SOMALIA Social Protection Stocktaking of Evidence for a Social Protection Policy and Framework 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 9 3 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 11 4 Legal Framework, Institutions and Key Actors ................................................................................... 13 5 Alignment of Policies with Needs of Somali Population ..................................................................... 17 5.1 Risks and Vulnerabilities ............................................................................................................. 17 5.2 Household level Vulnerabilities .................................................................................................. 25 5.3 Existing Schemes and Coverage .................................................................................................. 31 6 Sources of Financing ........................................................................................................................... 37 7 Social Protection Implementation ...................................................................................................... 39 7.1 Targeting Mechanisms ................................................................................................................ 39 7.2 Delivery Mechanisms .................................................................................................................. 42 8 Challenges & Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 46 Box: Box 1: What is Social Protection? ................................................................................................................. 9 Box 2: Aid Diversion to Gatekeepers .......................................................................................................... 41 Box 3: Dahabshill: The Modern form of Havala System ............................................................................. 42 Tables: Table 1: Traditional Coping Mechanisms .................................................................................................... 16 Table 2: Facility Mapping of IDP Settlements ............................................................................................. 22 Table 3: Facility Mapping of Kismayo ......................................................................................................... 24 Table 4: Incidence of Multiple Deprivations in Somalia, by Region............................................................ 28 Table 5: Active Schemes by NGOs and INGOs - 2016/2017........................................................................ 34 Table 6: Budget for Active Social Protection (SP) Schemes in Somalia 2015-2017 .................................... 37 Table 7: Overview of Electronic Money Transfer Services in Somalia ........................................................ 44 Table 8: Cities for which Infrastructure Mapping in Available.................................................................... 55 Table 9: Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment (SIRNA).......................................................................... 59 Figures: Figure 1: Livelihood Zones .......................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 2: Preferred Destination on Return to Somalia from Dadaab ......................................................... 20 Figure 3: Demographic Features of Somali Population .............................................................................. 26 Figure 4: Overall Poverty Incidence ............................................................................................................ 27 Figure 5: Overall Poverty by Region ............................................................................................................ 27 Figure 6: Poverty Rates by Gender of Household Head ............................................................................. 29 Figure 7: Poverty Incidence by Household Head's Access to Education..................................................... 29 Figure 8: Main Source of Income by Region ............................................................................................... 30 Figure 9: Poverty Incidence by Income Source ........................................................................................... 30 Figure 10: NGO and INGO Accessible Regions (General Access Map 2017) ............................................... 32 Figure 11: Mobile Accounts in Somalia ....................................................................................................... 43 Annexes Annex 1: List of Key Development Partners ............................................................................................... 49 Annex 2: Facility Mapping in Kismayo ........................................................................................................ 51 Annex 3: Geographic Reach of HFS Data .................................................................................................... 52 Annex 4: Composition of MEB .................................................................................................................... 53 Annex 5: Somalia Mobile Money Ecosystem Mapping............................................................................... 54 Annex 6: Information Systems .................................................................................................................... 55 Annex 7: Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 61 Acknowledgements This report was prepared under the guidance of Maniza Naqvi, who is the Task Team Leader for diagnostic work on Social Protection in Somalia. Zaineb Majoka is the lead author of this report. Beatrice Leydier provided research and data input. The team would like to thank the following for their comments and feedback: Matthew Hobson, Matthias Mayr, Utz Johann Pape, Emma Mistiaen, Yonathan Araya and John Burton (UNHCR), Pamela Dale (UNICEF), Degan Ali and Deqa Saleh (ADESO), Massimo Larossa (ECHO), Seb Fouquet, Leo Thomas and Dorian Laguardia (DfID), Danielle Trotter, Emmanuel Odonga and Caroline Muchai (WFP), Gianmaria Pinto, Perrine Pitton, Martijn Goddeeris, and Nicola Cozza (BRCiS), Alessia Ricardi (Somalia Cooperazione), Sarah King (NRC), Mercy Gitau (CONCERN), Geeta Bandi-Phillips and Charles Otieno (World Vision International), Stephen Mutiso (Save the Children), Mark Bradbury (Rift Valley Institute), Pauline Gibourdel (European Commission), Ilias Dirie (ILO), Valerie Ceylon (ACTED), Asha Sawyer (FAO), and Joseph Slowey (REACH). Executive Summary Introduction i. This note maps the key elements of Somalia’s social protection framework that includes the assessment of existing institutions, policy making processes and the capacity to meet the needs of the Somali population. This can serve as a shared evidence base for country and partner dialogue on how to strengthen social protection in Somalia. Demographics ii. Somalia’s total population is estimated to be 12.3 million in 2014. Of this, 60 percent live in rural areas and 40 percent in urban areas. There are between 1.1 to 1.5 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) due to droughts and conflicts who live in settlements close to the urban areas. Majority of the Somali population is young (under 30 years of age) and female. There are around 2 million Somalis living in other countries, of which 875,664 Somalis are living as refugees in the neighboring countries. Poverty and Vulnerability iii. According to a recent survey over 50 percent of the surveyed population falls below the poverty line of USD 1.90 2011 PPP per day. It may be an underestimation of poverty since the survey does not cover most of the rural and inaccessible areas. However, there is significant variation across regions with IDPs being the most vulnerable with 72 percent of their population living in poverty. Somalis in urban areas, excluding Mogadishu, are better off as compared to those in rural areas. Individuals in rural areas also have poorer access to education and health services and clean water as compared to their counterparts in urban areas. 48 percent of the surveyed population has no education. IDPs remain the most vulnerable. iv. Female gender is not the predictor of poverty in Somalia where probability of being poor for women is 51.2 percent as compared to 52.6 percent for men. However, fewer women have access to education and jobs. 55 percent of women have no education as compared to 40 percent of men. It is surprising to note that more than 50 percent of households are female headed. It could be an issue of misreporting as majority of the female heads report being married. v. The younger population of under 15 years of age in Somalia is the poorest and the most vulnerable. Children under 5 and individuals between 5 and 15 are most likely to be poor of all with poverty rates of 56 and 59 respectively. In comparison, among the youth between 15 and 30 years of age, the poverty rate is 43 percent and among those older than 30, it is 49 percent. Also, almost 47 percent of 6 to 17-year-old children are currently not enrolled in any school. Responding to their vulnerabilities can contribute significantly to Somalia’s growth and prosperity. vi. Access to education has a significant impact on poverty. The incidence of poverty is significantly higher among households whose heads have no education. Having access to education rather than the level of education, makes all the difference Wages and Remittances vii. Wages are the most important source of income in Somalia followed by remittances. Poverty incidence is also lower among households that earn wages and or have received remittances from abroad. Only 35 percent of households reporting remittances as their primary source of income are below the poverty line and 47 percent of those reporting wage as their primary source of income are below the poverty line. As expected, poverty rates are highest among those who don’t have any source of income with 65 percent below the poverty line. viii. Remittances have played a major role in mitigating poverty and vulnerability at the household level. Per an estimate, Somalia received around USD 1.4 billion in remittances in 2015, which accounts for 23 percent of its GDP.1 With a highly-engaged diaspora, remittances have proved to be one of the most stable and reliable sources of regular income for households that has helped them smooth their consumption. Of the remittance receiving households, only 36 percent fall below the poverty line whereas of those that don’t receive remittances, 55.8 percent are below the poverty line. Risks and Hazards ix. Somalia is prone to climate shocks where the frequency of droughts has been increasing. Countries that have a functioning social protection system informed by early warning systems are better able to respond to such shocks. Somalia will continue to be prone to multiple types of natural hazards such as floods, wild fire, water scarcity and extreme heat.2 The direct impacts of disasters include food price volatility, food insecurity, displacement, migration and potential conflict over land and natural resources. Planning of social protection programs in Somalia must consider these factors so that preventative measures can be integrated. x. Climate shocks affect the cereal production, which in turn has a direct impact on a household’s welfare and its purchasing power. After the reduced rainfall in 2016, the harvest in the South was below average, which led to a price hike. The cereal prices also often rise when low rainfalls are anticipated. This leads to food insecurity. As of January 2017, 6.2 million people were food insecure and 3 million people were unable to meet their daily food requirements.3 Identifying regions that are food insecure can lead to prioritizing of relief efforts. xi. Any fluctuation in climate also has far reaching consequences on the livelihoods. Pastoralism and agro-pastoralism is the backbone of Somali economy with around 65 percent of Somali population dependent on it. Low levels of rainfall can lead to reduction in livestock herd size due to death, accelerated sales and low livestock production. This shortage also results in less availability of milk. xii. Kenya’s decision to close Dadaab refugee camp can add to the strain to the existing formal and informal structures in Somalia. This will also disrupt markets and livelihoods. The UNHCR has been supporting the return of refugees from Dadaab to selected destinations in Somalia by providing them with cash and in-kind grants. Social Protection Schemes & Institutions xiii. There is no formal and government led social protection program in Somalia. The government has identified social protection as its priority but the institutional capacity to implement such a program is 1 World Bank 2016b 2 Data in Figure 1 is from World Bank’s database ThinkHazard! (http://thinkhazard.org/en/report/226-somalia). This data was downloaded on August 31st, 2017. The hazard levels and guidance given in ThinkHazard! do not replace the need for detailed natural hazard risk analysis and/or expert advice. 3 http://www1.wfp.org/countries/somalia limited. In the absence of a formal social protection system, households in Somalia rely on three sources to cope with shocks and vulnerabilities: remittances from family and friends; community based traditional safety nets and redistribution mechanism; and social protection interventions implemented by international organizations. xiv. Most of the interventions by other development actors started as a response to humanitarian crisis caused by recurrent climatic shocks. But gradually they have been transitioning to establishing long-term safety nets that provide protection to the poorest and the most vulnerable households. They mostly work in partnership with the local governments or community leaders. Though their own presence, capacity and reach is limited, they have mechanisms in place on the ground through these local partners that help in delivering assistance rapidly. Most of the safety nets interventions by the international organizations are cash based. Annex 1 has a list of organizations that have active social protection programs in Somalia. xv. In fragile and conflict environments, community based targeting can promote social cohesion by encouraging joint decision making while ensuring that the programs generate broad benefits. Most of the current interventions in Somalia were designed after consultations with the community. However, relying on community leaders for targeting can also lead to marginalization of minority and vulnerable populations. Community based approaches to delivery should be part of the future social protection model to incorporate social dialogue. But efforts must be made to gain access to vulnerable communities. xvi. The technology infrastructure in terms of mobile payments is very well-developed, which makes it the preferred mode of delivering cash or in-kind transfers. There is an extensive cellular network where almost all major mobile networks provide Mobile Money Transfer (MMT) services. These initiatives have gained popularity because of the absence of a formal banking system in Somalia. The usage of these services is also high since cell phone use is fairly common in Somalia. According to the World Bank data, in 2015 there were 52 cellular subscriptions per 100 people in Somalia4 whereas according to a Gallup poll, 72.4 percent of responded reported personally owning a cell phone.5 Other delivery mechanisms include smart cards and e-vouchers, which are prone to many errors such as biometrics not matching, charging of “social tax� by retail stores, and point of purchase being too far. Implications for Social Protection xvii. Moving forward, there must be better coordination among donors, government actors and implementation partners in policy making, monitoring, financing and delivery of social protection interventions. This report can serve as a shared evidence base for country dialogue on how to strengthen Somalia’s safety nets and identify a set of entry level policy reform options, considering local conditions. Moving forward, through building human resource and institutional capacity, the government should take the central role policy making and implementation. Next Steps xviii. Deeper understanding and analysis of these issues would strengthen the formulation of a social protection strategy and framework for Somalia. A roundtable with the stakeholders will be organized in to disseminate the findings and to discuss and find consensus on how to build government run social protection system in Somalia. The second wave of High Frequency Survey in Somalia, data for which is 4 For more information, visit the World Bank website: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2 5 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2015 currently being collected, has a section on access to social protection interventions. This will help to identify the most vulnerable populations that are currently not being served by any social protection structure and intervention. xxi. Bringing together all stakeholders can lead to a harmonized approach towards social protection with a consensus on objectives and target. Right now, there is a lot of variation in implementation of social protection initiatives for example, amount of benefit, targeting strategy, delivery mechanism etc. A flat benefit amount makes it easier to evaluate impact of programs. It’s also hard to conclude anything regarding scale and coverage of these schemes as the databases are fragmented, specific an organization’s caseload, due to which it cannot be ensured that a single household is not being served twice. One way to move forward is to consolidate databases to harmonize planning and targeting. It can also serve as a precursor to a single registry system. 