INDIA'S ENVIRONMENT TAKING STOCK OF PLANS, PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT ACTION PROGRAM - INDIA JANUARY 1996 INDIA, NEPAL, BHUTAN COUNTRY DEPARTMENT (SA2) SOUTH ASIA REGIONAL OFFICE WORLD BANK 4 W# ' ,Ef4l. . 14&ifjN. Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank MINAS Minimum National (Discharge) ASCI Administrative Staff College of India Standards AEP Alternative Energy Plan MNES Ministry of Nonconventional Energy CEE Centre for Environment Education Sources CETP Common Effluent Treatment Plants MOEF Ministry of Environment and Forests CIDA Canadian International Development MOUJD Ministry of Urban Development, - Agency Government of India CII Confederation of Indian Industry MRD Ministry of Rural Development CTIN Clean Technology Institutional MW megawatts Network NAEB National Afforestation and DALY Disability Adjusted Life Years Ecodevelopment Board DANIDA Danish International Development NEAC National Environmental Awareness Agency Campaign DESU Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking NCERT National Council of Education DPAP Drought-Prone Area Program Research and Training DRDA District Rural Development Authority NEERI National Environmental Engineering DWD Department of Wasteland Research Institute Development NFAP National Forestry Action Program EAP Environment Action Program NGO Nongovernmental Organization EU European Union NORAD Norwegian Ministry of Development ENVIS Environmental Information System Corporation EPA Environment (Protection) Act NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of ODA. Overseas Development the United Nations Administration (UK) GEF Global Environment Facility OECF Overseas Economic Cooperation GIS Geographic Information Systems Fund-Japan GOI Government of India PFC Power Finance Corporation of India GTZ German Agency for Technical R&D Research and Development Cooperation SCERT State Council of Education Research ICFRE Indian Council of Forestry Research and Training and Education SIDA. Swedish International Development IDA International Development Agency Authority IDBI Industrial Development Bank of India SPWD Society for the Promotion of IIPA Indian Institute of Public Wasteland Development Administration UN United Nations AdminIstration UNDP United Nations Development Program IIT Indian Institute of Technology UNCED United Nations Conference on IREDA Indian Renewable EnergyEniom tadDelpet Development Agency ~~Environment and Development Development Agency UNEP United Nations Environment Program IWDP Integrated Wasteland Development UNSOUieiain dcto n Program ~~~~~UNES3CO United Nations Education and ProgrJaman International Cooperation Scientific Organization JICA Japan International Cooperation UNIDO United Nations Industrial Agency Development Organization KFW Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau USEPA United States Environmental MEIP Metropolitan Environment Protection Agency Improvement Program USAID United States Agency for MHRD Ministry of Human Resource . ' - International Development Development, India. WHO World Health Organization Contents Acknowledgments i Table of Contents ii Boxes v Tables vi Figures vii Maps vii Executive Summary 1 Chapter 1. Environmental Management 13 The Environment Action Program 21 Major Issues and Recommendations 26 Other Donor Support 35 Chapter 2. Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Biodiversity 3 9 in Selected Ecosystems The Government's Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation 44 The Environment Action Program 47 Major Issues and Recommendations 51 GOI Program Objectives 56 World Bank Support 60 Other Donor Support 64 Chapter 3. Afforestation, Wasteland Development, and Conservation 6 7 of Soil and Moisture Restoration of Degraded Lands through Afforestation and 68 Integrated Watershed Management Afforestation and Wasteland Reclamation of Nonforest Lands 75 Afforestation and Wasteland Reclamation of Forest Lands 80 Major Issues and Recommendations 85 GOI Program Objectives 8 7 World Bank Support 90 Preface and Acknowledgments This report was prepared primarily for discussion with the Ministry of Environment and Forests. It is neither intended as an extensive review of all environmental issues in India, nor is it presumed that the assessments of the various sectors included in the report, i.e. forestry, water, energy, urban infrastructure, are fully comprehensive. It should be noted that discussions on the Environment Action Program-India with officials of the Ministry of Environment and Forests and other Ministries, and Departrnents in the states has led to the development of several projects which are proposed for Bank/IDA financing. These are: * Technical Assistance for Environment Management Capacity Building * Ecodevelopment * Urban (Delhi and Surat) Environmental Management • Hazardous Waste Management * Industrial Safety and Disaster Prevention This report was prepared by Richard Cambridge, Principal Operations Officer, Environment, under the guidance of Heinz Vergin, Director, India, Nepal and Bhutan Country Department (SA2), South Asia Region. The report was written with the assistance of other Bank staff and consultants. Especially worthy of note are the contributions of: Magdalena Manzo, Energy and Infrastructure Division, SA2; Maureen Cropper, Environment, Infrastructure and Agriculture Division, Policy Research Department; Carter Brandon, Jack Fritz, Glenn Morgan, Ramesh Ramankutty, Utpal Mukhopadyay and Yaacov Ziv of the Environment Division, Asia Technical Department; and Donald Foster, Brian Hallet, Raymond Colley, Shylashri Shankar and Deepali Tewari who served as consultants. Dr. Savitri Ramaiah was also consulted during the preparation of this report. Other Donor Support 95 Chapter 4. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution 99 The Status of Water Pollution 102 The Environment Action Program 106 Major Issues and Recommendations 116 GOI Program Objectives 126 World Bank Support 129 Other Donor Support 134 Chapter 5. Control of Industrial Pollution 13 7 Industrial Growth and Pollution 138 The Environiment Action Program 140 Major Issues and Recommendations 143 GOI Program Objectives 153 World Bank Support 155 Other Donor Support 157 Chapter 6. Improving Access to Clean Technologies 161 The Environment Action Program 163 Maior Issues and Recommendations 164 GOI Program Objectives 168 World Bank Support 171 Other Donor Support 176 Chapter 7. IJrban Environmental Issues 179 Urbanization 180 Urban Water Supply. Sanitation, and Sewerage 183 Urban Air Pollution Control 192 Municipal Solid Waste Management 203 GOI Program Objectives 216 World Bank Support 220 Other Donor Support 224 Chapter 8. Environmental Education and Training 229 India's Current Strategy for Environmental Education and Training 240 The Environment Action Program 245 Major Issues and Recommendations 248 GOI Program Objectives 254 World Bank Support 256 Other Donor Support 259 Chapter 9. Alternative Energy Plan 265 Alternative Energy 266 The Environment Action Program 267 Major Issues and Recommendations 271 Conventional Energy 274 GOI Program Objectives 280 World Bank Support 285 Other Donor Support 290 Chapter 10. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation 295 Air Pollution 299 Watcr Pollution 302 Industrial Pollution and Hazardous Waste 304 Land Degradation 305 Deforestation 309 Summary of Results and Policy Implications 311 Bibliography 313 iv Boxes 1.2 Ongoing Environmental Tasks of Ministries Other than the MOEF 15 1.2 Functions of the MOEF 16 1.3 Functions of the Central Pollution Control Board 17 1.4 The 1986 Environment (Protection) Act 18 1.5 Functions of State Pollution Control Boards 19 1.6 Constraints to Implementing Environmental Programs 26 2.1 Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 40 2.2 Ramsar Convention 44 2.3 Ecosystem Protection Strategies 47 2.4 The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro- 48 Organisms and Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules, 1989 3.1 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and 1988 Amendments 80 3.2 National Forest Policy, 1988 81 3.3 India's Initiatives in Implementation of the Principles of the National 82 Forest Policy 4.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 109 4.2 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 110 4.3 Solving Water Problems with Local Initiatives 123 4.4 Drip Irrigation System Saves Water and Improve Efficiency 124 5.1 Priority Actions and Programs for Industrial Pollution Identified in the EAP 140 5.2 Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 143 5.3 Fiscal Incentives to Encourage Control and Prevention of Pollution 144 5.4 Area-based Pollution Abatement Strategy 147 5.5 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 148 5.6 The Environmental Audit Notification, 1992 149 5.7 The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 150 5.8 The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 151 6.1 Cleaner Technologies Institutional Network 162 6.2 Waste Minimization and Waste Minimization Circles 164 6.3 Common Effluent Treatment Plants 166 7.1 National Housing Policy 182 7.2 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 192 v Tables 1.1 GOI Priority Environment Programs 21 2.1 Status of Biodiversity Ecosystems in India 41 3.1 Estimates of the Extent of Degraded Land in India 69 3.2 Summary of Land Degradation in India 71- 3.3 Summary of Forest Conditions in India 73 4.1 Ministry of Agriculture Estimate of the Extenit of Waterlogging 104 4.2 Waterlogging, Salinity, and Alkalinity in Irrigation Projects 104 4.3 Current and Projected Demand for Water 105 4.4 Lakes Identified in the National Lakes Conservation Program 108 4.5 River Action Plans 111 5.1 Industrial Contributions to Pollution by Subsector 139 7.1 Urbanization in India, 1971-91 180 7.2 Urban Population Projection, 1991-2001 181 7.3 Water Use and Demand, 1990-2025 184 7.4 Average Annual Levels of Four Pollutants in M:ajor Indian Cities, 1991 193 7.5 Particulate Levels and Premature Deaths, 1991 194 7.6 Source Contributions to Air Pollution in Bombay, 1992 196 7.7 Municipal Solid Waste Generation and Collection in Major Indian Cities, 1994 203 7.8 Estimates of Medical and Infectious Waste in Three Municipalities 211 8.1 Environmental Education and Training Activities 232 8.2 Priority Programs Requiring Environmental Education and Training 243 9.1 Carbon Dioxide Emission Reduction Potential for Conventional Pulverized 276 Coal Plants 10.1 Major Environmental Impacts in India 298 10.2 Annual Costs of Ambient Air Pollution Levels Exceeding WHO Guidelines 300 in Thirty-six Indian Cities, 1991-92 10.3 Burden of Waterborne Diseases, 1990 302 10.4 Soil Erosion in India 305 10.5 Yield-Reducing Factors by Crop and by Extent of Degradation 306 10.6 Estimated Impact of Soil Degradation on Eleven Main Crops, 307 1991-92 10.7 Annual Cost of Deforestation 310 10.8 Annual Costs of Environmental Degradation in India 311 vi Maps 2.1 Conservation of Natural Ecosystems 45 3.1 Estimated Total Degraded Area (SPWD 1989) 70 3.2 Actual Forest Cover 74 4.1 National Lakes Conservation Plan: Phase I 107 4.2 Ganga Action Plan: Phase II 112 4.3 River Cleanup Planned under the National River Action Plan 115 Figures 5.1 Toxic Pollution and Industrial Growth, 1963-91 13 8 5.2 Environmental Issues in Industry 146 VIii Executive Summary Executive Summary The World Bank's environmental tions working on environmental issues in India. stocktaking exercise commenced in January It also benefited from consultations with 1995. It uses as its starting point the seven bilateral and multilateral donor agencies in priority areas identified in the Environment India, especially the Asian Development Bank, Action Program-India issued by the Ministry which shared its report, Environmental of Environment and Forests, Government of Projects Supported by Multilateral and India, in January 1994. These priority areas Bilateral Donor Agencies with the World are: Bank. LI Conservation and sustainable utilization The analytic framework for the of biodiversity in selected ecosystems. stocktaking consisted of assessing each priority area to: determine whether issues additional OI Afforestation, wasteland development, to those identified by the government required conservation of soil and moisture, and prevention of ground and surface ate attention; understand better the major programs developed by the government; assess pollution. the range, type, and impact of the support LI Control of industrial pollution, with provided by the World Bank and other donors; emphasis on the reduction and and outline policy (legal, regulatory, management of wastes, particularly economic), and institutional (administrative, hazardous wastes. organizational), technical and scientific, and financial areas for further concentrated action. LI Access to clean technologies. Estimates were also made of the magnitude LI Urban environmental issues. of the economic costs associated with environmental degradation as measured by the LI Development of an alternative energy impacts on health and productivity. It is plan. important to note thatfor all of its coverage, LI Scientific understanding of environment the environmental stocktaking is not intended as a comprehensive review of India's issues, training, creation of environ- envarom probems. mental awareness, resource assessment, and water management problems. Among the numerous findings of the The stocktaking was facilitated by the stocktaking, six require special emphasis: Ministry of Environment and Forests through LI The economic costs of surface water the active cooperation and support of senior pollution are high and add urgency to officials, provision and sharing of information, the need for water resource management and access to a wide range of government and including urban water supply, regulation nongovernmental institutions and organiza- of industrial effluents, and reforms in . 1 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities the pricing of agricultural inputs. nongovernmental organization commu- O Soil conservation and irrigation nity in programs ranging from management are critical given the high biodiversity conservation to alternative costs associated with the loss of energyprograms. This cooperationwill agricultural output from soil require more transparent policies and degradation. practices such as early involvement in the environmental impact assessment O Urban environmental issues including process, access to information, and air pollution, urban transport, solid actions to increase involvement through waste management, water supply, and public participatory processes. waste water disposal and sanitation require urgent attention. B IODIVERSITY CONSERVATION O Despite a strong legal framework and various ministries at the center, ., departments and boards at the state level India s bilodlverslity conservation and loal agnciesinvoled in strategy iS still evolving. The National and local agencies involved in Wildlife Action Plan was adopted in 1983. environmental management, implemen- Abigorpcclsfcaonytefr tation remains weak. Institutional A biogeographic classification system for capacity-building to strengthen conservation planning was developed in 1985. monitoring, enforcement, and compli- A plan for a revised protected area network ance with existing laws can have a high was created by the Wildlife Institute of India payoff. in 1988. A Biodiversity Action Plan is currently under preparation by the Ministry O Fiscal instruments for pollution of Environment and Forests. However, limited abatement exist, such as excise and implementation capacity and institutional and customs exemptions, accelerated jurisdictional overlaps prevent effective depreciation allowances on pollution management of the various ecosystems. control equipment, soft loan schemes, water levies, and so on. However, these The Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry are limited in scope and do not reflect of Rural Development, and Ministry of an overall strategy for both "brown" and ofRrlDvopetan nsryl an"overall strategyvorronnth mbrown"ag nd Environment and Forests (MOEF) are central green" environmental management. agnisrsoibefrcsrvo wlie These incentives need to be reviewed agencies responsible for conserving wildlife and a broad-based set of economic and biodiversity, with the MOEF having the instruments aimed at the market lead responsibility. Currently, the MOEF developed to complement the current concentrates on wildlife conservation rather command and control regulatory than biodiversity conservation. There is no system. designated agency at the center or state level for protecting grasslands and mountain ranges. O Recognizing that the government alone Decision making for wetland management is cannot be responsible for environmental concentrated in a National Committee on management, stronger efforts have to Wetlands, Mangroves, and Coral Reefs within be made to involve the large the MOEF, supported by state-level steering 2 Executive Summary committees. Implementation is difficult for fuel, wood, fodder, and food has depleted because jurisdictions over these ecosystems or eliminated protective vegetative cover in differ. Except for mangroves, most natural many areas. As much as half the country's wetlands are managed by the