CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contribu- tions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ABSTRACT: The WBG is responding to gender inequalities in Andean coun- tries by improving human endowments, removing constraints to more and better employment, and enhancing women’s voice and agency. Within these countries, the WBG has 22 active in- vestments that include gender-specific actions within a variety of sectors, including: health, education, agriculture, water and sanitation, poverty reduction, environment, social protection and labor, urban development. Efforts have resulted in nation- al targets for screening of cervical cancer in Chile, increased women’s participation in STEM fields in Ecuador, narrowed per- formance gaps between boys and girls in preschool through secondary education in Peru, elimination of discriminatory prac- tices prohibiting women from participating equally in the labor force in Bolivia, and relieved women’s time burden through the provision of child care and safer, more efficient transport options in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. This brochure details the ways in which the WBG is responding to gender inequalities in the Ande- an countries. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. Introduction 7 II. Status of Gender Equality 11 in the Andean Countries Health 11 Education 13 Economic Opportunity 14 Gender-Based Violence 16 Iii. Responding to gender inequality in 19 the andean countries through world bank operations Improving Human Endowments 19 Responding to Gender-differentiated Mortality of 20 Non-Communicable Diseases Reducing Maternal Mortality 20 Improving Quality of Education and Monitoring 21 Learning Outcomes for Girls and Boys Promoting women in STEM fields 21 Improving Gender Data and Statistics 22 Removing Constraints for More and Better Fostering 23 Female entrepreneurship 24 Increasing livelihood opportunities and 24 incomes of rural women Improving Women’s Mobility 26 Promoting women’s employment 28 in non-traditional sectors Addressing the “Care Agenda” 29 Facilitating labor market transitions of 29 young women and men Enhancing women’s voice and agency 30 Boosting women’s voice and participation 30 at community level Increasing women’s access to justice 31 Preventing and responding to 32 gender-based violence IV. Conclusion 37 References 39 I. Introduction T he Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region as a whole and the Andean Countries, in particular, have made substantive progress over the past decades in narrowing and closing gender gaps. Gains for women and girls have come in different areas: de- clines in fertility and maternal mortality, gender parity in primary school enrollment, and increased participation in labor markets. But progress has not been consistent across dimensions, or expe- rienced equally by rural, indigenous or Afro-descendant women. Gender equality matters in and of itself, because the ability to live a life of one’s own choosing, free of deprivation, is a basic human right for everyone, whether male or female. In addition to this, gender equality makes economic sense: it promotes pover- ty reduction, boosts growth and productivity, ensures that insti- tutions are more representative, and translates into better out- comes for future generations. When women participate equally in societies, families, communities and countries achieve better development outcomes. Conversely, gender inequality affects women and girls throughout their lives and produces significant economic and social costs. Inequalities in educational outcomes, discrimina- tion and social norms restricting access to labor markets, gender wage gaps, and persistent exposure to violence at home, at work and in public spaces continue to produce social and economic costs for them as individuals, for their households and for societ- ies at large. Recent research estimates that gender inequality has produced losses in human capital wealth of $160.2 trillion, nearly twice the value of global GDP (Wodon and de la Brière 2018). 7 For these reasons, the World Bank has com- The LAC Regional Gender Action Plan (Fis- mitted to promote gender equality through its cal Years 2016 – 2019) contextualizes the global operations, commissioned analytical products, WBG strategy within the region, and highlights and tailored solutions within different coun- the importance of World Bank efforts to ad- tries. In 2015, the World Bank Group launched dress gender gaps at the country level. an organization-wide Gender Strategy (Fiscal This brochure presents a number of exam- Years 16 to 23): Gender Equality Poverty Re- ples of how the World Bank Group is working duction and Inclusive Growth, a strategy that with Andean countries to improve gender highlights the importance of gender equality in equality outcomes; and highlights the diverse achieving the World Bank’s main goals of pov- strategies and activities employed to address erty reduction and shared prosperity. The strat- fundamental challenges affecting women’s egy highlights the importance of four areas of participation in and benefit from poverty re- gender equality that require stronger and bet- duction and shared prosperity. ter-funded efforts: The brochure is divided into two sections. 1. improving human endowments The first section provides an overview of gender 2. removing constraints for more and better equality in the Andean countries by examining employment indicators relative to health, education, eco- 3. removing barriers to women’s ownership nomic empowerment and voice and agency. and control of assets The second highlights the operational exam- ples of how the World Bank Group is respond- 4. enhancing women’s voice and agency ing to gender gaps through a range of sectors and strategies. Closing Gender Gaps in Latin America 8 and the Caribbean I. Introduction 9 II. Status of Gender Equality in the Andean Countries T he Andean countries have made significant progress in gender equality in recent years and have strength- ened legal and institutional frameworks to reduce gender gaps and promote women’s equal participation in govern- ment and society. Women and girls have experienced signif- icant gains in life expectancy, maternal mortality, enrollment and completion of secondary school, female labor force partic- ipation, and voice and participation within their respective gov- ernments. However, persistent challenges remain with regards to access to quality sexual and reproductive health, adolescent pregnancy, wage gaps, low-skill and informal work, and gen- der-based violence. Indigenous and Afro-descendant women often face the greatest disadvantages, and in many contexts are excluded from overall gains due to the overlapping constraints of ethnicity and gender. This section provides a brief overview of gender equality by examining indicators relevant to human endowments of health and education, economic opportunity and gender-based violence. HEALTH Andean countries have mixed progress in improving wom- en’s health. Life expectancy has increased steadily for both men and women in all countries since the 1990s. Women have lower 11 Figure 1: Significant Reductions in Maternal Mortality Modeled estimates (per 100,000 live births), WDI Chile Peru Ecuador Bolivia 0 100 200 300 400 2015 1995 mortality rates than men in every country in the Peru, Chile, and Ecuador show that, even with sub region, and live, on average, 5 years more increased maternal care infrastructure in rural than men.1 areas, services may fail to provide ethnically Maternal mortality rates dropped signifi- competent services2 to minority women (Yaja- cantly in each of the Andean countries be- huanca et al. 2013, Schnyer 2014, CEDAW 2015). tween 1995 and 2015, ranging from a 46% Adolescent fertility has also decreased decrease in Chile to a 67% decrease in Peru over time within the Andean countries, but (Figure 1). Despite gains in Bolivia, maternal rates vary widely. Peru and Chile have rates mortality rates remain very high at 206 deaths (48.4 and 46.6 births per 1000 women ages 15- per 100,000 live births, the second highest rate 19, respectively) below the LAC regional average in the LAC region, only behind Haiti. Within (67.4); while Bolivia and Ecuador exceed these countries, indigenous and rural women typical- rates (69.0 and 74.6, respectively). Adolescent ly have significantly worse maternal health out- fertility in Chile (46.6), while well below the re- comes (WHO 2018). This is true in Bolivia, where gional average, greatly exceeds the average rate less than 60 percent of indigenous rural women among upper middle-income countries (13.4).3 give birth with the support of skilled health per- sonnel, compared to almost all urban non-in- 2 Indigenous communities have their own practices re- lated to the provision of sexual and reproductive health digenous women (World Bank 2015). Studies in which then requires health care providers to be aware of two different worldviews and how they may conflict, 1 Author’s calculation based on 2016 data available on as well as what is necessary to provide respectful care. World Development Indicators. 