2 INTRODUCTION 1. This note provides an assessment of the existing social protection framework in Somalia that could support the formulation of a national level social protection framework (Box 1). This work will map the key elements of Somalia’s social protection interventions, including national objectives, policies, programs and strategies. It aims to serve as a shared evidence base for country dialogue on how to strengthen Somali’s social protection interventions and create a system; identify a set of entry level policy reform options; and support and promote the exchange and coordination between Somali and international partners. This study is part of the activities funded by a Rapid Social Response (RSR) Trust Fund for Somalia.6 This study also represents the second deliverable in the World Bank’s diagnostic work on social protection in Somalia and builds on the Somaliland Social Protection Policy Note (June 2016). Box 1: What is Social Protection? The World Bank’s definition of social protection is based on three core values that address poverty and vulnerability from different dimensions. These include resilience, equity and opportunity. This framework also appears in the social protection literature as prevention, protection, and promotion. 1. Resilience, also referred to as prevention, is created by preventing people from shocks that adversely affect their wellbeing. Social insurance programs such as unemployment and disability insurance, old age pension, and scalable public works programs are used to protect individuals and families from economic shocks whereby creating resilience against future shocks. Apart from formal measure, private and informal initiatives, including savings groups and asset accumulation, also serve the same purpose. 2. Equity, also referred to as protection, is ensured by protecting people against destitution while promoting equality of opportunity. It is usually done through social assistance programs like cash transfers and in-kind transfers and a range of social services that protect individuals and families from irreversible losses of human capital. These programs focus on nutrition, health and education to strengthen human capital whereby promoting equality of opportunity. 3. Opportunity, or promotion, has been included in the social protection definition only recently and is often combined with programs focusing on resilience and equity. It works on improving health, nutrition, education, and skills development while promoting access to productive work. Example of such programs are those labor market initiatives that build skills that enhance workers’ employability and employability. Cash transfer programs encourage investments in human capital, which has an indirect effect on gender equality. 2. In Somalia’s context, social protection includes all programs and interventions that aim to r educe vulnerability and poverty as well as protect households and individuals against natural and man-made shocks. All the programs that are currently being implemented in Somalia that address hunger and extreme poverty fall on the spectrum of social protection. Similarly, programs that protect the individual and household from vulnerabilities due to economic or other shocks can be referred to as the safety nets for social protection. A working definition of social protection for Somalia can be: policies, projects and programs to reduce social and economic risks and vulnerability caused by conflict, climate, poverty, food insecurity, lack of education and health services, gender inequality, and age, and to promote resilience 6 The RSR Multi-Donor Trust Fund (RSR-MDTF) has contributions from the Russian Federation, Norway, Sweden, Australia and the United Kingdom. through appropriate, predictable, and reliable interventions in income and food security for a population that is defined by pastoralism but rapidly urbanizing and mainly young. 3. The development partners in Somalia are working towards transition from emergency relief and humanitarian approach to a more systematic development approach to mitigate vulnerability and build resilience in their programs. Most of the programs in Somalia were initiated as an emergency response to protect people from the external shocks and had an immediate relief and rescue approach and hence have had a short-term focus. But there is a consensus among development partners to adopt a longer- term development approach which builds resilience. Most of the organizations working on Somalia, given security concerns, are based in Nairobi, Kenya. These include think tanks, research centers, implementing organizations both local and international, and donor organizations. Most of the implementing organizations partner with local Somali organizations to gain access to communities and to successfully implement their programs. 4. This note takes stock of the ongoing projects and activities in Somalia being implemented by national and international organizations, which target vulnerability and poverty and which fall within the realm of social protection. It relies on interviews with representatives from development partners; literature review; data analysis; and review of reports and policy briefs published on displacement, social protection, poverty and vulnerability, resilience, fiscal space including banking regulations, trade, economic development, information and communication technology, political economy of Somalia, and social issues like social dynamics, traditional livelihoods, and violence. The list of development partners is based on discussions with Cash Working Groups and Resilience Working Group. However, this list may not be exhaustive. Moreover, there is not enough information on most areas in southern regions of Somalia due to access issues. 5. This note assesses the key elements of social protection policy, design and implementation in Somalia. Section 3 gives a background of Somalia’s history of conflict and climate related shocks and discusses issues such as traditional livelihoods, displacement, minority groups, and food production and qat use. Section 4 reviews the laws and regulations around social protection and also lists institutions and key actors engaged in this sector. Section 5 analyzes risks and vulnerabilities that Somalis face both at macro and micro levels while giving an over view of coverage of on-going social protection schemes and initiatives. It also analyzes poverty from a multidimensional approach and looks at various sources of vulnerability at household level. Section 6 lists sources of financing of social protection initiatives. Section 7 explores the social protection implementation capacity with a focus on targeting mechanisms and delivery capacity. Finally, Section 8 gives challenges and recommendations to develop a government led social protection program. 3 BACKGROUND Demographics of Somali Population 6. The total population is estimated to be around 12.3 million in 2014 with 42.4 percent living in urban areas, 22.8 percent in rural areas, 25.9 percent nomadic and 9 percent IDPs.7 Around two million Somalis from across the country live as refugees and migrants in Kenya, Yemen, Ethiopia, Western Europe, the United States and the Middle East. Majority of the refugees are based in Kenya in two main refugee camps – Dadaab and Kakuma – and other urban areas.8 7. Apart from displacement across borders, the armed conflicts and natural disasters in Somalia have caused huge internal displacement. Currently, there are approximately 2.2 million internally displaced persons,9 majority of whom are women and children under 18. Drought, flood, insecurity, disease outbreak and resource based competition are the most common cited reasons for displacement.10 Factors contributing to conflict and hunger 8. East Africa has experienced several droughts in the past few decades, where the frequency of such natural disasters has increased with the passage of time, and has been a significant burden on the capacity and resources of the countries. The drought in 2011 caused a severe food crisis in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya while neighboring countries, Sudan, South Sudan, and Uganda were also affected. However, in Somalia, the situation quickly deteriorated and took the form of a famine. 9. The death toll during the famine in 1991 was compounded by civil war, which caused failure to sustain food production, inaccessibility of food, and lack and ineffectiveness of response from the government and the international community. The governance structure was already non-existent in Somalia due to the twenty year-long civil war. This, coupled with a huge internal and external displacement in which thousands of people fled their homes in search for food to other parts of the country and beyond the borders, made it even more difficult to contain its impact.11 In 2012, in the aftermath of the civil war and famine, the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) was established whereas the Governments of Somaliland and Puntland were already in place. There is no clear demarcation of roles and jurisdiction of each layer, which adds to the complexity of Somalia’s political landscape. 10. Due to continuous conflict and displacement, the traditional pastoral lifestyle in Somalia has also been threatened, which has affected livelihood opportunities. Pastoralism involves raising different types of livestock primarily for milk and meat production and moving back and forth seasonally along a traditional land route to access grass and water for the livestock. Over 65 percent of the population is engaged in the livestock sector in one way or the other. Pastoralism is prevalent all over Somalia but strict pastoralists are more concentrated in the north and central areas while agro-pastoralists are found in the 7 Population Estimation Survey 2014 8 UNHCR 2015 9 https://www.unocha.org/somalia/about-ocha-somalia 10 IOM 2017 11 Oxfam 2011 southern areas. Unpredictable rainfall patterns in the Horn of Africa have led to complex migration patterns of pastoralists in search for grazing land.12 11. Until the early 1980s, Somalia was one of the principal exporters of livestock and livestock products in the region. Livestock is primarily exported to Kenya, Djibouti, Ethiopia and various countries in the Arabian Peninsula.13 This trade accounted for around 80 percent of country’s income earnings14 however it has been periodically interrupted due to droughts and international bans. There was a drastic decline between 1982 and 1985, primarily due to the Saudi import ban on suspected diseased cattle from Somalia. At the same time, there were shipping problems and an increase of export of livestock from Australia and Turkey to Saudi Arabia, which subsequently reduced livestock export from Somalia. However, livestock export from Somalia improved again after 1985 and accounted for 40 percent of GDP in 1988.15 In 1990s, the collapse of the government followed by the famine had detrimental consequences for the pastoral economy. The outbreak of Rift Valley Fever in 1998 served as the final blow when eight of the Gulf States, which were primary importers of Somali livestock, imposed a livestock ban. This led to a significant blow to the economy, worsened pastoralist livelihoods and pushed pastoralists into destitution.16 More recently, the trade of livestock has improved significantly where 2010 proved to be a landmark year with export of 4.3 million animals.17 There was a further 6 percent growth in 2015 where 5.3 million livestock were exported, contributing 40 percent to the country’s GDP.18 12. Qat, 19 a type of narcotic, is increasingly being consumed in Somalia, affecting the livelihoods of people as well as the economy at large.20 Addiction to qat is like any other drug addiction that has physiological as well as psychological effects. It is estimated that 90 percent of adult males in Somaliland are addicted to qat.21 It is imported into the country primarily from neighboring Ethiopia and Kenya. Once an individual gets addicted to qat, they are likely to abandon work, including livestock husbandry and spend their cash on the purchase of qat. Those households that consume qat, spend USD 9.8 on average per week on it.22 12 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/livestock/en/ 13 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/livestock/en/ 14 World Bank 2005 15 Elmi 1991 16 Elmi 1991 17 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/livestock/en/ 18 http://www.fao.org/somalia/news/detail-events/en/c/410266/ 19 Also spelled as khat or kat 20 https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/03/somaliland-abuzz-ethiopia-khat-convoys- 150325100843701.html 21 http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/03/somaliland-abuzz-ethiopia-khat-convoys- 150325100843701.html 22 Somali High Frequency Survey 2016, Wave 1. This number only considers households who are consumers of qat. Taking into account the whole population (including qat non-consumers), the weekly qat consumption per household goes down to USD 1.44 (because most household consume 0 – or report so in HFS). 4 LEGAL FRAMEWORK, INSTITUTIONS AND KEY ACTORS 13. A robust social protection system is essential to mitigate poverty and vulnerability in Somalia. However, governments play a key role in establishing a functioning social protection system, which relies on legislation and institutions and these are weak and fragile in Somalia. Government, in a stable state is responsible for laying the foundation for a system and implementing it through policies which formulate, align and coordinate different programs and actors. It is important to examine the extent to which the development of policies and strategies are beginning to emerge in Somalia and to assess the direction of progress and to identify next steps. Legal Framework and National Objectives 14. The Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) in its first draft of the National Development Plan (NDP) which was released in June 2016 covering three fiscal years from 2017 to 2019, mentions social protection under its resilience pillar. The NDP has six pillars in total with Social Protection sub-committee under the umbrella of Somali National Resilience Committee. Currently, the focus of resilience building is on food and nutrition security; displacement; and diaspora. It puts the responsibility of taking the lead in social protection and resilience building on NGOs and other international organizations. But it creates a space for developing a holistic and coordinated approach where the government will take the lead in protecting the vulnerable population. 15. The development of a formal social protection system is still at a nascent stage leadership lines need clarification. Resilience building and social protection came under the ambit of Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management but lately Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has been made responsible for developing social protection system for Somalia. Depending on the scope and design of specific projects, other agencies such as Ministries of Women, Youth, and Labor and Aid Coordination Units and Disaster Management Agency representatives from the federal states also participate. The designation of social protection role is more advanced in Somaliland where the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs takes the lead whereas Ministries of Planning, Finance and Interior are members of a Technical Steering Committee. Social Protection Policymaking Process 16. There is no formal social protection system in Somalia but the government is currently working on drafting a National Social Protection Strategy. It will delineate the institutional role of FGS and will present strategies to provide safety nets to the vulnerable populations. UNICEF is playing a key role in its development and will engage in building government’s capacity to deliver safety nets and in developing information management system, both of which are required for effective implementation of a social protection policy. They also plan to develop targeting strategies to reach the vulnerable populations by i) exploring existing information to identify key characteristics associated with poverty and reduced access to services; ii) by geotagging data on supply of key services such as functioning health centers and schools; and iii) mapping access of minority groups to social services and humanitarian support. Key Development Actors 17. Most of the key development actors in Somalia are national and international non-governmental organizations. These organizations started providing relief to vulnerable households primarily in response to the humanitarian crisis caused by conflict and recurrent climatic shocks. But gradually they have been transitioning to establishing long-term safety nets that provide protection to the poorest and the most vulnerable households. They mostly work in partnership with the local governments or community leaders. Though their own presence, capacity and reach is limited, they have mechanisms in place on the ground through these local partners that help in delivering assistance rapidly. Annex 1 has a list of organizations that have active social protection programs in Somalia. Coordination Mechanisms 18. Given that there are several international and local organizations working on social protection or resilience building, several coordination mechanisms have emerged to align the small-scale schemes with the government’s goals. Only one of them is led by the government whereas others are either groups of implementing agencies or implementing agencies and donors.  