32861 TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION i TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Drawing Lessons from Transparency International By Kenneth L. Rosenbaum Forest Integrity Network Advisor January 2005 The World Bank Washington, D.C. Material in this book can be copied and quoted freely provided acknowledgement is given to the authors. Published by: ii PROFOR at the World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 United States E-mail: profor@worldbank.org Website: http://www.profor.info Published February 2005. PROFOR book number 4. Printed on 80% post consumer fiber paper. Cover credits: Transparency International: Source Book 2000, The Elements of Confronting Corruption: Integrity System, page 35. Contents iii Acknowledgements v Introduction and Overview vii Transparency International, National Integrity Systems, and Forest Corruption 1 What is corruption? 1 Corruption in the forest sector 3 Transparency International and Combating Corruption 4 National Integrity Systems:An Overview 7 What kinds of actions can civil society take to enhance national integrity? 10 ApplyingTI'sTools to the Forest Sector 13 Tools Proposed for Use in FIN's Program 13 Create a knowledge center 13 Establish and implement model forest integrity pacts 13 Draft business principles for the forest sector 14 Create a forest sector corruption perception index 14 Tools for Use at the National Level 15 Create an anti-corruption forest comic book 15 Create anti-forest-corruption advertisements 15 Form an anti-corruption theater troupe 16 Create a traveling anti-forest-corruption exhibit or booth 16 Draw attention to lost revenue 16 Educate journalists 17 Put together a concession manual and workshop 17 Set up a concession website 17 Compile a forest law reference 17 Put together a landowner permit manual and workshop 18 Encourage forest certification 18 Document government performance on forest-related tasks 19 iv Collect statistics on forest law enforcement 19 Train enforcers in forest-related skills 19 Document forest agency staffing and structure 20 Produce a biographic directory of senior forest officials 20 Hold a series of agency/citizen workshops on corruption 20 Create a program to encourage forest whistleblowers 21 Create an outlet for citizen complaints 21 Create a public stakeholder panel 21 Hold a conference on professional responsibility 22 Encourage officials to sign an ethics pledge 22 Recognize outstanding public service 22 Create a forest corruption risk map 22 Produce a forest sector citizens report card (CRC) 22 Tools for Use on the International Level 23 Convene to exchange best practices 23 Create a model professional ethics code for foresters 23 Key Questions 25 Can reformers address corruption on a sector-specific basis? 25 Case Study:Addressing Corruption in the United States' Forest Sector in the 19th and 20th Centuries 26 Can reformers develop generic forest-sector anti-corruption tools? 28 How do the efforts of a civil society group fit with the efforts of other reformers? 28 Concluding Observations 31 Literature cited 33 TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Acknowledgements v T his publication was made possible Special thanks are due to Dr. Ute Siebert (FIN through funding from PROFOR donors: the Secretariat) for coordinating the Forest Integrity Department for International Development Network, Nalin Kishor (World Bank Forests Team) (DFID) of the United Kingdom, the Finnish for his coordination and oversight of the work lead- Department for International Development ing to this publication and to Laura Ivers (PROFOR Cooperation, the Japanese International Forestry Communications Officer) for managing the pro- Cooperation Office, and Swiss Development duction of the publication. Acknowledgement is Cooperation(SDC). also due to the many reviewers who provided valu- able input into this report. Introduction and Overview vii T he forest sector badly needs functioning than two dozen tools that groups might apply. Most integrity systems. Corruption promotes ille- are based on TI efforts at the national level as gal logging and trade, and illegal logging is a reported in TI's Corruption Fighters' Toolkit. multi-billion-dollars-per-year problem for the The third chapter considers some key questions world. Beyond the lost revenues, illegal logging is about applying these tools: almost never sustainable. No one has ever quanti- fied the environmental and social harm it causes Can reformers address corruption on a sector- worldwide. specific basis? The answer is a qualified "yes." Transparency International (TI) is the world's The TI National Integrity System approach leading organization in the fight against corruption. teaches that corruption is a systemic problem. The Forest Integrity Network (FIN) is a TI initiative However, sometimes incremental solutions are that aims to address corruption issues in the forest the only ones available, and efforts within the sector. This report, prepared by FIN with PROFOR forest sector may help to advance anti-corrup- funding, examines the approach of TI to fighting tion efforts throughout the society. corruption and considers how it could be applied in Are TI's anti-corruption tools generic and uni- the forest sector. versal? The basic causes of corruption are wide- The first chapter explains the underpinning of spread throughout the world, and generic tools TI's approach, the theory that corruption is a can offer basic guides, but groups using the tools chronic threat in all societies and is only controlled must adapt them to particular local conditions. through national integrity systems. These are built Can civil society efforts work alongside govern- on a foundation of social values and public aware- mental and other anti-corruption reforms? Yes, ness, and they rely on the various pillars of society these efforts can be synergistic. Civil society can providing mutual accountability for corrupt behav- help advance the work of the other pillars of ior. The pillars include non-governmental actors national integrity, and the other pillars can help such as the media and civil society, and governmen- enhance the work of civil society. tal actors such as the legislature, ombudsmen, and watchdog agencies. The report concludes with a few overarching The second chapter takes its inspiration from the observations, including an endorsement of TIs corruption-fighting projects of TI throughout the approach to tackling corruption as a constructive world and asks how civil society groups might apply and perhaps necessary addition to the fight against these examples to the forest sector. It details more illegal logging. CHAPTER ONE Transparency International, National Integrity Systems, 1 and Forest Corruption WHAT IS CORRUPTION? delay them, or by threatening to break the law. In against-the-rule corruption, the corrupt actor pro- orruption is "the misuse of entrusted C vides an unlawful benefit. power for private gain."1 This broad defini- Corruption also varies by scale and motive. tion encompasses both private and public Corruption at its worst completely overwhelms law- authority. ful controls over forest use. This overarching cor- There is no broadly accepted way to categorize ruption can twist the national laws so they no all the many forms of corruption, and TI's Source longer conserve forest resources, or it can capture Book notes different ways to do so. One simple way the forest bureaucracy and stop it from guarding the is by actor, as illustrated in Figure 1. Corruption resource. often involves several people: the instigator is not The TI Source Book distinguishes between always the person who ends up abusing the entrust- grand corruption and small-scale corruption.4 The ed power, and is usually distinct from the victims of latter is also called petty corruption. A distinction the corrupt act. But by focusing on the abuser of can also be drawn between corruption out of greed power, some simple dichotomies emerge. The abus- and corruption out of need, which applies mostly in er can either be wielding public authority or private the case of petty corruption. Figure 3 offers a authority. In general, it is abuse of public authority schematic of all these distinctions. Actually, no firm that carries the greater potential for social harm. line separates the small act from the large. Within the public sector, there is abuse of political Corruption occurs along a spectrum that stretches power and abuse of administrative power -- that is, from controlling a nation's entire forest resource to abuse by politicians and abuse by civil servants.2 "fixing" a minor violation. Corruption is usually illegal in itself, but is not Although the word corruption often brings always coupled with another unlawful act. This pro- bribery to mind, the TI Source Book notes corrup- vides another classification dichotomy, illustrated tion has other forms. These include cronyism in Figure 2. Corruption may be "according-to-rule" (including nepotism), quid pro quo payments to and "against-the-rule."3 In according-to-rule cor- political campaigns, kickbacks (including subcon- ruption, the corrupt actor provides benefits (such as tracting consultancies), and fraud in all its forms.5 services or contracts) ordinarily required by law, but Figures 4 through 7 show some of the variation extracts a payment by threatening to withhold or within and among different forms of corruption. Figure 4, on bribes, follows the TI Source Book's acceptance of the bribe. Soliciting bribes can be a division of bribes into four categories, which differ form of extortion. Extortion does not have a sepa- in their causes and impacts.6 Category 1 bribes are rate figure here, but its forms parallel those of paid to access a scarce benefit or to avoid a common bribery. An official can extort money to grant a cost. An example would be a bribe to secure a con- scarce benefit, to use discretionary powers favor- tract or concession. In these cases, one person's gain ably, to give incidental service, or to impose a cost is another's loss, and the bribers may be competing on others. to secure the benefit or avoid the loss. Category 2 Favoritism and patronage illustrate that it does bribes are paid to receive a benefit that is not itself not always take two to commit a corrupt act. As scarce but is controlled through exercise of discre- Figure 5 illustrates, a person can abuse power to tion. An example would be a bribe to avoid prose- grant benefits to himself. He can also grant benefits cution or to secure a business license. Category 3 to family (nepotism) or as a reward for loyalty 2 bribes are paid for incidental benefits such as (cronyism). speedy service or inside information. Category 4 Kickbacks, illustrated in Figure 6, are not always bribes are paid to entice the official to withhold a distinct from bribes. However, the kickback is usual- benefit or impose a cost on someone else. ly tied to the granting of a scarce good or favor that An act of bribery usually involves two separate generates income for the beneficiary, who returns a crimes: the giving of the bribe and the soliciting or portion of that income directly or indirectly. FIGURE 1 Categorizing corruption by who is abusing authority. Corruption Involving Use of Public Authority By Politician, for example... Forest Minister diverts concession income into campaign treasury By Bureaucrat, for example... Forest officer demands bribe to issue timber transit permit Involving Use of Private Authority, for example... Forest company awards subcontracts for kickbacks TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Fraud, illustrated in Figure 7, is a crime that goes towards sustainable forest management and rural far beyond corruption. Broadly, fraud is lying for economic development go into the pockets of offi- profit. When a person lies in an official capacity for cials and their cronies. his private enrichment, or when