3 World Development Indicators, 2016. Closing Gender Gaps 12 in the Andean Countries The proportion of adolescent mothers enrolled in secondary education (UN 2016). is consistently higher in rural areas and Poverty also impacts boys’ and girls’ access to among the poor. In Bolivia, 26.6 percent of secondary education: in Ecuador, 91.2 percent young women from the poorest quintile were of girls in the riches quintile were enrolled in mothers or pregnant by age 19, as compared secondary in 2015, while only 72.6 percent of to 5.5 percent of those from the richest quin- girls in the poorest quintile enrolled (INEI 2016). tile (ENDSA 2008). And in Peru, the proportion The difference for men is not as great, but it still of adolescent mothers is more than two times exists: 74.3 percent within the poorest quintile higher in rural areas than urban ones (22.0 ver- were enrolled in secondary versus 88.8 percent sus 12.2 percent, respectively) (ENAHO 2014). A in the richest (INEI 2016). study in Ecuador found that teenage pregnancy At the secondary level, gender gaps in is often the result of the lack of opportunities completion of secondary education favor young women face, and relates closely to aspi- girls in all Andean countries. Household sur- rations and agency that are influenced by so- vey data shows that the main reasons for boys cial norms defining the role of girls as mothers to not be in school (other than having finished (Azevedo et al. 2012). Others studies show that studies) were work and economic problems; youth lack access to contraceptives, and they and, while these reasons are also important face shame and fear in purchasing, obtaining for girls, girls also cited household work as an and negotiating contraception necessary to important (or more important) reason for leav- avoid early pregnancy (Azevedo et al. 2012, Li- ing school.5 Pregnancy is also a cited factor for povesk et al. 2002). women to abandon education in Chile and Bo- livia. In 2016, 45 percent more men than women EDUCATION in Chile cited working or looking for a job as a Girls’ disadvantage in primary school en- reason for dropping out of education; data also rollment has been eliminated in Andean shows that 7 percent and 13 percent of girls cit- countries, and secondary enrollment rates ed the main reason for dropout was helping at are closer to parity than the LAC region- home and pregnancy, respectively (HHS 2016). al average.4 However, enrollment disparities In Ecuador, women also cite family prohibition between girls and boys still exist among the as an additional reason, which does not appear poor and among indigenous populations. In for men. (HHS 2016). Ecuador, 51 percent of indigenous girls are not 4 Gender parity index in secondary enrollment rates (WDI 2016): Latin America, 1.05; Peru, 1.0; Bolivia, 0.98; Chile 5 Chile (HHS 2016), Bolivia (HHS 2015); Peru (HHS 2016); 1.01; Ecuador, 1.04). Ecuador (HHS 2016). II. Status of Gender Equality in the Andean Countries in the Andean Countries 13 Figure 2: Gender Gap in LFP similar to LAC region, except for Peru labor force participation rate, ILO-modeled estimates 2017 (WDI) 90,0 80,0 70,0 60,0 50,0 40,0 30,0 25,9 24,8 23,8 25,8 20,0 15,5 10,0 0,0 Bolivia Chile Ecuador LAC Peru Female Male Gap ECONOMIC Part-time work and informal sector em- ployment offer women additional flexibil- OPPORTUNITY ity, but often at the cost of labor rights, Higher educational attainment has not yet pensions and other benefits (Chioda 2016). translated into better economic opportu- In Peru, wage work, associated with higher nities for women. On the contrary, women benefits and stability, was much lower among across Andean countries are less likely than men women than men: 38.3 percent versus 53.2 to join the labor force (Figure 2) and to work for percent, respectively (ENAHO 2015). In Ecua- pay. When they do enter the labor force, they dor, 50 percent of working men were engaged are more likely to work part-time, in the informal in informal jobs6, as compared to 62 percent of sector, and receive lower wages. In all countries, women. One in three women in Bolivia was in the majority of unpaid work (related to house- 6 An individual’s work is considered informal if (s)he hold and care duties) is completed by women. belongs to any of the following categories: unskilled self-employed, salaried worker in small private firm, zero-income worker. Closing Gender Gaps 14 in the Andean Countries Figure 3: Wage gap in Andean countries Labor income (hourly wages in dollar), 2015 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Bolivia Ecuador Chile Peru Source: SEDLAC conditions of vulnerable employment (unpaid than 5 employees) and 15 percent are small- family worker and own-account worker), more scale enterprises (5-19 employees) (World Bank than two times the LAC regional average (SED- 2015). Female entrepreneurs also receive loans LAC 2015); and in Peru 34.8 percent of women at financial institutions at lower rate than men. were self-employed and 17.8 percent engaged In Chile, the majority of female entrepreneurs in non-remunerated family work (ENAHO 2015). relied on family and friends for loans to start Women are paid less than men, creating a business (50.4 percent), while only 19 per- a gender gap in wages throughout the An- cent had a loan from a financial institution, dean countries (Figure 3). In Chile, the gender compared to 44.6 percent of men (INE 2016). gap in earnings (hourly wages) has increased Likewise, in Ecuador, only 23 percent of busi- over time: women earned 17 percent less than nesses headed by women had access to credit men in 2015 as compared to 13.6 in 2006. (Rubio-Banon et al. 2016). On a positive note, a recent IADB study ranks Chile and Peru as the Female entrepreneurs tend to be con- top two countries in the region in terms of cul- centrated in micro- and small-scale en- tivating an environment for successful female terprises, are less likely to have a formal entrepreneurship due to their robust business bank account or take out loans from finan- networks and technical support programs cial institutions. In Bolivia, 84 percent of fe- (IADB 2013). male-owned firms are micro-enterprises (fewer II. Status of Gender Equality in the Andean Countries in the Andean Countries 15 GENDER-BASED lence find that the economic costs in Peru to- taled $6.7 billion10, equivalent to a 3.7% loss in VIOLENCE GDP resulting from decreased productivity. On Violence against women (VAW) is a signif- average, female victims lost between 43 and 47 icant problem, producing immediate and productive days of work during the year studied long-term harm to survivors, their families (GIZ 2015). In Bolivia, cost of violence relative to and societies. Rates of femicide,7 the inten- productivity reaches 6.5% of GDP (GIZ 2015). tional murder of women because of their sex, In the Andean countries, most wom- most usually at the hands of current or former en living in situations of violence do not partners, vary greatly in the Andean countries, search for assistance or for institutional ranging from rates one-half the regional aver- help, largely due to the perception that insti- age (Chile) to double the regional average (Bo- tutions will not provide adequate help and livia).8 due to prevailing patriarchal norms preventing Women also face high rates of intimate women from trying to change their situations partner violence (Figure 4), especially rural or escape violent relationships. In Peru, 44.1 women, those in the lowest economic quin- percent of women who experienced any form tiles, those with low education, those who were of violence searched in their close environment exposed to childhood abuse (physical and psy- (family and friends), while only 27.2 turned to chological), and those of ethnic minorities.9 institutions (ENDES 2016). Rates of help-seek- Studies estimating the cost of domestic vio- ing is lower among indigenous populations. A Perception Survey in Bolivia found that 61 7 An escalating number of violent female homicides percent of indigenous women do not seek any committed by men in the last two decades compelled LAC countries to adopt specific measures to curtail this form of help (55 percent for non-indigenous phenomenon. Despite difficulties measuring and com- paring incidence of femicide across countries – due to women), and only 19 percent sought help from lack of capacity, under-reporting, etc. – the LAC region institutions (compared to 22 percent for non-in- appears to have one of the highest rates of femicide in the world. digenous women) (World Bank 2015). 