Resilience Pillar Working Group: It was set up in Mogadishu in summer of 2017 and is led by The Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management. It organizes meetings with NGOs and INGOs to share knowledge and discuss policy direction.  Somalia Development and Reconstruction Facility (SDRF): It was developed under the Somali Compact23 and works under the guidance of the FGS. It provides a coordination framework as well as a financing infrastructure to implement programs. It also serves as a platform for the government and development partners to guide and oversee activities in Somalia. The main objectives of SDRF are: to invest resources in priorities areas as identified in Somali Compact; to develop capacity of state institutions by placing Somali institutions in lead roles; to facilitate transition towards using country’s own PFM systems; to increase transparency and accountability of international aid to Somalia; to reduce transaction cost and risks by pooling funds; and to avoid duplication of efforts by improving coordination between institutions and other organizations.24  The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA): It is a UN agency has been mobilizing and coordinating humanitarian efforts in Somalia since 1999. Its objective is to ensure coordinated, effective and principled inter-agency humanitarian response.25  Resilience Working Group: It function under the umbrella of Somalia NGO consortium, which is a membership based organization consisting of national and international NGOs. They work on facilitating humanitarian and development project to ensure their effective and efficient delivery to all Somalis. The Resilience Working Group was established to share information and to learn from members’ experience regarding resilience building.  Building Resilient Communities in Somalia (BRCiS): It is an NGO consortium made up of 5 international organizations. It works together with Somali communities and local organizations to design interventions that best serve the needs of the community. 23 In 2013, an agreement was reached between the FGS and development partners at a conference in Brussels which focuses on five Somali Peace and State Building Goals (PSG): Inclusive Politics; Security; Justice; Economic Foundations; and Revenue and Services. The cross cutting issues are gender, capacity development, delivery of tangible results, respect of human rights, and external relations. 24 World Bank 2015 25 For more information, see UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) website: http://www.unocha.org/somalia/about-ocha-somalia/about-ocha-somalia  Somalia Resilience Program (SomRep): It is composed of seven international NGOs - Oxfam, Adra, ACF, Danish Refugee Council, Care, Coopi and World Vision International – that work to improve resilience of chronically vulnerable households and communities in Somalia.  Cash Working Group: It revived its activity in February 2017 in response to the drought warnings. It brings together all actors that are using cash based interventions to coordinate their activities and to adopt a uniform approach.26 The overall objective is to support the cash based interventions, wherever appropriate, and to harmonize design, development and implementation of such interventions. It also focuses on improving efficiency and effectiveness through collaborative planning and coordination. It is co-chaired by one NGO and one UN agency. It also has a work stream on Mobile Money that tries to facilitate use of mobile phones for delivering cash and often invites private sector actors to its meetings. 19. The coordination mechanisms have managed to harmonize the design of cash based interventions but it is primarily being led by the NGO sector. There is an agreement on design features such as benefit amount. The implementation organizations also share best practices in terms of targeting and delivery mechanisms however there is little distinction between humanitarian and development approach. Social protection is often discussed in terms of resilience, where NGOs and INGOs play the main role. There is also no collaboration on sharing databases so overlapping of beneficiaries could not be avoided. Coordination with donors is also limited, which has resulted in different donors funding initiatives that align with their mandates. The government’s involvement remains limited where its role is to stay focused on policymaking and not program implementation. Unless the government is more involved in this process, a government led social protection system will be hard to establish. Traditional Mechanisms 20. In times of crisis, Somalis have relied on traditional safety nets that are based on social group affiliations and emphasis on communities rather than individuals. Currently, most people rely on social capital or traditional coping mechanisms to protect themselves against shocks and vulnerabilities. Social capital also serves as a basic source of income protection. When in need, Somalis first rely on family, community or religious leaders, in this order. The local government and religious leaders often facilitate raising money for these individuals by reaching out to the community and charities. 21. Initiatives such as pooling of resources to help the most vulnerable in the community are already a part of the fabric of Somali society. Such structures have existed informally all along and have helped Somalis cope with crises. The World Vision Somalia conducted focus group discussions in Puntland in 2015 to identify informal safety nets and concluded that family and community leaders are the most important informal safety nets for the vulnerable households and individuals.27 Social structures facilitate sharing and transfer of resources to households in need through established mechanisms. Table 1 gives details of some of such traditional coping mechanisms that were identified during a workshop held by UNICEF to train policy makers in Somalia on social protection. It is evident that there are several traditional 26 Currently its membership includes UN agencies (FAO, IOM, UNHCR and WFP), ICRC, IFRC, CaLP, INGOs (ACF, ACTED, ADESO, ADRA, CARE, CESVI, COOPI, CWW, DRC, IRC, Mercy Corps, NCA, NRC, RI, SCI, Solidarities, WVI, World Concern, etc.), NNGOs (SADO, Southern Aid, WOCCA etc.), Donor (from Donor Working Group) and OCHA/cluster representation for overall coordination. 27 World Vision 2015b mechanisms that mirror social safety nets and can serve as a framework to develop a formal social protection system. Table 1: Traditional Coping Mechanisms Zaqat Religious obligation for Muslims whose wealth exceeds a certain threshold (equivalent to 85g of gold) to pay a mandatory contribution to eight categories including poor, needy, those who are indebted and wayfarers who do not have anyone to support them. Sadaqah Voluntary charity Quaraan Donations into a pooled fund that is shared between poor households in the community. Irmaansi (rural) Sharing of milk to poor households through loan of a milking animal and use the milk. Dhowrto/Xersi Sharing of milk (rural areas): surplus milk and butter are distributed among poor households with no milking animals, especially during dry season. Afur Wealthier households provide food to the poorest households. Axan When a family member dies, the community provides food for the household (first week) Talci Funeral support Affarta-bax Assistance provided to a woman for 40 days after the birth of a child Mag If a person from another community is killed, the community contributes camels to the village Kaalmo When a household loses their livestock, others each gather livestock for the affected household to restore their herd. Gadiid ceeshi Borrowing animals for transport when migrating Baaho Collections for urban ‘poorest of the poor’, door-to-door. (Source: UNICEF’s SP training for policy makers) 22. However, traditional safety nets are based along social groups and remain exclusive. In the absence of any formal mechanism, if a household is excluded from such social structures, it is also likely to be excluded from informal safety nets. In contrast, a formal and institutionalized social protection system could potentially provide support and mitigate risks for all vulnerable households. 5 ALIGNMENT OF POLICIES WITH NEEDS OF SOMALI POPULATION 23. The design of a social protection system varies with the needs of the target population and can contribute significantly in reducing the exposure to risk and building long-term resilience. It considers various sources of risks and vulnerabilities such as climate, conflict, food insecurity, livelihoods, and lack of access to public services. It should be flexible enough to scale up or down depending on the circumstances and target population. For example, in case of a natural disaster, a social protection system should have the capacity and scalability to expand and accommodate more people than the normal caseload. 5.1 RISKS AND VULNERABILITIES 24. Information on risks and vulnerabilities helps prepare programs that respond to the household needs under changing circumstances. This is particularly important in Somalia’s case as it has experienced a fair share of natural and manmade shocks and households needs vary with changes in climate, food insecurity, conflict, livelihoods and demographics. A social protection system can be made adaptive to the population needs if this information is available in advance so that it can feed into contingency plans and into the built-in mechanisms for scalability and flexibility. The preparedness of the system based on early warning systems and accurate information will also contribute to transitioning from relief response to a development and recovery approach. Climatic Shocks and Hazards 25. Somalia is prone to climate shocks where the frequency of droughts has been increasing. Countries that have a functioning social protection system informed by early warning systems are better able to respond to such shocks. For example, Ethiopia’s experience with scaling up of the Productive Safety Nets Program in 2008 in response to the drought that added 4.43 million beneficiaries to the cash transfer case load and enabled them to meet their consumption needs until the next harvest.28 26. Incorporating information on potential climate hazards and changes can lead to better contingency planning so that response and recovery efforts don’t have to wait until the next shock hits. Somalia will continue to be prone to multiple types of natural hazards over the course of next 5 to 10 years such as floods, wild fire, water scarcity and extreme heat.29 The direct impacts of disasters include food price volatility, food insecurity, displacement, migration and potential conflict over land and natural resources. Planning of social protection programs in Somalia must consider these hazards that integrates preventative measures to ameliorate the impact. Effect of Climate on Livelihoods 28 http://www.cashlearning.org/downloads/calpfffannex3web.pdf 29 Data in Figure 1 is from World Bank’s database ThinkHazard! (http://thinkhazard.org/en/report/226-somalia). This data was downloaded on August 31st, 2017. The hazard levels and guidance given in ThinkHazard! do not replace the need for detailed natural hazard risk analysis and/or expert advice. 27. Agriculture is the most common livelihood, especially in southern region and a small area in Northwest region and fulfils roughly 50 percent of population’s cereal requirements.30 These areas have a high potential for crop production due to optimal level of rainfalls ranging from 400mm to 600mm. 31 The agricultural output is closely linked with rainfall during Deyr (October to December) and Gu (April to June) seasons. There are four primary agricultural zones in Somalia that primarily grow staple crops and serve as the bread basket for Somalia, as shown in Figure 1. - Northwest parts that grow rain fed maize and sorghum - Coastal beltway in southern regions of Somalia that grows cowpea - Lower Juba that grows irrigated and rain fed maize and sesame cash crops - Bay and Bakool regions that grow rain fed sorghum and support livestock production32 Any fluctuation in rainfall patterns during these months affects crop harvest, having a direct impact on livelihoods and health of the population. Low rainfalls also lead to poor pasture growth and a decline in crop residues that is used as fodder to sustain livestock. It often results in reduction of livestock herd size due to death and sales.33 Figure 1: Livelihood Zones Source: FAO 2016 30 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/agriculture/en/ 31 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/agriculture/en/ 32 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/agriculture/en/ 33 FSNAU Somalia 2016 28. Given the arid climate, livelihoods are linked to livestock rearing in northern parts of the country. The average rainfall in these parts is not sufficient or reliable to grow staple crops. However, the inedible vegetation there is a suitable fodder for livestock. In response to climatic and ecological factors, the population there has adopted nomadic pastoralism, a form of livestock production in which subsistence herding is the primary economic activity relying on the movement of herds and people. To respond to variability in weather and resources such as water, pastoralism is seen as a primary method of resource utilization. Pastoralists have adopted nomadic lifestyle as they are mostly livestock herders and not crop cultivators and mobility is the primary coping mechanism to respond to unpredictable supply of resources in the arid environment.34 29. Livestock also contributes significantly to the economy where almost 65 percent of population is engaged in the sector in some way.35 It is the major source of household wealth and also provides products such as milk, meat and hides and skins and transport. In years with normal rainfall, livestock and its products account for almost 80 percent of total exports.36 30. Change in cereal production has a direct impact on a household’s welfare as it affects the purchasing power. With a hike in cereal prices, the households adopt harmful coping mechanisms such as reducing their food consumption that can lead to malnutrition and food insecurity. Somalia has suffered acute food insecurity due to recurrent droughts with some areas more stressed than the others. As of January 2017, 6.2 million people were food insecure and 3 million people were unable to meet their daily food requirements.37 Identifying regions that are food insecure can lead to prioritizing of relief efforts. For example, in Ethiopia, PSNP used such information to identify regions and districts that were chronically food insecure and scaled up the program particularly in these regions to have maximum impact. Insecurity & Displacement 31. Civil insecurity has led to displacement and loss of livelihoods for thousands of households in Somalia. The volatile security situation has led to destruction of livelihoods and subsequent displacement of people. Some of the causes of this instability are: intense military activity between insurgents and African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM) national armed forces; conflicts over natural resources leading to livelihood disruption; and instability and political conflicts. 32. Other than internal displacement, a fairly large number of Somalis, refugees and non-refugees, have crossed the national border over to other countries. According to UNHCR, by July 2017, there were 875,664 registered Somali refugees in Kenya, Yemen, Ethiopia, Uganda, Djibouti, Egypt and Eritrea. 38 Those who could leave the country, moved to the European Union, Norway, Switzerland and the United States. Between 2008 and 2016, the EU, Norway and Switzerland received 140,000 asylum applications from Somalis. The United States is home to around 7 percent of the world’s Somali migrant population with 9,000 Somali refugees entering the country only in 2015 fiscal year.39 Recurrent droughts and conflict has played a major role in this cross-border movement. 