that person delib- By its nature, forest corruption is clandestine, erately accepts someone else's lie for his private and assessing its dimensions is difficult. The World gain, that becomes corruption. Bank has estimated that the amount of revenue lost to illegal logging each year is on the order of five bil- lion US dollars. CORRUPTION INTHE FOREST SECTOR This estimate does not necessarily reflect the scope of corruption. Corrupt logging and illegal Forest sector corruption and the resulting lawless logging often overlap, but not always. Some acts of forest use have many painful impacts. Forests, corruption, such as kickbacks for promotions with- 3 including protected areas, are destroyed. Local peo- in the bureaucracy, are not tied to particular acts of ple lose access to forest resources that they have illegal harvest or trade. Some forms of illegal log- used for many years. Rural societies go through ging, such as when local people continue tradition- temporary economic booms as forests are stripped al forest uses despite new laws, have nothing to do followed by inevitable busts that leave the societies with corruption. However, corruption probably fos- shattered. Government revenues that ought to go ters many of the largest illegal operations. FIGURE 2 Categorizing corruption by the legality of associated actions. The action taken for corrupt motive is... Basically According to Rule, for example... A forest officer is bribed to drop a false charge A customs official is bribed to allow a legal shipment out of port Against the Rule, for example... A forest officer is bribed to mark extra trees for harvest A customs official is bribed to allow import of protected species TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS, AND FOREST CORRUPTION BOX 1 Reported and Alleged Incidents of Forest Sector Corruption Corruption in the forest sector reflects the range parks and laws protecting endangered of corruption seen throughout society. There is species. petty corruption and grand, administrative and In a forest-related court case, bribes fly to political, and bribery in many forms. The follow- the court clerks, the judges, and even to ing are typical reported and alleged incidents: opposing counsel to secure a favorable and prompt verdict. Forest officials extort payments from Officials take bribes to allow export of ille- 4 landowners for forestry services that the gally harvested timber. state ought to supply at a nominal fee. Customs agents take bribes to allow timber To avoid delays in issuance of a timber tran- to enter the country without paying duties sit permit, landowners bribe not only the or in violation of endangered species protec- local forester, but also local tax and land offi- tions. cials. A forest officer demands that his subordi- Enforcement officials stop perfectly legal log nates pay him kickbacks for salary increases shipments on the road and threaten to and promotions. charge the drivers with illegal transport A forest officer places friends and relatives unless the drivers pay a bribe. on the agency payroll, though they are To win the right to cut trees on a govern- "ghosts" who do no actual work. ment forest, a bidder makes cash payments Ministers, legislators, or other high officials to a forest officer. accept bribes to shape forest laws, institu- Officials award timber concessions to their tions, and procedures to favor the bribers. relatives. Ministers use timber receipts to fund politi- Forest officers,police officers,or prosecutors cal campaigns. take bribes to ignore violations of forest Ministers siphon money off of donor-spon- laws, including laws forbidding harvest in sored project for personal enrichment. Corruption can also foster apparently legal log- TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL AND ging. This can happen on small or large scales. A COMBATING CORRUPTION small-scale actor might bribe a clerk to speed process- ing of a permit request.A large-scale actor might bribe lawmakers to reshape forest laws and institutions to Transparency International (TI) is the only interna- favor private gain over good forest management. tional organization devoted exclusively to fighting Given all this, it seems safe to estimate that the corruption. TI's corruption-fighting efforts are impacts of corrupt logging are at least as large as the based on a set of premises: impacts of illegal logging. Corruption is probably associated with a large volume of the world's illegal That corruption is a pervasive threat. timber, and estimates of illegal harvest and trade do That corruption is inimical to good governance. probably not adequately reflect corruption's full That many factors promote corruption. monetary scope. That a multi-faceted National Integrity System is On top of this revenue loss, no one has ever a country's best defense against corruption. placed a value on the damage suffered by ecosys- tems and rural societies. The toll is enormous. In That corruption is a pervasive threat means that many countries with significant forest resources, some degree of corruption occurs or threatens to there is little hope of sustainable forest management occur in every society. The effort to suppress cor- without honest government oversight. ruption must be ongoing in every society. TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION That corruption is inimical to good governance offer opportunity to divert funds. Decisions on for- means that fighting corruption is essential to est management turn on short-term enrichment improving governance. TI rejects the view that cor- rather than sustainability. ruption is no worse than an extra tax. If unchecked, That many factors promote corruption means even petty corruption tends to escalate and become that there are multiple routes to attack corruption. institutionalized. Once in place, it distorts both the For example, corruption feeds on both opportuni- market and the government. In forest situations, a ty to bribe (or solicit bribes) and inclination to do few buyers who know how to grease the corrupt so. In the case of petty forest corruption, we can wheels often step in and control the timber market, fight opportunity through institutional changes, by offering landowners artificially low prices. Forest eliminating or restricting the authority of petty agencies skew their budgets to favor projects that officials over forest use, or by providing equivalent 5 FIGURE 3 Categorizing corruption by size and motive. The scope of corruption is... Overarching, for example... A corporation bribes parliament to reshape forest laws to the corporation's advantage An elite group"captures" the forest bureaucracy through an organized system of bribery and cronyism Grand, for example... A head of state awards a major concession to his brother's firm Petty, and the motive is... Greed, for example... A forest officer accepts an overseas junket from a concession bidder Need, for example... A guard on meager salary extracts bribes to keep his family fed TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS, AND FOREST CORRUPTION government services through more than one office country's best hope to resist corruption depends on or agency. We can fight inclination by increasing maintenance of a constellation of institutions and government salaries and increasing the likelihood processes, all reflecting social values and kept work- of corruption coming to light, turning it into a low- ing by public awareness, leadership, and political profit, high-risk activity. will. TI has developed a theoretical framework for That a multi-faceted national integrity system is a fighting corruption based on strengthening nation- country's best defense means that in the long run, a al integrity systems. FIGURE 4 Forms of bribery, by objective, with forest-sector examples. 6 Bribes To get a scarce benefit Get award of forest concession To get a discretionary favor Avoid prosecution for forest offense Get license to operate sawmill To get an incidental benefit Get faster issuance of transit permit Get public forest guard to keep watch over private loggiing equipment To impose a cost on others Delay competitor's harvest permit Schedule inspection of competitor's mill TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS: The NIS approach argues that a society becomes AN OVERVIEW resistant to corruption when a whole set of institu- tions are present and functioning well. These insti- tutions include an elected legislature, a transparent TI pioneered the concept of national integrity sys- executive committed to the rule of law, and an inde- tems (NIS). It presents the concept in detail in its pendent judiciary. In Figure 8, these institutions are Source Book. represented as the pillars of national integrity. FIGURE 5 Forms of favoritism and patronage, with forest-sector examples. 7 Favoritism and Patronage Self-Dealing Award harvest concession to own firm Buy vehicles for Forest Department from own firm Hire own firm to prepare government forest plans Nepotism Hire untrained family member to be forest official Award forest boundary survey contract to a relative Cronyism Hire forest officer based on personal loyalty, not ability Grant harvest concession as a reward for loyalty TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS, AND FOREST CORRUPTION Figure 8: The Foundations and Pillars of include fairness, integrity, accountability, and hon- National Integrity, and some of the social goals that est dealing. TI has found these to be universal. It honest governance supports. Diagram from Pope rejects the view that some cultures embrace bribery (2000). or accept abuse of power as a social norm. In every The institutional pillars rest on a dual founda- country where TI has worked, it has found that tion. At the very base are society's values. These most people resent corruption. FIGURE 6 Forms of kickbacks, with forest-sector examples. 8 Kickbacks Direct payments to officials Percentage of concession income "Rebate" on purchase of supplies or services Excessive gifts and hospitality Forest company pays officials to attend overseas meeting Concession holder gets foreign scholarship for official's child Forest official's brother gets job with bidder Payments from subordinates Chief requires forest officers to pay to get promotion Minister demands percentage of forest officers' bribes TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION The institutions also sit on a foundation of pub- courts also act as a check on the executive. lic awareness. Public awareness allows vertical Institutionalized overseers such as auditors general accountability. If the public turns a blind eye to the or ombudsmen look for waste, fraud, and abuse actions of government, it cannot hold the responsi- throughout government. An ethic of public service ble leaders accountable. encourages government employees to foster trans- Along with structures, societies need effective parency, enhancing accountability generally. processes to discourage corruption. For example, Watchdog agencies keep an eye on abuses in the pri- transparency and free and fair elections enhance the vate sector or in public enterprises. The media, civil effectiveness of vertical accountability. society, private sector, and international actors all Vertical accountability alone is usually not contribute to public awareness and hold the gov- enough to deter corruption. Society also needs ernment accountable for its actions. processes that create or enhance horizontal As the illustration suggests, national integrity is 9 accountability, where one pillar becomes a watch- not an ultimate goal, but rather the means of sup- dog of another. Thus, through legislation and over- porting the achievement of other goals attained sight, the legislature can check and balance the through good governance. These include improved power of the executive. Through judicial review, the quality of life and sustainable development. FIGURE 