8 Rates of femicide (per 100,000 women) vary from 0.4 in Chile to 1.6 in Bolivia. The LAC regional average is 0.8. Data from ECLAC, 2016. 9 In Ecuador, rates higher among indigenous and af- ro-descendant women. Exposure to abuse in childhood an important driver for both abusers and victims, over 79 percent of perpetrators were victims of physical mistreatment as children, as were 75 percent of vic- tims (ERFVGcM 2011). In Bolivia, 75.7 percent of wom- en reporting intimate partner violence had suffered physical or psychological violence as children (EPCVcM 2016). 10 Estimates drawn from 2011 DHS survey Closing Gender Gaps 16 in the Andean Countries Figure 4: Rates of Domestic Violence high in Andean Countries Ever experienced violence at hands of partner, % women, latest data available Chile Violence (in any form) 35,1 Psychological or Verbal 67,4 Peru Physical 32 Sexual 7,9 Psychological 69,3 Physical 50,3 Bolivia Economic 31,3 Sexual 34 Psychological 43,4 Physical 35 Ecuador Economic 10,7 Sexual 14,5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Sources: Chile, INE 2012; Peru, ENDES 2014, Bolivia, EPCVcM, 2016; Ecuador, ERFVGcM, 2011 II. Status of Gender Equality in the Andean Countries in the Andean Countries 17 Closing Gender Gaps 18 in the Andean Countries III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations T he World Bank has incorporated a wide variety of gen- der activities throughout different sectors, addressing various dimensions of gender equality. WBG operations in Andean countries address persistent areas of gender equality as well as areas of emerging importance in Andean countries and the Latin America and Caribbean region as a whole. This section explores how specific operations have responded to gender in- equalities in the areas of improving human endowments, remov- ing constraints to more and better employment, and enhancing women’s voice and agency. IMPROVING HUMAN ENDOWMENTS To improve human endowments, WBG operations in the Andean countries focus on reducing mortal- ity from non-communicable diseases, closing gaps 19 Reducing Maternal Mortality in educational enrollment and out- The portfolio also addresses maternal mor- comes, and ensuring high quality tality, a persistent area of gender inequal- data and statistics for program de- ity in several Andean countries, especially sign and evaluation. The WBG is sup- among rural and indigenous women13. The porting programs to institute screenings Bolivia Health Service Delivery Network Project14 for cervical, breast and colon cancers, aims to improve access to and quality of health improve national testing mechanisms, service delivery in ten health networks, located reduce maternal mortality and promote in five of Bolivia’s nine departments.15 The proj- equal access to STEM fields within high- ect funds the construction of ten hospitals, one er education. in each health network, in order to increase the quality and reach of formal medical services. The project also provides training for medical Responding to Gender- specialists on clinical care standards and cul- turally-sensitive service delivery in order to im- differentiated Mortality of prove indigenous’ women’s perception of and Non-Communicable Diseases experiences within formal medical services; Non-communicable diseases are the lead- and supports data gathering for the National ing cause of mortality for both men and Health Information and Surveillance System women in Andean Countries. In Chile, the and the 2018 Maternal Mortality Survey. Addi- upcoming Public Health Sector Support Proj- tionally, the project will conduct a qualitative ect11 will respond to shifting priorities in the LAC and quantitative study to analyze risk factors region in women’s health by instituting targets affecting maternal mortality at the individu- for cancer screenings for cervical, breast and al, household, community and network levels colon cancers, now the leading cause of death – also trying to understand the demand-side among women in the country. The project ad- 13 Maternal mortality rates in Bolivia was 206 deaths per dresses the increasing burden of non-commu- 100,000 live births (in XX year); less than 60 percent of indigenous rural women give birth with the support of nicable diseases on health systems, but does skilled health personnel, compared to almost all urban non-indigenous women (World Bank 2015a). so in a gender-sensitive way (recognizing differ- 14 Project P164453, active until July 31, 2023. ent burdens of diseases for men and women).12 15 The health service delivery networks were selected based on the following criteria: (i) networks without a functioning health network referral center and popula- tion without access to higher levels of health care; (ii) distance to an alternative referral hospital; and (iii) epi- 11 Project 161018, active until December 31, 2022. demiological profile and health indicators (including high 12 The project also supports health sector screenings and maternal mortality) that merit proposed intervention. follow-up treatment for diabetes and hypertension, the leading non-communicable diseases affecting men. Closing Gender Gaps 20 in the Andean Countries for services better. The report resulting from school-level testing to ensure equitable learn- the study will include recommendations to im- ing outcomes. prove maternal care related to access to and Likewise, Peru’s Basic Education Project17 quality of health services, as well as the role of funded the strengthening of the national eval- gender and intercultural issues that could hin- uation of student learning at pre-primary, pri- der progress in reducing maternal deaths. mary and secondary levels in order to scale up sound second grade tests to other grades Improving Quality of and education levels. This more comprehen- Education and Monitoring sive evaluation system will provide actionable information, disaggregated by gender, sub- Learning Outcomes for Girls ject area, and location to monitor equality of and Boys learning outcomes. The new tests confirm that Education projects improve infrastruc- trends in primary education are similar within ture, teacher training, enhance programs preschool and secondary levels: notably, that for students with special needs, and fill performance gaps between girls and boys are gender-specific knowledge gaps related to closing at all levels. learning outcomes. In Ecuador, the Supporting Education Reform Promoting women in STEM in Targeted Circuits Project16 aims to increase fields enrollment in early education and improve In addition to improvements in primary the persistent rate in lower secondary and up- and secondary education, WBG projects in per secondary education through consolida- the Andean countries address critical gen- tion of schools into “hubs” and the upgrading der gaps in science and technology, a pri- of infrastructure and facilities within the new ority area identified within the WBG Gen- education infrastructure. At these centers, sci- der Strategy. The Peru Strengthening Science, ence and technology labs will increase access Technology and Innovation System Project18 of both male and female students to dedicated strengthens national institutions responsible lab space. Current gender gaps in learning out- for improving research skills and firm-level in- comes, persistence and satisfaction in school novation in the areas of science and technol- are small, but they favor girls in all areas. The ogy. Strategic programs funded by the project project has created specific targets to narrow include competitive funds for students and re- gaps in each of these areas, and will implement 17 Project P123151, closed March 31, 2018. 16 Project P152096, active until December 31, 2020. 18 Project P156250, active until December 31, 2021. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 21 searchers through scholarships, postdocs and cific actions to guarantee equality of opportu- internships at research institutes and agencies. nities within the scope of project. As a part of the evaluative process for competi- Likewise, the Chile Strengthening of State tive funds, additional points are given to female Universities Project20 standardizes the inclusion researchers (as well as researchers from regions of gender issues and policies through the de- outside of Lima and young researchers under velopment of gender actions plans to be imple- the age of 35). At the time of this publication, mented by the “Centers of Inclusion” on each one of the competitive funds has final results: state university campus. Through this project, of 17 winning proposals, 7 are led by female universities may be better equipped to under- researchers (41%). Recognizing gender barriers stand and respond to issues relating to violence for women in the area of STEM, institutions re- and discrimination, the pay and leadership gap, ceiving grants will be required to provide ben- women’s enrollment in science, technology, en- eficiary data disaggregated by gender, ensure gineering and mathematics (STEM) fields, et.al. proposals reviewed avoid gender bias, provide gender sensitivity training as part of capacity Improving Gender Data and building, and prioritize gender-informed pro- posals in competitively financed activities. The Statistics project will monitor beneficiaries by gender High-quality, gender-disaggregated data is each year of implementation to measure wom- essential to the formation of gender-sen- en’s access to higher education. sitive policies and programs. Several proj- ects in the Bank’s portfolio address critical Two projects envision the use of Gen- knowledge gaps, including in the area of der Actions Plans to monitor and improve human endowments. equality of opportunities and outcomes for women in STEM, while also providing mo- In Bolivia, the Strengthening Statistical tivation and accountability for measure- Capacity and the Information Base for Evi- ment and reporting for gender gaps within dence-based Planning Project21 improved the the field. In Ecuador, the Gender Plan associ- timeliness, reliability, accuracy and represen- ated with the Transformation of Tertiary Techni- tativeness of data collection, and improved cal and Technological Institute Project19 plans to support systems for planning, designing and gather information on barriers to women’s par- monitoring public programs and policies. The ticipation in technical education and to identify project funded a National Population and which programs have significant gender gaps in Household census, an agricultural survey, new participation in order to propose gender-spe- 20 Project P163437, active until December 30, 2022. 19 Project P157425, active until December 31, 2021. 21 Project P101336, active until June 14, 2019. Closing Gender Gaps 22 in the Andean Countries consumer price index, and updating of nation- al social statistics (DHS, household budget sur- REMOVING vey). Data collected through these instruments CONSTRAINTS FOR provides information critical to understanding MORE AND BETTER disparities based on geographic location, eth- nicity and gender in health, education, access EMPLOYMENT to justice, rights and violence. New data result- A 2012 World Bank study23 found that ed in the published study “Bolivia: Challenges female labor income in LAC, especial- to advance in gender equity and empower- ly among poorest quintiles, resulted ment of women,” summarizing the new and/ in reductions in inequality and ex- or updated socio-economic indicators relevant treme poverty of 28 and 30 percent, to gender equity in the country. In addition, the respectively, between 2000 and project will fund a pilot for a time use survey to 2010. To remove constraints for more provide critical evidence on gender differences and better employment for women, in time burden; and will support the review of WBG operations in the Andean countries SDG and national indicators in order to ensure focus on fostering female entrepreneur- geographic, age and sex disaggregation in the ship, increasing livelihood opportunities short- and medium-term. and incomes for rural women, improv- Forthcoming work will close critical ing women’s mobility, addressing the knowledge gaps relative to women’s access “care agenda”, and promoting women’s to STEM. In Ecuador, the Transformation of employment in non-traditional sectors. Tertiary Technical and Technological Institutes The WBG is supporting programs to Project22 will monitor access and retention rates bring entrepreneurial training to poor by gender, for which there is now no source of urban women, equipping rural wom- information. The project will also complete an en to enter project management roles, impact evaluation that will provide sex-disag- funding scholarships and internships to gregated analysis on educational outcomes. gain relevant work experience and edu- cation, constructing childcare centers, facilitating successful school-to-work transitions for youth. 23 World Bank. 2012. The effect of women’s economic power in Latin America and the Caribbean (English). Latin America and the Caribbean poverty and labor brief. 22 Project P157425, active until December 31, 2021. Washington, DC: World Bank. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 23 Fostering female assets, including land, inputs and training. The Bank’s portfolio has responded to some of entrepreneurship these critical challenges through targeted ini- Investments in training and capital for fe- tiatives. male entrepreneurs can satisfy critical The Bolivia Community Investment in knowledge and finance gaps and contrib- Rural Areas Project (PICAR)25 engaged ru- ute to poverty reduction. In the Andean ral and indigenous women within Boliv- countries and the LAC region at large, female ia’s most vulnerable areas, offering them entrepreneurs are often “necessity entrepre- transformative opportunities within proj- neurs,” who start businesses in order to earn ect management roles to learn skills and income for basic needs, while continuing to to enter spaces not previously available carrying out existing care and household re- to them. Through PICAR, a community-driv- sponsibilities. en development (CDD) project,26 women pro- The Bolivia Urban Infrastructure Project24 posed and implemented community-level in- sought to increase the access of poor, urban vestments, enabling them to prioritize projects women to training and services through the important to them and to “learn-by-doing” construction of community centers. In close through project implementation. Additionally, partnership with civil society organizations, PICAR specifically encouraged the participation sub-municipal offices used the spaces to meet of women in financial management positions critical needs of members of the communi- within community subprojects, roles which ty, particularly the elderly, youth and women. typically were occupied by men. The project Among the trainings provided, entrepreneur- intensified administrative support and training ship classes were provided to handicraft groups to ensure women developed proper capacity in order to increase the quality of products and to complete the required tasks: expenditure earnings of poor, urban women. reports for grants, gathering and evaluating price quotes, writing checks, etc. According to Increasing livelihood the projects most recent Implementation Sta- opportunities and incomes of tus Report,27 6190 women had received train- rural women 25 Project P107137, active until November 30, 2019. 26 Within community-driven development projects, A vast majority of employed rural women communities themselves define and prioritize local work within agriculture; however, women infrastructure investments and manage government funds. face obstacles to ownership of productive 27 Implementation Status Report, BO PICAR Community Investment in Rural Areas (P107137), June 24, 2018. 24 Project P157425, active until December 31, 2021. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ Closing Gender Gaps 24 in the Andean Countries ing in management;28 and women make up 59 actors in production and pre-processing. percent of active members within the project’s The project provides rural women the oppor- established management committees. After tunity to organize themselves more efficiently five years of consistent investment, women’s into producer organizations, assume enhanced participation has paid off in multiple ways: new commercial roles, and improve their earnings. skill acquisitions, but also higher standards of As in the case of PICAR, PARII prioritizes the transparency within administrative commit- co-financing of women-led groups, and seeks tees.29 Project managers credit women’s in- greater participation and leadership of women volvement with more effective implementation in local planning and decision-making bodies of subprojects. Project indicators show that 88 responsible for managing and accounting for percent of subprojects have satisfactorily com- the use of public resources. Project monitoring pleted implementation (exceeding project tar- systems identify both male and female partic- gets of 80 percent);30 and 99.1 percent of sub- ipants within families, enabling the project to projects were found to be fully functional one generate better gender statistics.33 Data relative year after completion.31 to income indicators show that gender gaps in Bolivia’s Rural Alliances Project (PAR II)32 income between men and women have nar- helps smallholder farmers improve access rowed as a result of women’s participation.34 to markets, and focuses on agricultural Other projects incentivized communi- subsectors of high added-value, such as ties to include rural women’s priorities and cacao, in which women are the principal ideas into competitive grant subprojects. en/396391529815153379/pdf/Disclosable-Version-of- In Peru, the Saweto Dedicated Grant Mechanism the-ISR-BO-PICAR-Community-Investment-in-Rural-Ar- Project35 implemented a strategy to ensure eas-P107137-Sequence-No-16.pdf women had access to grants. Under this proj- 28 “Training” includes only training provided to committee members in areas that include financial management, ect, all proposals for competitive funds were procurement, safeguards, subproject management and Operation and Maintenance, etc. required to include gender considerations (the 29 For more information about PICAR and PAR II projects, project trains applicants as to what this means please see a WBG blog: http://blogs.worldbank.org/ and what possibilities exist for gender inte- latinamerica/without-empowered-women-there-no-fu- ture-rural-areas 30 880 subprojects of 996. 33 Sex-disaggregated indicators added within monitoring 31 Fully functional subprojects make up 132 percent of framework of additional financing, and have not yet the end-of-project target. This is on the basis of a total been reported. of 731 subprojects completed for a time period of 34 Data from “Mujeres Empoderadas tejiendo su futuro” at least 12 months and of which 725 are functional). produced by the Ministry of Rural Development and Project documents recognize that the value is likely Lands, as viewed on: http://blogs.worldbank.org/ to fluctuate with the increasing number of completed latinamerica/without-empowered-women-there-no-fu- subprojects. ture-rural-areas 32 Project P127743, active until November 30, 2021. 35 Project P148499, active until March 1, 2021. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 25 gration). According to the steering committee cent community-level consultations have been responsible for the project’s implementation, sex-disaggregated to further enhance women’s women were involved in the development of participation in activities where they have tra- all sub-projects, both for land titling and sus- ditionally been underrepresented (production tainable forest management; and 10 of 40 sus- and processing of sugar cane, banana and cof- tainable forest management projects are led by fee, for example). women. Furthermore, according to indicators monitoring implementation, the project has al- Improving Women’s Mobility ready surpassed its 50 percent target for female Affordable, safe and efficient transport is beneficiaries. necessary to facilitate women’s mobility Similarly, through the Peru National Agricul- and their access to improved economic op- tural Innovation Project36, the WBG has support- portunities and services. Projects in Ecuador ed innovation within the agricultural sector to and Peru improve urban transport systems and improve agricultural technologies. Funding for will measure gender-specific impacts of the adaptive research projects, extension projects, new infrastructure. and capacity building sub-projects (scholar- Peru Lima Metro Line 2 Project37 aims to ad- ships for postgraduate studies and internships) dress mobility constraints that residents in the has been awarded through competitive grants. city’s periphery face in traveling to work or ser- The project received overwhelming response vices in the downtown area. The integrated fare as a result of a targeted communications and structure will allow for inter-modal transfers (of information campaign to publicize the com- up to 70 minutes), producing a potential sav- petitive grants program, which resulted in the ings, especially to the poor who currently take project surpassing the 33 percent target for two or more forms of transport to reach the women-won grants: eight of 14 international city center and for women who often complete internships and 37 of 84 grants for postgradu- multi-leg trips for the purposes of childcare, ate study were awarded to women. To ensure household management, and informal sector that women have access to project activities employment. The project team will ensure that and that they benefit from project innovations, the transport authorities responsible for de- the project monitors access to project-provid- signing and managing the Metro system have ed services the adoption of technologies, as access to best practice and lessons related to well as empowerment of women through their women’s access and safety in public transpor- leadership in community decision-making tation. An impact evaluation of the project will bodies responsible for the use of resources. Re- 36 Project P131013, active until September 1, 2019. 37 Project P145610, active until December 31, 2021. Closing Gender Gaps 26 in the Andean Countries Women’s mobility in Latin American Cities Drawing on 204 semi-structured interviews with women, men and key informants in three Latin American metropolitan regions - Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires and Lima - the forth- coming study “Women’s Mobility in LAC Cities” (financed by the Umbrella Facility for Gen- der Equality) explored constraints and facilitators to women’s mobility in low-income urban settings and how mobility constraints may affect women’s access to economic opportuni- ties and overall wellbeing. The study concludes that shortcomings of public transport sys- tems – including affordability, safety, availability and quality of transportation – may have a more significant impact on women’s mobility in comparison to men due to a greater sense of vulnerability to crime and violence, financial inequality and unequal time allocation to care duties within households. In addition, social norms around marriage implied greater focus on domestic sphere, less priority attributed to women’s paid work and men’s nega- tive associations with women’s mobility. These factors were found to shape women’s choic- es related to their mobility and work, even if implying disadvantages in financial cost and time constraints. For example, women were more likely to feel safer and therefore prefer fixed-seat modes of transportation although they might take longer and are more expen- sive. Women were also more likely to prefer closer and informal income generating oppor- tunities - although lower paid – to be able to combine paid work with care responsibilities. These constrained choices, therefore, seem to contribute to persistent gender inequalities. The study also identified facilitating factors and endogenous strategies employed by women that countered some of these constraints. Single payment schemes, employers’ coverage of transportation costs and the lower cost and greater availability of private tax- is introduced with new technologies enhanced accessibility of transportation. Developing friendly relationships with drivers and street vendors, joint organization of commutes with other women and building support networks beyond the family were strategies used to improve women’s sense of safety and release time constraints. include analysis of mobility with respect to housing, mobility, social aid programs, health gender-specific issues pertaining to violence, and work.38 sexual harassment and safety in addition to effects of the transport line on personal life, 38 The impact