the products showed that the NGOs Adra and Water for People and sound handling and quality control. 66 WSP. Sanitation and Culture. 1999. 80 Sustainability Building on cosmovision can reveal important a regular supply of soap are more likely to have existing knowledge regarding sanitation. The clean bathrooms and well-groomed children, but Guarani and Moxeña living in the low plains of also more likely to use those bathrooms.68 Jointly Bolivia, recognize that their pigs get sick from eating designed hygiene and sanitation behavior feces and therefore keep a clear division in between change campaigns and trainings are more likely living spaces, crops, animals, and excreta. Their to impact communities, especially when cultural cosmovision is based on “harmonious alternation” norms (social cohesion) are taken into account. between nature and man: both contain good and Research also shows that painting these behaviors evil, and breaking the individual or social balance of as valuable within the community – associating good and evil could bring disease. As water plays them to status, makes women more likely to fulfill a strong role in their rituals, defecating in rivers their role as behavior change agents and promote is forbidden as it dirties them. They associate the change in their families.69 Reminders such as printed contact with excreta with diseases like diarrhea. material placed in strategic areas of the community Interventions in these communities must build – near bathrooms, in communal spaces, on the way on this knowledge to justify the use of improved to the forest or other places where people are likely sanitation solutions. to defecate in the open – can help build this social pressure. Such materials should be in the local In contrast, some indigenous communities’ cultural language and should feature drawings where literacy beliefs may lead to an unwillingness to practice is low or the language is not written. specific sanitation disposal practices and to reuse. Employees of SENASBA (involved in long-term WSS sustainability) reported that the strong Bolivian belief in the Pacha Mama sometimes led Indigenous Key questions: communities to reject latrines altogether, due to the culturally offensive nature of burying untreated feces in the earth. As such, latrines had to be built with What sanitation preferences and elevated tanks in order to avoid soiling the earth, behaviors have been expressed by the otherwise beneficiaries refused to use them. In Peru, Indigenous beneficiary group, if any, when latrines were placed too close to households, and how have they been incorporated they were not used due to the cultural belief that one into the solutions design? should not go to the bathroom close to where one eats. However, examples of successful cases that Where are the sites and locations promoted improved sanitation use and behaviors for proper disposal of excreta that while still respecting indigenous cosmovision and does not conflict with the community cosmovision? cultural beliefs were found. In Peru for example, behavior change promotion through educating Has a joint hygiene and sanitation children in school has achieved important impacts behavior change campaign been as children go home and share the knowledge with considered? their elders.67 The NGO Rainforest Flow successfully used this model to encourage latrine use take-up Is there potential for reuse from a and handwashing. cultural standpoint and demand for its products? Research from Peru shows that behaviors tend to be influenced in clusters, meaning households with 67 WSP. Integrating Behavior Change and Hygiene in Public Policy: Four Key Dimensions. Lessons from the Conference “Beyond Infrastructure: Integrating Hygiene in Water and Sanitation Policy in Latin America and the Caribbean.” November 2013. 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 81 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean 1 2 2. Financial 5 Both perspectives were encountered during 3 Arrangements 4 field visits, but the majority of Indigenous peoples (be it leaders, Indigenous organizations Are tariffs for water always rejected by Indigenous or beneficiaries) interviewed agreed that communities? Project fieldwork found this was water services should be paid for according not the case. Financial arrangements are often to consumption. For these people, paying for acceptable and preferred by Indigenous peoples, water services was a sign of the precious nature especially when project teams can explain why of the resource. In Panama, IDAAN representatives paying for the water service is necessary for system affirmed that in Colón’s peri-urban area Indigenous sustainability. This section outlines the importance peoples were actually the only users who paid for of fair and transparent tariff setting and alternative their water service on time. In Bolivia, all water ways for communities to contribute to operation and committees visited charged tariffs (though some of maintenance. them charged fixed amounts every month). a. Paying for the Water Service Charging monetary tariffs, however, is not the only way Indigenous peoples can cover service provision Payment for water is generally a controversial topic, costs. 5 There are other culturally acceptable as water is considered to be both a basic human mechanisms, such as organizing a fair (minga) right70 and a scarce economic resource. This is to raise funds when the system needs repair, or particularly true in the case of Indigenous peoples, exchanging natural resources or goods, such as for whom water is often considered a sacred wood or a chicken, for the monthly payment. resource gifted from the environment that, according to certain cosmovisions, should not be changed These contributions have to remain meaningful or tempered with. However, there is an important and contribute to the functioning of the system. distinction to be made between water as a natural The most effective non-monetary contribution, resource (for which costs are rarely transferred to however, remains time and labor for the operation the user71) and the water service provided through and maintenance of the system. The community an operating system. The water service involves can establish a schedule wherein different tasks costs such as transport of the water to one’s home, are assigned to participating community members or to a local collection point, and treatment. These in exchange for water service. These may be additional aspects need to be covered through relatively simple but essential tasks, such as financial means, otherwise the system may run at a distributing water bills or doing house visits to share deficit and require sustained external support. The specific information to users, or more technical most common way of providing financial means to tasks that require specific training (chlorinating the support the O&M of water services is through the water, opening and closing valves, keeping the collection of tariffs by the service provider (which books of the water committee). If the community could range from a community water committee decides to use this approach, training needs can be to a water utility). Research shows that payment identified through consultations early on to ensure for water services helps users value access to all community members are equipped to carry out clean water and promotes service sustainability relevant tasks. In the community of Boquerón Alto, in by covering operating costs and providing a fund Bolivia, all community members attended technical for repairs and other maintenance tasks, such as trainings so that water committee members could source protection, for example. rotate every year to anyone in the community. 70 The United Nations General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation on 28 July 2010, through Resolution 64/292, acknowledging that access to clean drinking water and sanitation is essential to all other human rights. 71 In Latin America, one of the very few exceptions is Chile, were the payments for water resources is well-established throughout the Country. Some other countries (such as Brazil) may also present arrangements for water resources payment but only applied in a few areas. 82 Sustainability the users and are responsible for tariff collection and Key questions: administration. In many cases, the tariff is set during an assembly where all beneficiaries are present to ensure scrutiny and accountability of the water Does the consultation process include a committee’s operations. In Bolivia, certain Indigenous session on payment for water services communities would post a sheet with the tariff to ensure Indigenous beneficiaries calculation on the wall of the community center for all understand the importance of a to see. The different components of the water service meaningful contribution to sustain their (transport, treatment, disposal) should be delineated water service provision? clearly for transparency. Where an alternative mode of payment is chosen, such as contribution through labor and time for O&M, an agreement must be outlined and validated in an assembly setting. Monitoring b. Tariff Setting and Collection who and who does not pay every pay period builds accountability with a monetary tariff, but in the case of The tariff should be set in a transparent manner, an alternative payment scheme it also ensures equity with a clear breakdown of costs available for between community members. In several cases all to check, so that users understand where where beneficiaries are not paying water tariffs on their payments are going. Water committees are time, the procedure of cutting off the household supply responsible for ensuring proper equitable service to as a punishment has been developed and put in place all tariff-paying members. Water committees in rural by Indigenous beneficiaries themselves (through the areas usually establish the tariff in consensus with water committee). Figure 12 Tariff calculation and water bill, Phalta Orko, Bolivia 83 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean When a utility is providing service to an sustainability. In cases where the beneficiaries were Indigenous community, the regulator72 must required to extensively maintain their sanitation have oversight to promote equity between solution, as was the case with UDDTs in Bolivia, all beneficiaries. Although utilities usually have communities that had received proper training set tariffs for entire service areas, in some cases were dedicated and diligent about the task. For utilities may consider subsidizing tariffs to promote communities connected to a sanitary sewer to equity among beneficiaries (based on income or transport wastewater to a treatment plant, a portion property value, for example). Indigenous peoples of the tariff should be clearly allocated for this often qualify for these reduced water services purpose. tariffs; however, project teams must ensure that the service provider communicates the importance of conservation despite the reduced price. Key questions: Regardless of the tariff model, regular contribution should be established early in the project cycle given its essential role in promoting Do consultations include a session on the sustainability of services. In some cases, Indigenous beneficiaries’ WSS services extensive social work may be necessary to payment preferences? build a culture of payment among water users. Is there a transparent tariff setting In general, well-organized Indigenous communities methodology in place? are accustomed to contributing resources for the Where an alternative mode of payment community’s common good, and implementing is chosen, how will the WSS committee/ a contribution mechanism for water services is service provider secure official straightforward. This was exemplified in field work adherence and monitor the proposed through the practice of fairs to raise funds for scheme? repairs. In cases where the community is not well- organized, however, the agency delivering the WSS What are appropriate consequences in system, the local government or local partners need the community for dealing with users to work closely with the community and its leaders who do not pay? to define and implement a sustainable contribution mechanism. In those areas that are more densely populated, such as peri-urban areas, field work showed slightly better success in tariff collection on the part of established water utilities (like IDAAN in Panama) compared to water committees (as was 3. Tailored 1 2 the case in certain areas close to La Paz in Bolivia). Technical 5 3 Establishing such a contribution plays a key role in Assistance 4 building community members’ ownership over their system and generating resources for regular system As the WSS system goes into operation, accessible O&M, therefore ensuring service sustainability. and responsive structures for trouble-shooting and gathering feedback on the services provided ensure In most cases, the sanitation solutions implemented that the community has a support structure to were latrines and therefore did not require regular respond to unanticipated and evolving needs, and O&M or a ‘sanitation service’ per se to ensure generate learning for future project development. 