7 Forms of fraud combined with corruption, with forest-sector examples. Fraud, accompanied by personal gain for official Person defrauds others in name of employer Overcharges for services or stumpage, with excess diverted to self For a price, falsifies documents to allow sale of wood from protected species Person defrauds employer in aid of self or others For a price, accepts misrepresentation of species, volume, or grade of timber Hires "ghost" timber guards who do no work and kick back part of salary Claims experience for fieldwork or travel not actually done TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS, AND FOREST CORRUPTION WHAT KINDS OF ACTIONS CAN V. Public Institutions CIVIL SOCIETY TAKE TO ENHANCE VI. Business Ethics NATIONAL INTEGRITY? VII. Diagnostics TI publishes a Toolkit8 that documents how TI has developed and put into practice a number of national chapters have used tools in each of these tools to fight corruption. However, TI has chosen categories to fight corruption. not to investigate and expose individual cases of Awareness raising tools bring the issue of corrup- corruption. It views its role not as a watchdog of the tion to the public's attention. They remind the pub- government, but more as a facilitator of the lic that corruption is a problem and inform the National Integrity System. TI works to make public about actions that individuals can take to National Integrity Systems stronger and more effec- fight corruption. TI chapters have carried out 10 tive. awareness raising campaigns through publications, TI has identified seven categories of tools that it advertisements, and classes. TI's Toolkit is itself an and its national chapters use. The categories are: awareness tool, informing people of other's success- es in fighting corruption. I. Awareness Raising Procurement tools address commercial transac- II. Procurement tions between the government and the private sec- III. Election Campaigns tor. Through training and dissemination of infor- IV. Access to Information mation, local chapters have found ways to make FIGURE 8 The Foundations and Pillars of National Integrity, and some of the social goals that honest government supports.Transparency International: Source Book 2000,The Elements of Confronting Corruption: Integrity System, page 35. Sustainable Quality Rule of law development of Life N A T I O N A L I N T E G R I T Y e e y encies vice Actors Ag Sector -General g Ser Society ecutiv diciar lic Media Legislativ Ex Ju Ombudsman tchdo Pub Civil Private Auditor Wa International P U B L I C A W A R E N E S S S O C I E T Y ' S V A L U E S TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION procurement more open and honest. TI's Integrity Business ethics tools aim at the private sector and Pact tool is a powerful example. For a particular the professions. One of the most promising of these competitive procurement, all participants, private tools is TI's Business Principles for Countering and public, agree to abide by a set of rules for hon- Bribery, developed with Social Accountability est behavior as set out in an integrity pact. An inde- International and a group of other interested busi- pendent third party monitors their behavior and nesses and civil society organizations. As more and has the power to punish violations of the rules. TI is more enterprises are putting corporate social now implementing integrity pact projects in several responsibility management systems in place, these countries. stand out as one of the few sets of management Free and fair election campaigns are fundamental principles that directly address corruption and to vertical accountability. TI chapters have devel- abuse of power. oped tools that monitor media coverage and politi- Diagnostics include two of TI's best-known 11 cal spending and encourage accountability among tools: the Corruption Perception Index and the the political parties. Bribe Payers Index. The first documents the reputa- Access-to-information tools take many forms. For tion of governments for honest practice, and the the ordinary citizen, TI chapters have produced second documents the reputation of private enter- educational materials on what to expect of govern- prises from particular countries for willingness to ment and how to get government services. The pay bribes. TI produces international versions of chapters have encouraged adoption of stronger these surveys. TI chapters have used surveys to doc- transparency laws, and they have encouraged and ument corruption on the national and local level. protected whistleblowers. The "Publish What You Pay" campaign, begun by Global Witness, TI, and NOTES other NGOs, advocates that corporations disclose what they pay for the right to exploit public resources, such as forests. This information is a 1. TI web page, http://www.transparency.org/faqs/faq-cor- starting point for citizens who want to track what ruption.html. See also Pope (2000) [hereinafter "TI Source happens to that income. Book"], p.2. Public institutions tools focus on particular arms 2. TI Source Book, pp.2­3. of government. TI chapters have set up watchdog 3. TI Source Book, p.3. projects to provide the public with information on 4. TI Source Book, p.3. the activities of legislatures, courts, and municipal 5. TI Source Book, p.14. governments. They have done studies comparing 6. TI Source Book, pp. 16­17. the activities of bureaucracies such as customs 7. See, e.g., Curran et al. (2004) documenting illegal logging's agencies with similar agencies in nearby countries. toll on protected areas in Indonesian Borneo. They have produced citizen manuals for monitor- 8. Transparency International (2003) [hereinafter "Toolkit"] ing social programs. was used as the basis for this paper. TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL, NATIONAL INTEGRITY SYSTEMS, AND FOREST CORRUPTION CHAPTER TWO Applying TI's Tools to 13 the Forest Sector T his chapter offers nearly thirty ideas for tial for dissemination; 2) a library of links to docu- civil-society anti-corruption projects in the ments, articles, news reports, and other publications forest sector. Most of the ideas are adapta- relevant to forest corruption; and facilitation of tions of tools from the TI Corruption Fighters' ongoing discussions among practitioners on forest Toolkit. Some are based on other TI projects. A corruption issues. few are inspired by actions outside TI. The first section of this chapter lists four tools that FIN Similar Programs: The TI website and the TI hopes to make part of its core program. The Toolkit document efforts to fight corruption, but second section of this chapter lists over twenty without focus on any particular sector. The Royal tools that a TI national chapter might consider Institute of International Affairs maintains a web implementing. The third section of the chapter index of materials on illegal logging, but without lists a few tools that would be implemented focus on corruption. The World Bank has hosted regionally or globally. international electronic conferences, including one on forest law enforcement and governance, but it does not offer regular venues for anti-corruption TOOLS PROPOSED FOR USE activists to exchange opinions and information. IN FIN'S PROGRAM Rationale: This will give individual corruption Create a knowledge center fighters access to key information tools. In this con- text, the premise is that information leads to action. Activity Type: Access to Information. Establish and implement model forest Description: Create an Internet-based analytical integrity pacts clearinghouse for identifying best practices in the fight against forest corruption and illegal logging. Activity Type: Public Institutions, Business Ethics. The clearinghouse would provide at least three services: 1) documentation and tracking of efforts Description: Develop a model Integrity Pact for the to combat forest corruption, providing where possi- forest sector and apply it in pilot projects in selected ble information on each effort's success and poten- countries. An Integrity Pact (IP) is a tool to discourage cor- Similar Programs: TI has worked with businesses ruption in public contracting. It entails an agree- and NGOs to produce a generic set of Business ment between a government agency or department Principles to Counter Bribery (BPCB). This FIN and all the private sector bidders for one or several project would build on that TI program, focusing on public contracts. All parties agree that bidders will the forest sector. not offer bribes and that public officials will not demand bribes. The IP is enforced by ensuring max- Rationale: Applied to the forest sector, a good set of imum transparency at every stage of the process, a business principles can: careful monitoring of the process by independent a) decrease acts of bribery within forest sector observers such as local NGOs, and the application of enterprises; severe sanctions when violations occur. Civil society b) increase accountability, transparency, and social organizations such as TI National Chapters and and environmental responsibility of forest sector 14 other nationally based NGOs play a key role in mon- enterprises; itoring and overseeing such a pact. c) enhance awareness of corruption in the forest sector and its adverse environmental and social Similar Programs: TI has implemented IPs in more effects and help to develop preventive strategies; than 14 countries, in various sectors. d) increase the reputation of forest sector enterpris- es and lower the risk of corruption scandals that Rationale: A forest sector IP could: give negative signals to sensitized consumers; a) increase accountability and transparency by e) reduce corruption-related distortion of markets enhancing publicity and access to information on by reducing the cost of doing business; logging concession awarding processes; f) decrease corruption-related distortion of open b) create equity and efficiency in such processes; competition; c) reduce the high costs of corruption to both gov- g) discourage non-participants of the BPCB pro- ernments and bidders, and counter distortion of gram from seeking bribes and kickbacks from the concession and timber market; participating companies; d) provide a basis for further monitoring whether a h) lower the risk of disruption of a company's orga- company abides to the concession granted; nizational structure; and e) facilitate and enhance sustainable timber harvest i) facilitate and enhance sustainable timber harvest and sustainable forest management by strengthen- and sustainable forest management by strength- ing environmentally responsible companies; and ening environmentally and socially responsible f) help the government to curb the evasion of con- companies. cession and royalty payments that can be used for forest conservation, improving the quality of for- Create a forest sector corruption est resources and development projects. perception index Activity Type: Diagnostics. Draft business principles for the forest sector Description: Use public surveys to detect and publi- Activity Type: Business Ethics. cize the presence of corruption in the forest sector. In a large country, the survey could compare per- Description: Convene a committee of stakeholders ceived corruption levels in different regions or sub- to draft a set of model anti-corruption principles divisions of the country. In a large forest bureaucra- for businesses in the forest sector. The principles cy, the survey could compare perceived levels of would cover all aspects of corruption, including corruption in different arms of the agency (for such things as facilitation payments to government example, social forestry versus traditional produc- officials and kickbacks to private suppliers. tion forestry) or at different levels of the agency (for- Publicize the principles and assist businesses that est guards versus junior forest officers versus senior wish to adopt them. forest