Department land area is subject to some form of - of Fisheries and local authorities. degradation. For years the government has emphasized tree-planting schemes as the The following recommendations principal mechanism for arresting and emerge from the stocktaking: reversing land degradation trends. O Encourage government and local Programs to restore and manage populations to work toward the degraded lands outsidtoe forest face a collaborative management of number of constraints. Many programs fall biodiversity. Changes in attitudes and within the jurisdiction of village panchayat behaviors come slowly and can be achieved through a multidimensional auhrt,cmmnlnsude'utmr group tenure, lands managed by road and approach starting with better training railway authorities, and lands loosely for forest officials, forums for administered by the district collector. Tenure discussion of biodiversity, and arrangements on revenue lands often are promotion of public support for complex and understood differently by many conservation. users. Problems arise due to conflicts El Create an incentive framework that between line agencies. The wide range of motivates the different actors (forest agro-ecological conditions in India makes officials, women, nongovernmental and it difficult to develop a common technical community-based organizations, package for wasteland development. Finally, revenue officials) to contribute to wasteland development programs tend to be biodiversity conservation and one-dimensional, focusing on tree-planting development. activities. LI Develop broader criteria for classifying Programs to restore and manage protected areas to protect a wider range degraded land in public forest lands also have of biodiversity. problems. Three major studies-the World Bank's 1993 Forest Sector Review, the LI Develop and implement strategies for Government of India's Forest Sector Review, protecting wildlands and wetlands, and the Government of India's National including establishing marine parks and Forestry Action Program-concluded that reserves. the most important issues relate to incentives for local participation and private A FFORESTATION AND WASTELAND development, the quality and performance DEVELOPMENT of investments, and the effectiveness of public sector forest protection and The Environment Action Program management. recognizes that the improper use of land resources has created serious ecological and Given that the government's approach socioeconomic problems. Growing demand to wasteland reclamation is slowly evolving *3 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities from a one-dimensional (tree-planting) gross deficiencies in garbage collection as approach to one using integrated watershed well as widespread practices of open development, a number of recommendations defecation, gives domestic pollutants the same emerge from the stocktaking: nonpoint characteristics that characterize agricultural pollutants. Both are difficult to Li Remove disincentives to private monitor. Abatement of domestic pollution investment in farm forestry, affores- is technically feasible only if the waste is - tation, and wasteland reclamation on captured in a stream or conduit (giving it point private lands. source characteristics) and treated before El Build government-NGO relationships dischiarge into water bodies. Contamination and develop partnerships and increase of municipal water supplies due to leakages participatory planning and beneficiary in the delivery network as well as a lack of participation for sustainability. protection of the distant watersheds that supply water to cities, must also be addressed. LO Integrate and coordinate inter- departmental programs, particularly The EAP focused substantial watershed development programs. discussion on the water problems arising out of the irrigation sector. Only half the water LI Promote efforts to improve the quality storage capacity is utilized in the surface of planting stock (restocking and irrigation sectors, and only about 10 to 15 enrichment planting of natural, percent reaches farmers due to evaporation secondary forests), make nursery and and transmission losses. As in urban areas, seed improvements, and better match where water supply network expansions have species with site characteristics. not been accompanied by an expansion of drainage networks, the irrigation sector has PREVENTION OF GROUND AND SURFACE deferred investments in drainage. Where WATER POLLUTION drains have been constructed, they have becorne silted or overgrown with weeds due The Environment Action Program to a lack of maintenance. Electricity subsidies points out that water scarcity results not just for farmers have encouraged excessive water from inadequate quantity but from inadequate use, and groundwater tables are declining quality of water as well. Consequently, efforts rapidly. The cumulative impact of these to ensure water quality must take into account practices has resulted in waterlogging both the need to substantially control, reduce, problems in about 250,000 hectares of land or at least limit preventable pollutants from in northwest India, and another 3 million entering water bodies untreated (pollution hectares may be in jeopardy over the next abatement), and the need to manage water 30 to 50 years. as a resource (water management). To support crop production targets, Pollution from domestic pollutants is fertilizer use is expected to increase. normally referred to as point source pollution. Therefore, options for mitigating agricultural However, the lack of an effective wastewater runoff contaminated with pesticides and collection system for 95 percent of the fertilizers are more limited than for other generated wastewater in cities, coupled with environmental discharges because fewer 43 Executive Summary opportunities for abatement exist, at least abatement at local levels. in the near future. Pollution from these practices is widespread, and its nature does O Develop water quality standards for not lend itself easily to physical control. ffeen point ive r asd on flow, assimilative capacity, and local The GOI's major program for conditions. pollution abatement of water sources has been projects undertaken under the Ganga Action °I Encourage the participation of plan.ct Scientificasies undertaken uande Athis voluntary organizations, local civic Plan. Scientific studies undertaken under this bde n Gsi ovn ae bodies and NGOs in solving water program have focused largely on some physicochemical and biological water quality quality as well as water resource parameters. There have been no studies on the ecosystem processes, river flood plain LO Undertake a simple pilot initiative in interactions, or problems caused by flow a city where the effectiveness of a regulation. The roles of point and nonpoint covered drain that runs parallel to the sources of pollution have not been river, capturing hidden drains and investigated. Management strategies for the natural flows from the city can be prevention of pol!ution under the Ganga examined. Action Plan have, therefore, been developed in the absence of critical strategic analysis. L° Examine the merits of an integrated The EAP also identified action plans for approach for pollution abatement and, eleven other rivers in India based on the pollution prevention in the region of conceptual framework of the Ganga Action lakes under The National Lakes Plan. In addition, it identified eight lakes Conservation Program. under its National Lakes Conservation Plan LI Set prices for water, electricity, for pollution control and abatement. Before fertilizers, and pesticides, to encourage India embarks on implementing these efficient use and the conservation of programs, a critical strategic analysis based resources. on realistic environmental obj ectives should be undertaken. Based on this analysis, INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND CLEAN technically sound methods for achieving TECHNOLOGIES desired water quality should be developed. India should desist from replicating The Environment Action Program environmental strategies that have not proven includes a comprehensive action program for successful. the abatement of pollution. It is backed by The following additional recommen- legislation covering all aspects of industrial dations emerge from the stocktaking: pollution and environmental management, including the Water Act of 1974, amended Ol Develop simple modeling techniques in 1988; the Air Act of 1981, amended in of the impacts of open defecation 1987; the Environment Act of 1986; the practices so that city managers and Hazardous Waste Rules of 1989, and the municipalities can make informed Manufacture, Storage, and Import of strategic decisions for pollution Hazardous Chemical Rules of 1989. .5 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities In addition, in 1992, the government to establish a stronger link between source- issued a Policy Statement on Pollution specific and ambient standards. In addition, Abatement. The statement, reflecting a broad the state pollution control boards lack capacity approach, emphasizes that it is not enough at the regional and local levels to perform for the government to create laws; it also must their tasks. integrate environmental concerns with an Adoption of clean technologies also is emphasis on preventing pollution and hampered by several problems. Inadequate promoting technological inputs to reduce intellectual property rights enforcement industrial pollutants. Specific steps identified intellectulipropertnrightsteforcemen to met hisobjctie inlud prvening discourages investment and technology to meet this objective include preventing licensing; the policy and institutional pollution at the source; encouraging, framework associated with technology developing, and applying the most practical transfer and absorption is still cumbersome; technologies; ensuring that the polluter pays fiscal incentives for clean technologies similar for pollution and control arrangements; to those for pollution control do not exist; focusing protection on heavily polluted areas research institutions and business groups lack and river stretches; involving the public in deiiomkig an inrasn th saet of a means of exchanging information; and technical and scientific development of clean industrial operations. technology focuses on hardware to the neglect In the area of applying technology to of skills, information, and support. pollution abatement, the Environment Action A number of recommendations emerge Program envisages clean technologies as providing valuable tools for dealing with the environmental problems associated with the LI Develop an area-based strategy for industry and energy sectors. The Clean pollution abatement. Technology Program includes strengthening U Develop additional economic instru- research and technology institutions; launching a technology mission on cleaner ments for pollution abatement. production; formulating industry-specific task LI Improve substantially the capacity of forces to select demonstration projects; state pollution control boards and facilitating the transfer and adoption of cleaner departments of environment in the states technologies developed abroad; developing to deal with monitoring, enforcement, a centralized data base to provide information and environmental management. to industry; building capacity for environmental audits; establishing standards pa Encourage private industry support and for waste discharge of raw material; and participation in the Clean Technology formulating legal and economic measures to Information Network. ensure adoption of clean technologies. LO Foster more transparent public Although the plan for pollution disclosure and cooperation with NGOs abatement is comprehensive, there are several to reinforce the government's position problems relating to implementation. Most that "environmental quality cannot be enforcement for pollution abatement is based- achieved by actions of the government on regulatory standards, and there is a need alone." 6 Executive Summary URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES domestic waste-is a serious challenge for most Indian cities. Urban garbage is disposed Like ost eveloing ountres, ndia of at uncontrolled landfill sites. These sites is experiencing massive urbanization. At 217 million, the country's urban population is generally are dumps where waste is used to oneof the largestuin the wo Three p areas 1S fill in low-lying areas. A lack of one of the largest in the world. Three areas precautionary environmental measures often will require concentrated action if urban results in surface and groundwater pollution. environmental issues are to be alleviated: Other problems include odor, todents, and air pollution, solid waste management, and unsightliness. Apart from household waste, provision of safe drinking water, and otherwastematerials(fromthemaintenance sanitation and sewerage facilities. of streets and drains, animal waste, Air Pollution commercial waste, building refuse, hospital refuse, and so on) not only add to the volume Six of the ten largest cities-Bombay, of solid waste but also affect its composition Calcutta, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, and and aggravate resulting health problems. As Nagpur-have severe air pollution problems. the density of urban populations increases, Annual average levels of total suspended municipal solid waste collection will become particulates in these cities are at least three even more critical to preventing the spread times the World Health Organization (WHO) of disease and pollution. The September 1994 standard. In Delhi, Calcutta, and Kanpur, the outbreak of the plague in Surat is the most average values are more than five times the dramatic manifestation yet of the close links standard. More than 90 percent of the stations among poverty, dense population for which mean concentrations are reported concentrations, and weak environmental by the Central Pollution Control Board management in urban areas. exceed 75 micrograms per cubic meter of particulates, the midpoint of the WHO Water supply, sanitation and sewerage recommended standard. Conventional sewerage is too In contrast, annual average expensive an option for most cities. Sewerage concentrations of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen systems exist in just 20 percent of the 300 dioxide are low in relation to WHO ambient Class I cities, and where they exist coverage standards. In the case of lead, however, is partial. Less than half of the total hypertension and IQ losses would be reduced wastewater generated in most cities is if current ambient levels, which include some collected, and less than half of what is seasonal high points were reduced to zero. collected undergoes any form of treatment. The current ambient levels are estimated to While water supply has been a priority at cause 200,000 cases of hypertension a year the official level, sewerage system and to lower the IQs of Indians by 4.7 million development has lagged substantially behind. points over a ten-year period. In many cities efforts to augment water supply systems without concomitant Solid waste management development of systems to carry away Municipal solid waste-predominantly wastewater have worsened environmental *7 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities conditions. The lack of sewerage has resulted switching to cleaner fuels, using more in the bulk discharge of municipal waste, energy-efficient stoves, venting smoke domestic waste, and industrial effluent into outdoors, and improving garbage surface water bodies, contributing to surface collection and disposal practices. and groundwater pollution. More than half of the urban population-125 million Solid waste management people-have no access to basic sanitation LI Privatize solid waste collection, at least and instead use the open spaces surrounding on a pilot basis. slums, fostering the spread of fecal-borne diseases such as dysentery, hepatitis, LI Establish a centralized demonstration helminthic infections, and cholera. Water program in a single institution that trains pollution harms more people than any other mnunicipal managers, engineers, and environmental problem: 60 percent of all health ofiecials on sound solid waste deaths in 1987 were due to water-related managementpractices. diseases. L Organize community self-help projects The following recommendations emerge in the poor urban and periurban areas from the stocktaking: where solid waste management services are inadequate or nonexistent with the Air Pollution help of social and political activists capable of spearheading an urban public L Control particulate emissions from two- replatonscpading stroke engines by replacing two-stroke with four-stroke engines using smoke- L Educate the public on the costs of free oil and installing catalytic municipal solid waste management to converters on vehicles with two-stroke increase their willingness to pay for engines. inmproved municipal services. L Control particulate emissions from Water supply, sanitation and sewerage diesel vehicles by reformulating diesel L Develop water policies and plans for fuel, ensuring proper engine all large cities and within states, maintenance and engine modifications, undertaking comprehensive demand