34 Handulle and Gay 1987 35 http://www.fao.org/somalia/programmes-and-projects/livestock/en/ 36 http://www.fsnau.org/analytical-approach/methodology/livestock 37 http://www1.wfp.org/countries/somalia 38 http://data.unhcr.org/horn-of-africa/regional.php 39 http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/01/5-facts-about-the-global-somali-diaspora/ 33. In May 2016, Kenya decided to close its largest refugee camp, Dadaab that hosts 244,000 Somali refugees.40 This decision was to step up the November 2013 Tripartite Agreement that was signed between the Governments of Kenya and Somalia and UNHCR to repatriate Somali refugees. The UNHCR has been supporting the return of refugees from Dadaab to selected destinations in Somalia by providing them with cash and in-kind grants. Amidst the current crisis, where people lack access to food and basic services like health and education, returning around 244,000 Somali refugees would add further strain to the existing formal and informal institutions. This will also disrupt markets and livelihoods. 34. To reintegrate the returning refugees in Somalia, there has to be a forward-looking approach with social protection structures in place. According to the UNHCR and IOM joint report on Dadaab, “this requires that circumstances in the country of return are conducive to sustainable reintegration, including through the progressive establishment of conditions in which people can exercise their full rights and enjoy peaceful, productive and dignified lives.�41 Safe and voluntary return to Somalia requires that Somalis, who intend to go back, are given an opportunity to settle in their preferred destinations. According to the Return Intention Survey conducted by the UNHCR, the preferred destinations of refugees in Dadaab are Kismayo, Mogadishu, Luuq and Baidoa (See Figure 2). Of those who don’t want to return, the most important reason is lack of security. It is followed by lack of employment opportunities, housing or shelter, and education.42 Figure 2: Preferred Destination on Return to Somalia from Dadaab 12% 51% 25% 12% Mogadishu Baidoa Luuq Kismayo Source: UNHCR 2016a 35. There were around 2.2 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Somalia. According to UNHCR, during displacement in Somalia is caused by various factors such as floods (35%), insecurity arising from military offensive (31%), and evictions (15%). Other reasons include conflicts between different social groups, IDP return, forced return, lack of livelihood, drought and other insecurity situation.43 Under such 40 Estimate from March 2017. See UNHCR 2017 41 UNHCR and IOM 2014 42 UNHCR and IOM 2014 43 FSNAU Somalia 2016 conditions, people tend to move towards urban areas. For example, people in rural parts of Bay, Lower Shabelle and Sool moved to the urban areas in Mogadishu and Baidoa after the onset of drought in 2016.44 36. IDP settlements have limited access to facilities such as schools and health centers, which makes the IDPs even more vulnerable. The capacity of IDP camps can be assessed by looking at existing facilities such as education, health, shelter, security and WASH indicators. The Shelter Cluster has done facility mapping exercise for several IDP settlements including Kismayo, Mogadishu, Luuq and Baidoa that geotags facilities such as schools, health centers, latrines, kiosks, markets, community centers, garbage collection points, mosques and water points. Table 2 shows number of facilities in each region along with the total number of households there and it is apparent that these facilities are already inadequate. For example, in Kismayo, there is no health center and there are only 2 schools for 3,636 households. Similarly, in Mogadishu, there are 110 schools for 92,151 households.45, 46 44 https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-drought-and-displacement-5-may-2017 45 Maps available on the Shelter Cluster website: https://www.sheltercluster.org/library/mapping-exercise. 46 Data is the table comes from Maps available on The Shelter Cluster website and Data shared by REACH. Numbers in the table may not be exact but are close approximations. Table 2: Facility Mapping of IDP Settlements Luuq 2014 with 3,379 Households in 22 Settlements out of which 2,989 IDP Households Schools 6 with 6 classrooms, 67% are functional Health Center 1 with 1 community health worker and 1 midwife Latrines 93 and in total 93 dropping holes, 92% functional Water Points 27 with 41% connected to municipal water system Markets 8, 41% connected to municipal water system, 85% functional Kiosks 42 Community Centers 8 Mogadishu 2014 with 92,151 Households in 432 Settlements out of which 76,466 Households Schools 110 with 247 classrooms, 83% functional Health Facility 11 with 29 rooms, 82% are functioning Latrines 3,121 with 4,694 dropping holes, 90% functional Kiosks 562 Markets 14 Community Centers 44 Garbage Collection Points 10 Solar Lighting Post 6, 100% functional Water Point 339 with 45% connected to municipal water system, 86% functional Kismayo 2016 with 3,636 Households in 36 Settlements Schools 2 Latrines 248 and 453 dropping holes in total, 95% functional Kiosks 93 for grains, vegetables, pulses, fish/meat & construction material Markets 0 Garbage Collection Point 36 Water Points 23 with 13 connected to municipal water points Community Center 0 Baidoa 2014 with 8,549 Households in 22 Settlements out of which 2,989 IDP Households Schools 59 with 110 classrooms, 98% functional Health Centers 7 with 23 rooms, 71% are functional. 4 nurses, 3 community health workers 2 doctors & 3 midwives Latrines 420 & 1043 dropping holes in total with 92% functional Kiosks 74 with grains, vegetables, pulses, meat, fish Markets 6 Community Centers 32 Solar Lighting Post 4, 50% functional Water Point 32 with 19% connected to the municipal water system Garbage Disposal Point 10 Source: The Shelter Cluster 2014 & 2016 37. Not all the existing facilities are fully functional or have enough capacity to meet the needs of the communities. For example, only 67 percent of the schools are functional in Luuq whereas in Mogadishu 83 percent are functional. Similarly, not all water points are functional or connected to the municipal water system. Information on capacity and types of services, as shown in Table 2, reveals that even when facilities are functional, they may not offer all services. Health center in Luuq does not have a doctor or a nurse.47 38. The adequacy of each facility can also be assessed by the proportion of individuals accessing them. Enrollment rates are between 30 and 32 percent in each settlement and in Xalane settlement 311 individuals share one latrine (see Table 3). Distance between the residence and facility is one of the main determinants of access. In Kismayo, Mogadishu, Luuq and Baidoa, the average distance between the residence of IDPs or host community and health center is between 28 and 42-minute walk and the average distance to school is between 18 and 31 minutes of walk.48 This gives a snapshot of access to services in these areas and can inform the future steps with regards to investment priorities to support the IDPs including the returning Somalis. 47 For each school, information on type (religious or primary or secondary), number of classrooms, number of enrolled students by gender, number of teachers by gender and availability of water and latrine is available. Similarly, apart from each health center’s location, there is information on type of services offered, staff, number of beds and water and electricity availability. For community centers, it lists down the purposes for which the facility is used for example recreation, entertainment, nutrition programs and community support. For latrines, whether they are functional and gender segregated. Similarly for garbage disposal points and solar lighting points, information on their functionality is recorded. For kiosks and markets, the type of product sold at each point is listed where former sell household items such as hardware and cloth whereas latter sell food items like vegetables, fish, meat, pulses and beans. 48 The Shelter Cluster 2014 & 2016 Table 3: Facility Mapping of Kismayo Xalane Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 32% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 33% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 82% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 51% % of households in possession of a floor covering 22% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking Yes distance Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 30m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 11% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 311 Tawakal 3 Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 32% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 25% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 74% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 17% % of households in possession of a floor covering 18% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking Yes distance Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 90m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 5% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 46 Tawakal 1 Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 30% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 27% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 85% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 33% % of households in possession of a floor covering 24% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking Yes distance Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 32m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 10% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 37 Source: REACH Somalia 2016 5.2 HOUSEHOLD LEVEL VULNERABILITIES 39. Other than the over-arching risks and vulnerabilities, a closer look at the household profile will give an overview of social protection needs at the household level. Information on demographics, access to services, poverty profile, sources of vulnerability, sources of income, kinds of shocks households have experienced and how they cope with it, etc. are important to consider when designing a social protection program that is inclusive and responsive to the household needs. Demographic Profile in Somalia 40. This section analyzes demographics and poverty in Somalia across different dimensions such as income, education, health and access to water. It uses the first wave of High Frequency Survey (HFS), which was collected by the World Bank in 2016 and covers 4.9 million individuals. It is a household survey data with information on demographics, displacement, shocks, income, assets and consumption. Data was collected from Somalis living in Mogadishu, urban and rural areas in Puntland and Somaliland49 and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).50 The map of Somalia in Annex 4 shows the regions covered by this survey and any result presented here only represents the covered regions. It should be noted that a majority of areas covered are relatively conflict free and hence the deductions in this section may not be extended to the conflict zones in southern regions of Somalia.51 41. Based on the available data, majority of the surveyed population is young, female and lives in the urban areas, as shown in Figure 3. Two in every three individuals are under the age of 30 whereas one in every two individuals is under the age of 15. A large youth population could be an asset for Somalia’s economic, political and social development particularly if an appropriate social protection system exists to respond to their social and economic needs and vulnerabilities. 49 HFS covers 9 out of total 18 pre-war regions which are Awdal, Banadir, Bari, Mudug, Nugaal, Sanaag, Sool, Togdheer, and Woqooyi Galbeed. 50 Mogadishu, Garowe, Hergeiza, Sanaag, Sool and Togdheer 51 For more information, see SIDA’s website: http://www.sida.se/English/press/current-topics- archive/2015/survey-shows-new-population-patterns-in-somalia/ Figure 3: Demographic Features of Somali Population 77.20% 53.10% 49.90% 50.80% 46.90% 18.20% 22.50% 9.40% Female Urban IDPs Rural <15 <30 Male Mogadishu Gender Location Age Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 IDPs and Somali Diaspora 42. 22.5 percent of surveyed population has been displaced as a result of conflict and natural shocks such as drought. Most of them are settled in Somaliland (48.2 percent) and Mogadishu (42.7 percent) whereas Puntland has only 9.19 percent. 43. The Somali diaspora has strong ties with their relatives and friends back in Somalia, which is evident from the large amount of remittances that are sent back every year. According to an estimate, Somalia receives around USD 1.2 billion to 2.3 billion annually in remittances. Per the HFS, USD 392 million were received by households in the past 12 months living in Somaliland, Puntland and Mogadishu. Approximately, 21 percent of the surveyed households received remittances in the past 12 months, which serve as direct cash transfers. Such households received USD 2,059 in the past 12 months, where households in rural areas received a higher amount as compared to those in Mogadishu and other urban areas.52 Majority of the households (56.5 percent) that receive remittances are female headed, out of which approximately 38 percent are widowed, separated, divorced or never married. For such households, remittances can serve as a lifeline. Relationship between Poverty and Location 52 In the past 12 months, households on average received USD 3,175 in rural areas; USD 1,490 in Mogadishu; and USD 2,357 in other urban areas. 44. The overall poverty rate in the surveyed population is almost 52 percent but poverty incidence varies significantly depending on the region. Poverty rates are measured using the International 1.90 USD 2011 PPP poverty line. Almost two out of three individuals are poor in IDP settlements whereas in Mogadishu more than one out of two individuals is poor. Poverty incidence in other urban areas and rural areas is less than that in Mogadishu. The poverty rate is the highest in IDP settlements with 72.2 percent individuals below the poverty line (Figure 4). Poverty incidence also varies across regions where it’s lowest in Puntland with 24 percent living in extreme poverty (Figure 5). Figure 4: Overall Poverty Incidence Figure 5: Overall Poverty by Region 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40% 30% 72.20% 30% 59.60% 20% 50.50% 10% 20% 0% 10% 24.00% Mogadishu Other Rural IDP 0% Urban Settlements Somaliland Puntland Mogadishu IDP Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 Multidimensional Poverty 45. A household that is poor in more than one dimension is more vulnerable comparatively . A headcount poverty rate based on household consumption does not represent the depth and nature of vulnerability. A household may not be income poor but may be education poor. This poses a different set of challenges as compared to those faced by households that are income, education and health poor. Hence, a multidimensional analysis provides a deeper understanding of deprivations that households experience due to income, education, health and water.53 Table 4 shows that households in Mogadishu are poorer in terms of income than households in Somaliland or Puntland but have better access to education, health and water. Somaliland is doing worse than others when deprivation in two dimensions is observed. Around 74 percent of population in Somaliland is income and education poor. 53 For this analysis, a household is considered education deprived if the household head has no education. It is considered health deprived, if they indicated they are dissatisfied with the clinic they most often use. A household is considered water deprived if it doesn’t have access to treated water. Table 4: Incidence of Multiple Deprivations in Somalia, by Region Somaliland Puntland Mogadishu IDP Settlements Deprived in One Dimension Income 51 24 60 72 Education 60 49 40 71 Health 18 22 13 31 Water 9 14 1 9 Deprived in Two Dimensions Income & Education 74 6 51 55 Income & Health 23 2 16 22 Income & Water 9 2 1 7 Education & Health 24 6 15 22 Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 Relationship between Age and Poverty 46. With 77.2 percent of the population under 30 and around 50 percent under the age of 15, Somalia is a young country with an increasing life expectancy but the youth remains vulnerable. The life expectancy increased from 48 in 2004 to 52 in 2014.54 This young population has a potential to contribute to Somalia’s growth and prosperity however poverty and vulnerability is also more pervasive in younger age groups. Children under 5 and individuals between 5 and 15 are most likely to be poor of all with poverty rates of 56.1 and 59.3 respectively. In comparison, among the youth between 15 and 30 years of age, the poverty rate is 43.2 percent and among those older than 30, it is 48.6 percent. Relationship between Gender and Poverty 47. Female-headed households are better off as compared to male-headed households where 45 percent of poor households are female-headed and 55 percent male-headed. Female-headed households are poorer than male-headed households only among the IDPs but do better in urban and rural areas as shown in Figure 6. It is a rather unanticipated result as female-headed households are more vulnerable and marginalized. In Somalia, female-headed households are fairly common and constitute 51 percent of households in urban areas, 58 percent in rural areas and 30 percent in IDP settlements. This is again a surprising result. However, 35 percent of female-headed households have an older male member living in the household and 71 percent of female heads indicate that they are married. This resonates with the finding of BRCiS annual survey in 2015 where majority of married women were considered household heads. Usually, it is assumed that female-headed households do not have other adult males or are headed by non-married women. Levine investigates this further in Somalia and finds that most of the married women identify as heads when their husbands are unemployed or they earned less than they did.55 This issue should be further explored in Somalia’s context. 