officers). TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Similar Programs: The grandfather of these sorts Create an anti-corruption of programs is TI's international corruption per- forest comic book. ception index, which compares government against government.9 TI also has a bribe payers Activity Type: Awareness Raising index, which measures the propensity of business- es from particular nations to pay bribes.10 Description: Create anti-corruption forest comic The TI Toolkit offers examples of TI national books. The books will carry the messages "Don't chapters adapting this kind of diagnostic tool to local pay bribes to police or foresters" and "Don't let peo- problems. For example, Transparency International ple steal our trees!" Kenya produced an urban bribery index.11 The Lithuanian national TI chapter conducted a set of Similar programs: The comic book idea is men- surveys of corruption within the country.12 tioned in passing in the TI Source Book.16 There are 15 Transparency International-Initiative Madagascar some examples of general anti-corruption comics at (TI-IM) with the help of the International Secretariat http://www.worldcomics.fi/anticorruption.html. of TI conducted a pair of opinion surveys of corrup- These include single-panel editorial style cartoons as tion in Madagascar.13 Transparencia Mexicana pro- well as extended stories. duced a national survey of public experiences with corruption in the supply of government services in Rationale: The comic book format is engaging and each of Mexico's states.14 TI-India has conducted a fun to read. Both children and adults will read national survey of corruption in ten sectors, but not them. They are effective even if there is not a tradi- including forests.15 tion of reading. Children especially will take these messages to heart and urge their parents to follow. Rationale: Corruption is often an open secret, taboo to mention publicly. Such surveys break the Create anti-forest-corruption taboo and bring the problem into the realm of pub- advertisements. lic discussion. The surveys also show that not all people and agencies are corrupt. This removes the Activity Type: Awareness Raising excuse that corruption is inevitable. A survey can create public pressure for the government to Description: Using a variety of means, put out the improve and it can encourage competition among message that forest corruption hurts everyone. This bureaucrats to improve their bureau's standing. activity is in the same vein as the comic book, but potentially addressed to a broader audience. The means could include roadside signs, bumper stick- TOOLS FOR USE ATTHE ers, posters, radio spots, or even television. NATIONAL LEVEL Similar programs: In a fire-prone country, you have The list below generally follows the TI Toolkit's only to look at how the forest agency reminds local organization: Awareness Raising projects come people of the importance of preventing forest fires. first, followed by Procurement, Access to The means may be as simple as slogans spelled out Information, Public Institutions, and Diagnostics. with painted stones on a cleared hillside. Some of the proposed tools involve more than TI national chapters have produced radio and a single category. Some tools appear out of strict television campaigns. Transparência Brasil pro- category order because they are related to other duced a series of general anti-corruption radio tools or because they address similar aspects of spots aimed at upper-middle-class listeners in São corruption. Paulo.17 Association Nigérienne de Lutte contra la Corruption produced a series of three-minute tel- evision spots. TI Nepal also has produced televi- sion spots.19 APPLYING TI'S TO THE FOREST SECTOR In a slightly more ambitious use of media, Rationale: Spreading messages through perform- Transparency Thailand has produced a live, two- ance is a tradition in many cultures. In rural areas, hour radio talk show on corruption, which features the theater format allows the message to reach experts in the Bangkok studio and calls from listen- whole communities at once and does not depend ers. It also has produced a 15-minute taped pro- on literacy. Using humor or fantasy, a theater pro- gram for the nation's military radio stations, which duction can raise issues that would be dangerous or is aired on ten stations throughout the country.20 impossible to raise directly in the press. As part of an anti-corruption week, TI Uganda has used a broad range of publicity tools, including Create a traveling anti-forest-corruption live phone-in radio and TV programs.21 exhibit or booth TI Slovakia has put together an ambitious set of awareness tools that include television programs on Activity Type: Awareness Raising. 16 corruption.22 Description: Make an anti-corruption exhibit for a Rationale: Advertising can convey information and public fair or market. A small information booth sway public opinion. Even simple messages can could offer landowners information on both good strengthen public values, which are the foundation forestry and their legal rights. It could also offer of national integrity. the general public information to raise awareness of corrupt practices in the forest. A more sophisti- cated booth at a trade fair can promote business Form an anti-corruption theater troupe principles, integrity pacts, and other anti-corrup- Activity Type: Awareness Raising. tion tools for the corporation. Description: Produce a series of short plays or skits Similar Programs: TI South Korea organized an that illustrate the problems of corruption. The exact entire fair around corruption fighting.25 format would depend on the local culture. For exam- ple, in some countries a puppet theater would be Rationale: A fair or market exhibit can reach the effective, and in others a single storyteller could play victims of forest corruption. An exhibit next to the all roles. In some countries the appropriate tone firewood sellers could explain how corruption would be clownish and satirical, and in others serious increases the cost of wood and threatens the relia- or melodramatic. The troupe would tour forested bility of the supply. An exhibit at the trade fair can areas spreading an anti-corruption message. offer buyers and sellers ideas to limit bribery and kickbacks. Similar Programs: TI Bangladesh has created a People's Theater.23 Staffed largely by volunteers, it Draw attention to lost revenue has three separate troupes that have put on per- formances in schools and public venues such as bus Activity Type: Awareness Raising. stations. Thousands of people have seen the plays, and many more have heard of them through press Description: Estimate and publicize lost revenues. coverage. The project has involved youth in the pro- Commission a study to estimate the amount of ductions and reached an audience that includes public money lost due to illegal logging and related low-income people with minimal access to services. corruption, and the rate at which losses occur. The message has been a general anti-corruption Include loss of stumpage fees and tax revenues, and message, not specific to any sector. also loss of future income due to lack of forest man- In central and east Africa, the International Anti- agement. Create a way to dramatize the amount, Corruption Theatrical Movement sponsors anti- such as a clock-driven sign or web page that gives an corruption theater. It has worked with TI Uganda to instantaneous updated estimate, so that people can raise awareness.24 watch the money fly away. TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Similar Programs: None in Toolkit. laws that apply to the process, the agencies that implement the laws, the fees involved, and the dead- Rationale: People underestimate the importance of lines or typical time necessary for the agency to forests and the harm brought by corruption. This process requests. The workshops should include tool will make the point that corruption is hurting agency officials. everyone. Similar Programs: The Lebanese Transparency Organization has prepared a permit manual for Educate journalists obtaining construction permits. Transparencia Activity Type: Awareness Raising. Paraguay has run public procurement workshops for officials.29 Description: Hold educate-the-press sessions. 17 Invite journalists to briefings on forest corruption. Rationale: The project would make concession bid- The briefings could be done as a workshop, or per- ders aware of their rights and of normal procedures, haps better, as a series of breakfast or lunch meet- and would make them better able to protest if offi- ings over several weeks or months. The speakers cials tried to deviate from the law. Having the offi- should include activists, experts, and reform-mind- cials participate would both educate them and make ed officials. The briefings would be done "off-the- it hard for them to change procedures arbitrarily. record" -- with the journalists promising not to cover the briefing as a news event or to quote the Set up a concession website speaker -- to encourage more candid discussion. Activity Type: Procurement; Access to Information. Similar Programs: The Public Awareness Campaign in Slovakia included seminars for journalists.26 Description: Create a country-specific website with Anti-Corruption Week in Uganda included press information on advertised and active forest conces- conferences.27 sions. Such a website should include information useful to potential bidders, so that more may Rationale: These briefings will achieve several par\ticipate, and information that will allow the ends. Reporters will get basic information and con- public to judge whether particular concessions have tacts in the area, so that when something newswor- been awarded fairly and whether the terms of the thy happens, they will understand the context and concession are being followed. know where to go for more information. Speakers The project could build on the concession man- will get enhanced standing in the eyes of the press. ual project. The entire concession manual could be Also, the reporters will see other reporters at the available online. Besides this generic information, briefing, which tells them that there is interest in though, the website should provide current infor- the subject. It will make them more likely to cover mation on specific concessions. this kind of news. Similar Programs: Corporación Latinoameri- cana para el Desarrollo, the Transparency Put together a concession manual International national chapter in Ecuador, has cre- and workshop ated a website dedicated to public procurement.30 Activity Type: Procurement; Access to Information. The site collects information on procurement pub- lished in newspapers around the country and pres- Description: Produce a forest concession bidder's ents them in a searchable database. manual and offer concessions workshops. These Some countries have government-sponsored would guide enterprises large and small seeking to websites that perform a similar function. compete for concessions and would clarify the pri- vate parties' rights. The materials would describe the APPLYING TI'S TO THE FOREST SECTOR Rationale: This project aids both the potential bid- time necessary for the agency to process requests. der, who learns more about opportunities for bids, The workshops should include the officials from the and the interested citizen, who can watch the agencies as well as the landowners. progress of the concession process in a single instance or overall. Similar Programs: The Lebanese Transparency Organization has prepared a permit manual for obtaining construction permits.32 The Armenian Compile a forest law reference customs project, described elsewhere in this paper, Activity Type: Access to Information. included production of a booklet on customs requirements and procedures.33 Description: Compile a forest law reference -- an authoritative source book of forest-related laws in