72 National agency responsible for regulating WSS services provision, in particular tariff setting. 84 Sustainability a. Mechanisms for Technical Support to term technical assistance providers to the water Indigenous Areas committees, and they carry out trainings and regular follow-up after works implementation. These units The standard good practices for any rural WSS are also trained by the NGOs to work with the isolated intervention outline that regular, good quality Indigenous communities within their attendance technical assistance is essential to ensuring areas. During field visits, water committees from the sustainability of WSS services at the local Cochabamba in Bolivia reported attending trainings level, especially when local water committees and capacity-building sessions twice a year. are managing the system. Training is provided by the project team throughout implementation, but Establishing a more decentralized unit (at technical assistance provides continued support the municipal or provincial level, or through from the initiation of the project cycle and into post- decentralized units of a water utility) whose role construction. This technical assistance entails a is focused on providing technical assistance continuation of trainings as new water committee streamlines problem solving and helps define members are elected or assigned and according to clear training strategies geared towards the committee’s demands, regular visits to check on Indigenous areas. This Unit should be located the quality of administration and system O&M by the relatively close to the target communities and count committee, and support in carrying out these functions on professionals that have knowledge and capacity through technical inputs, advice and facilitation. to work with Indigenous peoples. This support could alternatively be provided through a water utility, NGO In the case of WSS interventions in Indigenous or through the Indigenous organizations themselves, communities, establish a mechanism for with proper training and personnel. For example, the technical assistance early in the project cycle, NGO Rainforest Flow in Peru reported that, several building trust by taking into account the traditional years after they had worked with Manu communities structure and practices of the target Indigenous in the Amazon, the water committee would know community.73 In Bolivia, the NGOs Water for People when to call them to procure specific replacement and Adra made the creation and staffing of a Basic parts or when they could not solve a technical issue, Services Unit (Dirección de Servicios Básicos) within though in most cases the committee could perform each municipality of project intervention a condition minor distribution line repairs and resolve conflicts on for the transfer of funds. These units serve as long- their own. Technical assistance providers who work in Indigenous communities must: Understand the region and its context. Be located relatively close to the target communities in order to allow for frequent contact with beneficiaries. Understand the local social fabric and be able to identify and recognize the appropriate organizational structures. Respect the indigenous community’s cosmovision and promote its inclusion in technical solutions. Speak the local language and/or learn pertinent communication mechanisms. Plan according to a timeline that takes into account the local customs and does not jeopardize achieving the technical assistance goals. Understand the local way of life and promote its respect in design processes. Take cultural uses of the land (sacred spaces, for example) into account in solutions identification. 73 For more information on long-term supportive relations see Jiménez, A., Cortobius, M., Kjellén, M. 2014a. 85 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Box Local Technical Assistance Providers – the Case of Peru 09 The Amazon region in Peru provides a good example of culturally appropriate technical assistance. Although the National Rural Sanitation Program (PNSR) is a government program that provides technical assistance in the implementation of WSS works in rural areas throughout Peru, the PNSR’s personnel in the Peruvian Amazon – a region with a high concentration of Indigenous communities – presented the characteristics listed above and truly connected with the beneficiaries they worked with. “I have worked with them for a long time, now I coordinate with indigenous and rural communities within the area of responsibility of our PNSR office. I can speak the awajun language and I know the Apu [highest traditional authority] of each community with whom the implementing boards, the JASS, work closely. I visit them regularly, I know the beneficiary families, I hear about the projects carried out by other organizations, and I am informed of the regional meetings that bring together over 180 communities, as well as the results of their discussions. I feel truly blessed.” Technical Coordinator of the Bagua Grande office, PNSR. The contribution above shows a technical assistance provider who fulfills many of the requirements to work successfully in Indigenous areas: he has earned the local Indigenous communities’ trust by working with them for a long time, speaks the local language, coordinates directly with the traditional authorities (Apu) who work closely with the water boards, and is regularly informed of local traditional meetings, their development, and their issues of interest. Key questions: Is there an established sectoral mechanism for technical assistance provision? If so, how is it adapted in Indigenous areas? Which entities have the knowledge and capacity to carry out that role? Are they trained to work with Indigenous peoples? How can the intervention help develop a curriculum specific to Indigenous peoples and/or foster its application? b. Monitoring and Evaluation for repair, a septic tank that has filled up, or the need to identify a new water source to accommodate for Sound monitoring and evaluation (M&E) a growing population). Establishing a framework ensures that the benefits of an intervention for M&E in the development, implementation are maintained over time. In the case of WSS and post-completion of the project can serve to services, M&E serves to assess how systems systematize feedback and streamline possible function over time and any future need of the responses on behalf of the technical assistance beneficiary community (for example, missing parts provider. 86 Sustainability A sound M&E framework incorporates indicators neediest areas. The SIASAR, which has been that track key steps in the promotion of Indigenous rolled out in seven LAC countries,74 has enabled peoples’ participation, infrastructure improvements governments to not only monitor coverage gaps linked to the intervention, the progress of “soft” but also the sustainability of the rural WSS measures for behavior change and capacity- systems through a set of indices. 8 Another building, and the sustainability of the administration important contribution of the SIASAR is that it and physical components of the project. Additionally, enables member countries to collect information Indigenous authorities and beneficiaries may about all communities in the country, not only suggest indicators they would like to track as part of those with working or recently built systems, thus project implementation. providing a good idea of where new investments are needed, but also where technical assistance Systematically collecting and publishing data could help foster sustainable service without nationally or provincially on the quality and a significant monetary investment. Because it coverage of WSS services at the community substantiates intervention targeting, this type level can help project teams and government of information system can be particularly useful institutions objectively prioritize investments in justifying projects in Indigenous communities based on the level of need. Monitoring due to their higher-than-usual coverage gaps of community-level indicators can then be and below-average sustainability. Additionally, an aggregated at the regional and national level in institutionalized information system can help track order to carry out comparisons and identify the national WSS services sustainability over time. Key questions: Does the intervention have a M&E framework in place that disaggregates numbers linked to Indigenous beneficiaries? Do the indicators measure progress on the inclusion and participation process? Do the indicators account for the measurement of sustainability elements? Does the sector have a systematic and publicly available database for relevant indicators and does it disaggregate Indigenous information? 74 Nicaragua, Panama, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Peru, Costa Rica, and Mexico. 87 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean c. Citizen Feedback and Grievance involvement in supervising the work of the different and Redress Mechanisms actors involved in the implementation of the WSS project is the best way to promote accountability on Projects need effective mechanisms to receive the part of these actors. Measures to promote this and register grievances, concerns, or complaints, participation must be discussed and agreed early and to record actions taken to solve these as part of consultations. Grievance mechanisms problems. Feedback mechanisms help facilitate establish procedures that can elevate severe conflict resolution between the project team and complaints to the court. For example, in Sahsa, a rural beneficiaries, or between beneficiaries including non- community in Nicaragua, the Indigenous Territorial Indigenous beneficiaries or actors. Such a system Government submitted officiallycomplaints to FISE normally falls under the responsibility of the WSS that were discussed in the General Community committee, with the possibility to elevate demands Assembly. or complaints to the technical assistance provider.75 In most other Indigenous communities interviewed, Indigenous peoples, however, may not feel concerns and complaints were presented locally by comfortable communicating their concerns through beneficiaries to the social specialists or the on-site conventional channels. The project team needs contractor. More serious complaints (i.e. about the to work with the Indigenous community to contractor) were taken directly to the government develop acceptable mechanisms for grievance, institution responsible for the project. If the redress, and general transparency as part of the community may mistrust outsiders, a community engagement strategy, and ensure their thorough leader can be appointed for Indigenous beneficiaries implementation. to report their concerns. This trusted emissary could then synthesize complaints and share them with the Establishing transparent mechanisms for WSS relevant authority. Alternative grievance-reporting service users to communicate their concerns, mechanisms include anonymous written complaints, complaints, or even satisfaction with the system anonymous voting mechanisms, with stones placed operator or services ensures that their input is in urns or baskets to indicate an opinion or prioritize incorporated in future operations. Community an issue, and anonymous phone complaints. Key questions: Where can comments and complaints be directed? What communication mechanisms are appropriate for the community, and do all target Indigenous beneficiaries feel comfortable using them? Are Indigenous beneficiaries willing to provide community oversight and how? Can the grievance/redress mechanism be adapted to Indigenous cultural norms around participation, taking into account specific sub-groups? Have Indigenous beneficiaries pointed out specific measures to do so? How can the information garnered inform future processes to ensure Indigenous beneficiaries’ concerns are heard and addressed? 