55 Levine 2016 Figure 6: Poverty Rates by Gender of Household Head Urban Rural IDP settlements 15% 41% 33% 56% 53% 55% 85% 59% 67% 44% 47% 45% Female Male Female Male Female Male Poor Non-Poor Poor Non-Poor Poor Non-Poor Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 48. Female gender is not the predictor of poverty among the surveyed population in Somalia. Overall, more women than men fall under the poverty line, where among the poor population, 52.4 percent are women and 47.6 percent are men. But probability of being poor for females is 51.2 percent as compared to 52.6 percent for men. However, it does affect the level of access to income, education and health. For example, fewer women have access to education as compared to men where 55.1 percent women lack access to education as compared to 40.2 percent of men. Relationship between Education and Poverty 49. Education and poverty are also interrelated as poverty incidence is higher among households with no education (Figure 7). Overall literacy rates are very low where 48 percent of the total population has no education. These are the lowest among IDP population with 64 percent with no education. School enrollment rates are also low with only 53.5 percent of 6 to 17-year-old are currently enrolled. The incidence of poverty is significantly higher among households whose heads have no education. However, having access to education rather than the level of education, makes all the difference. Figure 7: Poverty Incidence by Household Head's Access to Education 60.10% 39.70% No access to education Access to education Source: HFS Wave 1, 2016 Relationship between Poverty and Income and Employment 50. Wages is the most important source of income among the surveyed population in Somalia. In urban areas, it is followed by remittances where 23 percent households in Mogadishu and 16 percent in other urban areas have reported it as their primary source of income (See Figure 8). Poverty incidence is also lower among households that earn wages or have received remittances from abroad. Only 35 percent of households reporting remittances as their primary source of income are below the poverty line and 47 percent of those reporting wage as their primary source of income are below the poverty line. As expected, poverty rates are highest among those who don’t have any source of income with 65 percent below the poverty line (Figure 9). Figure 8: Main Source of Income by Region 15.20% 16.30% 18.30% 31.60% 9.70% 9.40% 19.90% 16.80% 15.70% 14.40% 16.00% 24.50% 23.50% 21.00% 13.30% 0.70% 42.60% 34.90% 32.20% 24.00% Mogadishu Other Urban Rural IDP Settlements Wages Remittances from abroad Business & Investments Other assistance & transfers None Figure 9: Poverty Incidence by Income Source 60.20% 65.20% 46.70% 50.40% 35.40% Wages Remittances Other Business & None from abroad assistance & Investments transfers Source: HFS 2016 Relationship between Poverty and Household Size 51. Poverty incidence is highly correlated with the household size in Somalia where a poor household has 7.23 members on average as compared to 5.57 members in non-poor households. Households in rural areas are larger than households in urban areas irrespective of income levels. Another important factor used to assess the burden on a household is the dependency ratio,56 which tries to quantify the support that working age adults provide to the other members of the household. Households with higher dependency ratio have fewer working age adults as compared to the dependents. In Somalia, poor households have a higher dependency ratio in urban as well rural areas. 5.3 EXISTING SCHEMES AND COVERAGE 52. Currently, there is no formal or government led social protection program in Somalia. However, there are several small-scale humanitarian and social protection schemes, mostly social safety nets, which are being implemented by NGOs and international organizations. Conditional and unconditional cash transfers are most common but there are some schemes related to public works; cash or food for work; skills training; food vouchers; and school feeding and child nutrition. Most of these initiatives have an element of creating resilience in target communities but they remain ad hoc and short-term. Coverage of Humanitarian and Social Protection Efforts 53. Mapping of on-going social protection initiatives will help in coordination of such activities as well as in identification of potential gaps. Most of the regions in the south of Somalia remain inaccessible (grey areas on the map in Figure 10) due to insecurity where access is limited only to major cities and adjoining area. Somaliland is the most accessible whereas there are still certain areas in Puntland that are hard to access. The coverage of all the activities related to humanitarian relief and safety nets is limited to these geographical regions. 56 Ratio between number of dependents (below 15 and above 65 years) and the total working age population within a household Figure 10: NGO and INGO Accessible Regions (General Access Map 2017) Source: NGO Safety Program 2017 54. Cash based humanitarian assistance in Somalia had reached approximately 2.9 million individuals by November 2017 with a total transferred value of USD 256.9 million.57 Somalia has been receiving humanitarian aid for more than two decades with interventions on food security, nutrition, shelter and water and sanitation. In recent years, cash based transfers have become a more prevalent choice and proved to be instrumental in response to the drought in 2017. According to one estimate, cash based assistance reached approximately 3.2 million individuals only in October 2017.58 However, due to the security situation, it has remained a challenged to reach rural parts of central and southern Somalia.59 It 57 https://ocha-dap.github.io/hdx-somalia-cash-v2/ 58 https://ocha-dap.github.io/hdx-somalia-cash-v2/ 59 FSNAU Somalia 2017 includes conditional and unconditional transfers that are with and without restriction to spend the transfer amount on specific goods or vendors. These are mostly targeted at individuals who are in acute need, which is IPC 3 and IPC 4 level of food insecurity. These could be one-time or short-term disaster response initiatives. The average amount of assistance provided is USD 88.6, which is based on MEB and is deemed sufficient to prevent further deterioration of food security situation.60 55. Within humanitarian assistance programs, there is a subset of initiatives that aim to build long term resilience among Somalis and are being categorized under the umbrella of social protection. Due to covariate shocks that have hit Somalia in the past decade or so, humanitarian organizations have been implementing programs that adopt a life-saving approach. However, there is a growing consensus that in order to enable households to protect themselves from future shocks, long-term assistance is required with the help of long term programs, that are reliable and hence can have a consumption smoothing impact. Currently, some NGOs are implementing such schemes that such schemes that focus on responding to household vulnerabilities and building their capacity to cope with future shocks. 56. The on-going social protections initiatives that focus on building long-term resilience have so far reached around 1.8 million individuals.61 Table 5 shows the details of these schemes.62 Due to the absence of an integrated information system coverage and beneficiary incidence of social protection programs at a national level, it is hard to conclude anything regarding inclusion and exclusion errors. Each organization maintains its own database of beneficiaries with no coordination between them on identification and coverage. Such information is vital to ensure that the same individual or household is not getting served by two different organizations. It is also important to ensure that the vulnerable populations are not being missed out. The second wave of High Frequency Survey has a section on social protection and will enable us to estimate total coverage of such programs where disaggregating it by gender and age would also be possible. 57. Currently, the government’s engagement in planning and implementation of social protection interventions is minimal. In some cases, the government has helped in coordination of activities by identifying local government officials and community leaders. However, there is a lack of human resources and capacity in terms of skills as well as processes to implement social safety nets. The NDP has also designated the responsibility of implementing social protection interventions to the NGO sector. In 2017, the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management was assigned for social protection related activities but recently Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has been designated with designing a social protection framework for the country. 60 https://ocha-dap.github.io/hdx-somalia-cash-v2/ 61 This is an approximation as most of the programs target households and not individuals. In that case, we assumed the average household size to be 6. This number is calculated by adding up households covered by each organization. 62 This data was collected by reaching out to each of these organizations and having them fill out a form with details on coverage, targeting, delivery and budget of each scheme in 2016-2017. *MENTION THAT EXISTING SCHEMES MOSTLY Table 5: Active HUMANITARIAN Schemes AND by NGOs and INGOs NOT SP. REFER TO UN OCHA’S - 2016/2017 Organization Location Type of Program Amount per Coverage Delivery Client per Mechanism month BRCiS (Cesvi, Concern, 7 regions in In kind transfer, CCT Varies 60,000 HHs Mobile Money IRC, NRC & SCI) Somalia or UCT based Transfer (MMT) Concern Mogadishu UCTs for 24 months USD 30 150 HHs Mobile Money SSN Vocational grant for USD 30 for 10 400 youth Transfer (MMT) 12 months months & USD 50 for 2 months Gedo SSN UCTs for 12 months USD 50 1606 HHs FAO Cash for Work 267,500 Individuals Network of Cash + 87,000 HHs until Money Vendors December 2017 UCT for 3-3.5 months USD 60-100 570,000 Individuals World Vision Food voucher USD 69 2,611 HHs Paper Voucher Conditional Cash USD 110 1,400 HHs Mobile Voucher Money World Food Programme Somalia School Feeding In kind 131,649 Individuals SCOPE Card that program supports voucher, cash and in-kind Somalia Asset Creation CBT & In-Kind 72,677 Individuals transfers Transfers Galgaduud, Vocational Training CBT 1,280 Individuals Nugal, Togdheer, Mudug Hiraan, Asset Creation & In-Kind 2,018 Individuals Galgaduud Vocational Training Save the Children 3 – 5 UCTs USD 80-140 5,925 HHs Mobile Money 2 - 5 food vouchers USD 67 - 70 4,122 HHs Transfer (MMT) Cash for work (9 USD 75 580 HHs Transfers) 28 UCTs USD 55-80 460 HHs Transfer for business USD 500-1000 880 HHs startup ILO Public Works/ Cash for USD 5 -8/ day 7,888 individuals (70% Money Vendors Work for unskilled & unskilled & 30% skilled) skilled for 201,090 worker days ADESO Lower Juba UCT 37 EUR 7,500 HHs Mobile Money (Kismayo Cash for Work 65 EUR Transfers (MMT) District) Livelihood Grant 463 EUR Disaster Mitigation 4630 EUR Fund ACTED Lower Juba UCT 37 EUR 7,500 HHs Mobile Money (Afmadow and Cash for work 65 EUR Transfers (MMT) Dhobley Livelihood Cash Grant 463 EUR District) Disaster Mitigation 4630 EUR Fund Crisis Modifier 47 EUR Cash Based Transfers 58. Most of the SSN schemes in Somalia are cash based. These are mostly ad hoc and dependent on availability of donor funding. Most of the cash transfer programs are short term ranging between 3 and 5 months, but there are a few long-term programs with 9 to 21 transfers for each selected household or individual. These can be conditional or unconditional cash transfers but as can be seen in Table 3, there are only two organizations that have conditional transfers. In Cash Plus intervention by FAO, the targeted households receive monthly transfer along with seeds and storage bags for seeds. There are also some cash for work programs where people are employed for a project and receive payments against their labor. In case of ILO, these are public works projects that benefit the individual as well the larger community by rebuilding infrastructure. Such programs also affect the labor market by setting wage levels. There is no minimum wage in Somalia but for ILO’s program, the government had to set a minimum wage level for skilled and unskilled workers. 59. In contrast to monthly cash based transfers, there are programs that make upfront one-time lump sum payment aimed at creating either livelihoods or asset. Livelihood or resilience building grants usually include skills training and invest in human capital of vulnerable households so that they can find productive work. Such programs try to address the high unemployment rates. 60. In times of emergency, vulnerable households are given lump sum grants so that they can protect themselves against the shock. ACTED offers a Crisis Modifier grant to additional vulnerable households. It is treated like a contingency budget, which depending on the need, can be used as an upfront cash payment or for alternate provisions like shelter. ADESO and ACTED also have Disaster Mitigation Fund whereby targeted communities set up a Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) committee and are trained on DRR measures. The participants learn to identify potential hazards and risks so that appropriate actions can be taken to mitigate them in a timely manner. In Kind Transfers 61. In contrast to cash based transfers, in kind transfers are also used primarily to disburse food. Examples include School Feeding Programs and food vouchers. In a few instances, vouchers have a monetary value which can be used at specified stores to buy food items based on the household’s needs. In other cases, the voucher specifies the type and amount of food that could be purchased from it. 62. Predictable and reliable interventions are needed to create a sustainable environment where people can gain livelihood and maintain food security. Social safety nets are increasingly becoming multi- sectoral where they are linked with creating or supporting livelihood opportunities and impacting human capital. Hence, such interventions can be used as an entry point to help the countries build human capital. Benefit Amount 63. The benefit amount of most cash based interventions in Somalia is based on the cost of Minimum Expenditure Basket, which is calculated by FSNAU on monthly/quarterly basis. It includes basic food items in quantities that are enough to meet the 2,100 kilocalories per person per day requirement of a household with 6-7 members and non-food items. The complete list is given in Annex 4. 64. The MEB cost varies all over Somalia as market prices of these food and non-food items are different in rural and urban areas or northern and south and central regions of the country. Until June 2017, the cost of MEB ranged between USD 100-250 per household per month, which made the transfer value of cash based interventions expensive ranging between USD 70-140. The MEB composition was revised where the current version contains only the cheaper of the two staple cereals (wheat and sorghum) in each district. It has led to a significant decrease in the cost, which now ranges between USD 80-120. Subsequently, the amount of cash transfers now has been decreased to USD 55-85. 65. The composition of the MEB depends on what is considered essential to meet the basic needs on a regular or seasonal basis in a country. What stands out in Somalia’s case is the presence of “social tax� among the non-food items. The amount of “social tax� can range from USD 5 to USD 25 per month, as reported by DfID’s monitoring and evaluation data on beneficiaries of humanitarian aid in Somalia. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that the beneficiaries pay “social tax� to community elders, other households, local NGOs or shops.63 Further unpacking of “social tax� shows four trends: i) There is a strong culture of sharing and redistribution of resources, where funds are pooled with the community elders to spend on the welfare of the community as a while. Interviews with key informants also indicate that contribution to such funds determine one’s status in the community where people aspire to be on the giving end; ii) Aid beneficiaries share their benefit with other relatives and vulnerable households, which indirectly improves their food security situation; iii) Community elders and local NGOs often use these funds to ensure access and security; and iv) Shopkeepers charge beneficiaries higher prices or a commission on their purchase. In short, social tax implies aid diversion and can be avoided with better communication campaigns and monitoring and redress mechanisms. However, due to lack of direct access to beneficiaries due to insecurity, it cannot be completely avoided. 