Rationale: This would be useful in areas where for- 18 force -- and keep it up-to-date. Make it available on est officers extort bribes from landowners. The paper and on the web. Translate it into local lan- manual or workshop would make landowners guages. Where laws are not published, or are out-of- aware that they did not have to pay bribes and how date, point this out. to act if bribes were sought. It would also educate officials, who themselves may not be aware of all the Similar Programs: As part of an effort to fight cor- rules. By having an open, public discussion of the ruption in customs administration, Center for proper procedures, the officials will find it more dif- Regional Development/Transparency Inter- ficult to deviate from them later. national Armenia compiled the customs laws and regulations in force in Armenia, Georgia, and Encourage forest certification Azerbaijan.31 The other parts of the project includ- ed surveys of experience of businesses with customs Activity type: Access to Information, Business Ethics and production of simplified educational materials on customs laws and procedures for businesses and Description: Forest certification programs set stan- customs officials. dards for production of forest products and then certify whether products or producers meet those Rationale: In some countries, no one has ever com- standards. By doing that, the programs assure con- piled all the statutes, rules, and official policies that sumers that forest managers followed good prac- apply to forest into a single source. In fact, in some tices in producing forest products. The most promi- countries the rules and policies are not publicly nent programs today focus on following available at all. Worse, they may not exist in written environmental standards, but programs may also form. Creating a source book can pressure the gov- include social standards, such as worker safety or ernment to put its rules and policies in writing and compliance with laws. Some programs are self- to follow them consistently. Making the laws easily policed, while others rely on independent audits. available can help educate people about their rights. Some programs certify the forest management pro- (People may be paying "fees" that they believe are gram, while others include chain-of-custody track- required by law but that are actually required by the ing and certify the products produced. Some pro- presiding official and remain in his pocket.) grams include transparency provisions, which allow interested citizens and groups access to information on past or planned forest management activities. Put together a landowner permit manual and workshop Similar programs: TI has not been involved in for- Activity Type: Access to Information. est certification, however other NGOs and industry associations have. The Forest Stewardship Council Description: Produce a permit manual and offer has created a system favored by many environmen- workshops for landowners on how to market their tal NGOs. It employs independent auditing and wood. The materials would describe the laws that chain-of-custody tracking. Though it focuses on apply to the process, the agencies that implement the sustainable management, it includes some social laws, the fees involved, and the deadlines or typical principles. The Pan European Forest Certification TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION (PEFC) is another widely subscribed to scheme. data would include numbers of approvals or appli- There are also a number of national level initiatives cations handled by each office of the responsible such as that by the Ecolabelling Institute in agency and average time for processing. Business Indonesia.34 surveys could collect information on how often bribes were solicited or paid. Ideally, the data Rationale: Many analysts of the forest sector see would allow comparison of similar processes in certification systems as an effective tool to fight different offices and jurisdictions, or for similar large-scale illegal logging. In particular, systems kinds of approvals outside the forest sector. Repeat with chain-of-custody tracking, transparency annually to seek trends. requirements for harvest planning, and independ- ent auditing can help trace the origin of wood and Similar Programs: The Armenian customs project make it difficult to hide theft. If information on mentioned above included a survey that gathered 19 certification follows the wood through the stream data on people's experiences with customs in of commerce, informed consumers can have a pos- Armenia and Georgia, including the length of time itive influence on behavior in the forest. Also, when it took to clear customs, the and the kinds and a company agrees to be certified, it embraces a code amounts of bribes paid.35 The national TI chapter in of conduct, which is similar in effect to adopting a Bangladesh documented how long it takes the corporate ethics pledge (see discussion of that tool, national Anti-Corruption Bureau to complete rou- below in this paper). tine tasks.36 Although these are desirable effects, existing cer- tification systems are not necessarily cures for cor- Rationale: If the data shows a consistent pattern ruption problems. First, many systems are silent on of corruption, or contrasts between tasks or agen- corruption -- they simply do not include an anti- cies, they will help build the case for reform. If corruption standard. Second, corruption is far more the data show long delays or large variation in the difficult for an auditor to detect than, say, unsus- time it takes to process seemingly simple tasks, it tainable forest management or theft of timber. would point to possible efforts to obtain facilitation Third, the certification system may be vulnerable to payments. corruption itself, through bribery of auditors. All this means that certification cannot absolutely Collect statistics on forest law enforcement guarantee that a product is untainted by corrupt practices. Activity Type: Public Institutions; Diagnostics. On balance, however, including anti-corruption standards in certification systems should be worth- Description: Create a scorecard for forest law while. Honest businesses should embrace the addi- enforcement, compiling information on the num- tion of anti-corruption standards to certification bers of arrests, prosecutions, convictions, and sen- systems. And even without specific anti-corruption tencing. Compare jurisdictions or point out pat- standards, the transparency provisions in some cer- terns of failure to prosecute cases fully. tification programs will make corrupt practices harder to hide. Similar Programs: A study of forest law enforce- ment in the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil by Conservation International showed that the gov- Document government performance ernment was putting much emphasis on detecting on forest-related tasks illegal acts but not enough on prosecuting, and that Activity Type: Public Institutions, Diagnostics. few arrested people drew significant punishments. Description: Gather, analyze, and publish data on Rationale: This project could bring public attention government approval of routine forest-related to the efforts of law enforcement to detect and sup- activities. The activities would include land-related press corruption and associated forest crimes. A pat- approvals, such as permission to harvest and trans- tern of failure to suppress crime could suggest under- port logs, and trade-related approvals, such as per- lying corruption of the enforcement apparatus. mission to export or import forest products. The APPLYING TI'S TO THE FOREST SECTOR Train enforcers in forest-related skills Similar Programs: None found in the Toolkit, how- ever "mapping" an agency is a common part of Activity Type: Public Institutions information gathering in preparation for institu- tional reform. Description: Offer training for law enforcement officials on technical issues related to forest corrup- Rationale: This would serve two purposes. It would tion. For example, customs agents could be trained expose and discourage "ghosts" on the payroll. The in recognizing species of wood to help detect misla- organogram would illustrate excess staff levels and beled shipments. Finding a pattern of such ship- allow follow-up verification that all posts were actu- ments could suggest illegality and perhaps corrup- ally filled by real employees. The product would also tion in the harvest of the wood. Police could be become a tool for reporters or citizen activists who trained in investigating accounts to detect signs of wish to deal with the agency. It would help steer 20 fraud or abuse of power. Prosecutors could be interested people to the proper official at the agency trained in gathering and presenting evidence of cor- and help identify an official's superior if a matter ruption. Judges could be trained to understand the needed to be elevated within the agency. scientific issues that may arise in these cases (for example, the importance of protection of natural Produce a biographic directory of areas) to help them both decide the case and arrive senior forest officials at appropriate punishments for the guilty. Activity Type: Public Institutions. Similar Programs: The Whistleblower Protection program in South Africa includes training on appli- Description: Maintain and publish career biogra- cation of the whistleblower law.37 phies of past and present senior forest officials. Include information about training and past posi- Rationale: Sometimes corruption goes undetected, tions. If possible, also include information about unpunished, or under-punished for lack of knowl- family members who have connections to govern- edge. For example, the NGO Pacific Environmental ment or the forest sector. has alleged that customs inspectors in Russia cannot prevent export of illegally cut Korean pine because Similar Programs: None in the Toolkit. they cannot recognize the wood when they see it. Judges have been know to give minor sentences for Rationale: The directory would serve several pur- forest-related illegality, not understanding the poses. First, it would be useful to citizens trying to degree of environmental harm that the illegal acts, approach their government. For example, by being facilitated by corruption, have caused. able to identify which forest officers speak a partic- ular local language or which have had training in social forestry, a citizen might be able to locate those Document forest agency staffing officials most likely to be interested in particular and structure regions or projects. Second, it would help citizens Activity Type: Public Institutions. identify whether the best trained and qualified peo- ple tended to advance in the government. If this Description: Create and publish a complete were not happening, it might suggest that other fac- organogram or roster of forest agency personnel, tors, including nepotism and cronyism, were influ- with contact information for senior officials. The encing advancement. Third, it would help docu- organogram would illustrate the organization of the ment revolving-door activity between government agency, explaining the roles of the various branches. and the private sector. It would also reveal exactly how many people worked in each branch, and at what rank. Revise the roster regularly to keep it accurate. TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Hold a series of agency/citizen workshops Rationale: Whistleblowers can effectively bring on corruption internal agency problems to light, but often at a high personal cost in terms of their future within Activity Type: Public Institutions. the agency. A whistleblower support program would make agency employees feel safer about Description: Hold a series of forest-agency/citizen bringing problems to light. workshops on corruption. The workshops would discuss the extent of corruption in the forest sector Create an