treating diesel exhaust, and replacing projections, with coordination across diesel-fueled engines with compressed sectors. natural gas-fueled engines. LI Initiate pilot privatization projects in LI Implement control strategies for smnall and medium-size towns, including particulates from industrial fuel promoting private, community-based combustion by relocating industry, coal firms that can manage segments of washing, end-of-smokestack controls, operations requiring good community and making boilers more energy outreach and links. This could include efficient. water users groups that can own, LI Implement control strategies for operate, and maintain their facilities. particulates from domestic sources by L Train municipal workers to develop a Executive Summary service orientation toward poor for ash disposal, and few efforts have been communities so that these communities made to recycle ash disposal water, which can develop site-specific cost recovery contaminates surface and underground water programs. used for drinking and irrigation. Large areas O Launch public awareness campaigns of land are used also for ash disposal in coal- that employ various communication fired thermal plants, leading in some cases schemes (school curriculums, commu- to air and underground water pollution. nity workers, NGOs, street theater) to Resettlement issues are usually associated better inform citizens of environmental with land acquisition for these ash ponds. protection needs, as well as the need Lastly, a carbon tax is seen as one tool for for accountability. improving fuel efficiency and reducing air pollution. The success of using a carbon tax ALTERNATIVE ENERGY PLAN for coal-fired thermal power plants will depend on,the availability of coal of The alternative energy plan outlined consistently high quality. in the Environment Action Program has two strategies to address the main issues in the The second strategy recommends that energy sector. The first argues that the India move toward more environmentally efficiency of energy production, conversion, benign energy forms, that is, renewable and use should be improved; energy demand energy resources. Priority programs under should be managed; and technology and the alternative energy plan consist of projects, process changes should be encouraged. research activities, and studies in the area Proposed solutions include conservation of of renewable energy. However, several of natural resources, promotion of clean coal the recommendations outlined in the EAP technologies, reduction of transmission and have been overtaken by recent developments distribution losses, demonstration projects in the sector. In July 1993, the government for demand-side management, research and reoriented its program to emphasize the development of various modes of renewable commercialization of larger-scale demand- energy, and studies for retrofitting and driven energy systems for power generation, modernizing existing power plants. promotion of private initiatives and investment, reduced subsidy support, and In the area of natural resource competition in supply of systems. conservation, particular attention will have Nonetheless, many barriers remain to to be given to coal-fired thermal plants that commercialization of renewable energy use natural resources (land water, air), but systems such as the need for significant up- no incentives are in place for their front capital investment; lack of access of conservation. Water is used by thermal plants renewable energy users to appropriate and as makeup water and in open cooling systems. affordable financing mechanisms; systems While a levy is paid for makeup water, no tend to be small-scale, sites dispersed, and charges are imposed on the use of marine operations highly dependent on local coastal water or inland water as sources of conditions; and systems require greater end- cooling water. The water levy does not deter use participation, and at early stages, greater the use of large volumes of makeup water organizational and technical promotion effort * 9 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities than conventional energy systems. Other Li Limit research and development institutional and policy constraints include activities to moving technologies closer subsidized prices for kerosene and electricity, to requirements of the market and users, traditional focus of suppliers' marketing adapting them to local operating efforts toward government-administered conditions, and improving programs rather than consumers, and absence manufacturing capabilities, rather than of after-sales service resulting in a reinventing technologies developed- proliferation of nonperforming systems. abroad. A number of recommendations emerge ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION from the stocktaking, including: The priority programs identified in the Conventional energy Environment Action Program for addressing Li Create environmental management environmental education issues include the divisions in State Electricity Boards following: strengthening environmental to focus on environment-related training, research, and education activities activities and to provide training in through existing government and environmental management and nongovernmental organizations and regulatory compliance. institutions at different levels; providing assisitance and funding to NGOs to set up FL Adopt technology improvements both district and village training centers; to increase efficiency and to decrease establishing a program for training of trainers; environmental impacts. developing a scheme to allow practitioners. LI Introduce new fiscal incentives to activists, professionals, civil servants, and encourage conservation of water and others to participate in regeneration activities; land and decrease air pollution in the establishing training facilities for civil generation of coal-fired power. servants through the environmental training activities of their induction institutions; Renewable energy developing environmental training programs for students and the general public, especially LI Continue the current policy of in townships located in or around areas of promoting the commercialization special ecological significance; developing mature technologies and eliminatlng regular and sustained environmental subsidy support for these technologies,.dcto rgasfrpoesoas education programs for professionals, LI Increase training and technical decisionmakers and local self-government assistance support for the development authorities in environmental impact of a wider and stronger consultancy assessment; developing methods to introduce base on alternate energy. environment-related subjects in social science courses; initiating new environmental courses LI Undertakeaprogramofmoreextensive that are accessible to students of all and intensive resource mapping backgrounds; developing a wide range of incorporating the latest available environmental education materials for mass technology (GIS, satellite data). distribution; establishing environmental 10 Executive Summary education programs for the newly adaptation of environmentally sound constituted Paryavaran Vahini (voluntary technologies (for NGOs and local environmental task forces); and building leadership development) including a capacity for the collection and analysis of training program for the Paryavaran environmental statistics for natural Vahini. resource accounting. O Develop an environmental education There are limitations in the above extension program. strategy. Current government policies in India prescribe the need for a "national O Provide assistance with technical policy framework towards environmental training for mid-level government and education." This may not necessarily be industry managers. the most effective for grassroots activity. Teacher training in environmental ESTIMATING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS education has been mandated by the courts in India, and the Ministry of Environment The two types of environmental costs and Forests has instituted the estimatedinthestocktakingarepublichealth Environmental Orientation to School impacts due to air and water pollution, and Education program to foster this activity. productivity impacts due to higher water However, the reality is that teacher training costs, soil degradation, deforestation, and institutions do not incorporate environ- reduced tourism. In all cases, conservative mental concepts into teacher preparation approaches were used so as not to overstate and there is little incentive for teachers the costs of degradation. The overall to pursue training on their own. There is limitations of the "back-of-the-envelope" also a shortage of environmental education approach to valuing environmental costs are materials available for teachers, teacher very clear. The methodologies, data, and trainers, and community educators. Public estimates of average' costs and values are awareness currently conducted through all subject to debate. mass media have minimal impact. The poor Environmental degradation and public are not reached by current environmental health are most clearly linked in terms of education and training activities. Lastly, air pollution and respiratory diseases, and training in environmental impact assessment, water pollution with such waterborne natural resource accounting, and diseases as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and environmental auditing is not standardized. typhoid. The results are divided into sickness The following recommendations (morbidity) and premature death (mortality). emerge from the stocktaking: The value of premature death is based on the value of a statistical life, as determined Oi Establish a National Council on using a human capital approach that values Environmental Education and create an individual's life according to the net Treinngiona CEntersofxenallancge- fpresent value of his or her productivity. (This ment. approach requires substantially less data than willingness-to-pay or willingness-to-be- O Develop tools for local awareness and compensated approaches). The costs of India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorit,ies sickness are based on individual disutility The total costs of environmental (discomfort, suffering, and the opportunity degradation and pollution are unknown. The cost of time), medical expenses, and lost calculations made as part of the stocktaking wages (Margulis 1992). Only medical add up to a total of $9.7 billion per year, or expenses and lost wages are estimated. 4.5% of GDP. These are rough estimates and Environmental degradation and economic should be viewed as lower bounds, given the output are most clearly linked where soil exclusion of several categories of costs. The degradation reduces agriculture and rangeland overall incidence of degradation, in terms of output (or increases input costs); deforestation 1992 GDP, is in the range of 2.9 to 6.7 percent, turns forests into land with little economic with an average estimate of 4.5 percent. This value; surface and groundwater pollution leads incidence is on the high end of estimates made to local and regional scarcities, with in other countries, such as 2.6 percent in commensurate increases in costs; and high China', 3.3 percent in Mexico, up to 5 percent ambient pollution levels inhibit tourism. in Eastern Europe, and less than 1 to 2 percent in OECD countries. 12. Chapter 1 Environmental Management India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities L~~~~ _ -1 1.01 Strategic environmental manage- that are of national or strategic importance. ment is the process of developing and implementing a national program that improves environmental quality on a Ministry of Environment and Forests sustainable basis. Successful environmental management depends on the active 1.03 Responsibility for ensuring that environmental concerns are addressed in a involvement of key segments of society, envinmentanner lie the inEa including industry, agriculture, and individual coordilnated manner lies with the MOEF citizens. More than 00 countries have long- cResponsibility for integrating environmental term nviromentl or ustaiable concerns into sector plans lies with the term environmental or sustainable Plnnn Comsin Inmn.css dev~elopment strategies. Many adopt a Plnnn Comsin Inmn.css however, other ministries and departments may management approach based on well-defined have a large responsibility for key objectives, measurable targets, and action environmental tasks. Recent policy statements plans involving relevant actors. The principal identified the following as the principal objective of India's Environment Action environmental tasks of the central government: Program (EAP) is improving the provision forest conservation and regeneration; wildlife of environmental services conservation; bio-diversity conservation; flood prevention and control; drought prevention GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE SECTOR and control; desertification prevention and INSTITUTIONS control; erosion prevention and control; pollution prevention and control; conservation 1.02 India's constitution contains a general and regeneration of ecologically sensitive commitment to protecting and improving the areas; protection of areas with special environment and to safeguarding the country's environmental problems; ozone layer forests and wildlife. These efforts are protection; climate protection; conservation coordinated between the central and state and management of water, energy, biomass, governments. State governments are granted land, soil, mineral, and other resources; exclusive power over regional and local issues, protection from occupational, chemical, while the central government, acting through nuclear, and other hazards; protection of the Ministry of Environment and Forests traditional knowledge of ecological systems; (MOEF), determines policy by issuing and protection of animal rights. instructions (and sometimes funds) to the state 1.04 The MOEF plays an important role governments and other agencies responsible in ensuring that these tasks are addressed in for implementation. The central government accordance with government policy and usually retains control of issues or projects assesses the status of environmental resources 14 . Environmental Management and the effectiveness of measures to conserve mental and forestry programs (Box 1.2). The or protect them. Other ministries also play MOEF also coordinates external assistance major roles in these areas (Box 1.1). of environmental projects. Proposals for such projects must be approved by the ministry's 1.05 At the national level, the MOEF International Cooperation Division. This is the principal agency for planning, division selects projects in accordance with promotion, and coordination of environ- overall environmental priorities and attempts Box 1.1 Ongoing Environmental Tasks of Ministries Other than the MOEF Ministry Task Ministry of Agriculture Conservation of wildlife Conservation of biodiversity Prevention and control of desertification Conservation and regeneration of watersheds Conservation and management of land and soil Prevention and control of floods Protection of irrigation command areas Conservation and regeneration of forests Prevention and control of pollution Recycling of resources Conservation and management of energy Ministry of Water Resources Prevention and control of floods Conservation and regeneration of wetlands Conservation and regeneration of coral reefs and coastal regions Protection of irrigation command areas Monitoring water quality Ministry of Rural Development Conservation and management of land and soil Prevention and control of drought Conservation and regeneration of forests Prevention and control of pollution Ministry of Power Prevention and control of pollution Recycling of resources Conservation and management of energy Use of alternative sources of power Ministry of Petroleum Protection of mining and oil extraction areas Recycling of resources Prevention and control of pollution Conservation and management of energy Department of Ocean Development Conservation and regeneration of coral reefs and coastal regions Conservation and regeneration of island resources Ministry of Urban Development Prevention and control of pollution Planning Commission Conservation and management of energy Conservation and regeneration of island resources Conservation and regeneration of mountain resources Department of Nonconventional Prevention and control of pollution Energy Sources Recycling of resources Conservation and management of energy Use of alternative sources of power Ministry of Human Resource Education and awareness Development Ministry of Labor Protection from occupational health hazards India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Box 1.2 Functions of the MOEF O G.B. Pant Himalayan Institute, Almora h Develop and implement conservation and F Center for Environmental Education, protection strategies, including the establishment of biosphere reserves, pollution Ahmedabad monitoring, environmental appraisal of developmental projects, and the protection of ° Ecological Research and Training historical monuments of national importance. Center, Bangalore * Coordinate environmental management L CPR Environental