63 DfID’s MESH Data 6 SOURCES OF FINANCING 66. In the absence of a government led social protection program, Somalia does not have any public financing available. The formal and informal safety nets are financed by regional actors, multilaterals, other countries and non-state actors such as diaspora, religious and aid organizations. The major donors in 2017 are United States, United Kingdom, ECHO, Germany, EC Devco, World Bank, ADB, CERF, Sweden, Canada, Denmark, Japan, WFP, Australia, Switzerland, China, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, Norway, Italy, Finland Ireland, Turkey and Qatar.64 Somalia received around USD 822 million for Humanitarian Response Plan (HRP) in 2017 that covers a wide range of programs that fall under food security, nutrition, protection, WASH, health, shelter and NFIs, education and other logistics. The amount received in 2017 is higher than the average because of the drought response. 67. However, due to the on-going transition from short-term humanitarian response to developing longer-term social protection schemes, the implementing organizations have allocated a part of their financing to the schemes delineated in Table 5. Table 6 below gives a snapshot of their budget. Table 6: Budget for Active Social Protection (SP) Schemes in Somalia 2015-2017 Organization Budget for Active SP Projects BRCiS USD 5,537,691 for 2015 CONCERN USD 88,650 World Vision USD 3,100,000 World Food Programme Data not Available ILO USD 2,316,609 ADESO EUR 5,521,878 ACTED EUR 4,478,122 68. However, remittances by Somali diaspora are one of the most stable sources of financial support, received by Somali households. The diaspora sends remittances to families and friends; help in economic recovery; provide humanitarian and emergency assistance; provide development assistance through supporting service delivery initiatives; and provide human resources.65 There is a distinction between the first generation of diaspora and their foreign raised children and the still newer arrivals to the diaspora. The first and the last of these groups have maintained the closest ties with Somalia however the future of this support depends on how the second group chooses to stay engaged. 69. Remittances have played a major role in mitigating poverty and vulnerability at the household level. According to an estimate, Somalia receives around USD 1.2 billion to 2.3 billion annually in remittances, which accounts for more than 20 percent of its GDP.66 With a highly-engaged diaspora, remittances have 64 https://public.tableau.com/views/OECDDACAidataglancebyrecipient_new/Recipients?:embed=y&:display_count =yes&:showTabs=y&:toolbar=no?&:showVizHome=no 65 Sheikh and Healy 2009 66 World Bank 2016b proved to be one of the most stable and reliable sources of regular income for households that has helped them smooth their consumption, build assets and create livelihoods.67 Of the remittance receiving households, only 36 percent fall below the poverty line whereas of those that don’t receive remittances, 55.8 percent are below the poverty line. 67 Somali High Frequency Survey, Wave 1 (database) 7 SOCIAL PROTECTION IMPLEMENTATION 70. Implementation of social protection interventions is being led by the international organizations and other NGOs. The implementation capacity of social protection programs is primarily dependent on targeting the most vulnerable and then ensuring delivery of goods or services to them. In fragile environments, targeting has additional risks where the goal of reaching the most vulnerable remains important but there is an acute risk of conflict or violence erupting. 7.1 TARGETING MECHANISMS Geographical and Community Based Targeting 71. Targeting plays a crucial role in highlighting the fairness of the program. For the purpose, the targeting criteria should be chosen carefully in a transparent manner. In fragile and conflict environments, community based targeting can promote social cohesion by encouraging joint decision making while ensuring that the programs generate broad benefits. Conversely, it can also reinforce inequities by excluding the marginalized population. 72. Most organizations in Somalia use two-step-approach for targeting where they first identify the most vulnerable regions through geographical targeting and then use community based targeting to identify vulnerable households. Given limited resources for social protection programs, appropriate targeting strategies are important to ensure that the right people are selected and exclusion and inclusion errors are minimized. In Somalia, most vulnerable districts are selected based on Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), which is an analytical tool used to analyze and classify the severity of acute and chronic food insecurity. There are five phases: 1) Minimal; 2) Stressed; 3) Crisis; 4) Emergency; and 5) Famine. Usually those districts are selected that are in Phase 3 or Phase 4 for programs that can fall under social safety nets.68 73. Once the districts are selected, local leaders and local governments are relied upon to gain access to the community members. Community based targeting is a consultative process in which the community is engaged at every step of the process, including, but not limited to, identifying needs of the community and type of intervention required to address those needs. Once a consensus is reached on the most pressing issue in the community and the best way to address it, the community is encouraged to identify potential participants. This list is based on community’s own understanding of vulnerabilities and who they deem the most vulnerable. The list is then verified by the implementing organization to ensure that the marginalized groups are also represented and to take care of other inclusion and exclusion errors. Most of these organizations also have a feedback mechanism where community members can submit complaints regarding the selection process. 74. The mechanics of community based development vary across organizations depending on values that the organization wants to uphold and deems important for creating resilience to shocks. BRCiS considers giving voice and a sense of ownership to the community as fundamental to its resilience approach so it starts the discussion from encouraging the community to formulate its own theory of 68 http://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/1_IPC_Brochure_2017.pdf change. National, regional and district authorities are taken on board prior to reaching out to the community elders and traditional and religious leaders. Extra effort is made to ensure that different social groups, gender and age groups are part of the planning process. A participatory approach is used to trigger discussions, collect feedback and reach consensus. It builds a relationship between the community and BRCiS members and helps them understand the local definitions of resilience. 75. The planning process culminates with a consensus on the final design of Disaster Management Plans, which delineate the theory of change as perceived by the community; plan of action to identify and address the causes of vulnerability; priorities in addressing vulnerability; types of activities; and identification of agencies and communities’ contribution. This document serves as a communication and accountability tool which is revisited after every year to track the progress and to decide the next steps. Through the planning process, 9 to 13 members from each location are identified that form the Community Disaster Management Committee. Their primary responsibility is to serve as a focal point of the community and to keep the channel of communication open between BRCiS and community members. They are also supposed to keep the community informed about the plans and next steps involved in implementation of the plans. From the community’s side, they represent the concerns of the community at large but particularly of the most vulnerable people.69 76. The World Vision Somalia (WV) uses consultations with the community to assess the context of the target communities and to understand their perception of resilience and vulnerability. The consultative process also enables them to build a relationship of trust with the communities to promote joint planning, social auditing and monitoring of service delivery. The result of this consultative process is a development plan constituting list of prioritized problems and strategies to deal with the problems. This process also helps the communities to understand their present situation better. This will also create a sense of equality between the technical implementers and the community. 77. Such an approach is different from the top down strategy where the implementing organization comes with a development plan. In this case, the community members are treated as resource and not the objects of development. It also gives them a sense of ownership by encouraging them to identify the most pressing needs of the community and then to take a lead in planning and implementing activities. The communities implement the plans with the support of the government and development partners. During the consultations, the role of WV staff is only to facilitate discussions among the community members and not to tell them what is best for them. They also need to ensure that all marginalized groups are represented in these discussions and while during the discussion, not a single group dominates the conversation.70 78. One of the main objectives of community based targeting is to let the community identify sources of vulnerability. The World Vision Somalia conducted a focus group discussion in Puntland to find out the vulnerability criteria in those communities. The findings of these discussions showed that the populations most at risk are the disabled or ill; orphans; unemployed youth; female headed households (single or marginalized women); ex-militia members; IDPs; and the elderly. The participants indicated that usually the assistance is open to all community members but those who have previously refused to help others or those who are otherwise marginalized in a community do not have access to aid. It could be because 69 BRCiS 2016 70 World Vision 2015e the vulnerable individuals are generally not aware of such services.71 In such cases, it would not get reported through grievance mechanisms either. 79. Another source of vulnerability in Somalia, as in Box 2: Aid Diversion to Gatekeepers many countries, is the challenge of social exclusion where minorities are marginalized. In the absence of a The phenomenon of aid diversion to functioning state, affiliation with particular social groups “gatekeepers� is quite prevalent in Somalia particularly in the IDP camps. These individuals or also became important for survival where security, social organizations serve as the middlemen and services and justice was provided based on identity.72 harness humanitarian aid flow to gain personal or Vulnerable groups generally have lower social, economic political benefits. They demand or negotiate and political status and in the absence of institutions that payment from IDPs, which is usually a part of their will resolve conflicts or include marginalized population in cash transfer, in return of facilitating provision of aid, services and security. The gatekeepers decision-making, such divisions have been reinforced.73 In essentially control access to aid, food and shelter such circumstances, the targeting of aid recipients where the relationship often becomes through engagement with community leaders can further exploitative marred with human rights abuses reinforce the marginalization. Transparency International such as rape, beatings and ethnic discrimination. Given the implementation organizations are reported in 2016 that the selection of potential dependent on local and community actors to beneficiaries is one of the most acknowledged areas of identify and register beneficiaries, it gives corruption in humanitarian aid chain where exclusion of gatekeepers more negotiation power. minorities happens to be a result of “favoring geographic areas, favoring family and friends, creating so-called ‘ghost’ beneficiaries, and ‘taxing’ beneficiaries.�74 In community based targeting in Somalia, the implementing organizations rely on other NGOs or self- proclaimed community leaders to identify vulnerable households and there is no way to ensure that disenfranchised groups have equal involvement. There have been some instances where dominant groups vulnerable households from accessing aid.75 80. The issues of exclusion can only be addressed by improving coordination among the implementing organizations, donors and government agencies. Planning of any initiative must focus on the needs of minority groups and how they can be met. A joint communication strategy should be developed that tries to reach the minority groups and facilitates their engagement in the consultations. Alternative of Geographical Targeting 81. The urban poor are harder to target as it is hard to identify their vulnerability by the physical space they occupy. In contrast to this approach, Concern Worldwide is developing a methodology that will take into account the high rate of urbanization and will serve as an early warning system to predict and avert food security crisis. It determines indicators that detect humanitarian emergency situations; develops surveillance systems to monitor early warning signs; and identifies thresholds and triggers. To do so, household data is required on water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH); food and personal security; livelihoods; morbidity; and coping strategies. Household data is complemented by weekly market price data to assess fluctuations in food prices. Focus group discussions are further conducted to understand 71 World Vision 2015c 72 World Bank 2013b 73 https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/study-minorities-somalia 74 Transparency International 2016 75 Ibid the quantitative data better. Ultimately, geospatial analysis is conducted to identify hotspots based on factors such as income, household hunger and household food insecurity. Such an approach helps differentiate between different levels of poverty. For example, there will be households within a slum that are more vulnerable to shocks than others. However, it was also noted that more vulnerable households were clustered together forming a hotspot. Hence, a blanket targeting approach towards such hot spots will allow everyone there to participate in the program.76 7.2 DELIVERY MECHANISMS Traditional and Electronic Mechanisms 82. Traditionally in Somalia, hawala77 were employed to transfer cash between different locations in the absence of a formal banking system. It is part of the traditional financial infrastructure, where one party entrusts hawala, a person or a company, with cash that is to be delivered to another party in a different location for a transaction fee. In this way, hawala absorb the logistical burden and any security risk inherent in transferring large amounts of cash to urban and rural areas. It has been in place since centuries but was increasingly used to transfer remittances to Somalia from abroad after the collapse of formal banking system in 1990s. Hawala companies have also been hired by the implementing agencies (For example FAO) to disburse humanitarian aid among the beneficiaries. Box 3: Dahabshill: The Modern form of Havala System Dahabshill, the largest money transfer firm in Africa, is also based on the hawala system. When the company was founded, its owner would take foreign exchange from Somali workers based in Yemen and use it to buy goods to be imported to Somalia. The proceeds from the sales were paid out to the recipients. Over time, due to more financial regulations, Dahabshill has become more formal where all transactions are now logged and identities of senders and recipients are recorded and checked. Tawaqal is another example of modern day Hawala system. Source: https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2015/10/economist-explains-12 83. However, the trend is changing fast where most organizations are increasingly now using mobile payments to transfer cash to their clients. The existing extensive infrastructure of cellular networks makes it a viable option. According to the World Bank’s research conducted in 2016, 88 percent of Somalis above the age of 16 own at least one SIM card and 83 percent of SIM card owners use mobile money.78 Somalia is far ahead in prevalence of mobile accounts as compared to other Sub-Saharan African countries and Low-Income Countries, (See Figure 11). Somalis use mobile money services for paying bills, receiving salaries and conducting merchant transactions that typically range between USD 20-200 each.79 76 Chaudhuri, Erasmus, and Appleford 2015 77 Hawala is an Arabic word that means “trust� or “transfer� depending on the context in which it is used. The Hawala network refers to an informal financing system that allows participants to transfer money. 