outlet for citizen complaints and explore ways to combat it. People would meet with the understanding that the workshops would Activity Type: Public Institutions; Diagnostics. be forward-looking, not finger-pointing. They would seek solutions rather than cast blame. Description: Provide a safe channel for taking and 21 compiling complaints from citizens about forest- Similar Programs: Transparencia Mexicana's citi- sector corruption. Assist citizens in pursuing their zen's manual for monitoring social programs grew complaints using existing governmental channels. out of workshops involving agency members, ben- Besides helping with specific complaints, give out eficiaries of agency programs, representatives of general information on how to discourage corrupt civil society, and others.38 activity and how to participate in other TI projects. Produce a periodic public report on the complaints Rationale: Properly designed, the workshops would received, analyzing their nature and frequency. offer a safe atmosphere to discuss a delicate subject. Compare the rate of complaint in various parts of They would encourage contact and build trust the agency. between citizens and forest officials, and they could lead to further joint efforts to combat corruption. Similar Programs: TI Polska, in Poland, has a pro- gram that helps citizens pursue complaints within the government.40 Create a program to encourage forest whistleblowers Rationale: Citizens may avoid making complaints Activity Type: Access to Information; Public directly to the government because they fear reprisal, Institutions. they expect complaints will be ignored, or they do not know how to register a complaint. A third-party Description: Provide a program to support whistle- program to handle complaints can overcome these blowers in the forest agency or other agencies that obstacles. The program could gather aggregate data regulate forest commerce. If the country has a while assisting in individual complaints. The data whistleblower protection law, the program could would not have the statistical validity of a survey, and monitor its implementation and encourage the gov- it would be subject to manipulation. However, it ernment to honor it. The program could offer con- would produce some rough idea of the nature of cit- fidential counseling to potential or actual whistle- izen concerns. The program would also allow moti- blowers. In cases where the government offers no vated citizens to vent their frustrations and make a protection to whistleblowers, it may be appropriate connection to the local TI chapter. to offer to take anonymous complaints and have a mechanism for objective and discreet screening of Create a public stakeholder panel these complaints to identify serious concerns. Activity Type: Public Institutions. Similar Programs: The Open Democracy Advice Centre of South Africa has a Whistleblower Description: Set up local stakeholder committees, Protection program.39 A central feature of this pro- made up of representatives of landowners, residents, gram is a whistleblower hotline, with advice offered small businesses, larger enterprises, NGOs, etc. to to callers. meet once a month, take citizen input on forest con- cerns, and report to the public on the functioning of APPLYING TI'S TO THE FOREST SECTOR the forest agency. The Bolivian municipal monitor- Similar Programs: This idea is related to TI's ing committees may serve as a model. Integrity Pact tool. The integrity pact focuses on public contracting, involves both sides of the trans- Similar Programs: Bolivia set up municipal moni- action, and is third-party verified. The ethics pledge toring programs by law.41 In the Bolivian system, would be both broader -- applying to the full range various civil society organizations elect a represen- of official activities -- and less elaborate -- without tative to sit on a stakeholder committee to oversee third-party verification. municipal government. The law gives the commit- tee specific oversight powers and duties. A similar Rationale: This program provides a means for sen- mechanism could exist informally, organized by ior officials to communicate to staff the importance civil society. of honest administration and it provides a way to inform staff about proper and honorable behavior. It 22 Rationale: This program would institutionalize also may help to create an esprit de corps that will public participation. Even a transparent bureaucra- make the senior civil service more resistant to cor- cy can get away with criminal acts if the public is ruption. not carefully watching the government. Watching the government takes time, interest, and expertise. Recognize outstanding public service This program ensures that a group of interested, capable people will maintain watch. Activity Type: Public Institutions, Awareness Raising. Description: Award a "Medal of Merit." Give annual Hold a conference on professional private awards to public employees, government responsibility offices, or citizens who helped reduce corruption or Activity Type: Business Ethics. eliminate waste, fraud, or abuse of authority in the forest sector. A public nominating process could Description: Hold a national or regional conference raise the profile of the project. Creating a panel of or workshop on professional responsibility and prominent citizens to judge the nominees and select ethics for foresters. the winners would also give weight to the effort. Similar Programs: TI has been holding workshops Similar Programs: None in the Toolkit. on its Business Principles for Countering Bribery.42 Rationale: An awards program can be a relatively Rationale: If TI or FIN drafts a model code of inexpensive way to raise the visibility of anti-corrup- forester ethics (see project in the last section of this tion efforts. Few if any people will intentionally set paper), conferences would be an effective way to dis- out to win such an award. However, simply by exist- seminate the code and encourage its adoption. ing, the award will send a message that the society values honesty. Also, an employee or group that wins the award will have a reputation to live up to. Encourage officials to sign an ethics pledge Activity Type: Public Institutions. Create a forest corruption risk map Description: Start a take-the-pledge campaign. Ask Activity Type: Awareness Raising, Diagnostics. senior forest-sector civil servants and ministers to sign a pledge that (1) they are acting in compliance Description: Identify, measure, and grade the risks with all civil service laws and regulations and (2) of corruption in the forest sector in particular parts that they will follow a voluntary honor or ethics of the country. Take the preliminary analysis and code. Design the campaign with the help of a few review it in workshops with government, business, high-ranking, reform-minded officials, who will be and civil society participants. Produce a final report happy to sign, and then use peer pressure to spread with maps or tables showing, for example, the level participation. of pressure for corrupt activities, the local resistance TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION or openness to corruption, and the potential for eco- protects the identity of informants and encourages logical damage from corrupt activities. candid reporting of patterns of corruption. Similar Programs: TI Costa Rica has implemented a TOOLS FOR USE ON mapping program for public procurement in roads THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL and infrastructure and is now doing the same for the forest and land use sector. Convene to exchange best practices Rationale: This tool directs public attention to vari- ations in the level of corruption in the country, Activity Type: Access to Information. inviting discussion of the causes and cures of the problem. The process of reviewing the preliminary Description: Hold a multi-national anti-corrup- 23 data in workshops serves to raise awareness while tion-practices-in-the-forest-sector conference. improving the quality and credibility of the risk map. Bring together TI national chapters, public officials, business leaders, and others to discuss best prac- tices. (This may be more appropriate in a few years, Produce a forest sector citizens after some of the other ideas have been tested.) report card (CRC) Activity Type: Awareness Raising, Diagnostics Similar Programs: The regional Forest Law Enforce- ment and Governance conferences in Southeast Asia Description: Survey citizens about the honesty, effi- and Africa have done this for illegal logging generally, ciency, and quality of government forest manage- and the forest-sector workshop at the last few ment services. The survey may also cover other gov- International Anti-Corruption Conferences has done ernment services to forested populations, such as this globally for forest-sector corruption, but no one health care or water supply, to allow comparison of yet is doing this regionally with a focus on corruption the forest bureaucracy with sister agencies, and it in the forest sector. may draw geographical distinctions to allow com- parison of services among forest districts. The sur- Rationale: This will help to propagate ideas, gener- vey can also collect information on how citizens use ate enthusiasm, forge alliances, and promote action. government services, what services citizens value Though the FIN knowledge center will provide some most, and what new services citizens want. Publish of these services, periodic face-to-face meetings will the results in a report card format. create social bonds and rededicate people to the effort in ways that Internet tools cannot. Similar Programs: NGOs around the world have used CRCs to bring government successes and Create a model professional ethics code shortcomings to light.43 For example, with World for foresters Bank funding the Public Affairs Foundation of Bangalore recently prepared a pilot citizen report Activity Type: Business Ethics; Awareness Raising. card of forest, health, drinking water, education, and rural credit services in the state of Jharkhand, India. Description: Working with an organization such as These kinds of efforts generally have not focused the International Society of Tropical Foresters, draft a exclusively on corruption, but have looked at it in model code of professional behavior for foresters in the broader context of evaluating its effects on the developing countries. The model code could either quality of public services delivery.44 focus on corruption or it could be broader, dealing with other areas of social responsibility, such as envi- Rationale: The report card can raise awareness of ronmental stewardship. government shortcomings and point to models of success. By covering more than one service sector or Similar Programs: Corporación Transparencia por district, it invites comparisons and creates a compet- Colombia has developed a program to promote busi- itive atmosphere for improvement. By collecting ness ethics in small to medium sized enterprises.45 TI data through random and confidential surveys, it Secretariat has developed a set of Business Principles APPLYING TI'S TO THE FOREST SECTOR for Countering Corruption.46 The Society of 21. Toolkit, p. I-52. American Foresters and the Association of 22. Toolkit, pp. I-45 to I-48. Consulting Foresters47 of America48 are examples of 23. Toolkit, pp. I-55 to I-59. professional forestry associations that require their 24. Toolkit, p. I-49. members to follow an ethical code. 25. Toolkit, pp. I-15 to I-19. 26. Toolkit, p. I-47. Rationale: Having a model code would encourage 27. Toolkit, p. I-52. local foresters' organizations to adopt their own 28. Toolkit, pp. IV-1 to IV-6. codes. The process of adopting a code makes the 29. Toolkit, pp. II-12 to II-19. members of an organization more aware of the 30. Toolkit, pp. II-1 to II-11. importance of honorable behavior within the pro- 31. Toolkit, pp. V-51 to V-69. fession. Future enforcement of the code can help 32. Toolkit, pp. IV-1 to IV-6. 