75 The fieldwork team was not exposed to any record of grievances either at community or at regional or central levels. 88 Sustainability Key recommendations for SUSTAINABILITY Sustainable Behavior Change 1 Incorporate hygiene promotion in all sanitation projects through the development of culturally and locally appropriate trainings, with particular attention to existing behaviors based on traditional beliefs and the requirements for the maintenance of new ones (materials, technological design, appointed and/or trained community members). 2 Ensure cultural norms around sanitation are incorporated in technological options and tailored training is designed accordingly where necessary. 3 Carefully study the service chain for the possibility of reuse, especially in resource- scarce environments, where local agricultural activity permits or where local Indigenous practices have involved reuse in the past. Financial Arrangements 1 Highlight the distinction between payment for the water resource (often rejected) and payment for the water service (usually more palatable). 2 Discuss payment for water services by promoting a transparent tariff-setting mechanism during beneficiary consultations. Also discuss rules regarding missed payments, tariffs increases, and other administrative elements at this time. 3 In some communities, alternative payment mechanisms may be more acceptable than cash contributions. However, they should always be meaningful. 4 When the sanitation solution requires regular O&M from the beneficiary or involves additional service, the tariff-setting should undergo the same process as the water service and/or benefit from extensive sensitization. Continue 89 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Tailored Technical Assistance 1 Ensure that the entities responsible for technical assistance provision are known to the Indigenous authorities and respect protocols for entering and communicating with Indigenous beneficiaries. Share with Indigenous authorities the role of the relevant sector entities and any rules for technical assistance provision, and agree with them on arrangements and procedures for regular support. The entity responsible for technical assistance provision must have decentralized capacity to regularly visit Indigenous areas. 2 Assess the capacity of the sector entities for technical assistance provision and experience working with Indigenous communities, and if needed, propose strengthening measures so they can effectively provide regular assistance and training programs specific to the Indigenous communities they support. 3 Define a sound monitoring and evaluation framework at project or intervention scale and explore the possibility of expanding it beyond the project. Include indicators disaggregated by ethnicity (whether a beneficiary ascribes to an Indigenous identity or not) and measure process-based progress, and long-term sustainability in partnership with beneficiaries. 4 Create a publicly accessible information system to promote transparency regarding the status of the sector and the prioritization of interventions. 5 Evaluate whether the Indigenous community feels comfortable with conventional communication channels for grievance, redress, and feedback provision. When relevant, work with Indigenous beneficiaries to establish culturally appropriate grievance and redress mechanisms to facilitate user feedback and promote transparency. 90 6. Final remarks This final section provides a summary of the highlights the structural barriers that, if not main takeaways from this work, including a overcome, may jeopardize the effectiveness sub-section on a few ‘ fact-checking’ findings of future engagement with Indigenous peoples that emerged directly from the field work and despite the application of the recommendations contradict some usual perceptions about working included here. Finally, the next steps of this work with Indigenous peoples. This final section also are outlined. 1. Main “takeaways” from the development of this Toolkit As opposed to other low-income groups, Indigenous peoples often: (i) subscribe to organizational and governance structures that are different from the rest of society; (ii) maintain extensive traditional knowledge around their land, natural resource base, and environment; (iii) utilize unique practices and cultural norms around water collection, storage, distribution, sanitation and hygiene; and (iv) hold strong beliefs and practices around the well-being of the collective versus the individual, leading to a higher degree of social cohesion, unique traditions and structures of community organization, and different norms around communal contributions. This section outlines the main takeaways to address these characteristics in developing sustainable WSS services with Indigenous peoples. RESPECT Delivering high quality, well-accepted, and sustainable WSS services to Indigenous peoples depends on coordination among the key actors from the WSS and Indigenous peoples/social sectors. Collaboration among key actors from these sectors should ideally start at the highest governmental level as early as possible in the project cycle. The joint articulation of intervention priorities and regular meetings on implementation progress can provide stepping stones for this collaboration. Due to the institutional complexities of each country, however, this may not always be possible. Nevertheless, this coordination between sectors (or between approaches) should at the very least take place at the community level. The “soft side” (social mobilization, community capacity building, and Indigenous leadership engagement) is as important as the hardware (infrastructure) aspects in delivering WSS services. For Indigenous communities, applying the demand-responsive approach, which includes active dialogue with the beneficiaries and Indigenous leaders, is fundamental in defining the infrastructure that will be delivered and how it will be managed afterwards. 91 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean OWNERSHIP In order to build trust with Indigenous peoples, it is important to engage with their leadership and traditional institutions early in the project process. When Indigenous authorities and beneficiaries participate in project planning and design, develop ownership over the project, and make a commitment (for example, to make payments or contribute labor) to be part of the project, it is more likely they will follow through on agreements and be active partners throughout the development, implementation, and operation of the WSS services. SUSTAINABILITY It is important to provide continued “post-construction” support to Indigenous communities in order to ensure the long-term sustainability of WSS services. Continued engagement with the community after the official close of the project is critical to the long- term sustainability of the WSS services. Even when community management models are operating successfully, long-term sustainability requires an institutionalized structure for technical support to the communities. Professionals trained in specific aspects related to Indigenous peoples and anchored in well-capacitated WSS sector institutions with sound technical expertise will be able to provide this support. 2. Structural Barriers world view on Indigenous peoples based on an assumption of superiority in vision around It is important to recognize that complex social, progress, development and well-being. This political, and institutional structural barriers still sense of superiority in many countries in LAC present challenges to effectively apply the key is still socially and culturally accepted, and principles and actions provided in this Toolkit for a outright discrimination of non-mainstream sound engagement with Indigenous peoples. These populations that hold distinct world visions is structural barriers are summarized below. On the common place. This is further exacerbated one hand, these barriers are rooted in centuries by conflicts generated from the clash of world of tense relations between Indigenous peoples visions and disrespect of rights over natural and Governments; on the other, they also relate to resources and land use that further fuels recurrent institutional challenges strongly present in discrimination and breaks down dialogue. the Social Development and WSS Sectors that go beyond working with Indigenous peoples. Weak institutional structure for Indigenous representation and for the WSS Sector (in Historical discrimination against particular rural WSS) renders institutions communities outside of the mainstream unable to respond adequately to recurrently leads to lack of voice, political Indigenous peoples’ demands. In most representation and economic power that of the countries in LAC, the institutional together reduce marginalized communities’ structure to support the development of ability to influence how policies are formed and policies and the implementation of key investments prioritized. Historically, Western Indigenous engagement principles (such as societies have justified the imposition of a recognizing land rights, traditional indigenous 92 organizations, and carrying out meaningful generate quicker, cheaper results and consultations, among others) is either political visibility. weak or non-existent. The lack of definition of key aspects such as tenure laws and resource management often creates severe Changing the mindset of political leaders in order obstacles for the development of systematic to prioritize investments and institutional efforts interventions at scale in Indigenous areas. towards the most vulnerable, traditionally excluded, and poor communities (namely, Indigenous Similarly, although most countries have peoples) is a long-term transformational process a well-defined arrangement for WSS that requires strong leadership, partnership with services provision in urban areas, the Indigenous authorities, and targeted approaches rural WSS institutional arrangements are that allow for trial and error. Higher-level advocacy frequently dispersed, under-staffed, under- work, such as international agreements like the funded and under-represented in higher Sustainable Development Goals supported by levels of government. Additionally, water the United Nations, the World Bank’s Twin Goals, institutions often lack specific knowledge or collaboration with international development to work in remote and unique social- partners, could help re-direct efforts to the most cultural environments, thus demotivating needful areas and supply open-minded political them