78 http://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/a-game-changer-the-prospects-and-pitfalls-of-mobile-money-in-somalia 79 http://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/a-game-changer-the-prospects-and-pitfalls-of-mobile-money-in-somalia Figure 11: Mobile Accounts in Somalia 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Mobile Accounts Financial Institution Received Remittances Account via mobile phone Somalia Sub Saharan Africa LICs Source: Findex 2014 84. Mobile payments increase transparency and accountability and provide a safe, secure and quick way to deliver cash to the beneficiaries at a transaction fee ranging between 0.5-3.5 percent. Most transfers in Somalia are cash based, which are prone to same corruption pressures as any other resource transfer. However, an assessment of risk at every point in delivery chain and a comparison of different modalities can help build a monitoring and accountability system that helps reduce corruption. The Transparency International’s report on Somalia suggests that transactions through mobile money technology have reduced risk of corruption if it is assumed that right people are targeted.80 Mobile payments also reduce the chances of delays as the value of benefit is programmed to transfer to the cell phones at a specific day or time. Other advantages of mobile payments include easier access where less staff is required for distribution and more privacy with no large groups gathering at the time of distribution. However, mobile payments can only be used for unconditional and unrestricted cash transfers. 85. The process of distributing cash transfers through mobile payments is straightforward and gives flexibility to the recipients in terms of when and where they want to cash it out. SIM cards are distributed by the implementing agencies at the time of registration and enrollment of beneficiaries where each SIM card is linked to an individual. At the time of payment, each beneficiary receives a text message that specifies the amount of money they are entitled to. They can claim the cash by showing the text message at the Mobile Network Operator’s (MNO) outlet. If the beneficiary does not have a cell phone, they can insert the SIM card in the phone provided by the MNO and access their benefit. Currently, ADESO, BRCiS, ICRC and ACTED are using mobile platform through Hormuud, which is the largest telecommunication company in Somalia with 70,000 outlets all over Somalia. See Annex 5 for a snapshot of mobile money ecosystem in Somalia. 80 Transparency International 2016 86. Mobile money accounts have become the de facto banking system of Somalia but with no regulatory oversight. Due to the volume of mobile transactions, a similar regulatory framework is required to monitor the transactions. Usually the banks are required to follow the Know Your Customer (KYC) guidelines to avoid money laundering and to understand the financial dealings of their customers. Until now, telecommunication companies had adopted rules that limit the amount of transactions (USD 150 in case of Hormuud) if the customer did not have a valid identification. However, the Communications Act was signed in October 2017 that mandates the telecommunication companies to register SIM cards with biometric information, which can serve as the first step towards establishing a social registry system. Table 7 delineates various electronic money transfer services in Somalia. Table 7: Overview of Electronic Money Transfer Services in Somalia Operator Location Mechanism Size SOMSA UK, Nigeria, Dubai, south of Digital Wallet 16 operators including Somalia, Somaliland, Dahabshiil, Hormuud, and Puntland Zaad Dahabshiil Southern regions in Linked to Somtel number. Almost half the size of e- Somalia and Somaliland Can also create eDahab transfers number Hormuud Southern regions in Digital Wallet 2.5 million SIM cards issued Somalia so far Goli’s Telecom Puntland Digital Wallet 1.5 million SIM cards issued so far World Remit Somaliland & 116 other Linked to Zaad’s Mobile countries Money Account (under Hormuud) Somtel Somaliland & southern Digital Wallet regions in Somalia 87. However, there are limitations to the use of mobile money related to coverage. The cellular network coverage is not homogenous across all regions where rural areas are less likely to be covered. Similarly, the usage is particularly limited in Al-Shabab controlled areas due to their opposition to mobile technology. Coverage also varies by age where elderly are less likely to own a SIM card or cell phone. 88. Other delivery mechanisms include use of electronic vouchers that can be redeemed at any specified retail store. In some cases, e-vouchers store the value of money and can be used to buy anything as long as it corresponds to the value of the benefit. In other cases, quantity and type of food is also specified and this information is stored in the card. For example, cash based transfers through WFP’s SCOPE card allow beneficiaries to access commodities at selected retailer shops after the benefit amount gets loaded on to the card. It uses biometric verification process for every transaction made with the card, to ensure that the benefit is delivered to the right individual. However, 11 percent of respondents using SCOPE cards reported failure in biometric verification because of which they were denied the benefit at the retail store. 89. The distance between the retail stores and beneficiaries could be another hurdle. Mostly, retail stores are located at a distance and beneficiaries need access to transport to get there and to carry their food items back. Due to these issues, there has been a push for cash based transfers delivered either through havalas or mobile money. 8 CHALLENGES & RECOMMENDATIONS 90. Moving forward, a formal social protection program must build on the existing initiatives that are trying to create resilience. Currently, the existing schemes cover more than 10 percent of the total population, which is very impressive. A government led social protection program can coopt these initiatives instead of creating a parallel system. 91. The first step towards creating a formal social protection system is to ensure better coordination between all the stakeholders including donors, implementation agencies and Federal and state level governments. With a coherent and coordinated approach towards social protection policy, financing and monitoring, efforts can be aligned and time and resources can be saved to meet social protection goals. This will also help development partners to coordinate activities and reduce costs and overlaps. 92. Lack of institutional capacity is the key challenge in implementing social protection programs in Somalia. Currently, Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has taken a leadership role on social protection but it is fairly new. The government is still in the process of developing social protection policy but it lacks human resource and skills to design and implement projects. It is one of the major hurdles towards creating a government led social protection program. However, once the social protection policy is drafted, the government can take lead on coordinating different actors and programs to achieve a harmonized approach to address poverty and vulnerability. 93. There is a lot of variation across organizations in amount of cash transfer, which can be harmonized as the first step towards a more coordinated approach. A flat transfer amount can potentially improve accountability as there is a higher risk of fraud and diversion if transfer rates are complex. Also, DfID’s monitoring data indicates that beneficiaries are often not aware of the transfer amounts they are entitled to. Having a single flat rate can help devise effective communications and awareness strategies. Also, the current rates may not necessarily correspond to how communities access and use markets. In Kenya’s Somali region, households enrolled in Hunger Safety Nets Programme (HSNP) receive USD 27, which is almost half the amount the households receive across the border in Somalia. The households from both regions often use the same markets. Even from the global perspective, where the median amount of transfer in low income countries in USD 27 (in USD PPP 2011),81 the amount of transfer in Somalia is rather high. Adjusting this amount will also ensure a larger caseload for a longer time. 94. Gaining access to vulnerable communities is fundamental to the success of social protection programs, however it remains a challenge given local social dynamics and the security situation. Development partners mostly rely on community leaders or local partner organizations to gain access to the communities, which in most cases also serve as gatekeepers of information. This limits access to only those communities where such partners exist hence geographically restricting the outreach. Furthermore, within the accessible communities, the identification of vulnerable populations and their needs and the subsequent targeting of social protection programs depend on the information shared by these partners. 95. Relying on community leaders for identification of vulnerable populations can potentially cause inclusion and exclusion errors based on the dynamics within the targeted community. Even though the community is generally very supportive of vulnerable groups, some groups, who have either previously 81 State of Safety Nets 2017 refused to help others or those that are already marginalized in the community, may face difficulties in accessing the aid from the community.82 Similarly, there is a stigma attached with asking for help so the vulnerable groups might be hesitant to contribute to discussions and community based planning. 83 Government will have to take an active role to ensure participation of vulnerable groups such as minorities, rural households and female headed households etc. However, the issue of female-headed households should be explored further in Somalia to understand intra-household dynamics and situations where households identify as female-headed. 96. Targeting can also be influenced by the perceived fairness of aid distribution. In Somalia, the distribution of NGO assistance is perceived to be distributed unequally. For example, the targeted communities expressed resentment towards IDPs receiving assistance even though they are recognized as vulnerable. Similarly, other vulnerable groups like women and disabled are perceived to be receiving more than their share of support as compared to the working youth. There is also a problem with awareness of the programs where most of the vulnerable individuals are not aware which services they are eligible for.84 97. One way of improving outreach and targeting is to establish an information system that is accessible by all the organizations operating within the social protection space. Currently, information on beneficiary profile and the economic condition of targeted communities exists in silos within each organization. This information is primarily used for keeping track of each organization’s beneficiaries and for monitoring and evaluation purposes. Consolidating these information systems would introduce efficiencies by providing a valuable macro picture of geographical coverage of all programs as well as mapping of programs and benefits that each individual has access to. Currently, there are several databases maintained by implementation partners (See Annex 7 for a complete list), which will save the data collection effort. Some of these organizations have already shared their beneficiary data with Hormuud, the largest telecommunications company in Somalia. If this effort is coopted by the government and scaled up, a national level information system can be set up. Data on population demographics and their access to services helps in building an effective and efficient social protection system. It also helps to identify gaps and to tailor the programs according to population needs. 98. Consolidating existing databases and relying on telecommunication sector can potentially set the foundation of single registry system. Mobile Telephone Operators cover almost 75 percent of the population. The government recently passed law which requires telecommunication companies to register all SIM cards with biometric information. If the government partners with telecommunication sector to collect additional information on each SIM card holder, that can lead to establishment of a single registry system using electronic IDs. The example of Adhaar, that uses a photo, 10 finger scans and eye scan to issue a unique 12-digit ID number can be used as a model. However, Somalia has additional security concerns particularly in Al-Shabaab controlled areas but in this could be feasible at least in areas where the government has access. 99. Among social protection programs, the cash based ones have inherent risks like likelihood of theft. Precautionary measures have been taken to prevent theft such as use of hawala and mobile transfers. Such initiatives have also absorbed the logistical burden of transferring cash to individuals in deep rural 82 World Vision 2015d. This is based on focus group discussions conducted by World Vision Somalia. 83 World Vision 2015d. This is based on focus group discussions conducted by World Vision Somalia. 84 World Vision 2015d. This is based on focus group discussions conducted by World Vision Somalia. areas. However, cash injection should only be considered if local market structures are already well- established and functioning.85 Most functioning markets are only in and around urban areas, which has accelerated the process of urbanization while putting extra strain on facilities in these locations. 100. While the most vulnerable will require a safety net on a continuous basis, increasing resilience prevents and reduces the impact of shocks for a majority of the poor. The objective should be alleviating vulnerabilities and for that a variety of interventions are required which will include but not limited to cash transfers. Given Somalia experiences regular climate shocks interventions such as social insurance, weather based insurance, cash and in-kind transfers, and productive asset diversification can be used to reduce vulnerability. Regular, reliable resource and cash transfers and productive public works programs can help poor households to plan and build an asset base and strengthen their human capital. Instruments such as crop and livestock insurance allow farmers to take greater risks and to adapt new strategies to respond to risks associated with climate change. This includes using climate resilient agricultural varieties. All these options should be weighed in. Cash transfer programs can be used as an entry point but they should be linked with basic services and livelihood creation at a later stage. 