24 maintain this awareness. 33. Toolkit, p. V-51. 34. Atyi and Simula (2002). 35. Toolkit, p. V-60. NOTES 36. Toolkit, pp. VII-1 to VII-9. 37. Toolkit, pp. IV-40 to IV-47. 9. The current version is Lambsdorff (2002). 38. Toolkit, pp. V-40 to V-49. 10. The current version is Galtung (2002). 39. Toolkit, pp. IV-40 to IV-45. 11. Toolkit, pp. VII-14 to VII-23. 40. Toolkit, pp. IV-7 to IV-14. 12. Toolkit, pp. VII-33 to VII-41. 41. Toolkit, pp. V-17 to V-25. 13. Toolkit, pp. VII-42 to VII-46. 42. See the web page at http://www.transparency.org/build- 14. Toolkit, pp. VII-88 to VII-100. ing_coalitions/private_sector/business_principles.html#ws 15. The report is available online at http://www.ti- 43. http://www.pacindia.org/ bangladesh.org/ti-india/documents/corrInd.htm. 44. Paul et al. (2004) 16. TI Source Book 2000, p. 42. 45. Toolkit, pp. VI-1 to VI-13. 17. Toolkit, pp. I-1 to I-6. 46. http://www.transparency.org/building_coalitions/pri- 18. Toolkit, pp. I-33 to I-44. vate_sector/business_principles.html 19. Toolkit, pp.I-67 to I-70. 47. http://www.safnet.org/who/codeofethics.cfm 20. Toolkit, pp. I-71 to I-74. 48. http://www.acf-foresters.com/acfcoe.cfm TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION CHAPTER THREE Key Questions 25 I n the course of advancing the efforts of the sector specific workshops. In fact, the last two Forest Integrity Network, and the effort against International Anti-Corruption Conferences, to forest corruption generally, supporters have which TI functions as a secretariat, have included raised some critical questions: forest sector workshops. TI has published or co-published conference Can we address corruption on a sector-specific reports on corruption in health services49 and official basis? arms trade.50 It has put out several sector-specific Can we develop generic tools, or must we shape working papers51 including ones on the environ- them to fit specific social and political contexts? ment52 and tropical forest resources.53 However, Can we find synergies in our work, where the being able to discuss problems within a sector differs efforts of a civil society group such as TI might from being able to solve problems within a sector. complement the efforts of government reform- Inherently, sector-specific reforms have limits. A ers, international donors, and others? forest sector project cannot fix enforcement prob- lems if the courts are thoroughly corrupt. It cannot This chapter addresses these questions. weed all corruption out of the legislature or magi- cally turn a captive press corps into effective inde- pendent watchdogs. These are system-wide prob- CAN REFORMERS ADDRESS CORRUPTION lems that need broad remedies. ON A SECTOR-SPECIFIC BASIS? However, even in a society with system-wide problems, incremental improvement and sector- The National Integrity System approach suggests specific reforms can happen. For example, TI's envi- that fighting corruption is a broad battle that we ronment working paper discusses how environ- must fight on several fronts. Most of the key pillars mental management systems applied to local of national integrity are not sector-specific. Can government can help suppress corruption in public effective reforms even occur within a single sector? environmental services programs.54 The answer is a qualified "yes." TI occasionally In fact, incremental reforms are a practical long- takes sector-specific approaches. The biennial term strategy for corruption reform. In the literature International Anti-Corruption Conference, which of TI or elsewhere, there are few examples of dra- TI initiated and continues to sponsor, has included matic changes in the level of corruption in a society unless accompanied by general revolutionary social Scandal helped propel the turnabout. Railroad or political change. In fact, the pace of change can be owners took a shell corporation called Credit measured in years or even generations. Mobilier of America and awarded it lucrative con- A case in point in the forest sector is that of the tracts to construct new tracks. The owners allowed United States from the early nineteenth century to the construction company to overcharge the rail- the early twentieth. In the last forty years of that road, making fabulous profits, and passed stock in time, the country went from a thoroughly corrupt Credit Mobilier to members of Congress and the public forest administration system to one that was Vice President to assure the railroad favorable treat- reasonably honest. ment, including western land grants contingent on construction of more tracks. The scandal became public during the adminis- Case Study:Addressing Corruption in tration of President Ulysses S. Grant. When 26 the United States' Forest Sector in the Rutherford Hayes succeeded Grant in 1877, he 19th and 20th Centuries appointed a reform-minded man named Carl In the early nineteenth century, the administration Schurz as Secretary of the Interior with responsibil- of public resources was deplorable, with systemic ities for the public lands. flaws that prevented the government from policing Schurz supported not only better conservation itself. In the words of one scholar: practices but also civil service reform. Still, he fought an uphill battle. When Hayes declined to run [A]dministration was weak, incompetent, and for a second term as president after four years, corrupt. Major scandals featured land frauds, Schurz wrote to the new president: frequently involving bribery of state legisla- tors and theft of Native American lands. More The Interior Department is the most danger- than 90 cases involving land fraud reached the ous branch of the public service. It is more U.S. Supreme Court. The Court's reaction was exposed to corrupt influences and more sub- consistently to refuse to order an examination ject to untoward accidents than any other.57 of official wrongdoing no matter how com- pelling the evidence. In Fletcher v. Peck [a case Out of office, Schurz continued to crusade for decided in 1810], Chief Justice Marshall said it civil service reform. In 1883, a new civil service law would be improper for the Court to inquire reduced the number of political appointments and into bribery of the legislature; that it must began a trend towards applying standards of merit assume the incorruptibility of every depart- in the hiring and promotion of federal civil servants. ment of the government.55 In 1884, the Republican Party nominated James Blaine for president, a man tainted by the Credit In the mid-nineteenth century, the government Mobilier scandal years before. Schurz, himself a adopted a policy to encourage settlement and devel- Republican, revolted and split the party, allowing opment of lands in the western United States. the Democrat Grover Cleveland to win the election. Historians have called the resulting exploitation Cleveland, who served from 1885 to 1889 and again "the Great Barbeque." from 1893 to 1897, was instrumental in reforming public land laws and creating forest reserves. [T]imber was effectively open for the taking, The cleaning up of the administration of the much as was the case with federal minerals public forests took a great leap during the presiden- and rangeland. ... cy of Theodore Roosevelt, from 1901 to 1909. Roosevelt had first made his political reputation In addition to outright theft of timber, there fighting corruption as police commissioner of New was rampant abuse under the homesteading York City. He went on to become governor of New laws. The fraudulent schemes were so varied York State, Vice President, and President. and colorful, no summary can do them Besides having a reputation as a corruption justice ....54 fighter, he was known as an outdoorsman, and one TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION of his close advisors was Gifford Pinchot, a forester lic land administration completely or for all time. in the federal Department of Agriculture. Pinchot There would be scandals yet to come, including the had a low opinion of the Interior Department, writ- Teapot Dome scandal over oil, which rocked ing in his autobiography: President Harding's administration in the early1920s. There would be further reforms and The Administration of the public-land laws crusaders. by the General Land Office of the Interior Second, there were far more players behind Department is one of the great scandals of reform than the politicians and the bureaucrats. American history. At a time when, in the There were investigative reporters and editors, sci- West, the penalty for stealing a horse was entists and academics. Editorial cartoonists have an death--death without benefit of law--steal- honored history of rousing public opinion against ing the public land in open defiance of law corruption in America. Ding Darling, a cartoonist 27 was generally regarded with tolerance or even in the first half of the twentieth century, was so with open approval. ... effective in skewering the abuse and mismanage- ment of natural resources that a federal wildlife When I was appointed to the Division of reserve is now named in his honor. Civic organiza- Forestry [in the Agriculture Department] in tions such as the American Association for the 1898, the Forest Reserves ... were still in the Advancement of Science, the American Forestry Department of the Interior. To get charge of Association, the Sierra Club, and the Society of them [became] my chief object in life.58 American Foresters all played roles. Reform-mind- ed legislators help change laws and institutions. In In 1905, after a great deal of political spadework, short, many other pillars of the National Integrity with Roosevelt's help and the Congress's approval, System were involved. Pinchot succeeded. He then set about creating a But the story has some valid lessons to teach. new, corruption-resistant bureaucracy to manage Sector reforms advance as a sum of general and spe- the lands. He had been thinking about the problem cial efforts. General civil service reforms, for exam- for some time. In the early 1890s, Pinchot had cor- ple, fight cronyism and patronage across all of gov- responded with the respected German forester ernment, aiding forests as well. Special efforts in the Dietrich Brandis. How to keep forest officers free of area of forests, though, can score gains for forests corruption? that become models for other sectors. Local success demonstrates that corruption is not inevitable. It This problem required special handling, builds political will for wider reforms, and it sharp- Brandis offered, due to the dispersed nature ens the tools needed to carry out that reform. of a forest service, spread out and isolated Also, anti-corruption efforts do not have to over a vast terrain. It required creation of "a focus purely on fighting corruption. Pinchot and Staff of Officers, animated by strong and del- Roosevelt sought to improve forest management in icate feelings of honor, [and] impelled and general. They found that they had to address cor- roused by enthusiastic zeal for the public ruption as part of the problem. Anti-corruption good."59 groups can find allies among those fighting for bet- ter use of natural resources or greater justice for for- Pinchot recruited idealistic young men to serve as est-dependent communities. foresters. He imbued them with an esprit de corps Sector-specific efforts do have a place in what and a sense of duty that persisted in the US Forest will be a long battle against the corrupt use of forest Service long after political winds forced Pinchot out resources. And in any case, there is no profit in wait- of the federal bureaucracy. The result was a marked ing for system-wide reforms. Forests and forest- change in the administration of the federal forest dependent communities are suffering injuries today reserves. that may never heal and losses that are impossible to This story of reform is