evaluation of the Metro line will be led by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 27 Promoting women’s agnostic to better understand gender gaps in rural road maintenance. Both activities served employment in non- as inputs to the Gender Action Plan instituted traditional sectors under the project. The plan reinforces the in- Experience within several Latin American stitutional commitments to gender equality of countries shows that women’s engagement Provias Descentralizado (PVD), a department of in non-traditional job and income-generating the Ministry of Transport and Communications. opportunities, specifically their participation Internally, within PVD, the plan will support the in rural roads maintenance microenterprises, modification of staff development policies to can change social norms regarding women’s reflect national gender commitments; provi- roles, lead to networking and mentorship ac- sion of gender equality training to personnel, tivities, contribute to greater decision-making including high-level directors; and completion power within their households, reduce poverty of a study to identify gender wage gaps within because of increased household investments, the institution. To ensure gender-integration improve confidence and leadership skills, and in the projects managed by PVD, the plan pro- increase their aspirations for personal develop- poses additional training for project teams to ment (Casabonne, Jimenez and Muller 2015). incorporate gender strategies in project design Under the former Peru Decentralized Rural and to sex-disaggregate project records. The Transport Project39, women’s inclusion in rural project will complete an impact assessment road maintenance microenterprises reached that will study sex-disaggregated impacts of nearly 30 percent. the project, including: short- and long-term dis- tributional impacts of improved rural roads on To respond to recent changes in procure- household welfare, income and consumption, ment legislation in Peru, which will inhibit rural employment and investment, access and uti- roads works to implement a quota for wom- lization of health and education services, and en’s participation, the Support to the Subna- women’s empowerment. tional Transport Program Project40 organized an international conference – “Experiences of The WBG has also sought to increase Women in Rural Roads” – to discuss the role of women’s employment in urban transport. women in the transport sector, and specifical- Ecuador’s Quito Metro Line One Project funded ly in rural roads projects. Experiences, lessons an analysis of the Integrated Transport System learned and recommendations shared during (SITQ) to understand the number of men and that event complimented a project-funded di- women in operative, administrative and tech- nical positions; and, through a complimentary 39 Project P095570, closed December 31, 2013. 40 Project P132515, active until March 31, 2021. qualitative study, explored barriers that women Closing Gender Gaps 28 in the Andean Countries face in recruitment, retention and promotion high transport and day care costs. Provision of within the system. Based on these studies, the reliable, public day care reduced the cost and project will create a gender-sensitive recruit- time burden of poor working women. ment and retention plan to incorporate wom- In Chile, the WBG provided inputs to a na- en in both operative and technical positions, tional policy relative to care. The WBG’s Sys- which have historically been roles held by men, tematic Country Diagnostic (SCD)42 for Chile, and to recommend gender-specific policies to which identifies the most important challeng- improve women’s retention and promotion es a country faces in reducing poverty and within the implementing agency. increasing shared prosperity, identifies low female labor force participation (FLFP) as a sig- Addressing the nificant barrier to economic growth, and sug- “Care Agenda” gests that the lack of access to daycare is a key WBG investments in Chile and Bolivia re- driver of women’s low labor force participation. spond to an issue of increasing regional im- WBG specialists in social protection and labor portance: care. Generally, gender norms dele- provided technical assistance to the Ministry of gate care work and responsibilities to women, Social Development for the design, implemen- increasing their work burden, and decreasing tation and process evaluation of the National their time to engage in economic opportuni- Care System Chile Cuida, which has a focus on ties, improvement of endowments and leisure. support to family caregivers of dependents. In Bolivia, the Urban Infrastructure Project41 improved access to services for the urban poor Facilitating labor market in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz through infra- transitions of young women structure investments, which included the con- and men struction of community centers in La Paz. In As is true of the LAC region as a whole, some neighborhoods, based on demand and youth who drop out before completing sec- initiatives of community members, these cen- ondary school lack the key skills required ters were used for community-level day care ser- for formal sector employment, and may vices. Project preparation analysis found that, in settle for informal jobs that set them on a El Alto (which is adjacent to the city of La Paz), life-long trajectory of lower earnings and 66 percent of women work as housekeepers and opportunity (De Hoyos et al. 2016). The Bolivia commute nearly one hour on average (including walking for long distances) and, as a result, faced 42 A Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) informs the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) negotiated between the WBG and country governments. The SCD is a result of thorough analysis, 41 Note: This project closed as of September 30, 2017. and informed by a range of stakeholders. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 29 Improving Employability and Labor Income of inclusion. The Bolivia Community Investment in Youth Project43 includes programs to provide Rural Areas Project (PICAR) 44 incentivizes com- wage subsidies for companies to hire unskilled munities to engage women by allowing them youth and provide youth employability train- to access a second subproject if proposed and ing ahead of internships to a subset of regis- managed mainly by women. The incentive was tered applicants and beneficiaries. Along with well-received, created a conducive environ- improving school-to-work transitions overall, ment for buy-in and ownership among bene- the project seeks to reduce discrimination of ficiaries, and, in some cases, provided women women in the workplace by ensuring equal op- an opportunity to negotiate position in a larger portunities for women and men within the wage combined grant at the community level.45 subsidy component. The project will provide Social analyses can uncover cultural guaranteed reimbursement of maternity leave norms and gendered responsibilities that obligations, now paid by employers, and will may preclude women’s participation and reimburse childcare fees of participating young voice in project activities. The following two mothers. Finally, the project may test a set of in- projects addressed such barriers: In the addi- terventions to overcome employers’ discrimina- tional financing for Bolivia’s Rural Alliances II tion against young women in the hiring process. Project46 (PAR II), trainings were conducted at convenient times and in places where wom- ENHANCING en commonly visit, avoiding additional travel WOMEN’S VOICE burdens and providing additional level of fa- miliarity. The project coordinated with rural AND AGENCY and indigenous women’s organizations to host informational workshops about the project, its Boosting women’s voice and prioritization of women-led groups and oppor- participation at community tunities for women to participate within local administrative and evaluation committees. level Likewise, Bolivia’s Community Investment in Through the portfolio, various sectors seek to enhance women’s voice and agency within communities and within WBG-im- 44 Project P107137, active until November 30, 2019. plemented projects through a variety of 45 In some communities that received second grants to women-led teams, communities decided to combine the funds of the grants strategies. Several projects include innovative to create one larger investment. Female leaders of women-led grants were able to negotiate positions in management of the and transformational approaches to women’s larger community grant because of the additional funding they brought to the communities. 