Education Center, programs with other ministries and agencies, volunteer organizations, professional bodies, Madras and other groups. L Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and * Develop national policy planning strategies. Natural History, Coimbatore * Work with global agencies on environmental issues. LI Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta * Support research on environmental problems. * Develop environmental education programs to ° Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta increase national awareness of environmental protection issues and the importance of natural ° Forest Survey of India, Dehradun resource preservation and citizen participation. X National Museum of Natural History, * Review legislation and formulate additional New Delhi legal measures when needed for environmental protection. O Indian Institute of Forest Management, * Maintain a national environmental information Bhopat system and data base on environmental problems. D Indian Plywood Industries Research * Review policies and programs on human Institute, Bangalore settlement. O Center for Mining Environment, Dhanbad to minimize overlap between the various . .m . sources of funding. The ministry also oversees a number of independently managed 1.07 The Planning Commission, bodies listed below. formed in 1950, plays a key role in formulating national economic policy and 1.06st t he MOEFo[owigorganizations drafting five-year plans, which set directions assist the MOEF: and targets for economic growth. The Fourth O Indian Council for Forestry Research Five-Year Plan (1969-74) was the first to and Education, Dehradun recognize the need to integrate environ- mental considerations into economic O Central Pollution Control Board, New development planning. Awareness of the Delhi potentially pivotal role of the Planning 2l Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun Comrmission in environmental management has continued to grow since that time. The Ol Indira Gandhi Nationali Forest Sevenith Five-Year Plan (1986-91) took Academy, Dehradun sustainable development in harmony with ti II Environmnental Management I _ _ . ' the environment as a basic principle. Human Box 1.3. Functions of the Central Pollution development is the ultimate goal of the Eighth Control Board Five-Year Plan (1992-97). Environmental * Advise the central government on any matter management within the eighth plan includes concerning water and air pollution and the planning for sustainable use of resources; improvement of air quality. protection and conservation of endangered * Plan and implement a national program for the systems through education, training, and prevention or abatement of water and air awareness; and the cooperation of pollution. government organizations and non- * Coordinate the activities of the state pollution governmental organizations (NGOs) in all control boards and resolving disputes among them; provide technical assistance and guidance stages of environmental planning. to the state boards; carry out and sponsor investigation and research relating to problems Central Pollution Control Board of water and air pollution. 1.08 The Central Pollution Control * Organize training for people working on the Board was created in 1974 to control water prevention or abatement of water and air pollution; its mandate was extended to pollution. * Organize a comprehensive public awareness include air pollution in 1981 when it was program on the prevention and abatement of placed under the administrative control of water and air pollution. the MOEF. Its responsibilities were further * Compile data relating to water and air pollution extended by the 1986 Environment Act, the and the measures needed for prevention and 1989 Hazardous Waste Rules, and the 1991 abatement; prepare guidelines on the treatment Public Liability Insurance Act, and it has and disposal of sewage, trade effluents, and stack become a key agency for implementation of gas cleaning devices. national environmental policy and legislation * Set standards for stream and well water and for for the control of industrial pollution (Box air quality in consultation with the state 1.3). governments. * Perform such other functions as may be 1.09 To carry out its duties, the board prescribed by the government. devises implementation strategies and sets environmental norms that are binding on state Board has seven regional offices that are governments. The most important norms are mainly concerned with research and established by the MOEF with the assistance identification of emerging problems. The of a committee on which the board, as well board's officers may contribute to local as other government departments and leading decisionmaking by sitting on environmental experts from academia and industry, is committees. represented. These norms include the Minimum National Standards (MINAS), STATE GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS standards for effluents and emissions that can be made more stringent by state State Departments of the Environment governments depending on the circum- 1.11 All the states and territories have stances, and ambient quality standards for departments responsible for implementing air and water, which vary according to the the Water and Air Pollution Control Acts surrounding environment, and enforcing the Minimum National 1.10 The Central Pollution Control Standards. These units direct the activities * 17 India's Environment Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Box 1.4 The 1986 Environment (Protection) advising on policy formulation. Act This act is umbrella legislation that provides a State Pollution Control Boards single focus for the protection of the environment and seeks to plug the loopholes of earlier legislation 1 .12 With the exception of Arunachal relating to the environment. Several sets of rules relating to various aspects of the management of Pradesh and Nagaland, all the states in India hazardous chemicals, wastes, micro-organisms, and have frormed State Pollution Control Boards so on, have been written under this act. in response to the 1986 Environment Salient features of this act are: (Protection) Act (Boxes 1.4 and 1.5). The * Thecentralgovemmentmayrestrictan industry, boards report to the State Department of operation or process, or class of industries or Environment. The boards are funded with operations from a particular area. fees from authorized dischargers to water * Emissions and effluent standards with respect bodies. They review development proposals to 61 categories of industries have been developed. to assess the local environment's capacity * The standards with respect to pollutants are to to receive polluting effluents and act as the be achieved within a period of one year from implementing agency. the date of their notification. * If a particular State Pollution Control Board PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS desires, it may reduce the time limit and also specify more stringent standards with respect Industry to a specified category of industries within their jurisdiction. The board cannot relax either the 1.13 Much of Indian industry uses time limit or the standards. outdated, polluting technologies. The * Industries that require consent under the Water industries that contribute most of the air and Act, Air Act or both, or authorization under water pollution are cement plants, thermal the Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, are required to submit power statons, iron and steel works, fertilizer an environmental audit report to the concerned factories, metal smelters, oil refineries, State Pollution Control Board on or before distilleries, pulp and paper mills, producers September 30 every year. of dyes and dye intermediates, pesticide Source: GOL, Ministry ,of Environment and manufacturers, petrochemical plants, Fores-ts, Handbook of Environmental Procedures and Guidelines, 1994 tanneries, sugar producers, and pharma- of the State Pollution Control Boards and ceutical manufacturers. Of the 1,539 industries in these categories in 1993, only rmay be supported by specialized institutions 55pretw efiedocmly ih responsible for specific issues or research mnu. m wemissio standards and (such as the Kerala Forest Research Institute min cemissnot ua and,reve ang or Maharashtra State Wastelands Develop- toselithte necessarynequipmen Some ment Board). State departments authorize the environmental conditions imposed by the plants allow pollution control equipment to State Pollution Control Boards and may be fall into disrepair or fail to operate it correctly. used as a court of appeal against their rulings. 1.14 Small industries in India (those Other responsibilities include coordinating with a total capital investment of less than the environmental activities and initiatives 7.5 million rupees) benefit from a number of other state government departments and of government and state initiatives to Environmental Management encourage their growth. More than 800 Box 1.5. Functions of State Pollution products are reserved for small industry, for Control Boards example, and there are a number of tax * Set up emission standards for local industries based on the Minimum National Standards and incentives. The Confederation of Indian thecarryingcapacityofsites. Industry estimates that there are 3.5 million * Issue consent orders allowing discharge of small-scale enterprises operating in India. industrial pollutants to air and water. Large industries are generally more willing a Monitor compliance with discharge consents. to institute environmental management * Issue No Objection Certificates allowing procedures and invest in pollution control industries to develop a site. (Depending on the than smaller ones, which are much more industry, an environmental assessment may still likely to evade regulation altogether. Many be required from the MOEF.) small enterprises are attracted to areas where * Publish statistics on pollution control for the state environmental enforcement is weak. and disseminate information through lectures, seminars, and so on. 1.15 Many industries are paying for training for their staff in response to increased environmental awareness among the affected parties in the development of population and a tougher regulatory regime. environmental management initiatives. The This has created a large market for training, EAP states that NGO involvement at the local particularly in the environmental audit of level and in the coordination of international activities and resource use, environmental work is essential to the success of management and audit systems, and training environmental planning. The central of trainers in environmental management. authorities believe that NGOs can play an 1.16 Bodies that can provide training, important role in monitoring compliance by advice, and consultant services to industry developers and industry with the standards include the Confederation of Indian Industry, imposed on them. NGOs also encourage state the Federation of the Indian Chamber of authorities to implement the directives of Commerce and Industry, and the National the central government and to enforce their Productivity Council set up by the Ministry own policies. A wide range of NGOs are of Industry. These groups report that demand working in India. Some of the most influential for training outstrips existing resources. To are discussed below. some extent, the market is being satisfied Bombay Natural History Society by unqualified trainers offering a low-grade product. Even good training is sometimes 1.18 Based in Maharashtra, the misapplied because of the failure to conduct Bombay Natural History Society has more training needs assessments. than 3,000 volunteers who collect data, disseminate information, and recommend Environmental NGOs management plans to conserve wildlife and 1.17 Environmental NGOs have its habitat throughout India. played an increasingly important role in World Wildlife Fund-India environ-mental decisionmaking in recent years. NGOs are particularly concerned with 1.19 The World Wildlife Fund-India the participation of local communities and was established in 1969. With a network of * 19 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities eighteen branch units in various states and development needs of India and to create a Data Center for Natural Resources in public awareness in science and technology. Bangalore, the fund is the country's largest conservation NGO. Its work includes CenterforEnvironmentalLaw environmental impact studies, nature park 1.22 The Center for Environmental development, legal intervention in environ- Law was set up by the World Wildlife Fund- mentally destructive projects, and an India to provide that organization with legal extensive conservation education program support and to strengthen the professional for youth. support base for environmental law and Dasohli Gram Swarajya Mandal policy in India. The center is an integral part of the World Wildlife Fund-India and has 1.20 This organization, based in Uttar the support of several other NGOs and the Pradesh, focuses on protection of forests. government. The center focuses its attention It opposes commercial felling, promotes tree on international law, but it is also interested planting involving local citizens, and aims in areas where it regards the law as being to improve environmental awareness among weak (such as the preservation of genetic rural populations. resources and the import or export of Centerfor Science and Environment biological material). Its domestic aims include capacity-building in environmental 1.21 Founded in 1980, this is a private, law, lobbying for changes in government nonprofit, academic research organization policy, and providing legal consultancy based in New Delhi. Primary areas of concern services. An example of such activity is its include health and occupational hazards, preparation of India's Legal Action Plan for water resources, air pollution, and protection implementation of the International of climate, atmosphere, energy, food, and Convention on Conservation of Biological agriculture. It aims to promote research in Diversity on behalf of the MOEF. science and technology appropriate to the Environmental Management The Environment Action Program 1.23 The EAP identifies environ- management, these issues cut across all priority mental programs, categorized as institutional areas. Table 1 .1 shows all programs listed in or noninstitutional, and places them into seven the EAP and highlights those that relate priority areas. Although one priority area deals directly to strengthening institutions or specifically with the issues of education and providing knowledge or tools for strategic institution building for environmental environmental management. Table 1.1. GOI Priority Environment Programs Priority area Noninstitutional Institutional Conservation and Ecological evaluation of wetlands, mangroves, and coral Networking of Zoological sustainable reefs and Botanical Surveys of utilization of Survey of protected wetlands India with universities and Biodiversity in Conservation education on wetlands, mangroves, and NGOs selected Ecosys- coral reefs tems Sustainable management of manmade water bodies Natural resources accounting studies Wildlife projects, particularly for elephants and rhinos Development of comprehensive national species atlas Listing of fauna of important ecological locations Research on cultivation and farming of medicinal and commercially valuable wild plants Conservation of traditional domesticated animal breeds Ex-Situ conservation Afforestation, Afforestation and wasteland development Wasteland Dleve- Demand management to improve protection of newly lopment, Soil and forested and regeneration areas Moisture Conser- Research and development of energy forestry and Strengthening of Indian vation, Ensuring efficient fuelwood use Council of Forestry Research Clean Water Sources Pasture regeneration and Education, Dehradun Agroforestry and extension support Rehabilitation and catchment area treatment for Encourage user participation irrigation works in irrigation projects from planning onwards Formulation of water management plans based on soil Organizational strengthening surveys and land use capability for irrigation works for better operations and Networking of governmental departments, research maintenance systems for institutions, and experts in irrigation projects irrigation India's lEnvironnment Taking Stock of Plans, Programs. and Priorities Priority Area Noninstitutional Institutional Data base for monitoring crop patterns, and productivity' Capacity building for in irrigation developing dry-land works agriculture, irrigation and hydrological data for crop planning, water and flood mapping and environmental impact assessment of agricul- tural projects Streamlining state command area development Programs for better returns from irrigated agriculture and use of water Rehabilitation of irrigation tanks Legislative, fiscal, and credit measures for proper exploitation of groundwater Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources Rehabilitation of public tubewells Small surface water storage in rainfall-short areas Low-cost rain-fed, agronomic and soil conservation Strengthening of State Land technologies to small and marginal farmers