from engagement, or making their leaders with the knowledge and tools to break engagement less effective. The institutional through these barriers and promote inclusive development barrier is often associated with development for their countries. a political system that rewards physical interventions, which tend to be located in 3. Fact-Checking populated and accessible urban areas. The majority of funds and overall institutional The fieldwork carried out for this Toolkit challenged efforts in the WSS Sector still go to urban several commonly held misconceptions on Indigenous areas, which are more easily reached and peoples’ WSS preferences and habits. For example: Reluctance to use and adopt sanitation solutions by Indigenous peoples. It is common to hear that Indigenous peoples will resist using toilets because of their centuries-old open defecation practices. In fact, field experience reveled that when social and engineering work is done well, with thorough iterative consultations, tailored sanitation solutions, and community capacity building (in particular involving women), Indigenous peoples demand, adopt and use sanitation solutions. Rejection of piped water and water treatment. It is often said that Indigenous peoples reject piped water systems and water treatment because piping or treating the water would change its natural composition. In fact, if the community receives appropriate training, preferably in their local language, on the health benefits and comfort associated with a piped water supply and water treatment, Indigenous peoples demand, appreciate, and are willing to contribute (either financially or through other means) to an improved water system. Unwillingness to pay for water services. Many people believe that Indigenous peoples are not willing to pay for water services. Contrary to popular belief, Indigenous peoples are ready to contribute to WSS services projects and their operation, either in monetary or in-kind contributions. In fact, in many cases, Indigenous peoples are keen on having water meters to promote rational water use and equitable water sharing among the families. 93 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean And finally, Working with Indigenous peoples is too complex and difficult to achieve desired outcomes. Initially, engaging with Indigenous peoples may appear overly complex due to the additional layers of coordination required and the need for a customized approach. When treated as development partners, Indigenous communities actively pave the way for successful project delivery. So long as the Indigenous traditions and organizational structure are respected, the projects are defined with Indigenous peoples’ active participation, and ownership for the WSS system is established, project development and implementation tends to be smooth and the results tend to be sustainable. Project teams need to allocate time and resources for a demand-responsive approach to project design, implementation, and evaluation that respect the specificities of Indigenous practices and organization. It is true that WSS services in Indigenous communities require unique and flexible approaches with specialized knowledge of the community, but it is not significantly more complex or time-consuming than a demand-driven approach to providing WSS services to other communities. The elaboration of a country-specific strategy and implementation methodology agreed between WSS sector institutions and Indigenous organizations will also streamline these processes. Furthermore, success is possible, sustainable, and extremely impactful when the project respects Indigenous actors and creates ownership over the intervention. Author’s Note This report has been circulated internally in the World Bank for quality assurance. The findings and recommendations are all based on analysis and reflection on the interviews carried out through the field work. However, this final document will be validated through a consultation process with the various entities that took part in the fieldwork, namely government organizations, Indigenous organizations, NGOs and beneficiary representatives. A list of these organizations is available in Annex 9. This material will be transferred to an interactive web platform format to facilitate access by all stakeholders. The web platform will include video material gathered throughout the field visits. Further studies on this topic could include specific analysis on Afro-descendants. Additionally, similar assessments and Toolkit development could be targeted for other sectors (such as education and health) in order to contribute to a comprehensive development agenda for Indigenous peoples in LAC. Finally, more resources should be spent on adapting existing successful methodologies and tools mentioned in this Toolkit for application in Indigenous contexts. 94 Annexes Annexes 95 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 1. Detailed Legal Framework This Annex provides a detailed overview of the 2. The United Nations Declaration on the international legal tools recognizing indigenous Rights of Indigenous Peoples was issued peoples’ rights and country-by-country legal in September 2007 by the United Nations framework profiles regarding indigenous peoples. Assembly and is an international instrument aiming to establish the rights that “constitute From a legal standpoint, three documents stand the minimum standards for the survival, dignity out in the recognition of indigenous peoples and and well-being of the indigenous peoples of the their rights: world.” (Article 43)  The Declaration goes on to guarantee the rights of Indigenous peoples to 1. The International Labor Organization enjoy and practice their cultures and customs, Convention No. 169 on the Rights of their religions, and their languages, and to Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, created in develop and strengthen their economies and 1989, established the following principles: their social and political institutions. The (i) the right of Indigenous Peoples to self- Declaration is the product of almost 25 years determination; (ii) the right to be consulted; of deliberation by United Nations member (iii) the right to decide their own development states and indigenous groups. Thus far, the priorities; (iv) the right to preserve their own only two non-signatories of the United Nations institutions; (v) to cross-boundary contacts Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous and cooperation; (vi) customs and customary Peoples are the USA and Canada. law. The convention’s provisions are binding, and States are under the obligation to 3. The national Constitutions are a tool in the respect, fulfill, and protect the Indigenous application of both documents stated above, peoples’ rights affirmed therein. In most as they are the domestic documents officially cases the provisions are self-executing. In recognizing indigenous peoples’ existence other words, they apply regardless of whether and rights within a country, including tailored the state has complied with its obligation to information on the different nations or pueblos issue laws and regulations facilitating their and their territorial affiliations. Latin American implementation.76 The implementation of constitutions include the recognition of related laws and tools is subject to close indigenous peoples, communities, and monitoring by the international community. ethnic groups, though there is no uniformity All the countries included in this study in the format or content across the region, have ratified the ILO Convention No. 169 as highlighted in the comparative table on the Rights of Indigenous and Tribal below. In particular, the official recognition Peoples, except for Panama, though of the traditional indigenous authorities is the Vice-Ministerio de Asuntos Indigenas not always included, nor are the “alleys” affirmed they were working on this process. for communication (which organization or Overall in Latin America, 15 countries have authority to talk to first when engaging) ratified ILO C 169. systematically defined. 76 World Bank, 2015. 96 Annexes Country Constitutional Other laws for Control over Recognition Indigenous Rights natural resources Argentina 1994. Art. 75 para. 17 recognizes the 1995. Decree 757. The Constitution pre-existence, ethnic and cultural, of of Province of El Chaco grants the the Indigenous Peoples of Argentina. It legal property of lands occupied by guarantees respect to their identity and Indigenous Peoples. the right to bilingual and intercultural education, the legal personality and 2000. It ratified ILO 169. possession of their territories. It promotes their protagonism through their own institutions. It guarantees their participation to management of natural resources of the lands they occupy. Pluri- 2009. It contains sweeping reforms to 1991. It ratified ILO 169. National strengthen the social and political rights State of of indigenous Peoples. 2000. Presidential Decree 25.894: Bolivia all Indigenous languages are Art 2: The pre-colonial existence of official. nations and rural native indigenous peoples and their ancestral control of 2001. Presidential Decree 26.330 their territories, their free determination, guarantees Health Insurance to consisting of the right to autonomy, self- Indigenous and Originarios peoples. government, their culture, recognition of their institutions, and the consolidation of their territorial entities, is guaranteed within the framework of the unity of the State, in accordance with this Constitution and the law. Colombia 1991. (Ref. 2009) Art. 7. The 1991. It ratified ILO 169. Constitution recognizes and protects the ethnic and cultural diversity in the 1992. Decree 715 creates the country. The Indigenous languages are National Committee of Indigenous official in their territories. (Art. 10). The Rights. territorial Indigenous “resguardos” are 1996. Decree 1397 creates communal property, administrated by the National Commission of Indigenous Councils. (Art 329). Indigenous Territories and the Mesa Permanente de Concertación of pueblos and Indigenous Organizations. Nicaragua 1987. (Ref. 2005) The Nicaraguan 1987. Law 28. Autonomy Law. The right to land titling Constitution recognizes the existence was sanctioned by of Indigenous Peoples and the right 1993. Law 162. Official use of the National Assembly to maintain and develop their identity Indigenous languages of the Atlantic in 2003 through the and culture, their forms of social Coast. Communal Law of organization and administration of their 2003. Law 445. It recognizes Indigenous Peoples local affairs, maintaining the forms of the communal property of the (Ley 445). Among communal property of their lands and Indigenous Peoples and ethnic other things, Ley 445 the possession, use, and enjoyment communities of the Autonomous promotes the rational of said land. The communities of the regions of the Atlantic Coast of use of the waters, Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua establish Nicaragua, and Bocay, Coco, Indio forests, and communal themselves as an autonomous regime and Maiz rivers. lands for the benefit in the present Constitution. and enjoyment of 2010. It ratified the ILO 169. their peoples, and the overall preservation of the ecological system. Continue 97 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Country Constitutional Other laws for Control over Recognition Indigenous Rights natural resources Panama 1972. (Ref. 2004). Art. 90. The State 2011. It ratified ILO Agreement # recognizes and respects the ethnic 169. identity of Indigenous communities. 1952 Creation of the National Art. 108. On the right to education. The Directorate of Indigenous Policies. State will develop education programs for Indigenous peoples, according to 1953 – Comarca Guna Yala their cultural patterns. 