43 Project P143995, active until December 31, 2021. 46 Project P127743, active until November 30, 2021. Closing Gender Gaps 30 in the Andean Countries Rural Areas Project (PICAR) 47 offered planning pecially indigenous women) in the project’s workshops to mixed-sex groups and to wom- productive activities in agricultural subsectors. en-only audiences, providing women with flex- In the second phase of the project, the team ibility in their participation. Additionally, where relaxed the requirements for cash investments language and education may have been an ad- among subprojects led by indigenous women ditional barrier for indigenous women, special and changed the location, time and structure workshops for Quechua and Aymara women of training activities to make them more acces- were developed and held. sible to women of all ethnicities. In Peru, projects utilize technology to In Peru, a water project capitalized on engage women and monitor their participa- client-owned protocols for gender inclu- tion. The forthcoming Enhancement of Environ- sion to strengthen planning exercises and/ mental Quality Services Project48 plans to facilitate or monitoring agreements on gender. In- women’s participation in environmental quality tegrated Water Resources Management in Ten control and monitoring encouraged through Basins Project50 recognizes the client’s “Inter- SMS text, mobile phone and smart phone appli- cultural Protocol on Information and Gender cations. Information captured through the proj- Perspective,” under which the project plans to ect’s satisfaction monitoring indicator will pro- conduct a gender gap analysis, mid-term re- vide feedback on the system’s ability to satisfy view and final evaluation on gender-related demand for environmental quality information, gaps. All these strategies strengthen the quality and capture potential gender-specific differenc- of women’s participation within WBG opera- es in accessing or using information. tions, and ensure their specific concerns, needs Projects in the respective countries and interests are addressed through project ac- also respond to gaps in women’s partici- tivities and monitoring. pation by making programmatic adjust- ments. Close monitoring of women’s partic- Increasing women’s access to ipation enabled teams to adjust approaches justice that were not effective or created additional In Peru, a series of justice projects have barriers for women. In an additional financing supported the country to enhance access for Rural Alliances Project (PAR II)49, the social to justice for women, especially those in assessment completed for the project identi- vulnerable conditions. The Justice Services fied constraints to women’s participation (es- Improvement Projects I and II51 supported the 47 Project P107137, active until November 30, 2019. 50 Project P1511851, active until December 30, 2022. 48 Project P147342, active until June 1, 2022. 51 Project P073438, closed March 31, 2010, and Project P110752, 49 Project P127743, active until November 30, 2021. closed June 30, 2016, respectively. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 31 Ministry of Justice to provide free legal and as- courts (in areas such as speed of service, se- sociated services across the country, mainly curity, understanding and participation in the through the Free Legal Assistance Services Cen- process and quality of the outcomes). This in- ters (ALEGRAs in Spanish). The two operations formation will be used to improve women’s supported the establishment of ALEGRAs na- experiences when seeking justice services. Fur- tionwide and provided training and technical ther, the Project will also support the improve- assistance to staff and lawyers to provide bet- ment of a mobile justice delivery program, ter and more specialized services. The ALEGRAs which aims to decrease barriers facing women provide legal, social and psychological support (including Indigenous women) in accessing jus- to low income populations, and their main us- tice in rural and remote areas. ers are vulnerable women (in 2017, 95.2% of users who received assistance were women). Preventing and responding to Some ALEGRAs also include daycare facilities gender-based violence for children to attend while their parents receive Projects in the Andean countries have inte- assistance, which provided specific benefits to grated measures to prevent and respond to single mothers for whom the cost of childcare gender-based violence through improved was identified as a concern and an obstacle to access to justice and services, implementa- accessing justice services. tion of communications campaigns, train- The Improving the Performance of Non-Crim- ing, safeguards, and enhanced national inal Justice Services Project52 builds on the two data systems. previous operations and seeks to increase the Justice sector projects in Peru enhanced coverage and quality of services provided by access to justice and services for women the ALEGRAs by improving the management living in situations of violence. The Justice model, existing physical space, and overall ca- Services Improvement Projects I and II, through pacities of the ALEGRAs. The project aims to im- the main vehicle of ALEGRAS (legal aid centers), prove satisfaction of women using the ALEGRAs supported family courts to ensure domestic and to increase the number of women seeking violence victims’ access to legal support. The services. In addition to the ALEGRAs, the Project second phase of the project created MEGA will implement gender-related activities and ALEGRAs, which provided specialized services monitoring in relation to the use of court-based for victims of domestic violence and gen- services. Gender-disaggregated court-user sat- der-based violence. isfaction surveys will be undertaken to identify specific barriers women face when accessing Transport sector projects have included 52 Project P162833, pipeline. gender-based violence considerations into Closing Gender Gaps 32 in the Andean Countries the design and monitoring in both rural perience gender-based violence or other viola- and urban environments. Integration of vio- tions of their rights as a result of the project.55 lence considerations is central to the success Gender-based violence considerations of infrastructure projects, as women make up a are also included in design components group of key users and beneficiaries, and have within urban transport systems. For exam- distinct needs, preferences and patterns per- ple, the Ecuador  Quito Metro Line One Project56 taining to safety and mobility – as well as spe- includes gender-specific design components cific vulnerabilities. In rural areas, WBG teams relative to women’s preferences and security.  have sought to mitigate potential negative im- Each station funded through the project will in- pact of rural road construction on communities clude well-lit platforms, stations and surround- with respects to increased exposure to gen- ing areas to increase women’s security as they der-based violence, sex work and STDs. travel to and from the metro. In the case that The Bolivia Santa Cruz Road Corridor Con- passengers feel unsafe once onboard, enclosed nector Project53 integrated a “Code of Conduct” gangway links between train cars will enable for construction companies and their employ- passengers to change cars while the train is ees, which states a “zero tolerance” for sexual moving. Additionally, to minimize sexual ha- harassment and abuse and includes mandato- rassment risks during the construction phase, ry and periodic training for workers and man- the project sensitized1500 construction work- agers about misconduct and penalties under ers on violence prevention in public spaces. Af- Law 348, Bolivia’s legal framework to combat ter construction of the metro line is complete, violence against women. The project will pro- the project will implement a communications vide training for local Ayoreo women and con- campaign to promote non-violent behavior; struction staff in HIV/AIDS/STD and TB preven- and institute a mechanism to prevent and fa- tion. Additionally, to reduce vulnerability to cilitate ease of reporting of harassment, which economic and patrimonial violence54 resulting builds on an ongoing campaign “Bajale el Aco- from labor influx, economic empowerment so” in Quito’s Integrated Transport system. This projects will be made available for Chiquitano includes a mobile application for reporting cas- and Ayoreo women. A complaints system will es of sexual harassment in a timely and easy link women to the Integrated Municipal Legal way. Transport operators will receive training in Services in the case that women or children ex- appropriate response to sexual harassment. 