Use Boards for soil and water conservation Development and demonstration of biofertillizers Survey on waterlogging, saline soils, and flood hazards Capacity building for formulation of flood control master plans for major river Involvement of women in iinplementation of basins agricultural, watershed development, and soi] conservation programs Formulation of regionwide water pricing policy Industrial and Cleaner production in leather, textile, paper and pulp Organizational strengthening Related Pollution industries for research in natural dyes and Waste Quantification of pollutants from nonpoint sources Reduction/ Research on role of hydrology, land use, and Management, management practices on pollutant transport particularly Hazardous Waste Development of decisionmaking methods for control of nonpoint pollution sources Development of nonpoint pollution control technologies Development and demonstration of water treatment technologies Demonstration and dissemination of water conservation technologies Pollution control and waste management in mining Improving Launching of a Technology Mission on Cleaner Strengthening of National Access to Clean Production Materials Research and Technologies Technology Development 22. Environmental Management Priority Area Noninstitutional Institutional Initiative Task forces for selection of demonstration and Establishing centers for development projects cleaner technologies and development of centralized data base Transfer of technologies from research laboratories Capacity building for environmental auditing Formulation of standards of waste discharge per unit of Capacity building for raw material adaptation and improvement of imported technology Formulation of economic and legal measures to ensure Capacity building for absorption of clean technologies environmental impact assessment of clean technologies Tackling Urban Reducing solid waste generation Strengthening Building Environmental Fiscal instruments for waste minimization Materials and Technology Issues Development of biodegradable packaging Improving refuse vehicles Assessing space requirements for solid waste treatment Rehabilitation of ragpickers Protection of natural water sources Health education, awareness, and risk assessment Managing storm drains Energy efficient street lighting Alternative energy and efficiency programs Pricing policies to promote energy conservation Improving public distribution of kerosene Improving coal thermal properties and reducing smoke Preparation of energy audits Road pricing Developing housing policy Capacity building for Monitoring air pollution pollution control, waste management, risk assessment, and environmental impact Protecting natural amenities assessment Urban forests Strengthening NGO Environment management plans participation Public Transport Introducing innovative fiscal instruments Improving the performance of State Road Transportation Corporations Reviewing the 1988 Motor Vehicles Act India 's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Priority Area Noninstitutional Institutional Strengthening Training of trainers at all levels and identification of Establishment of national Environment suitable agencies and institutions center for long-term training Science Education, in environmental impact Training, and assessment Awareness Environmental training activities for civil servants in Evolve a network of regional their induction institutions centers for preparation of environmental impact assess- ment reports and disaster management plans Assist NGOs to set up district and village level Strengthening training, training centers research, and education in existing governmental institu- Environmental training for students and the public, tions and NGOs especially around areas of ecological significance Environmental education for professional and government authorities in environmental impact assessment Initiation of environmental courses for students of all backgrounds Development of environmental education materials for Capacity building for collec- teachers tion and analysis of statistics Environmental education for new Paryavaran Vahini for natural resource account- (voluntary environmental task forces) ing Environmental education for local policymakers and NGOs Alternative Energy: Coal benefaction Coal Sector Coal bed methane Coal gasification Tackling of coal mine areas Power Sector Reduction of transmission and distribution losses Demonstration projects on energy efficient lighting Evaluation on pollution control measures in thermal power stations Shift from road to rail freight Transport Sector Mass rapid transport systems Conversion of two- and three-wheelers from two- stroke to four stroke Use of compressed natural gas Industrial Sector Energy conservation Natural resource accounting for commercial fuels Capacity building for environmental impact assessment for thermal and Demonstration, diffusion, and mQnitoring of hydro power plants Alternative Energy alternative sources 24. I -fl|4 Environmental Management Priority Area Noninstitutional Institutional Research on energy-efficient electric and diesel pumpsets Converting agricultural waste to fertilizer Policy measures and incentives for wind power Organization strengthening generation for wind power generation Indigenization of wind electric generation systems Capacity building for Development of small hydro capacity decentralized energy plans Alternative strategy for biogas implementation Designing of effective biogas delivery systems Evolving design criteria for improved cookstoves Capacity building for environmental impact assessment of energy use in Development and marketing of solar hot water systems r Resource accounting for noncommercial energy sources in rural areas *25 India's Fnvironment Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Major Issues and Recommendations 1.24 India's environmental manage- resource consumption and waste production. - ment system covers all aspects of It also identifies financial, legal, institutional, environmental protection. As the EAP organizational, technical, and human resource acknowledges, however, the system needs constraints to implement environmental strengthening to be able to addrcss the programs (Box 1.6). environmental issues that result from Box 1.6. Constraints to Implementing Eiivironmental Programs The EAP highlights the following constraints: Financial * Incorporating environmental considerations into development projects requires more resources, which puts more pressure on the already meager amounts of public investment. Legal * There is no separate legislation for conservation and protection of lands and the environmentally critical ecosystems of wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, range lands, watersheds, and irrigation command areas. * Although there is a national water policy, legislation for regulating exploitation of surface and groundwater resources has not yet been formulated. * The number and variety of fiscal instruments to tackle environmental problems are limited. Institutional * The research and development infrastructure is inadequate. * Panchayats and urban local bodies that are to implement the program have not yet been assigned the crucial tasks of conservation and environmental protection. * The constitutional status accorded to local governments has underscored the urgency of evolving a participatory management system. Organizational * There are no organizations capable of imparting technical skills for environmental management, such as environmental impact assessments at the local and regional levels. * Policymakers, administrators, trainers, educators, students, local government authorities, and grassroots individuals and organizations are not adequately trained in environmental sciences and management. Techlnical * Accounting for the intrinsic value of natural resources is still a process in its infancy. * Environmental impact assessments for various categories of natural resources and development projects are constrained by a lack of data on resource availability as well as by the pressure to ensure quick development. * The need to define environmental parameters at local levels is constrained by a lack of data. Human resources * There is a lack of high-quality human resources and organizations at the local and regional levels. * There is only limited public awareness of environmental issues at the school, university, and nonformal levels. 26 a Environmental Manageineiii 1.25 Environmental management at knowledge of the state universities and NGOs the national level requires a review of current can supplement the efforts of the survey performance and formulation and implemen- organizations. If this information is made tation of new policy. In addition, an effective available to developers and consultants environmental management system must preparing environmental assessments, it will have: improve the quality of their reports and the decisions that are based on them. LI Institutions capable of carrying out each task in the environmental management POLICY FORMULATION AND TARGET SEMNG cycle. LI Instruments for policy development and 1.28 Achieving sustainable develop- appraisal, and regulatory and technical ment depends on environmental objectives instruments to enable institutions to being incorporated into the sector policies carry out their assigned roles. of government ministries besides the MOEF. Areas of key importance in India include LI Inputs from parties outside the spatial planning (land use and physical regulatory framework whose activities infrastructure), urban environmental manage- or interests are affected. ment, and economic sectors such as energy and power generation, industry, transport, INFORMATION GATHERING and agriculture. Many experts interviewed in India felt that the activities of government 1.26 Much survey work on the status ministries other than the MOEF were carried of environmental resources is under way, and out with insufficient regard for their the MOEF and Central Pollution Control environmental impacts and sometimes Board publish annual reports of their conflicted with the policy for environmental activities and progress in key areas. Major improvement being pursued by the MOEF. undertakings to assess the status of the natural environment include forest surveys by the 1.29 One priority action in the EAP Forest Survey of India, a flora survey by the is environmental training for policymakers Botanical Survey of India, a fauna survey and decisionmakers. Such training should by the Zoological Survey of India, and include regional environmental impact surveys of sensitive, endangered, or valuable assessment profiles and a scientific system ecosystems (mangroves, coral reefs, and so of natural resources accounting. on). Often, however, the information that is 1.30 Achieving these goals will gathered is not made available to concerned require ensuring that government parties. The Central and State Pollution departments have adequate environmental Control Boards, for example, can withhold awareness and that knowledge of the information from environmental NGOs if techniques of strategic impact assessment they consider it to be in the national interest, for policy evaluation is available. Studies 1.27 Networking of the Zoological and of the carrying capacity of regions are under Botanical Surveys with the universities and way on a pilot scale. These studies should NGOs listed in the EAP is key to successful, be used as a model for future decisionmaking, comprehensive management. The local and strategic environmental assessment and India's Fnvironment - Taking Stock of Plans. Programs, and Priorities analysis of environmental costs and benefits some of which (coal, petroleum, iron and should be made a part of the policy steel, agrochemicals) are among the most formulation process within key ministries. signif-icant polluters. PREPARATION OF LEGISLATION AND 1.34 Members of the public and STANDARDS environmental activists have found that it may be more effective to resort to base 1.31 Few priorities in the EAP relate litigation on the human rights provisions of direct.ly to the formulation of environmental the ccnstitution. Such actions have been used legislation or to the setting of ambient quality to prevent quarrying, protect wetlands, and standards and emission limits. The reason manage water resources, but they also create for this may be that environmental authorities difficulties. Judges are not compelled to take feel that India has a well-established legal into account the evidence or policies of the framework and set of standards and that, even relevant State Pollution Control Board, and though the development of emission limits different interpretations of the constitution for industry is incomplete, the task is part as granting the right to a pollution-free of the ongoing efforts of the Central Pollution environment have produced inconsistent Control Board. decisions. There is therefore a danger of a parallel system of environmental regulation 1.32 But somne industrialists-parti- emerging from the legal system that does cularly in the power sector-now believe that nd not reflect the legislative background. This a more flexible approach to pollution control, situation would send unclear signals to the based on a balance between the value of the public and to industry. resource to be protected and the costs to the economy of controlling emissions, is needed. PROGRAMS OF ACTION The emphasis on natural resource accounting to provide a scientific basis for 1.35 No government can achieve decisionmaking, and the move to regional lasting environmental improvement on its environmental assessments based on carrying own. Achieving the objectives of the EAP capacity, may reflect a growing awareness will require the cooperation of non- of the potential for conflict between strict governmental actors, and regulation often environmental norms and the need for may be inappropriate to this end. For increased industrial output. example, achieving compliance with 1. 3 The functioning of the judicial environmental controls on industry will system in enforcing enviro.nental legislation require that regulators understand the options also has given rise to some concern. Action and constraints facing industry, and that also . ha gvnrstosmcnen. Acio industry understand the consequences of its against polluters moves through the courts . . . slowly, and since prosecutions often fail or polluting activities, have access to cost- result in only a small fine, some polluters effective control technologies, and be aware have found it cost-effective to ignore of the oppor-tunities represented by improved emission standards. In addition, State resou:rce management. Pollution Control Boards are reluctant to 1.36 For example, the EAP attaches bring actions against state-owned industries, great importance to mandatory environmental Environmental Management auditing, aimed at raising awareness in of pollution control equipment and because industry by requiring annual audits of pollution control boards lack the resources material use. But most target industries have to enforce compliance. Other problems failed to join this scheme. Although about include: 10,000 factories with consents to discharge effluent or hazardous waste are eligible, audit O State pollution control boards that are statements were submitted by only about 3 reluctant to enforce compliance when percent of these in the first year of the scheme, doing so might result in plant closure and this share is likely to fall. Industry is with attendant socioeconomic impacts. concerned that the information demands of O Variable enforcement by states, which the scheme are difficult to meet and may leads to industry migration to regions compromise commercial confidentiality. In with less-stringent enforcement addition, neither industry nor the pollution standards. control boards are experienced in compiling or reviewing audit statements. A revision O Industry perception that certain of this scheme is therefore indicated, together restrictions and requirements are too with a major training effort. stringent and that the cost of compliance outweighs the potential 1.37 If the public is to be empowered benefits. to influence environmental performance, it must have access to information about 1.39 Tools that assist industry in available products and services and monitoring environmental performance and incentives that influence lifestyle choices. identifying opportunities for improvements Reforestation and afforestation schemes now and cost savings include auditing, Environ- routinely include such incentives. An mental Management and Auditing Systems, ecolabeling scheme also has been introduced and so on. These systems are being developed to provide consumers with information on for India by organizations such as the products, but progress has been slow. Confederation of Indian Industry. These Problems include the lack of expertise in life- efforts should be encouraged, and the cycle analysis, which limits the scientific capacity of state pollution control boards to basis for setting ecolabel criteria; the fact evaluate the information should be enhanced. that the scheme has introduced one product 1.40 Implementation of planning at a time, which limits public awareness of regulations, pollution