1983 – Comarca Emberá. Art. 124. The State will grant 1996 – Comarca Madungandi special attention to campesino and Indigenous communities to ensure their 1997 – Comarca Ngabe Bugle participation in the social, economic and 2000 – Comarca Wargandi political life of the nation. 2000. Law 20. Special Intellectual Property Regime for the Collective Rights of Indigenous Peoples. 2000. Ruling of the Third Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, which establishes the need for indigenous peoples’ consent before carrying out development projects on their territories. 2011. It ratified ILO 169. Paraguay 1992. Art. 62. The Constitution 1981. Law 904: Estatuto de recognizes the existence of indigenous Comunidades Indígenas. peoples, defined as cultural groups prior to the formation and organization 1999. ILO 169, ratified by of the Paraguayan state. Law 234. Art.63. It guarantees indigenous peoples’ customary rights to preserve their ethnic identity, and develop political, social, economic, cultural and religious organizations. Peru 1933. The Constitution recognizes 1994. Peru ratified ILO 169. Indigenous peoples in the country as native communities 1986, 2002. It guarantees Legal personality to the Rondas Art. 207. Indigenous communities have Campesinas y Nativas to support legal personality. legal functions of the State. Art 205. Each Municipal Council will According to the 2007 census, 44% include one representative selected of the population is Indigenous by the indigenous communities as (51 groups) residing mostly in the established by the law. highlands. However in practice, Indigenous peoples living on the Central Highlands are referred to as “campesinos” despite the fact that they are of indigenous descent77. Some of them struggle to be recognized as indigenous peoples, while others prefer to be recognized as mestizos. 77 The Agrarian Reform (1968-1979) organized highlands’ inhabitants into 300 farmers’ cooperatives. The Indigenous background became secondary. 98 Annexes Additional legal tools include: ILO 169: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11200:0::NO:11200:P11200_COUNTRY_ID:102536 The Inter-American Development Bank compiled an extensive legal database on Indigenous Peoples rights in Latin America, including jurisprudence, for each country and sector up to 2012. This tool serves as an excellent reference point to initiate legal research. http://www.iadb.org/Research/legislacionindigena/leyn/ Bolivia Autonomy and Decentralization Law: http://www.ine.gob.bo/indicadoresddhh/archivos/ alimentacion/nal/Ley%20N%C2%BA%20031.pdf Colombia Decree 1953: https://www.minjusticia.gov.co/Portals/0/DECRETO%201953%20DEL%20 07%20DE%20OCTUBRE%20DE%202014.pdf 99 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 2. Institutional Frameworks in the Countries Visited The table below outlines the different organizations in charge of the WSS sector and Indigenous representation in the countries visited during field work, as well as their functions. Location Gov. institution Gov. institution Gov. institution responsible for responsible for water responsible for overseeing norms setting infrastructure water service provision Ngobe Bugle, Ministry of Ministry of Health Rural: Ministry of Health Panama Environment Urban: IDAAN Caribbean Coast, National Institute Rural: Social Emergency Rural: Social Emergency Nicaragua of Aqueducts and Investment Fund (FISE) Investment Fund (FISE) and Sewerage (INAA) Municipalities Urban: the WSS public utility ENACAL Urban: the WSS public utility ENACAL La Guajira, The Water Regulation Sub-national Municipalities Colombia Commission (CRA government entity in the Ministry of (Gobernación) Housing, Cities and Territory (CRA) Selva, Peru National Rural: National Rural Rural: Ministry of Housing, Superintendence for Sanitation Program (PNSR) Construction and Sanitation of Sanitation Services the Ministry of Development and Urban: Public WSS utilities. (SUNASS - regulator), Social Inclusion (MIDIS), Fund for Economic Inclusion in Rural Ministry of Housing, Areas (FONIE) Construction and Sanitation Urban: Public WSS utilities. Altiplano, Bolivia Vice-Ministry of Water Implementation Agency for Vice-Ministry of Water Supply Supply and Sanitation Environment and Water and Sanitation (EMAGUA) and National Fund for Productive and Social Investment (FPS) Gran Chaco, Regulating Entity for Ministry of Public Works National Environmental Paraguay Sanitary Services and Credit Sanitation Service (SENASA), (ERSSAN) National Emergency Secretariat (SEN) Impenetrable National Entity of Provincial State Company SAMEEP Chaco, Argentina Sanitation Hydraulic for Water Service and Works (ENOHSA) Maintenance (SAMEEP) 100 Annexes Gov. institution National/ subnational Who decides project targeting responsible for Indigenous Organizations for indigenous areas? Indigenous peoples Vice-Ministry of Indigenous 4 Indigenous Congresses of the Ministry of Health Affairs Comarcas (officially recognized Indigenous territories) Regional and Territorial Gov. Regional and Territorial Gov. Municipalities of the Caribbean Coast for of the Caribbean Coast for the North and South regions the North and South regions (RACCN and RACCS) (RACCN and RACCS) Ministry of Interior Indigenous Associations Regional or local Governments Autonomous Regional Agencies Ministry of Culture (MINCU) National and regional Indigenous Ministry of Housing, Construction organizations and Sanitation Vice-Ministry of Indigenous Autonomies; most organizations Central Government Autonomies are split in factions for and against the government Instituto Nacional del Indígena SENASA (INDI) Instituto Nacional de Asuntos Municipal WSS agency Indígenas (INAI) (in this case SAMEEP) 101 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 3. Stakeholder Mapping Examples The two diagrams below depict the institutions For example, CONAP represents part of the involved both in indigenous peoples’ representation Amazon indigenous population, centralizing inputs and in the WSS sector as it pertains to WSS service through their regional representatives, the Apu, provision in indigenous areas. The institutions are who themselves coordinate information flow from lined up along ‘level of engagement’: national, the Federations. At the community-level, concerns regional and community, to facilitate envisioning and demands for WSS (and other) interventions which should interact and which should be channels are raised to the Federations. As depicted in the to reach other (lower, more localized) levels. It is graphic below, each indigenous group has a slightly important to note that these diagrams do not depict different structure, which may in turn influence the all institutions involved in the WSS sector, but rather way consultations should be carried out. those involved in working with indigenous areas. Recommendations for further participation of other Intersection and engagement: Engagement institutions are highlighted in each case. should take place first between national organizations, with PNSR and/or MVCS following Example 1: Peru the protocols for each organization pertaining to the specific area they want to intervene in. Since in WSS sector: In Peru, the Ministerio de Vivienda, the WSS sector Municipal Technical Units can play Construcción y Saneamiento is in charge of the WSS an important role in follow-up and, potentially, the sector. Within this Ministry, the Programa Nacional de provision of technical assistance to the JASS once Saneamiento Rural (PNSR) oversees services roll- an intervention is being implemented and thereafter, out in rural areas, where the majority of the country’s coordination should also occur between these units indigenous population resides. Though neither and relevant indigenous representatives at the PNSR nor MVCS have a specific sector strategy regional, federal and community levels. Finally, geared towards reaching indigenous peoples, they it is important to align the structure of the JASS both have expressed a strong interest in working in to indigenous communities’ traditional authority indigenous areas as those remain among the most structures. Future lines of engagement that can be vulnerable and unreached in Peru. Through the drawn from this diagram (and the absence in the regional and municipal governments, programs under processes depicted of key sector actors) are as the PNSR administer funds (and interventions) with follows: 1) involve the sector regulator, currently support and follow-up from the Municipal Technical only responsible for the regulation of WSS utilities, Unit, which usually also oversees aspects of health in defining certain rules and indicators to promote and education. At the community level, in the rural the performance of JASS, especially in indigenous sector, WSS services are usually managed by WSS contexts; 2) more actively coordinate with the committees called JASS (Juntas de Administradora health and education sectors, who reportedly have de Servicios de Saneamiento). a stronger presence in extremely isolated areas of Peru, where the most vulnerable indigenous Indigenous organizations: Indigenous populations are concentrated; 3) engage with WSS representation happens by nacionalidad (indigenous utilities to provide technical assistance to municipal group affiliation) at the national level. Each major units and/or JASS in their local areas and to develop group is represented by an organization, itself approaches tailored to indigenous populations in at the head of a chain of ‘levels of engagement.’ their service areas. 102 Annexes WSS SECTOR INDIGENOUS ORGANIZATIONS NATIONAL LEVEL MVCS Ministerio de Vivienda AIDESEP CCP CONAP UNCA Construcción y Saneamiento (Sets the norms, manages budget) Asociación Confederación Campesina Confederación Unión Nacional Interpetnica del Perú de de de Desarrollo Nacionalidades Comunidades PNSR de la National Congress Amazónicas Aymaras Programa Nacional de Saneamiento Rural (Infraestructure) Selva National Executive Committee del Perú Peruana PROCOES Amazonía Rural General Colletive Secretary (BID & AECID) (JICA) REGIONAL LEVEL Regional Regional Government Government National Regional Regional (Implementation) (Implementation) Regional Regional Management Multicomunal Delegates Council Coodinator Coodinator Org. Org. Board Assembly (100 delegates) APU APU Municipal Municipal Government Government Youth and Multi- Muni. Technical Muni. Technical Federations Federations Federations Federations women´s orgs. comunales Unit Unit COMMUNITY LEVEL JASS Com Com Com Com Com Com Com Com Junta Administradora JASS JASS de Servicios de Saneamiento Example 2: Nicaragua Indigenous organizations: Indigenous peoples are represented at the level of regional governments WSS Sector: In the case of Nicaragua, the majority (one for the Southern Caribbean region and one of indigenous population resides in rural areas, for the Northern Caribbean region) and territorial which are under the responsibility of the Fondo de governments (Alto Wangki y Bocay) that centralize Inversión Social de Emergencia, FISE. FISE counts information and demands from the communities with a Social Management Office that produces through regional representatives. Territorial materials and engagement methodologies tailored Indigenous Governments (GTIs) should be consulted to indigenous areas. The regional advisors (ARAS) and approached differently than the regional bring sectorial support both at the municipal and governments. the community level. FISE has regional delegations staffed with their own social facilitators and technical Intersection and engagement: FISE has experience staff, which are trained to work with indigenous engaging with the regional and territorial governments peoples where relevant. WSS interventions are from the implementation of past WSS interventions, identified and prioritized between FISE and the however this process should be dynamic and Municipality, and implemented at the community iterative. Prioritization of investments