53 Project P152281, active until December 31, 2021. 54 Patrimonial violence is the violation of one’s property rights, 55 Servicios Legales Integrales are a permanent municipal service providing psychological, social and legal assistance to women, which could include the retention or destruction of a woman’s ob- and to assist in addressing violence and discrimination. jects, property, assets, economic rights or resources. Patrimonial violence is increasingly recognized as a form of gender violence. 56 Project P144489, active until December 31, 2020. III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 33 In Bolivia, Strengthen Statistical Capaci- ty and Informational Base for Evidence-based Planning Project contributed to data collection critical for understanding the nature and prev- alence of gender-based violence in Bolivia. The DHS survey completed under the additional fi- nancing of the project gathered data relative to the prevalence of violence, its impacts on wom- en’s health and women’s access to justice. Closing Gender Gaps 34 in the Andean Countries III. Responding To Gender Inequality In the Andean Countries Through World Bank Operations 35 Closing Gender Gaps 36 in the Andean Countries IV. Conclusion T he WBG in the Andean countries is addressing gender in- equalities by improving human endowments, removing con- straints to more and better employment, and enhancing wom- en’s voice and agency. Health projects have responded to the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases on health infrastructure and insti- tuted national targets for the screening of cervical cancer, the leading cause of death for women in Chile. Projects continue to address persistent maternal health challenges, especially of the rural poor, by constructing ten new network hospitals in Bolivia and training doctors on culturally-sensitive methods to better serve indigenous patients. Actions ensure that girls and boys have equitable outcomes at all levels of education – preschool through tertiary – and that young women have increased engagement within STEM fields. Standardized testing has been expanded to pre-primary, prima- ry and secondary levels in Peru, providing a more comprehen- sive evaluation system for public education, providing critical in- sights into student learning by gender, subject area and location. At the tertiary level, WBG efforts to strengthen Peru’s science and technology fields within tertiary education make special consid- erations for female applicants to project-funded research grants, scholarship and internship opportunities. Operations across a variety of sectors have expanded wom- en’s economic opportunities by supplying entrepreneurship training to poor, urban women in Bolivia; providing finance, capacity development and management opportunities for ru- ral women in Bolivia and Peru; reducing women’s time burden 37 through childcare provision and safer, more ef- within mixed-sex groups and to women-only ficient transport options in Ecuador and Peru; audiences, providing women with flexibility in and eliminating discriminatory practices that their participation; and ensuring that training inhibit young women from participating equal- be made available in local languages, Quechua ly in the labor force in Bolivia. and Aymara. Project teams have employed innovative In addition to these, the WBG has sought to and transformative strategies to ensure wom- ensure that women can enjoy the benefits of in- en’s participation and voice in project develop- frastructure developments and expanded eco- ment and implementation. In Bolivia, the WBG nomic opportunities without suffering an in- incentivized communities to engage women creased burden of harassment or gender-based in community development by providing ac- violence. cess to additional funding if subprojects were By proactively promoting gender equality proposed and managed by women. In Bolivia’s in the Andean countries, the WBG has empow- Community Investment in Rural Areas Project ered women to participate more equally in so- (PICAR), 44 percent (6193) of those receiving ciety – as entrepreneurs, decision-makers and management training were women; contrib- leaders, contributing to better outcomes for uting to increased transparency and efficiency the next generation, and greater growth, pro- of community subprojects. Projects also made ductivity and more efficient, representative in- adjustments to address unforeseen barriers to stitutions. In doing so, the WBG has furthered women’s participation, including relaxing re- its mission in the Andean countries of reducing quirements for cash investments from indige- poverty and promoting shared prosperity. nous women; providing training opportunities Closing Gender Gaps 38 in the Andean Countries References Yajahuanca, RSA, Fontenele CV; Sena, BF; Diniz, SG, Birth at the health center or at home: an analysis of care among the kukamas kukamirias women of Peru. Journal of Human Growth and Development 2013; Volume 23, Issue 3, pp 322-330. Azevedo, JP; Favara, M; Haddock, S; Lopez-Calva, LF; Muller, M; Perova, E (2012). Teenage Pregnancy and Opportunities in Latin America and the Caribbean: on Teenage Fertility De- cisions, Poverty and Economic Achievement. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Casabonne, U; Jimenez BF; Muller M (2015). Roads to Agency: effects of enhancing women’s participation in rural roads projects on women’s agency – a comparative assessment of rural transport projects in Argentina, Nicaragua and Peru. Washington DC: The World Bank. CEDAW (2015). Recommendations to the reports 8th and 9th. http://acnudh.org/comite-para-la-eliminacion-de-to- das-las-formas-de-discriminacion-contra-la-mujer-ce- daw-ecuador-2015/ Chioda, L (2016). Work and Family: Latin American and Caribbe- an Women in Search of a New Balance. Latin American De- velopment Forum. Washington, DC: World Bank. Encuesta de Relaciones Familiares y Violencia de Género contra las Mujeres (ERFVGcM) (2011). Encuesta Demográfica y de Salud Familiar (ENDES) (2014). Peru. Encuesta Demográfica y de Salud Familiar (ENDES) (2016). Peru. References 39 Encuesta Nacional de Caracterización So- Rubio Bañon, Alicia and Esteban-Lloret, Nubia cio-económica (CASEN) (2015). Chile. (2016). Cultural factors and gender role in Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud female entrepreneurship. Suma de Ne- (ENDSA) (2008). Bolivia. gocios Volume 7, Issue 15, January-June 2016, pp. 9-17. Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) (2015). Peru. Socio-Economic Database for America and the Caribbean (SEDLAC) (2015). CEDLAS and Encuesta de Prevalencia y Características de la The World Bank. Violencia contra Mujeres (EPCVcM) (2016). Bolivia. Schnyer, Ariela (2014). Sexual and reproductive health and rights of Aymara women in the Inter-American Development Bank (2013). intercultural health system in Chile / Sa- Chile, Peru and Colombia offer best en- lud y derechos sexuales y reproductivos vironments for women entrepreneurs de las mujeres Aymara en el Sistema de in Latin America and the Caribbean. salud intercultural de Chile. Independent https://www.iadb.org/en/news/news-re- Study Project (ISP) Collection. 2010. leases/2013-07-25/women-entrepre- neurs-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbe- UN Women (2016). Mujeres Ecuatorianas: Dos an%2C10518.html Décadas de Cambios (1995-2015). INE (2016). Género y emprendimiento. Santia- Wodon, Q and de la Brière B (2018). Unrealized go, Chile Potential: the High Cost of Gender In- equality in Earnings. The World Bank. GIZ (2013) Los costos empresariales de la vio- lencia contra las mujeres en el Perú. World Bank (2015). Bolivia: Challenges and Constraints to Gender Equality and Wom- Lipovsek, V.; Karim, AM; Gutiérrez, EZ; Magnani, en’s Empowerment. The World Bank. RJ, Castro Gomez Mdel, C. (2002). Cor- relates of adolescent pregnancy in La Paz, World Health Organization (2018). Fact Sheet: Bolivia; findings from a quantitative-qual- Indigenous Women’s Maternal Health itative study. Adolescence Volume 37, Is- and Maternal Mortality. sue 146, Summer 2002, pp. 335-52. Closing Gender Gaps 40 in the Andean Countries References 41