controls, and operating the scheme; and inadequate support from norms depends heavily on such industry, which believes that the public has considerations being incorporated into project no interest in ecolabeled products. design. Environmental impact assessments MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT are central to achieving this goal. The guiding principle behind these assessments is that 1.38 Many industries are not fitted local people and organizations should play with pollution control equipment to achieve an important role in environmental protection minimum standards, and many of those that efforts. It is therefore surprising that recent are fitted still do not comply. This is p4rtly amendments to procedures for evaluating because operators are trying to avoid the cost these reports have reduced the role of the India's Environnment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities states and transferred the decisionmaking role Monitoring of India National Aquatic to the MOEF. But it is clear why this Resources Scheme, Global Environ- rearrangement has been necessary. The state mental Monitoring System, and Ganga pollution control boards' focus on water and Action Plan. air pollution is too narrow to effectively manage assessments of large facilities, and c Noise polluthon monitorong bn major expertise to review these reports is not widely the hp the National Envronmenta available. Nevertheless, the reconfigured Egeering Reearch Insitut systern forgoes many of the benefits ofrniern esac nttt system orgoes any of he beneits of(NEERI) and coordinated by the central environmental impact assessments (such as incorporation of mitigation into early project control board. design and public consultation, before the 1.43 Water quality monitoring was design is fixed) and focuses on a narrow range recently strengthened by the commissioning of development types-those identified as of automatic monitoring stations on the priority by the MOEF. Ganges River (although there have been some problems with these) and programs to 1.41ons Thelatingto enumberofmenta LaPsprity monitor coastal ocean waters and estuarime actions relatng to environmental assessment waters. The LAP points out, however, that reflects how Important the government there is still no reliable information on the considers t t contribution of nonpoint sources to water management strategy. Still, decisionmaking pollution. on all but strategic projects should be returned to the local level. It also will be necessary 1.44 Although many industrial to ensure that public involvement in local facilities do not comply with air pollution decisionmaking occurs early in the project controls, the monitoring network reveals few cycle and is transparent to all affected by instances of pollution threatening human the decision. health, and these cases are due mainly to mobile sources (motor vehicles). This may 1.42 Only one actlon identified in the be because monitoring stations are located EAP relates specifically to environmental in the main cities. Many industries that are monitoring, but manv actions imply monitoring, but many actions imply known to be heavy polluters lack the required monitoring or rely on the information that control equipment, but no monitoring stations it would provide. Such monitoring is required are nearby. for effective enforcement and to gauge the success of implemented policy. The results RECOMMENDATIONS also enable authorities to prioritize their programs and can be used to inform and 1.45 India's central government empower the public. National actions in this provides funding and technical assistance area include: for developing environmental action plans LI Ambient air quality monitoring by the at the state and municipal levels, but effective National Ambient Air Quality Moni- management requires mechanisms that allow toring Network. all groups in society to participate in the environmental management system. El Water quality monitoring by the Consultation and negotiation are central to 30 Environmental Management this effort. The chances of achieving policy 1.47 Taking these criteria into account, objectives are further improved if projects assistance should be provided for activities are developed by those responsible for involving the legal and judicial systems, implementing them. This applies as much sector policy and planning, the participation toenvironmentalNGOsandthevillage-level of industry, regional planning and political bodies as it does to industry. environmental impact assessment, ensuring 146 Each of theEAPspriorcost-effectiveness, ensuring quality training, 1.46 Each of the EAP's priority areas would benefit from improved knowledge of municipal environmental management, and environmental science, more training of public participation. people involved in environmental manage- Legal and judicial strengthening ment, and awareness raising among those whose activities could contribute to 1.48 The courts are failing to enforce environmental improvements. Many such environmental legislation, and when parties programs are under way with multilateral resort to human rights legislation it creates and bilateral donor support, but in some cases confusion and sends unclear signals to the scale of the activity does not match the industry and environmental groups. Three scale of the problem, Bilateral organizations actions could be taken to address these such as the Canadian International problems. Development Agency (CIDA) and the . . German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) have implemented limited institutional 1.49 Magistrates and judges must be strengthening projects in some of these areas. more involved in and aware of pollution Because these organizations have limited control legislation. Training to achieve this manpower and funding and must achieve goal could focus on government policy, the results quickly, they tend to focus on well- role of the state pollution control boards, what established organizations in selected target constitutes reliable evidence in environmental states. The World Bank is in a position to actions, assessing environ-mental costs and take a more strategic view. Projects or benefits, appropriate types of sanction and programs that are suitable for Bank funding fines, options available to industry to combat in this area must be: pollution, and balancing the interests of industry and those affected by hazardous Oi Compatible with the EAP. eisos emissions. LI Compatible with the mission and Review of legal decisions ongoing efforts of the Bank. .. . . ~~~~~1.50 The decisions of the supreme O Strategic in scope or replicable in other 15 Th eiin o h urm strategc in copeo. court and high courts in environmental cases should be reviewed to identify the causes LI Urgently needed. of inconsistency and to see whether decisions are compatible with the direction of LI Suitable for counterpart institutions. environmental policy in India. This review LI Funded solely by the Bank. could be used to propose environmental definitions, legal rules, and guidelines for India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities environmental human rights cases. procedures to ensure that the tools are used 1.51 These tasks could be undertaken effectively. Assistance could be provided to the MOEF in developing these tools and byrhap Ceter fore environmentalpLaw procedures and in carrying out high-level staff training in the use of the tools. Strengthening the State Pollution Control Boards The participation of industry 1.52 The weakness of some state 1.55 Effectiveenvironmental manage- pollution control boards is a major constraint ment at the national level requires that duties on enforcement of environmental legislation. and responsibilities be devolved to key Several bilateral donor programs are under players, such as industry. It is usually possible way or are planned to support selected boards to obtain the cooperation of industry without withafunds and training. The roleofthe boards relying on overly stringent regulatory and is evo:Lving quickly, however, from air and compliance regimes. It is necessary, however, water pollution control regulators into uasi- to provide industry with tools and incentives state environmental protection qgenci- that contribute to environmental goals. The Action is needed from the Central Pollution Bank has helped to develop industry Control Board to manage this transition. participation by funding effluent treatment plants for small industry. Further assistance 1.53 Consideration should be given to might include: supporting the Central Pollution Control Board in its efforts to build up the state O Refining the environmental auditing pollution control boards. This might include scheme and funding the training that developing a joint strategy, setting priorities, must precede its relaunching and developing an action plan to implement LI Setting up institutions to design and these. The priorities would probably include administer training for an Indian training activities for staff of the state boards Environmental Management and Audit and would require clarifying the scope of Systems accreditation scheme. state duties and activities. LO Assisting the Central Pollution Control Sector policy and planning Board with the development of -Minimum National Standards and 1.54 The activities and policies of ensuring that these are the best government departments (agriculture, urban available and most appropriate development, wate:r resources, power, the technology for India. Planning Commission) have a great impact on environmental resources. The MOEF O ]Developing the bodies that work with reviews the plans of other ministries and industry and government (Confe- agencies, but to fully integrate environmental deration of Indian Industry, National concerns into planning each ministry needs Productivity Council) to ensure that in-house environmental expertise. Ministries they have the capacity to lobby need to be familiar with the tools used to effectively, to reach smaller industries, analyze policy, and they must introduce and to provide information, guidance, 32. Environmental Management and training. environmental economies is needed. An institution such as the Gandhi Institute for Regional planning and environmental Development Research in Bombay, which impact assessmnent is already active in natural resource 1.56 Environmental assessments are accounting, should be supported to key to the proper planning, siting, and disseminate environ-mental economics operation of new development. A number expertise and explore such issues as: of government and donor actions are aimed O Valuation of environmental goods. at improving capacity in this area. One activity that could benefit from funding O Potential for developing the scope of involves studying areas to determine their economic instruments in India. carrying capacity in terms of pollutant load, L Cost implications of rigorous land use, sensitive receptors, and so on. This enforcement of existing standards. infor-mation can be used for zoning and for scoping of subsequent assessments. O Natural resource accounting. 1.57 This effort is being undertaken O Scope for user charges for environ- by a unit of the MOEF and could benefit mental services. from funding for pilot studies, evaluation of pilot studies, and development and transfer Ensuring quality training of the methodology used in the studies. 1.60 Training is needed in many 1.58 Many agencies are engaged in environmental fields, and much is under way. activities related to environmental impact But some training is of poor quality, and assessment. Thus there is a rapidly growing the capacity needs to be developed to accredit body of national experience of assessment training courses and individual trainers and practices and problems. An institute already to educate trainers so that the following engaged in these activities, such as the Center apply: for Environmental Science and Engineering F A training needs assessment takes in Bombay, could be funded to run a library place and data base of work and statistics that could be used to monitor and assess environmental L3 Training materials and methods are assessment efforts nationwide. appropriate. Ensuring cost-effectiveness LI Trainers are qualified. 1.59 There is a danger that objectives, LO The effectiveness of training is standards, and procedures for environmental evaluated. protection are being adopted without regard . . to the balance of costs and benefits, particularly of the costs to industry. In 1.61 Integrated environmental mana- addition, pollution charges are not always gement of large cities is a developing set systematically or imposed on as wide a technical area, although its components are scale as they could be. More capacity in well known: India's lEnvironment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities LO Collectingand disposingofurbansolid could be to review the results of the waste. Metropolitan Environment Improvement Program (MEIP) and similar programs to LI Controlling tLraffic congestion and pi Controllingutraffic congestion.and deterrnine which approaches contribute to pollution. urban environmental management in the OL Improving air and water quality. developing world. This would help to strengthen environmental management LI Collecting and treating wastewater and capacity among municipal service providers sewage. (solid waste collection and disposal, LI Developing urban forests and open wastewater treatment, water supply), town spaces. planners, and municipal governments. L Controlling land use and siting of new Public participation development. 1.63 Public participation in decision- LI Controlling nuisances (noise, odor, making and public cooperation in policy dust). implementation are essential to any environmental strategy. The public, 1.62 The urban environment is one of particularly the rural poor, needs institutional the EAP's priority areas, but it is poorly support to express its concerns and to be represented in current donor projects. There represented in local decisionmaking forums. is an urgent need to build capacity at the Ways should be explored to assist municipal level for the, planning and development of capacity at the village level. management of theste tasks. The first step Environmental Management Other Donor Support The environmental activities supported O Environment (1993): £60 million grant by donors are coordinated by MOEF's for various environmental projects. International Corporation Division and the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of United Nations Industrial Development Fitfance. The EAP priority area, strengthening Organization (UNIDO) scientific understanding and improving Most UNIDO projects focus on training, is receiving a considerable share of industrial problems or phasing out chloro- donor funds, mainly for institutional fluorocarbons. One falls into the category of strengthening projects. They include: capacity- institutional strengthening: building in the state pollution control boards; environmental impact assessment training; O Master plan for environmental quality establishment of training institutes; awareness- management for the Dhanbad, Bokaro, raising and NGO support; environmental Thalcar, and Bhilai regions in Eastern management for industry and environmental India ($210,000): Government counter- impact assessment methodo-logy part, Bihar Pollution Control Board; development. subcontractor, Tata Energy Research Institute. A brief description of the activities of donors other than the World Bank is given European Union below. EU has a potentially large budget for Overseas Development Administration projects-perhaps as much as $200 million (ODA) in India-and is advised by a Council Directive to spend 10 percent of funds on environmental ODA's highest priority objective is prjcsPueynvomntlrjcs poverty alleviation. Its strategy focuses on a prise just oneiawareneai project small number of states in the Gangetic plains atmthe moet oug other project and associated uplands (Karnataka, Andhra eniomentaltcomponen EUjis inee Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal). Key inaistngenationeso accounting in assisting national resource accounting projects include: projects and remote sensing for surveying Li Western Ghats Forestry, Karnataka forest areas, but has experienced difficulty (1989). £25.7 million grant to assist the developing project proposals in collaboration Karnataka Forestry Department in with Indian authorities. developing sustainable forest management in Western Ghats, an area Asian Development Bank (ADB) of ecological significance and local The ADB has no current environmental importance for fuelwood and other forest project in Tndia. Four environmental projects resources. have been proposed, of which two have * 35 - t India 's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities institutional strengthening components. communities, but also on the institutions LI The Industrial Pollution Control Project themselves. ($600,000) would mitigate environ- O The Small Projects Environment Fund mental degradation caused by industrial ($400,000) supports small-scale operations by strengthening the state environment projects, human resource control boards of Gujarat, Maharashtra, development, and