85 Gabrielle and Nori 2007 Annex 1: List of Key Development Partners ACTED, a French NGO, is working in southern regions of Somalia to respond to the increase if refugee returnees and internal displacement by improving food security, livelihoods and water and sanitation facilities. It tried to reach the most vulnerable populations in urban and rural districts that have the greatest humanitarian gaps. It uses one-time grants or monthly cash transfers to address the individual and household vulnerabilities. It is also trying to improve information management particularly in emergency situations to make response efforts more effective. ACTED has been primarily involved in short term initiatives but is now planning to shift to longer term programs. ADESO, formerly known as Horn Relief, aims to bring about change in African countries through grass roots initiatives. It believes that change comes from within and hence international aid should be utilized in way that leads to sustainable development by empowering local communities and their initiatives. ADESO implements and advocates for unconditional cash transfer programs in Somalia and because of its continuous efforts, other organizations have also adopted similar programs. BRCiS is implementing as a consortium of five international NGOs – CESVI, Concern Worldwide, the Norwegian Refugee Council, the International Rescue Committee, and Save the Children – that takes a holistic approach towards developing capacity of Somali communities to resist and absorb shocks while not compromising their ability to move out of poverty. It focuses on shocks related to climate such as drought and floods; conflict; health of both humans and animals; and economic shocks like losing employment or access to credit. Currently, they are implementing their interventions in 18 communities in 7 regions and had 24,222 households registered by May 2016.86 Concern Worldwide primarily provides emergency assistance in Somalia to ensure survival and food security of families affected by droughts and conflict. It is also engaged in long term social protection and safety nets programs including cash transfers. International Labor Organization (ILO) works with the government to promote rights at work and to generate gainful employment opportunities. Through projects like Improving Livelihoods through Employment Intensive Infrastructure Investment Programmes (EIIP), it generates employment through infrastructure development. ILO partners with governments for project implementation and in this way also strengthen local governments.87 Save the Children is focused on economic strengthening of the household head based on the assumption that benefits of such interventions will trickle down to the other members of the household including children. It uses conditional and unconditional cash transfers, food vouchers, and transfers for business startup to address household vulnerabilities. UNHCR Somalia is mainly involved with the returning refugees – from escorting them from the border to their destination places to providing them in cash and in kind transfers to help them settle in. 86 BRCiS 2016 87 For more information visit the ILO (International Labor Organization) website: http://www.ilo.org/global/docs/WCMS_230854/lang--en/index.htm#banner UNICEF Somalia was implementing a cash transfers program that finished in 2015. Currently, it is more involved in advising government on social protection policy; institutional capacity building; and coordinating with social protection actors in Somalia. World Food Programme (WFP) in Somalia is trying to meet basic food needs; to strengthen coping mechanisms by creating resilience; and to achieve food security. It uses mix of in-kind and cash based transfers to provide emergency relief and to strengthen resilience against future shocks. The cash based transfer is pegged to the 80 percent of the minimum expenditure basket, which is dependent on the different market values across regions. This is updated monthly at the website maintained by FSNAU.88 WFP is also collaborating with FAO and UNICEF to align their programs in such a way that their activities maximize success in enabling households to cope with shocks. Their strategy is based on enhancing household income, health, nutrition, education, safety and skills of individuals.89 World Vision International has been working in Somalia since 1992 to address the vulnerabilities created by conflict and natural shocks. Through its programs, it wants to meet the emergency needs while also addressing the underlying causes of the communities. 88 For more information visit the FSNAU (Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit) website: www.fsnau/sectors/markets 89 For more informatoin visit the WFP (World Food Programme) website: https://www.wfp.org/countries/somalia Annex 2: Facility Mapping in Kismayo Xalane Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 32% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 33% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 82% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 51% % of households in possession of a floor covering 22% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking distance Yes Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 30m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 11% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 311 Tawakal 3 Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 32% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 25% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 74% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 17% % of households in possession of a floor covering 18% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking distance Yes Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 90m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 5% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 46 Tawakal 1 Settlement Profile (Temporary Improvised Shelters) Education % of boys aged 5-17 enrolled in school 30% % of girls aged 5-17 enrolled in school 27% Food % of households report an acceptable food consumption score 85% Shelter/NFIs % of households accessed Shelter assistance in current location 33% % of households in possession of a floor covering 24% Health Health and nutrition services are available on sit or within walking distance Yes Services for pregnant or lactating women are available Yes CCCM Average area per household 32m2 Protection % of IDP households registered 10% Water & Liters of water available per person per day 12L Sanitation No. of persons per latrine (no gender segregation) 37 Source: REACH Somalia 2016 Annex 3: Geographic Reach of HFS Data This map primarily shows the proportion of urban, rural, IDP and nomadic population in each region. The source of this map is UNFPA’s Population Estimation Survey of Somalia from 2013 -2014. The regions circled in red are covered by HFS. Annex 4: Composition of MEB Food Items Non-Food Items Red Sorghum/Wheat Soap (Laundry) Sugar Kerosene Vegetable Oil Firewood Milk Water (Jeri Can 20Lt) Meat Human drugs Tea Leaves School fees Salt Grinding cost Cowpeas Clothes Social Tax Any Other Item Source: FSNAU Annex 5: Somalia Mobile Money Ecosystem Mapping Source: http://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/a-game-changer-the-prospects-and-pitfalls-of-mobile- money-in-somalia Annex 6: Information Systems 1. Infrastructure Mapping by Global Shelter Cluster The Global Shelter Cluster has developed infrastructure mapping of various cities in Somalia (see Table 8), the data for which is collected using mobile technology. Currently, the data and mapping covers only IDP settlements and provides timely overview of the living conditions of IDPs and their access to basic services. It records GPS coordinates of facilities such as schools; health centers; latrines; markets and kiosks; mosques; and water points. Table 8: Cities for which Infrastructure Mapping in Available Year Cities 2013 Kismayo; Baida 2014 Gaalkacyo South; Gaalkacyo North; Kismayo; Mogadishu; Baidoa; Bossaso; Burao; Hargeysa; Jowhar; Luuq; Marka; Dhobley; Ditt; Afmaduo 2015 Maxaas; Bulo; Burta 2016 Kismayo; Baidoa; Beletweyne; Garowe; Qardho Source: Global Shelter Cluster The maps are interactive in nature and show additional information once a specific facility is selected. For example, in case of schools, it has information on type of school; male and female enrollment; and infrastructure availability like number of classrooms. Along with this, it also collects general and demographic data from key informant interviews. This data is open to public use and each map is accompanied with a fact sheet and an easily downloadable map.90 90 More maps available on the Shelter Cluster website: https://www.sheltercluster.org/response/somalia 2. BRCiS Database Building Resilient Communities in Somalia (BRCiS) aims to develop resilience to shocks in extremely vulnerable communities in south of Somalia. However, the success of any resilience oriented program is based on a comprehensive understanding of the social, economic and political context of the community. Therefore, BRCiS collected baseline survey data from 1,444 Somalis from 65 communities across south of Somalia91 in July 2014. This data gives a better understanding of communities and gives a better idea about what needs to be improved. It also sets a benchmark to assess the impact of interventions on resilience in these communities.92 The information in this database can be categorized under seven topics: general household information; income, expenses, debt and saving; food security; shelter, water and sanitation; migration patterns; response to recurrent hazards; and key features of beneficiary communities. Using this data, other variables like Household Asset Score; Coping Strategy Index; Household Dietary Diversity Score; and Food Consumption Score which give an in depth understanding of food security and resilience.93 3. DFID Baseline Household Survey Data DfID collected data on demographics; Coping Strategy Index;94 Food Consumption Score;95 previous shocks;96 access to and availability of community services; availability of health services; access and perception of education; household level services; employment; debt history; community authority; and perception of the self (or disposition).97 This data is available on beneficiaries of social protection programs as well as the non-beneficiaries from south of Somalia, Somaliland and Puntland. It covers urban, pastoralist, Agro-pastoralist, fishing, IDP and riverine populations in Somalia. It aimed to target at least 2,600 households but complete data was collected from 2,548 households. The sampling was done in such a way that communities where there was no intervention were matched with the intervention communities so that a counterfactual could be obtained. The data was collected for the impact evaluation of the designed intervention however, the baseline data collection process started after 14 months of start date of interventions. 98 4. SCOPE 91 Banadir, Bay, Gedo, Hiran, Lower Juba, Lower Shabelle and Mudug 92 Cozza 2014 93 Cozza 2014 94 “The Coping Strategy Index (CSI) is a key DfID indicator and represents a standardized way to measure household’s capacities to cope with different shocks, especially those related to food security.� (La Guardia, Pinney, and Jaschke 2016) 95 “The Food Consumption Score (FCS) is another key DfID indicator and represents a standardized way to measure food security.� (La Guardia, Pinney, and Jaschke 2016) 96 Respondents were asked about 24 kinds of shocks: inability to pay loan; livestock death; high food prices; severe water shortage; drought; severe illness; crop disease; crop failure; job loss or no salary; floods; business failure; death of the main earner; displacement; accidental death; crop damage or poor storage; high input prices; clashes; communal or political crisis; fishing gear loss; fishing failure; loss of land; fire; storm; or any other shock. (DfID 2016) 97 The disposition or self-perception questions revolved around how the respondent felt in the past two weeks. (La Guardia, Pinney, and Jaschke 2016) 98 La Guardia, Pinney, and Jaschke 2016 SCOPE is a digital beneficiary identity database supporting all the modalities of WFP programs whether in-kind or Cash Based Transfers. It is estimated to contain information on 1.5 to 2 million people who have participated in WFP projects in Somalia. The type of information collected can be customized according to the needs of the intervention and the kind of delivery mechanism. Currently it is being used for beneficiary registration; intervention setup; distribution planning; entitlement transfers; and distribution reporting. Apart from basic demographic information of each beneficiary, SCOPE can store supplementary data like photos, fingerprints, language, location or government ID card references. It can also use information on existing beneficiaries of other partners like the UN or other government agencies, which is subject to data sharing and protection agreements.99 Data protection and privacy are extremely important for SCOPE due to the nature of information. WFP is complying with the information security standards set by the UN by hosting all the SCOPE information on its private cloud. Such measures inadvertently limit the access to data even within the WFP.100 Other than storing information, it is also used to register individuals; to enroll them in one or multiple interventions; and to include them in relevant distribution lists by specifying the modality of transfer for each beneficiary. It is used to manage and monitor transfers as all the information is linked electronically and each step in the implementation process can be traced whereby increasing the accountability. Having biometric information tied to basic demographic information can help in improving targeting by minimizing inclusion and exclusion errors. 5. UNHCR Return Intention Survey UNHCR conducted a Return Intention Survey with refugees living in Dadaab who possess a UNHCR ration card to get a realistic understanding of refugee’s intention to return to Somalia and to assess their expectations. This information is vital for implementation of long term plans and strategies in relation to the returning refugees. The survey was administered to 7,448 households where the information was reported by the household head or any adult member. These households were selected based on stratified sampling whereby the population was divided into 27 sub-categories representing nine areas of origin and three different phases of arrival.101 The survey questionnaire has information on different aspects of conditions of refugees, which can be categorized into the following categories: 1. Demographic characteristics and socio-economic factors of refugees in Dabaab; 2. Living conditions; 3. Individuals’ skills and occupations; 4. Sources of income, both current and pre-displacement; 5. Intentions, motivations and concerns of refugees regarding durable solutions; 6. Potential geographic location if return to Somalia; and 7. Knowledge of refugees about conditions and services in preferred destinations. This data also gives estimates of number of refugees planning to return to Somalia within six to twelve months of the survey.102 99 WFP 2015 100 WFP 2015 101 1991-2001, 2002-2007 & 2008-2013 102 UNHCR and IOM 2014 6. World Vision International Baseline Data & Facility Mapping World Vision Somalia collects baseline data on projects that is used only internally. However, they have done mapping of social services in Puntland for Garowe, Dangorayo, Eyl, Burtinle, and Godobjiran. Social services such as technical and vocational training centers and dispute resolutions centers were marked on these maps. The data represents the access to these facilities in 2015.103 7. Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment (SIRNA) by REACH & OCHA 103 World Vision 2015a REACH and OCHA have conducted Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessments (SIRNA) that identify key needs and services in select communities so that second stage response could be designed accordingly. These assessments record demographic data (gender and age distribution); sources of drinking water; shelter type; and reported priority needs. It also provides an overview of existing conditions in education, health, food security, nutrition, protection, shelter and NFIs (Non-Food Items)104 and WASH. Table 8 gives a snapshot of how detailed the information is within each category. Other than this, the factsheets available on each of these regions also contains mapping of facilities like schools, water points, latrines, non-food markets, and health centers. Currently, these assessments are available on communities in Awdal, Bari, Nugaal, Sanaag, Sool, Togdheer, and Woqooyi Galbeed in Puntland and Somaliland regions. Table 9: Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment (SIRNA) Education % of children aged 5-12 accessing primary education at time of assessment (boys/girls) % of HH with children who have stopped attending school since the drought Ratio of teachers to students in functioning schools Health % of HH reporting health concerns % of HH reporting increased difficulty in accessing healthcare since the drought % of HH reporting increase in healthcare spending since the drought Food % of HH with acceptable food consumption scores Security % of HH reported negative food consumption coping strategies as a result of drought % of HH reporting loss of livestock as a result of drought Nutrition % of HH reporting negative change in accessing nutrition services since the drought % of settlements with nutrition services available with the settlement % of HH with infants reporting that baby care items have been distributed since the drought Protection % of HH reporting to own the land they are settled on % of HH reporting loss of belongings since the drought % of HH reporting child separated since the drought (girls/boys) Shelter and % of HH in buuls reporting damage to buul cover NFIs % of HH with access to at least one 20L Jerry can in good condition % of HH with an acceptable NFI score WASH % of HH with access to a latrine % of HH reporting use of water treatment techniques % of HH reporting hand washing with soap or ash (Source: REACH & OCHA Factsheets) 8. Save the Children Beneficiary Data Save the Children maintains a database on its beneficiaries using a Beneficiary Registration Tool, which is a one-page questionnaire. This information is collected at the time beneficiaries are registered for the program. However, they have strict data protection protocols where data is not shared with others without authorization. 9. ADESO & ACTED Baseline Data 104 The calculation of NFI score is based on jerry cans, cooking pots, wash basins, sleeping mats, blankets, knives and plastic sheeting. Specific weights, as agreed with the Shelter Cluster, are assigned to each of these items. ADESO and ACTED collected baseline data on their beneficiary communities in Lower Juba region in October 2016. 5,000 households from the region were interviewed on general household information; food consumption and coping strategies; livelihood assets and strategies; and food security. 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