too simple in a sense. compensate. Any incremental gains that local First, Roosevelt and Pinchot did not clean up pub- efforts win are worth the effort. KEY QUESTIONS CAN REFORMERS DEVELOP GENERIC HOW DOTHE EFFORTS OF A CIVIL FOREST-SECTOR ANTI-CORRUPTION SOCIETY GROUP FIT WITHTHE TOOLS? EFFORTS OF OTHER REFORMERS? Can reformers develop generic tools, or must we The National Integrity System model suggests that shape them to fit specific social and political con- effective reform efforts will involve improving many texts? International development workers who try pillars of the system, as well as strengthening its to import reforms based on successes in other soci- foundations. Can the efforts of a civil society group eties often hear the refrain, "Yes, but you must be effective without direct help from other pillars? If understand the local context." What works in one civil society is to play a constructive role, how might country may not work in another, depending on the efforts of other pillars boost those of civil socie- 28 local knowledge, practices, values, and culture in ty? general. First, many of the general tools offered in the TI Nonetheless, the TI National Integrity System Toolkit and in specific form in this paper aim to approach is based on some universal precepts, increase public awareness. In the National Integrity including that no society broadly approves of cor- System model (recall Figure 8), strengthening public ruption and that transparency and accountability awareness strengthens all the pillars of national tend to discourage corruption. Many of the tools in integrity. In that sense, many of these tools indirect- the TI Toolkit grow out of these simple ideas. ly advance any other efforts taking place in pillars The tools themselves are not universal approaches. such as the legislature, the watchdog agencies, and The TI Toolkit describes each tool as it has been the media. adopted in a particular situation in a particular coun- Second, some of the tools are aimed at directly try. No one advocates taking any tool and replicating strengthening other pillars. For example, the "edu- it exactly in another context. Each tool serves as a cate journalists" tool strengthens the media, and the model to be adopted as needed to local conditions. "train enforcers" tool can strengthen executive and So, the answer is yes, reformers can develop watchdog agencies. generic forest-sector anti-corruption tools. The tools Third, some of the tools increase the accounta- must be based on widely applicable principles and bility of the other pillars. For example, document- must be adapted to local use. Not every tool will ing forest agency staffing and structure both checks serve in every situation, but with a variety of tools to abuses in staffing and makes the agency more trans- choose from, reformers should benefit from well- parent to the public. Implementation of integrity described generic options. pacts strengthens accountability of the private sec- This report offers a first set of generic forest- tor. sector anti-corruption tools for civil society groups. Fourth, some of the tools provide substitutes for As reformers test the tools in varied contexts, there weak or missing pillars. For example, collecting sta- will be improved understanding about the relative tistics on forest law enforcement or documenting merits of each and the best ways to adapt them. New government performance on forest-related tasks are tools will be identified, and perhaps some on the list efforts that an auditor general might take on, but will be discarded as impractical or ineffective. The that a civil society organization can attempt if the package of tools offered here, like the tools in auditor general is unwilling, uninterested, or absent TI's Toolkit, can evolve into a practical set of best entirely. Creating an outlet for public complaints is a practices for civil society to fight forest sector task normally handled by an ombudsman, but a civil corruption. society group can help air complaints even if no ombudsman is present. On the question of integrating the efforts of other pillars with those of civil society, there are many opportunities for synergy: The Legislature, through legal reform, oversight, and appropriations of funding, can: TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION · Increase the transparency of the forest-sector · Follow up on forest sector complaints bureaucracy, making it easier for civil society brought by civil society groups. groups to shed light on agency actions. Tools · Participate in civil society workshops and such as documenting government perform- training. ance are easier to implement if the agency is · Be transparent themselves, so that civil socie- transparent. ty groups can fairly report on the effective- · Establish forest auditors and ombudsmen, if ness of their oversight. they do not already exist. This will give civil society efforts additional avenues for influ- Public Service personnel can: encing government behavior. · Cooperate with civil society in adopting codes · Fully fund anti-corruption efforts within the of ethics and professional responsibility for forest bureaucracy and allow government government foresters. 29 workers to take advantage of such things as · Take advantage of training and capacity civil society training and conferences. building. · Allocate funds directly to civil society groups to promote their participation in forest anti- Media can: corruption efforts. · Help increase the success of civil society pub- · Through legislative hearings, provide a forum lic awareness campaigns by reporting on to inform the public about civil society efforts. them. · Find common cause with civil society in The Executive can: pushing for greater transparency in public · Release discretionary drafts of forest regula- forest activities. tions and plans and invite civil society and · Use civil society resources to learn more the public in general to participate in rule- about forest corruption, its impacts, and how making and planning. to fight it. · Open government forestry budgets and records to media, civil society, and the public The Private Sector can: in general. · Participate with civil society in implementing · Cooperate with civil society groups in dis- forest integrity pacts. seminating information about forest con- · Urge government to establish fair and open tracts and concessions. forest concession and contracting systems. · Take advantage of training and capacity · Take advantage of civil society information building offered by civil society groups and on forest concessions and contracting to others. make the process more competitive and open. The Judiciary can: · Use market power to reward good actors in · Apply the laws concerning transparency and the forest sector. corruption firmly, evenhandedly, and fairly within the forest sector. International Actors can: · Protect the rights of forest whistleblowers and · Help fund civil society anti-corruption work other reformers. in the forest sector. · Take advantage of training and capacity · Help with training and capacity building. building in forest-related areas. · Make sure trade laws and treaties promote transparency and integrity in the forest sector. NOTES Auditors General, Ombudsmen, and Watchdog Agencies can: KEY QUESTIONS 49. Inter-American Development Bank (2002). 56. Wilkinson (1992), pp. 120­21. 50. Transparency International (2001). 57. Futrell (1993), p. 20. 51. See list and links at http://www.transparency.org/work- 58. Pinchot (1947), pp. 243­244. ing_papers/index.html. 59. Miller (2001), p. 279. 52. Lippe (1999). 53. Hafner (1998). 54. Lippe (1999). 55. Futrell (1993), pp. 11­12. 30 TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION Concluding Observations 31 F orest sector corruption is a chronic problem In this effort, forest corruption is often given too that invites action from many actors on many little emphasis. The common tools available to levels. Civil society groups have the potential fight timber theft and illegal trade, including to play a highly constructive role. More than most increased enforcements, certification, and chain of other groups, they can raise public awareness and custody tracking, cannot put an end to bribery, inspire other corruption fighters to take action. fraud, and the other forms of forest corruption. In Transparency International's dedication and fact, those tools are in constant danger of falling approach to corruption fighting is unique. The victim to corruption. efforts of TI chapters around the world, as reported The TI approach is a constructive and perhaps in the TI Toolkit, offer project blueprints that civil necessary addition to the fight against illegal log- society groups can readily adapt to the fight against ging. In this fight, programs like the Forest Integrity forest corruption. Network have a role to play and deserve the forest An unusually broad coalition of stakeholders community's support. has emerged in recent years to fight illegal logging. Literature Cited 33 Atyi, Richard Eba'a and Markku Simula. 2002. For- ence Workshop "Corruption and Health," est Certification: Pending Challenges for Trop- Prague, Czech Republic, October 2001. 50pp. ical Timber. Background paper prepared for Lambsdorff, Johann. 2002. Corruption Perceptions the ITTO International Workshop on Compa- Index, pp. 262­65 in TI, Global Corruption rability and Equivalence of Forest Certification Report (2003). (available on the Internet at Schemes, Kuala Lumpur, 3-4 April, 2002. http://www.globalcorruptionreport.org/). Curran, L.M. et al. 2004. Lowland Forest Loss in Lippe, Michael. 1999. Working paper: Corruption Protected Areas of Indonesian Borneo. Science and Environment at the Local Level. (available Vol. 303, pp. 1000­03 (13 Feb. 2004). on the Internet at http://www.transparency.org/ Futrell, William. 1993. The History of Environmen- working_papers/lippe/lippe.html). tal Law, pp 3­91 of Sustainable Environmental Miller, Char. 2001. Gifford Pinchot and the Making Law: Integrating Natural Resource and Pollu- of Modern Environmentalism. Island Press. tion Abatement Law from Resources to Recov- 458 pp. ery (Celia Campbell-Mohn et al., eds.). West Paul, Samuel, Suresh Balakrishnan, K Gopakumar, Publishing Co. 1529 pp. Sita Sekhar and M Vivekananda. 2004. State of Galtung, Fredrik. 2002. Bribe Payers Index, pp. India's Public Services: Benchmark for the 266­68 in TI, Global Corruption Report States. Economic and Political Weekly Feb. 28, (2003). (available on the Internet at http:// 2004, pp. 920-933. www.globalcorruptionreport.org/). Pinchot, Gifford. 1947. Breaking New Ground. Hafner, Othmar. 1998. Working paper: The role of Reprinted by Island Press. 522 pp. corruption in the misappropriation of tropical Pope, J. 2000. Confronting Corruption: The Ele- forest resources and in tropical forest destruc- ments of a National Integrity System [The TI tion. (available on the Internet at http://www. Source Book 2000]. 364 pp. (available on the transparency.org/working_papers/hafner/ Internet at http://www.transparency.org/ ohafner.html). sourcebook/index.html). Inter-American Development Bank. 2002. Corrup- TI Source Book 2000: See Pope (2000) above. tion in Health Services: Papers presented at the Toolkit: See Transparency International (2003) 10th International Anti-Corruption Confer- below. Transparency International. 2001. Report on the emerging strategies. (for the most recent ver- Conference: Corruption in the Official Arms sion available on the Internet; see http:// Trade, Cambridge, April 5­7, 2001. Gillian Dell www.transparency.org/toolkits/index.html). and Susanna Krueger, eds. 113 pp. Wilkinson, Charles, 1992. Crossing the Next Merid- Transparency International. 2003. Corruption ian: Land, Water, and the Future of the West. Fighters' Toolkit: Civil society experiences and Island Press. 376 pp. 34 TOOLS FOR CIVIL SOCIETY ACTION TO REDUCE FOREST CORRUPTION