awareness-building Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh; activities. Indian partners are the encouraging industrial units to install International Journal of Sustainable pollution control devices; assisting in I)evelopment, Center for Women's the establishment of common effluent I)evelopment Studies, Center for treatment plants; and introducing clean l,nvironment and Education, and technologies. The executing agency I)evelopment Alternatives. would be the MOEF. Danish Ministry of Environment (DANIDA) O The State Environmental Improvement Project ($600,000) would prepare a I)ANIDA's total involvement in India detailed feasibility study covering in 1993 was $35 million; it plans to lower policy, environmental, technical, this amount to $29 million by 1997. By 1998, financial, economic, and institutional 15 percent of total allocations should go aspects of the proposed project. The toward environment projects. DANIDA is main objective of the proposed study currently involved in two environmental will be to demonstrate that such projects projects relating to capacity building and are financially and economically viable. training: United States Agency for International LI I'reparation of an environmental master Development (USAID) plan for the South Kanara District, K'arnataka ($4.2 million). USAID has one project aimed at institutional strengthening in the energy ° Ezstablishment of environmental training institutiona strengthening intheinstitutes in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka sector., focusing on facility management ($20 million) ~~~~~~~~~~($3 million). million) Canadian International Development Norwegian Ministry of Development Agency (CIDA) Cooperation (NORAD) Two of CIDA's umbrella projects relate The Norwegian Parliament has decided to training and capacity-building: to phase out cooperation with India after 1995 in order to increase cooperation with African O The India Canada Environment Facility countries. The planned budget for 1995 is ($53 million) is a seven-year project to $6.2 million. Much of this spending focuses develop the capacity of selected Indian on capacity-building, information exchange, institutions to address sustainable and raising awareness, including; development issues through environ- . A training air pollution model project mental subprojects that have a substantialimpactnotonly on thclient ($150,000) to transfer expertise in air 3 6. Environmental Management quality modeling and environmental India is planned to decrease from impact assessment. Implementing commitments of $51 million in 199 1to $39 agency: the Central Pollution Control million in 1995. Disbursements increased, Board. however, to an estimated $64 million in fiscal 1994. O Monitoring of air pollution from aluminum industry ($384,000) to Existing projects include one strengthen monitoring and analysis institution-building project: capacity in State Pollution Control Boards and the aluminum industries LI Establishment of an Environmental in Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. Protection Training and Research Implementing agency: the Central Institute, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, Impllu entiongContro Board.c theCeto work within the five southern states. Pollution Control Board. O An environmental program in Netherlands government Himachal Pradesh ($5.5 million) to Indo-Dutch cooperation in support ecologically sustainable environmental issues focuses on five states: development and strengthen the Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh government. Karnataka, and Kerala. Three themes guide LI An institutional cooperation project Dutch aid in the sector: pollution abatement, ($4.1 million) to promote cooperation clean technology, and institutional between Norwegian and Indian strengthening. Current institutional strength- institutions in the environment and ening projects include: productive sectors. The Indian O Indo-Dutch Kanpur/Mirzapur Project, institutions involved are G. B. Pant Uttar Pradesh. Environmental and Institute, Almora, Uttar Pradesh; sanitary enginecring and institutional Central Institute of Freshwater strengthening. Indian counterparts: Aquaculture, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa; Ganga Project Directorate and the Uttar University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Pradesh Pollution Control Board. Rajasthan; Kapur Solar, Delhi; and Institute of Paper Technology, O Environmental Impact Assessment Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Phase II. Institutional strengthening for environmental impact assessment. O An environmental allocation program Indian counterpart: MOEF. ($165,000) to fund different environmental projects to promote O Kallada Environmental Action sustainable use of natural resources in Program, Kerala. Sustainable river four states, to promote smaller families, basin planning, wetland and forest and to initiate environmental impact conservation, and pollution abatement. assessment activities. Indian counterpart: MOEF. Swedish International DevelopmentAgency ° Institutional strengthening of the State (SIDA) Kerala Pollution Control Board. SIDA's development cooperation with ° Pollution Perception Studies. Social a .7 India's Environment -Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities surveys of urban and rural communities, German government (GTZ) policymakers, and industrialists. Counter-parts: various universities and German technical cooperation wvith nstitutes. India in the area of institution building or development of scientific knowledge includes LO Environmental NGOs. Supports NGOs the following projects: contributing to pollution abatement and to raising awareness, including the r Assistance in creating environmental Center for Science and Environment; protection agencies, New Delhi and Society for Promotion of Wasteland other locations ($7.4 million). Development; SEC (environmental LI Consulting in the field of industrial magazine); Joe Hamun (tree planting); environmental protection, National Indian Institute of Technology (biomass Productivity Council, New Delhi ($6 densification); Accion Fraterna million). (ecodevelopment); ANET (biodiversity conservation,on Andaman and Nicobar L° Civil and National Remote Sensing islands); HSM (socio-ecological Institute, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh transformation); and NRDMS ($3.13 million). (environmental atlas GIS in Karnataka). Japanese government (OECF) Proposed projects include the preparation of an environmental atlas, OECF projects in India do not include including GIS for Karnataka, a river basin any projects specifically aimed at education including GIS forand a districtvhra Praesin or institution building. A forestry project in in Kerala, and a district in Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan has a research and training where irrigation and drinking water projects copoet. are planned. Counterparts: MOEF, the Central component. Pollution Control Board. 38 Chapter 2 C(onser'vationtand I SXista O c iliia lion ol- Biodiversity in Selected Ecosystems ... India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Biodiversity in Selected Ecosystems 2.01 Biodiversity conservation, defined Box 2.1. Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 as the conservation of genetic, species, The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is a unified and ecosystems diversity, is an important national act superseding previous specific state laws challenge for India. As one of the twelve and the Indian Forest Act, 1927, which enables the megadiversity countries which together constitution and management of areas as national account for 60 to 70 percent of the world's parks, sanctuaries, game reserves, and closed areas. It also specifies the procedures for establishing biodiversity, India has a broad range of protected areas, the management parameters for ecosystems and species within ten bio- them, and the procedures for allowing or disallowing geographic zones. Its flora represent 10 percent diverse uses within them. Under this act, national of the world's total, and faunal diversity is parks are given a higher level of importance than also high, representing 7 percent of the world sanctuaries, since no grazing or private land holding total. Only about 20 percent of this biodiversity or right is permitted within them. has been documented in terms of species, The act also provides for denotification of sanctuaries for certain human uses. It specifies for hunting of habitats, and ecosystems. Some 10 percent wild animals with respect to license needed, of all plant species and more than 21 percent maintenance of records of wild animals killed, of the 372 mammal species are endangered, restrictions of hunting etc. It provides for the indicating a widespread degradation of declaration of any area to be a sanctuary, national ecosystems that has significant economic park or game reserve by the state government, if it is considered that the area is of adequate ecological, implications (Table 2.1). faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the purpose of protecting, 2.02 The major threat to biodiversity propagating wildlife or its environment. In addition, comes from the explosive expansion of the the act also prohibits the trade of wild animals or country's human and livestock populations. animal articles and trophies derived from certain India has the second highest population density animals. in the world, about 900 million people living Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991 on just over 2 percent of the world's land area, It provides for the protection of specified plants and and growing annually by 2.3 percent. A third the establishment of a Central Zoo Authority and the recognition of zoos. of Indians are very poor and depend on land for their subsistence. This, coupled with Source: Bharat Desai, ed., Environmental Laws of grazing by the largest livestock population India, 1994. (about 500 million), poses a potent threat to grazing on forest land, cutting trees for biodiversity. Local people lack commitment firewood and timber, and extracting nontimber to using the forest in a sustainable way because forest products. they have limited rights over local resources. This lack of gommitment is a major threat to 2.03 Though the original forest cover conservation. Common practices include cattle in India and the extent of its loss are difficult 40. Biodiversity to estimate, there is a consensus that there urban habitats, siltation, weed infestation, has been a significant loss of original habitat. and pollution. Grasslands, mountains, and The formal sector (sponsored by the state) deserts face similar threats from increasing has been the main contributor to this loss pressures on land. since the late 18th century through such activities as logging and plantations. The 2.05 India's biodiversity conservation informal sector (subsistence agriculture, strategy is still evolving. Biodiversity grazing, fuelwood collection) has had less management is not just an ecological of an impact because of lower population concern. It is also intrinsic to socioeconomic density. Dense forest coverage has decreased development. The rural poor in particular by nearly 18 percent in the past two decades, depend on biological resources in the form while open degraded forest coverage has of food, medicine, income, employment, and more than doubled. cultural integrity for their livelihood and welfare. Successful biodiversity conservation 2.04 Indian wetlands are threatened by depends on sound policies, effective laws, cultivation, conversion for industries and and institutional and social arrangements. Table 2.1. Status of Biodiversity Ecosystems in India Ecos% o(eni Stai,us Forest Loss offorest cover. The forest cover is 63.59 million hectares (ha), 19.44% of the country's geographic area. Only half of the forests have a crown density of over 40%. and forest cover is lower than the stipulated 33%. The rate of deforestation and degradation was I million hectares a year prior to 1980 (World Bank Forest Strategy Report 1993). Of the total area of 63.59 million ha., dense forests (crown density over 40%) account for only 38.50 million ha. About 52.8% of forests do not have adequate regeneration. The per capita forest area has decreased from 0.20 ha in 1951 to 0.11 ha. in 1981. Degradation of land. Vast tracts of forest land, especially in the Himalayan range have become bare because of commercial exploitation and resultant soil erosion, which prevents regeneration and plantation. Greater recurrence of environmental disasters. Deforestation and degradation of river catchments have resulted in severe and frequent droughts and floods. Also, forest area affected by fire ranges from 33% in West Bengal to 99% in Manipur (Forest Survey of India ) Loss of plant and wildlife biodiversity. The growing pressure by livestock on forests has resulted in fierce competition with the endemic wildlife. Among the larger animals 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1,500 plant species are considered endangered. The degradation of forests and biodiversity is a result of the following: * Commercial felling, fires, drought, air pollution, and introduction of exotic weeds. * Livestock grazing. India's 500 million livestock require 882 million tonnes of green fodder. Only half of it is sustainably available from forests and the rest is illegally extracted. 4 1 flh India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans. Programs, and Priorities Ecosystem Status * Fuelwood extraction. Total fuelwood r emoval both authorized and unauthorized is more than 235 million cu.m. as against the sustainable production of only 48 million cu.m. * High population and fragile natural resource base. Finite land coupled with rapid population growth has increased demands on the fragile biodiversity. * Economic incentive system. * Technological factors that limit yields from land. * Institutional weakness. Lack of adequately trained and equipped manpower and of financial resources. Wetland Marshes, swamps, floodplains, lakes, deltas and coral reefs form the core of the wetland system. They are mainly managed as common property resource systems. There are around 17 million hectares of wetlands in the country excluding paddy fields. The area under natural wetlands is 1,450,771 ha. and under manmade wetlands is around 1,589,266 ha. which is increasing every year. However, only 28% of the area of 93 important wetlands is under total protection, which amounts to 53 of the 93 sites. Of the 85 wetland sites of international importance in the country, 45% are subjected to moderate or high threat. Extensive use leading to degradation. W'etlands are being significantly threatened because of their intensive use by a growing population. The wetlands are being perceived as common, not communal property. Some problems faced by wetlands include weed infestation and siltation, pressures of ag:riculture, chemical and organic pollution, and conversion of wetlands for industrialization, urbanization and habitation. Coral Reefs India, with a coastline of 7,500 km. has about 19,000 sq. km. of coral reefs (also called rainforests of the sea), most of which are around the islands of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshwadeep. Coastal regions are threatened by mechanized trawling ,weed infestation and siltation. Mangroves Total area of mangroves in India is estimated at about A 00( sq km. along the mainland and about 600 sq. km. along the Andaman and Nicobar coa..t, comprising about 7% of the world's total mangrove area. About 60 species of plants occur, many of which are endemic. Mangroves along the west coast have disappeared as a result of biotic pressures such as land use changes in surrounding areas, pollution of waters and firewood extraction. Grassland Only 3.7% of the country is under permanent pastures and other.grazing lands (Steering l Committee Report 1989). Lack of government policy. This ecosystem is particularly threatened because the government has no specific policy on grasslands and there is no specialized agency dealing with it. Other threats include: * Commercial pressures such as encroachment and conversion to agricultural lands and tree plantations. * Grazing, fires, exotic weed. * Pollution, development projects. * Environment hazards such as floods and drought. 