in the sector level. Systems are then managed by water are now done through municipal plans according to committees or CAPS (Comités de Agua Potable y technical poverty and WSS services related criteria, Saneamiento) with technical assistance provided however any project in an indigenous area has to by the municipal technical units, the ARAS, and be validated by the respective governments. FISE is FISE’s municipal representatives, the Asesores now working to train GTI technical staff in technical Municipales. assistance provision related to WSS services at the 103 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean same level as municipal staff, which is a step forward adapted to respect and incorporate the traditional in involving those governments in the sustainability of community authority structures. Future lines of WSS interventions and empowering them to take on engagement that can be drawn from this diagram this role, but also in ensuring that technical assistance (and the absence in the processes depicted of key providers have the required knowledge and know- sector actors) are as follows: 1) solidify the role of how to work with indigenous peoples. FISE is also the GTI staff in WSS sector sustainability; 2) engage hiring technical and social staff who speak the local ENACAL, the country’s WSS utility, and other actors indigenous languages and, as much as possible, on devising a sector-wide strategy and appropriate are from the area where they will be working and support mechanisms to indigenous communities and engaging. Additionally, CAPS structure should be neighborhoods. WSS SECTOR INDIGENOUS ORGANIZATIONS NATIONAL LEVEL FISE Fondo de Inversión Social de Emergencia (Manages budget, provides infrastructure and technical assistance) Coordination ARAS Social Regional delegations (Regional Management Advisors) Office Social Facilitators Technical staff Gobierno GRACCN GRACCS Trained in the Trained to work Speak local Designs tailored material local indigenous with indigenous Territorial Gobierno Gobierno language for indigenous peoples language peolples Indígena Regional Regional Autónomo de Autónomo de la Costa la Costa Caribe Norte Caribe Sur REGIONAL LEVEL Municipality UMAS Municipal WSS Technical Unit Regional Regional Regional (Technical Assistance provider) representatives representatives representatives Technical Assistance Com Com Com Com Com Com CAPS CAPS COMMUNITY LEVEL Comité de Agua Potable Comité de Agua Potable y Saneamiento y Saneamiento (Service provider) (Service provider) 104 Annexes Annex 4. Diagnosis Example – Water for People Formato 001 MONITOREO Y EVALUACIÓN FORM. 001 VISITAS DOMICILIARIAS Municipio/Distrito: Comunidad/OTB: Jefe de Familia: GPS: GPS:......... K, ...................... - ................... Elevación: ............................... Fecha de Visitas: D: ............................ M1: ............................... M2: ................................. Ev1: ..................................... PRÁCTICA DE HÁBITOS FAMILIARES RELACIONADOS CON AGUA Y SANEAMIENTO EVALUACIÓN LAVADO DE MANOS E HIGIENE PERSONAL D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿Tiene limpia sus manos? 2. ¿Existe un lugar específico destinado al lavado de manos con insumos adecuados? (agua limpia, jabón, jaboncillo, cenizas, toalla, etc.) 3. ¿Las personas están aseadas? (peinado - lavado de cara) HIGIENE DE LA VIVIENDA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿El dormitorio se encuentra barrido y ordenado? 2. ¿La cocina está limpia y ordenada? 3. ¿El patio está limpio? 4. ¿La vivienda se encuentra libre de cacas? (mínimo 3m. alrededor) DISPOSICIÓN DE BASURA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿Cómo elimina la basura? (a) Entierra (b) Quema (c) Rio (d) Patio (e) Campo abierto (f) Reutiliza (g) Otro………………….…………………. CONSUMO Y ALMACENAMIENTO DEL AGUA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. El agua que consume es: a) Proyecto de WFP b) Otro Proyecto c) Punto de Agua No Mejorado 2. ¿Cómo desinfecta el agua para beber? a) Hierve b) Cloro c) SODIS d) Filtrado e) Otro tipo de Desinfección f) No desinfecta 3. El agua tiene esencialmente un uso: a) Doméstico b) Riego c) Proceso Industrial 4. ¿Recipientes de agua limpios, tapados y libres de contaminación? PILETA DOMICILIARIA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿Pileta funcionando? 2. ¿Pileta en buen estado? (libre de filtraciones) 3. Evitan charcos de agua 4. ¿El medidor se encuentra funcionando? 5. ¿El medidor permite realizar una lectura adecuada? 6. El pedestal de la pileta tiene salida a: a) Pozo de absorción b) Huerta- jardín o terreno de cultivo c) Patio – terreno libre 105 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean PRÁCTICA DE HÁBITOS FAMILIARES RELACIONADOS CON AGUA Y SANEAMIENTO EVALUACIÓN SERVICIO DE SANEAMIENTO: BAÑO ECOLÓGICO D M1 M2 Ev1 1.- ¿Usa el baño? 2.- ¿El baño se encuentra limpio? 3.- ¿El baño está libre de malos olores? 4.- ¿El inodoro se encuentra tapado? 5.- ¿Usa material secante? 6.- ¿El papel usado es depositado en la cámara? 7.- ¿Heces removidas? 8.- ¿Pipi ducto y/o urinario funcionando? 9.- La orina se deposita en : (a) Bidón para reutilización (b) Pozo de absorción (c) Aire libre 10.- Las paredes de las cámaras se encuentran sin rajaduras. 11.- ¿La tapa de la cámara está sellada herméticamente? 12.- El acceso al baño es adecuado. SERVICIO DE SANEAMIENTO: BAÑO CON ARRASTRE DE AGUA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿Usa el baño? 2. ¿El baño se encuentra limpio? 3. ¿Existe agua disponible dentro de un radio de 3 m. para el uso del baño? 4. ¿Tiene recipiente para depositar el papel usado? 5. ¿El sifón se encuentra en buen funcionamiento? 6. ¿La cámara o pozo séptico cuenta con ventilación adecuada? 7. ¿Existe una cámara de inspección antes del pozo séptico? USO DE LA DUCHA D M1 M2 Ev1 1. ¿Usa la ducha? 2. ¿La ducha se encuentra en buen estado y funciona adecuadamente? 3. ¿Existe pendiente suficiente hacia la rejilla de piso para la salida del agua? 4. El agua utilizada es dispuesta en: a) Huerta- jardín o terreno de cultivo b) Reutiliza c) Pozo de absorción d) Ninguno. 106 Annexes Observaciones D: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Observaciones M1: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Observaciones M2: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Observaciones Ev1: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 107 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 5. Payment Mechanisms for Water Services Type of Contribution Fixed Tariff: Every household pays a fixed rate per month. The tariff can vary depending on costs, for example, in the Peruvian Andes where water systems are low cost and rely on gravity tariffs are 0.50 soles, but in the Amazon where due to the geography and distance water supply systems are more expensive the tariff can go up to 10 or 12 soles. In Nicaragua, small fees (10 cordobas) are symbolic to promote ownership and responsible use of water. Consumption-based Tariff: Each household pays based for its own consumption which is measured by a meter. In Bolivia, this system is preferred because it prevents people from wasting water or using potable water for animals and irrigation. Monetary Contributions Maintenance and Repair Fund: The community does not pay for water on a regular basis, but when the system requires maintenance and repair each person contributes to the fund. Similarly, if the community is unable to contribute to the construction of the system, it can compensate by taking charge of its maintenance and repair. This system is successful in the Paraguayan Chaco that is a very poor and dry area. * Paying for the Service: In Indigenous cosmovision, water is seen as a gift from nature which is why some beneficiaries are hesitant to pay for it. Establishing a tariff for the service of bringing potable water to the community rather than for water itself is a way to ensure system ownership and sustainability while respecting indigenous cosmovision. The service can be paid for through Fixed Tariffs, Consumption-based Tariffs or Maintenance and Repair Funds. Incorporating Payment of Water Tariffs in Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: In addition to vaccinating children, sending them to school and other requirements, paying water tariffs could be incorporated as a pre-requisite to receiving conditional cash transfers. The government of Peru is considering incorporating this into their conditional cash transfer program, JUNTOS, in order to incentivize people to pay. Continue 108 Annexes Type of Contribution Land Donation: Families that own land where the water source is located or in surrounding areas can contribute by donating the land closest to the water source to the community. This practices has allowed Peruvian highlanders to ensure protect water sources from pollution and over-use. Faena/Minga: A tradition where the community works together and volunteers its labor for the construction, maintenance and repair of the service. This is common in Quechua and Aymara communities in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia. Labor: Households that cannot afford to pay tariffs can volunteer their labor for construction, maintenance and repair of the system. Similarly, in communities or neighborhoods where the Non-Monetary Contributions government or other institutions have agreed to cover all costs, the community can contribute through labor which will promote ownership and sustainability of the system. Commitment to attend workshops, trainings and Water Committee meetings: Households can contribute their time by committing themselves to attend every training, workshop and Water Committee meeting to ensure that they understand the benefits of the system and how to give maintenance and repair, thus encouraging ownership and sustainability. Trading Natural Resources for Water Systems: Amazon communities in Peru trade their natural resources such as wood in exchange for the construction, maintenance and repair of water systems. Materials: Communities or neighborhoods and even individual households can contribute locally available materials for the construction, maintenance and repair of the system. Environmental Services: The community can contribute by providing environmental services, primarily caring for and protecting the water source. This can be achieved by reforesting surrounding areas and closing the water source off to prevent contamination from animals or people. This approach has been very successful in the Pacific region of Nicaragua 109 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 6. Nicaragua Financing Policy Source of financing / Community / CAPS Municipality National Type of expanditure (resources from Government tariffs, community (including donors* contribution, etc.) funding) Technical Basic studies, Not financed Participates Yes, in general and social enginnering design, and supports activities (pre- social assistance to specific activities investment) communities depending on their capacity New WSS systemn Low-level of counterpart 10% of Very high-level of and/or rehabilitation funding counterpart funding (new systems of old systems funding are Government (more tahn 10 yr. priority) old) WSS service Medium-level of 10% of Medium-level of expasioin or change counterpart funding counterpart funding of system funding Change of level of High-level of counterpart Finances Partially funding if service (change funding the balance investment exceeds of system) e.g. uncovered by the municipality’s isolated well to the community payment capacity well with pump and Investment network Major rehabilitation High-level of counterpart Finances Partially funding if due to poor O&M funding the balance investment exceeds (WSS systems with uncovered by the municipality’s less than 10 yr. old) the community payment capacity Minor rehabilitation Very high-level of On exceptional Not eligible (<50% of works) counterpart funding cases (vulnerable and low-income communities), finances balance uncovered by community Operational O&M Full counterpart funding Not eligible Not eligible Costs (Note: specific figures of counter-part funds percentages will be defined in the MEPAS; However they will range approximately as follows: low-level of counterpart: 0% to 10%; medium-level 10% to 30%; high-level: 20% to 80%; very-high level: up to 100%). 110 Annexes Annex 7. Different Management Models Witnessed Location Management Model Colombia Structure: The existing water committees have been formed by outside institutions (such as (La Guajira) NGOs) and therefore each is structured differently. Leadership: In order to get community recognition, water committees must be led by traditional authorities. Tariffs: Tariffs were witnessed in most of the committees visited. A common amount was a monthly fee of P/3,000 per household. Functions: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Committee (ASH) is in charge of ensuring that the system is functional and the community is educated on hygiene, including on how to use latrines and other WSS systems. Paraguay Structure: Though most systems are household or community-level rainwater harvesting, the (El Gran Chaco) majority of communities do not have Water Committees. There is no assigned responsibility for system operation and maintenance, though sometimes they expect the Municipality to perform repairs. However, SENASA is in the process of implementing a strategy for the formation and strengthening of WSS committees in the communities where they build systems to promote sustainability. Leadership: Many of the communities visited had appointed a Spanish-speaking community member to lead exchanges with the Municipality and outsiders. As part of their strategy, SENASA would help the community appoint a board and train them. Tariffs: The few communities that do have Water Committees do not charge tariffs since in El Chaco, indigenous peoples do not have the practice of paying for water. Functions: Maintenance is done by outside actors (usually the Municipality). SENASA has signed agreements with the different Municipalities of the Chaco region in order to strengthen collaboration. SENASA is also in the process of building and staffing decentralized offices to attend to these communities and help the Municipalities. Argentina (El Structure: The majority of communities do not have Water Committees, however the visited Impenetrable communities fell under the responsibility of WSS utilities. Chaco) Leadership: The water utility of the Chaco Province (SAMEEP) has appointed representatives to interact with the community and has contracted the NGO Fundación Gran Chaco to facilitate exchanges. Tariffs: Communities receive highly discounted service from the water utility. Functions: The water utility will be responsible for the operation and maintenance of the system. Though there are Community Associations responsible for all sectors such as education and health, none specifically work on water. Continue 111 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Location Management Model Nicaragua Structure: The Nicaragua rural WSS sector is characterized by decentralized community management through Water Committees called CAPS (Comité de Agua Potable y Saneamiento). They receive technical assistance from municipal WSS units. There is a law (Law 722) that dictates the specifics of CAPS formation and legalization. If they are legalized, they receive economic incentives such as preferential electricity tariffs. Leadership: Members change every 2 years through community elections. Tariffs: When the national rural WSS entity, FISE, supports the creation of CAPS, it is a requirement for the CAPS to set a user fee that covers operation and maintenance costs. It is common for households to pay a monthly fee of about 20 cordobas, though this may be higher in communities with piped systems due to mandatory household meters. The service is cut when households fail to pay. Functions: The CAPS is in charge of maintenance, hiring people for small repairs and requesting money from government authorities for larger repairs. They are also in charge of training and of supervising hygiene behaviors in the community, usually with local municipal government support. The CAPS are trained by the municipal WSS units to administer the water system and carry out O&M tasks such as purifying water by the government. CAPS must submit monthly financial reports for review to the Communal Board and Communal Assembly. Peru Structure: In Peru, rural WSS services are managed through JASS (Junta Administradora de Servicios de Saneamiento). They are organized in networks, with a central JASS coordinating community-level JASS. In some projects implemented in the Selva, the Ministry of Housing, Construction and Sanitation has hired a private company to support communities in the operation of WSS schemes when those are complicated due to poor water quality (reverse osmosis systems, for example). Leadership: The committee is elected to be in charge of all water and sanitation issues. Tariffs: Some JASS charge a set service fee of 1 sol while others use meters. Some communities have provisions for non-payment, such as cutting the service after 3 months of not paying. Household must cover installation costs if they want water in their homes. 20% of the collected money is kept by the local JASS and 80% is sent to the central regional JASS. Functions: The JASS are in charge of operation and maintenance and may receive support from outside entity (central JASS or municipality). Municipal authorities train JASS members during project construction. JASS are supposed to present reports every 3 months. Panama (rural) Structure: In Panama, rural WSS services are managed through community-level WSS committees called JAAR (Junta Administradora de Acueductos Rurales). Piped systems are mandated by law. Leadership: Most JAAR leaders are elected. Tariffs: The JAAR charges tariffs and is in charge of paying the water service bill to the Ministry of Health. Some communities pay fixed rates while others that have meters evenly split the cost. The service is cut for those who don’t pay. People who cannot afford to pay can pay through labor when maintenance and repair is needed. Functions: The JAAR charges tariffs and is responsible for carrying out maintenance and repair of the system at the community level JAAR has a set of rules that determines how to adopt new projects following traditional leadership structures. Continue 112 Annexes Location Management Model Panama (urban) Structure: In the case of peri-urban areas, service was provided by IDAAN, the water utility. Leadership: IDAAN has a trained team with social specialists tasked with coordination with the community and trainings on WSS-related topics. Tariffs: Indigenous beneficiaries pay IDAAN’s social tariffs. IDAAN representatives indicated that due to their traditional organization and valuation of the service, Indigenous peoples were more likely to pay tariffs on time. Functions: IDAAN provides piped water into users’ homes and operates and maintains the system. Bolivia Structure: Water Committees (CAPyS – Comité de Agya Potable y Saneamiento) are established in the early stages of the project and use statues and regulations that guide their activities. Leadership: Committee members are usually elected. In some instances, the Committee trains the entire community on water and sanitation topics so that everyone is capable of serving in the Water Committee, facilitating rotation. The entire community must attend monthly Water Committee meetings and are charged a fee if they fail to do so. Tariffs: A tariff is charged and if people don’t pay the service is cut. In some communities, tariffs are collected by a group of several Water Committee members to avoid accusations of misuse of funds. Functions: The CAPyS is in charge of integral management water and sanitation services, including maintenance and repair, with a strong hygiene component. The Committee manages different funds earmarked for protection, expansion, etc. of the WSS systems. In some cases, these are invested in sanitation solutions that avoid contamination of nearby groundwater and/or surface water. 113 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Annex 8. SIASAR as a Tool to Measure Sustainability78 The Rural Water and Sanitation Information questionnaire to rank performance. The results System (SIASAR) was developed in response to are aggregated into an overall sustainability rating several countries’ demands for systematic and that takes into account O&M practices, financial reliable information on the quality, coverage and solvency and community hygiene practices, among sustainability of WSS services in rural areas. other indicators. The questionnaires provide the SIASAR’s conceptual model covers a broad range detail necessary for informed policy making and of information in order to provide countries with investments. the necessary information to plan infrastructure investments and local institutional strengthening Because SIASAR collects information on a measures. In addition to the physical condition community’s ethnicity, the data gathered in the of water systems and coverage levels in rural system’s wide databases can be disaggregated for communities, SIASAR monitors the capacity of Indigenous areas. As part of this report, the Team rural water service providers and measures both analyzed data on Nicaragua’s database, the first the quality of the water and sanitation services and country to achieve full SIASAR coverage (all rural the effectiveness of available technical assistance. communities entered and validated). SIASAR is currently rolled-out in six LAC countries: Figure 1 Honduras, Nicaragua, Panamá, Dominican Improved Sanitation Coverage in Nicaragua, Republic, Mexico (State of Oaxaca) and Peru. The Own elaboration based on SIASAR data next countries lined up to join the initiative are Costa Rica and Brazil (State of Ceará). There are currently 80 over 16,000 rural communities with public data 72.18 registered in the system. 60 63.46 All SIASAR data is publicly available on a highly 40 practical and interactive web platform. The data collection system is adapted for Android cell phones 20 19.28 and tablets, facilitating easy data capture and 0 storage. Non-indigenous All indigenous Alto Wangki groups Bocay SIASAR collects data according to four modules: system, community, service provider (for example, a water committee) and technical assistance provider (usually a municipal unit). Each module has a The system can be accessed at www.siasar.org 78 Adapted from the Briefing Note “The SIASAR Initiative: An Information System for More Sustainable Rural Water and Sanitation Services.” World Bank, 2014. 114 Annexes Annex 9. Stakeholders Interviewed Coordination and organizations outside of field visits • Foro Indigena Abya Yala • Rocio Florez, Executive Director, Gocta Natura Reserve • Nancy Sutallo, Executive Director, Rainforest Flow World Bank Projects visited Project Area Intervention La Guajira Water and Sanitation La Guajira, Colombia Construction of reservoirs in selected Infrastructure and Service indigenous communities and social and Management Project (P096965) community organization activities, including the constitution of water committees. (part of the rural pilot component). Panama Water Supply and Panama (rural) Construction of community water supply Sanitation in Low-Income systems and household sanitation Communities Project (P082419) solutions, with creation of water committees and hygiene promotion practices. Metropolitan Water and Panama (urban) – the team Connection of unserved communities and Sanitation Improvement Project specifically visited the Colón neighborhoods in the Panama Metropolitan (P119694) area. area to WSS services. Rural Water Supply and Nicaragua (rural) Construction of community-level water Sanitation Project (P106283) systems and household sanitation solutions with water committee creation, capacity building and sector strengthening activities. Norte Grande Water Chaco, Argentina Provision of essential infrastructure (water Infrastructure (P120211) and and roads) to Indigenous communities in Second Norte Grande Water the Argentinian Chaco. Construction of Infrastructure(P125151) a pipeline to serve isolated Indigenous communities. Water and Sanitation Sector Chaco, Paraguay Construction of water and sanitation Modernization (P095235) systems for Indigenous communities in the Chaco region, primarily rainwater harvesting solutions. (part of the rural component) 115 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Other interventions visited Location Agency Comment Nicaragua KfW Development Bank The funds were transferred to the Indigenous Territorial Government for implementation. Bolivia - Altiplano EMAGUA Implemented Government funds to build community- level WSS systems. The team principally visited dry toilets schemes and wells or piped connections with household taps. EMAGUA relies on SENASBA for technical assistance to communities, including the establishment of water committees and any related training. Bolivia – Altiplano Adra Adra is an NGO supporting communities in the construction, operation and maintenance of their own urine-diverting dry toilets, including the production of fertilizer from processed urine and composted feces. Elevated tanks are built with household piped connections. Community members are trained for operation and maintenance. Bolivia - Cochabamba Water for People Water for People helps communities in the construction of their water and toilet systems and trains community members in operation and maintenance, including the establishment of water committees. The creation of municipal WSS units is a requirement for funds to be invested in a given municipality. Interviews carried out during Country del Indígena (INDI) adscribed to the Presidency of Visits the Republic; Lina Franco, Director INDI; Bernardo Enciso, Legal Advisor, INDI. Cynthia Rodríguez, PARAGUAY. Those participating from SENASA Secretaría Técnica de Planificación del Desarrollo in Asunción and in field visits were: Juan Pereira, Económico Social (STP) coordinating the Program Coordinator for Component 3 of WB Project; Sara “Sembrando Oportunidades” which includes Pérez, Social Coordinator, IBRD Component Indigenous communities. Bruno Morán, Director 3; Angela Espinda, Coordinator Department of Indigenous Affairs, SEN; Mónica Urbieta, Indigenous Affairs –DPPP. In meetings in Asunción: Coordinator Unit of Habitats at Risk, Secretaría de Ruth Rios, UCP-IDB Coordinator Indigenous Area; Emergencia Nacional (SEN). Alvaro Carron, Public Nilce Benites, Social Specialist, SENASA-IBRD; Works Coordinator, Secretariat of Public Works Ma. Estela Cardozo, Social Specialist; Amador DAPSAN/MOPC. Ramón Zavala, Indentente, Ruvalo, Coordinator SENASA-IDB; Graciela Parini, District Tnte. Irala Fernández, Dept Presidente Communications and Press. Hayes; Rudolf Hildebrand, Coordinator Water and Sanitation, District of Filadelfia, Dept. Boquerón; Among other participants in meetings were: Jorge Marcial Ramírez, Intendente District Loma Plata, Aníbal Servín, President of the Instituto Paraguayo Dept. Boquerón. 116 Annexes ARGENTINA. Those participating from Servicios the first meeting: Alejandra Martínez (Planning), de Agua y Mantenimiento Empresa Provincial John Matamoros (Executive President), Guillermo del Estado (SAMEEP) were: Alejandro Salamon, Zelaya (Institutional Development); Amanda Flores Coordinador Ambiental y Social Proyecto Norte (Operations), Pedro García (Procurement) and Grande; Claudia Hernández, Especialista Pueblos Ronald Palacios (Financial Management). William Indígenas Proyecto Norte Grande (Antropologist); Rodríguez, RACCN-FISE Delegate, joined the field Ricardo Requena, Chief of External Investments; visits. Elana Mar, Integrante División Ambiental y Social; Emmanuel Fernández, SAMEEP, Chaco. José Among other participants were: Ramón Canales, Braña (Social Specialist, Contractor) joined in the Director Coordinador of the Caribbean Coast field. Secretariat; Carlos Alemán, Regional Governor Coordinador; Waldo Muller, Territorial Governor of Among other participants were: Ariel Araujo (Mocovi Tasbapri; Héctor Rodríguez, Technical Coordinator Traditional Authority), Executive Secretary of the GRACCN and Isabel Henríquez, Community Ethnic Indigenous Parliament of El Chaco and SICOSUD Issues GRACCN. (Trade Integration Zone between States and Provinces); Jesús Nocitiquí, Centro Mocoví Jalek, PANAMA. Those participating from DISAPAS Parlamento de los Pueblos Indígenas del Chaco were: Marisín Reyes, Luz Sánchez (social staff); Americano; Juan Carlos Gómez, CPI Q’om; Saul Alexis Vergara, Iván Hernández, Ricardo Raimores Rodriguez, Comité de Prevención de la Tortura; (technical staff); Ricardo Chong, Regional Director Edigio García, Co-Presidente por Argentina, Colón and from IDAAN: Ricardo Ponce (Director Parlamento Indígena Zicosur; Sergio Yépez, CPI del IDAAN-Colon), Sandra Góndola (Social Specialist Pueblo Q’om; Eleazar García, Parlamento Indígena IDAAN-Colon) and Dora Paredes (Head of Social Zicosur; Pedro Suarez, Fundacion Nala Yalec; Ariel Team at IDAAN). Peña, Coordinador General Fundación Mamaluz. Among other participants were: Irene Gallego, Vice- COLOMBIA. Those participating from the Plan Minister for Indigenous Issues; Doris Bill (ECMIA); Departamental de Agua (PDA) were: Elsa Iguarán, representatives from the Mesa Nacional Indígena and from the firm Ecoadministrar: 10 staff including de Panamá; Inaki DE FRANCISCO (Foro Indigena Financial Administrators, Social Specialists, Abya Yala); Dr. Elda Velarde (Director for Indigenous Sociologist, Zootechnician, Civil and Industrial Issues, MINSA); Arnoldo Bonilla, General Secretary Engineers. of the Congreso Guna Yala; Atencio López, President IDKY; Yolany Ríos, IDKY; Javier Grau Among other participants were: from the Secretariat Benaiges, IADB; Alexis Aguilar (Changuinola). of Indigenous Affairs under Gobernación - Rosa Valdeblanquez (Secretary of Indigenous Affairs), PERU. Those participating from MVCS were: Alexander Castillo (advisor), Yorvis Jaramillo Francisco Dumler, Viceministro de VMCS; Victor (External Advisor); from Fundación Cerrejón - Raúl Sevilla, Executive Director MVCS-PNSR; María Roys (Director) and 2 staff; from the Asociación del Pilar Acha, MVCS-DGPRCS; Alejandro Pintado Wayúu Araurayu - María del Tránsito Iguarán (Especialista Gestión Municipal PNSR-UCAS); (Coordinadora Emisora Ecos de la Makuira); Flor López (Especialista Social en Monitoreo de Francisca Iguarán (Coordinadora SEIP). The proyectos (PNSR-UCAS); Maria Figueroa (Esp. mission also visited the Wayúu community of Social Senior (PNSR-UCAS); Alvaro Romero Kasiche with the NGO AGUAYUDA. (Social Specialist, nurse, PNSR); Isabel Zuluaga (Coordinator PNSR Bagua Grande). NICARAGUA. Those participating from FISE were: Neftalí Toruño Ibarra, Director of DODL-FISE Among other participants were: Patricia Balbuena, and Joxan Leoro, AMU-FISE (central FISE); for Viceministra de Interculturalidad; Ana Quijona, 117 Water and Sanitation Services: Achieving sustainable outcomes with Indigenous Peoples In Latin America and the Caribbean Coordinadora General MIDIS-FED; Percy Directora de Pueblos en Aislamiento y contacto Minayo, Viceministro de Salud; Diana Prudencio, inicial; Juan Reategui, Especialista DIN; Directora General MIDIS-DGPE; Rosa Meza, Vice-Ministerio de Construcción y Sostenibilidad; BOLIVIA. Those participating from the Vice-Ministry Tarcila Zúñiga, President of Indigenous Women for Potable Water and Sanitation were: Enrique of Latin America (CHIRAPAQ); Porfirio Vargas, Torrico Vargas (Norms and Regulations). Representative of UNCA; Ketty López, Vice- president of ONAMIAP; and Alex Abramonte, Among other participants were: Gonzalo Vargas, Specialist of CONAP; Diana Prudencio, Directora Viceministerio de Justicia Indígena Originario General MIDIS-DGPE; Domingo Arzubialde, Campesino; Pablo Callisaya, Dirección General Coordinador General FONIE-MIDIS; Sylvia de Gestión Integral de Residuos Sólidos; Gregorio Huari, Especialista Agua y Saneamiento, Choque, representative of CONAMAQ; Water FONIE-MIDIS; Guillermo Leon, Consultor en Program Implementation Units of PASAR (UE), UE Agua y Saneamiento, MIDIS; Celeste Cambria, (CAF) and UE-BID; representatives from Water for Coordinadora, MIDIS; Alvaro Galvez, Director People; representatives from Adra; EMAGUA; FPS; de Políticas Indígenas of MINCU; Lorena Prieto, SENASBA. 118 Annexes Annex 10. Toolkit Methodology Selection of the Communities Application of the Lessons Learned and Toolkit Limitations The World Bank Team (“the Team”) created broad profiles of the characteristics of the Indigenous This Toolkit was developed to assist WSS practitioners population in eleven LAC countries79 and tasked with the development and implementation of conducted an initial set of interviews with relevant WSS projects in Indigenous territories. The richness stakeholders to determine the fieldwork locations. of the on-the-ground investigation and the resulting For the field visits, the Team selected the seven lessons derived at both the policy and operational countries and their respective communities based level can, however, benefit a broader audience. The on the presence of an ongoing or recently closed Toolkit’s ultimate objective is to promote improved intervention in each country’s Indigenous territories, collaboration between Indigenous organizations and whether the intervention included noteworthy WSS institutions in order to ensure that Indigenous implementation arrangements or methodologies, communities have access to good quality, and recommendations from stakeholders, including sustainable WSS services. Indigenous contacts through the Foro Indigena Abya Yala and other Indigenous partners. The Team also The Team originally envisioned analyzing WSS aimed to include a range of unique socio-cultural operations in Indigenous and Afro-descendants and geographical contexts to ensure the widespread communities, but initial fieldwork revealed that for applicability of the Toolkit. the most part, the realities faced by these two groups were too disparate to encompass in a single Toolkit. On-the-Ground Research Approach The Team encountered several Afro-descendant groups with similar characteristics to Indigenous The Team conducted field visits to 37 Indigenous peoples and decided to include those groups in the communities in the selected countries in which study. These Afro-descendant communities had the Indigenous communities and their respective WSS following characteristics: (a) the community looked governance structures presented their WSS systems up to traditional authorities (regional or local) for and shared their experiences, O&M practices and, approval; (b) traditional, customary organizations when applicable, governance tools essential to existed and were respected; (c) the community often their success and sustainability. The Team focused spoke an autochthonous language or had strong the majority of its research efforts on field visits to traditional cultural traits; and (d) the community faced ensure that the Toolkit included lessons learned and historical legacies of discrimination and exclusion good practices based on actual interventions. The based on race/ethnicity. findings and recommendations from the fieldwork, however, also build on a desk review and several The majority of the key findings from the field visits interviews with WSS and Indigenous peoples were consistent despite the communities’ diverse experts as well as Indigenous stakeholders outside geographical and cultural contexts. 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