4 -2 Biodiversity Ecosystem Status Mountain/Cold Desert Highly biodiverse mountain ranges in the eastern and western Himalayas, Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur and the Western Ghats. Of these, the Westem Himalayas and the Western Ghats face high levels of pressure. The Himalayas are in a highly seismic zone and frequent tremors cause the progressively degrading hillsides to slide down, destroying the vegetation and habitat of wild animals. Pressure on this ecosystem is due to lack of clear policy and institutional control by government. Commercial timber felling, extraction of fuel and fodder, rapid growth of population, conversion of hill slopes into agricultural fields, and the practice of shifting cultivation have contributed to the degradation of this ecosystem. Hot desert The hot deserts of Rajasthan. Pressure on wildlife biodiversity has led to some animals such as the great Indian btiqard and %% ild ass becoming endangered species. This ecosystem has been threatened b! growvin htinian and livestock usa,e and poachingo. * aterlogg iin ccaused b irri2a iui0. and ecological modifications due to introduction of irrigation. Source: Indian Institute of Public Administration 1993, India Ecodevelopment Project Working Papers. fl, India's Environment Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities The Government's Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation 2.06 Several efforts have been made Box 2.2. Ramsar Convention to promote biodiversity conservation, To ensure conservation of wetlands, an including a National Wildlife Action Plan international convention was held in 1971 in adopted in 1983, a biogeographic classification Ramsar, Iran, to provide a framework for system for conservation planning, and a plan international cooperation for the conservation of for a revised protected area network created wetland habitats. As of June 1992, the.re were 70 signatories to the convention, and 565 wetlands by the Wildlife Institute of India in 1988. The covering over 6 million hectares had been declared need for biodiversity protection now requires Ramsar sites. India acceded to the convention in that efforts move from strategies to action. October 1981 and has so far designated six wetlands for inclusion on the list of wetlands of PAST EFFORTS international importance. Under the convention there is a general obligation 2.07 The National Wildlife Action Plan for the contracting parties to formulate and implement plans to promote the wise use of wetlanids in their territories, thereby ensuring the biodiversity conservation: preservation of the ecological character of these habitats. A second obligation is the designation O Establishment of a representative of wetlands for inclusion on a "List of Wetlands network of protected areas. To arrest of International Importance" with selections based deforestation, the government adopted on "intemational significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology". a. scheme of declaring ecologically Specific conservation duties pertain to the listed sensitive areas (as identified by the sites. Finally, the signatories are obliged to promote Wildlife Institute of India) as protected the conservation of wetlands in their territory areas. Nearly 4 percent of the land (whether or not they are included in the list) area has been set aside in 480 parks through the establishment of nature reserves. They are also required to undertake training of personnel and sanctuaries. Protected areas cover in wetland research, management and wardening. :[2 million hectares, of which 8 million Source: Paper on Biodiversity, Environmental is forest land with tree cover. Stockiaking Exercise for India. LO Development of appropriate manage- ment systems for protected areas, taking into consideration local needs and d ensuring local support and involvement, imnpact of local people on protected areas The Ministry of Environment and and the impact of protected areas on Forests has moved to a management local people. Ecodevelopment involves Forestsm thas emovedizes the needtolocal people in planning, develops system that lemphasizes the need to involve local communities in the incentives for conservation, supports management of protected areas. This suistainable alternatives to harmful use objective is achieved through an eco- of resources, and improves the manage- 4 . Prevention ofSuirface and Groundwater Polluztion Map 2.1. Conservation of Natural Ecosystems There are 421 sancruanes and 75 national parks _;hich shelier aaned and representative ecosystems. A^2 3. X India hasfi%enatural orldheritagesitesanidsix *uetlands of international importance 63 4 * ;aF ' k ^> 5 t . *: * -; =~ <2 - : 3 * _ s . . * * - The bound3nos, colors, denominations & any other informanon shown on this mnap do noi imply, on the part or World Bank Group, an% judgement or the legal starus of an) iemior- or an% endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries Wetlands of International Importance Natural World Heritage Sites in India 1. Keoladeo Ghana National Park, 1. Sundarbans National Park (West Bengal) Bharatpur (Rajasthan) 2. Kaziranga National Park (Assam) 2. Chilka Lake (Orrissa) 3. Manas National Park (Assam) 3. Wular Lake (Kashmir) 4. Nandadevi National Park 4. Loktak Lake (Manipur) (Uttar Pradesh.) 5. Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan) 5. Keoladeo Ghana National Park 6. Harika Lake (Punjab) (Rajasthan) .45 $4 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities ment of protected areas. Ecodevelopment forest lands. This plan will identify short also builds private support for con- and long term priority actions and servation among NGOs, nature tour approaches. operators, and the general public. FUTURE ACTIONS LI Biodiversity protection within multiple 2.08 A status report on biodiversity is use areas. There is a long history of being formulated through nationwide expert communities managing forests and consultations, and a framework has been wildlife, usually without government developed for a biodiversity action plan by r ecognition o:r sanction. In recent years the Ministry of Environment and Forests. In the government has tried to increase addition, the M. S. Swaminathan Research community participation in forest Foundation (MSSRF 1993) has set the management through joint forest following policy actions and priority goals management programs. These programs for state and central governments to consider: emphasize government and local collaboration in designing inputs into savinad sustainable land use practices, alternative species. income-generating initiatives, rural LJ Conserving the entire range of species. cottage industries, and marketing Li Meeting the minimum needs of the strategies. Products, responsibilities, people in an ecologically sustainable control, and decisionmaking authority w-ay. over forest lands are shared by forest LI Enhancing conservation practices departments and local user groups. Recent experiences in a number of states (West Bengal, Haryana, Gujarat, and LO Facilitating community activity for Orissa) indicate that forest lands under biodiversity conservation. joint management show appreciable LI Assessing the implications for bio- recovery, increased productivity, and diversity of international conventions consequent improvement and arid agreements on national sovereignty. sustainability of local livelihoods and biodiversity. The application of this bo Strengthening enabling legislation for approach to protected areas is currently under consideration. LI Strengthening administrative mecha- nisms at the community, state, and Li Extending conservation efforts beyond national levels. protected areas. The government is LI Ensuring that biodiversity conservation preparing a National Forestry Action efforts are supported at central and state Plan as a complement to its 1988 levels with financial, technical, and National Forest Policy, to ensure . .o. sustainable management of forests and 40 Biodiversity The Environment Action Program 2.09 The Environment Action Program identified in the EnvironmentAction Program. identifies major issues threatening bio- diversity, including inappropriate use of ena2.11 Survey of Natural Resources: natural resources, overpopulation, poverty (and a the methods of exploitation associated with LI Survey the plant resources of the country. subsistence), forest degradation, insufficient research, and inadequate institutional support. L3 Undertake and complete taxonomic To address these concerns, the program studies of all the flora of the country. recommends a number of strategies (Box 2.3). 0 List endangered species and undertake 2.10 The following programs are measures for effective conservation; and Box 2.3. Ecosystem Protection Strategies * Conduct research to evaluate the ecological importance, biotic potential, and conservation value of wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs. * Disseminate conservation education materials. * Survey existing and proposed protected wetlands. * Conduct natural resources accounting studies for coral reefs, forests, mangroves, wetlands, and protected areas. * Develop a comprehensive national listing of all phylums, genuses, species, and subspecies with their location, distribution, description, and status. * Initiate research on cultivation of commercially valuable wild plants. * Establish farms for medicinal and other commercially valuable plants. * Conduct research on various species of domesticated animals for conservation of traditional domesticated species, many of which are being replaced by modern hybrid breeds. * Encourage research and development on bioenergy programs such as high-density energy plantations and efficient fuelwood use systems by strengthening the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education in Dehradun. * Promote afforestation and wasteland development. * Develop programs for pasture regeneration. * Support wildlife conservation projects, particularly for elephants and rhinos. * Set up extension support projects for agroforestry. * Encourage networking of the Zoological Survey of India and Botanical Survey of India with universities and other nongovernmental organizations. * Develop programs for sustainable management of manmade bodies of water such as reservoirs, urban tanks, village ponds, percolation and irrigation tanks, and so on. * Demand that management development projects protect newly afforested areas and areas undergoing natural regeneration. * Extend support for ex-situ conservation in zoological and botanical gardens. .4 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Box 2.4. The Manufacture, Use, Import, LI F'repare a national data base of Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro- herbarium collections including types, Organisms and Genetically Engineered live collections, plant genetic resources, Organisms or Cells Rules, 1989 * * a The central govemment established these rules with a view to protecting the environment, nature and LI Undertake studies on selected critical health, in connection with the application of gene and fragile ecosystems. technology and micro-organisms. These rules are applicable to the manufacture, LI Survey existing and proposed protected import and storage of micro-organisms and gene- wetlands. technical products. The Department of Bio-Technology under the LO Undertake assessment of flora relating Ministry of Science and Technology is the nodal to environmental impact studies and agency for granting licences for manufacture, import e-valuate plants of economic utility and export of micro-organisms and genetically in specified areas. engineered organisms. However, such licenses are issued only after the proposal is cleared from the L Carry out geobotanical studies in environmental angle by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. For according such clearances, the specified areas. Ministry has notified the "Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of 2.12 Conservation of natural resources Hazardous Micro-organisms and Genetically includingforestry and wildlife. The National Engineered or Cells" in 1989 under the EPA 1986. Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement The investor is required to submit an application on Environment and Development, 1992, the to the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The National Forest Policy, 1988, and the Policy Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992, constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests examines the application form and makes are the major policy instruments of the recommendations. govermnent for dealing with various facets All industries involving hazardous micro-organisms of environment and development in a or genetically engineered organisms are required comprehensive manner. to constitute an Institutional Bio-Safety Conmnittee (IBSC) to oversee the planning of an on-site 2.13 The following strategies can be emergency plan to deal with any accident which grouped under biodiversity conservation and may occur due to hazardous micro-organisms. include programs for Biosphere Reserves, Source: Bharat Desai, ed., Environmental Laws Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs, Forest ofIndia; GOI, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Conservation, Lake Conservation, Handbook of Environmental Procedures and Deserti-fication, Zoological Parks, Wildlife Guidelines, 1994. Conservation, Animal Welfare and Ex-situ/ collect and maintain germ plasm and In-situ Conservation. gene bank of endangered, threatened and L Conserve the biodiversity and genetic vulnerable species. integrity of plants, animals and micro- organisms in their totality as part of the Identify, collect, and preserve specimens natural ecosystems so as to ensure their of plants which are economically self-perpetuation and unhindered and otherwise beneficial to human evolution of the living resources. beings. Biodiversity J Promote research that would assist communities in the management of protected ecological conservation both within areas. This objective is achieved through an these reserves and in areas adjacent to ecodevelopment strategy addressing the impact these reserves. of local people on protected areas and the impact of protected areas on people. Oi Provide facilities for international (Ecodevelopment involves local people in cooperation in a whole range of planning develops incentives for conservation, bioclimatic and biogeographical supports sustainable alternatives to harmful situations of the biosphere. use of resources, and improves the O Extend support for ex-situ conservation management of protected areas). In addition, in zoological and botanical gardens. demand management development projects to improve protection of newly afforested areas O Establish farms for medicinal and other and areas undergoing natural regeneration are commercially valuable plants. planned. O Support wildlife conservation projects 2.15 Community development. In recent such as Project Elephant & Project years, government has tried to increase Rhino. community participation in forest management O Set up extension support projects for through joint forest management programs. agroforestry. These programs emphasize government and local collaboration in designing inputs into O Evolve programs for sustainable sustainable land practices, alternative income management of manmade water bodies generating initiatives, rural cottage industries, such as reservoirs, urban tanks, village and marketing strategies. Products, responsi- ponds, and percolation and irrigation bilities, control and decisionmaking authority tanks. (The National Lake Conservation over forest lands are shared by forest Plan proposes to augment the ongoing departments and local user groups. Recent program on wetlands by large scale experiences in a number of states (West conservation activities such as resource Bengal, Haryana, Gujarat and Orissa) indicate surveys by way of remote sensing thatforestlandsunderjointmanagementshow technology and GIS, prevention of point appreciable recovery, increased productivity, and nonpoint source pollution, and consequent improvement and sus- catchment area treatment, desilting and tainability of local livelihoods and bio- weed control). diversity. The application of this approach to protected areas is currently under 2.14 Institutional development and consideration. strengthening of the forestry sector, including development of appropriate 2.16 Research and education. management systems for protected areas, LI Conduct research to evaluate ecological taking into consideration local needs and importance, biotic potential, and ensuring local support and involvement. The conservation value of wetlands, Ministry of Environment and Forests has mangroves and coral reefs and moved to a management system that disseminate research results. emphasizes the need to involve local U 49 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities O Conduct natural resources accounting LI Encourage research and development on studies for coral reefs, forests, bio-energy programs such as high mangroves, wetlands, protected areas density energy plantations and efficient and biodiversity. fuel wood use systems by institutionally LI Initiate research on cultivation of strengthening the Indian Council of OI Initiate research on cultivation of Frsr eerhadEuain commercially valuable wild plants. Dehradun. LI Conduct research on various species of domesticated animals for ° EncouragenetworkingbytheZoological conservation of traditional domesticated Survey of India and Botanical Survey of India with universities and other non- species, many of which are beinggoen ntlraiains replaced by modern hybrid breeds. governmental organizations. 50 0 Biodiversity Major Issues and Recommendations 2.17 Some of the major issues faced in EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS FOR biodiversity conservation efforts in India are COMMERCIAL PURPOSES discussed below. 2.20 Rural resources, especially forests, LOCAL COMMITMENT TO BIODIVERSITY have been diverted for development projects CONSERVATION or to meet urban demands. Under the 1927 Indian Forest Act, forests are classified as 2.18 In the past few decades the needs reserved or protected, and managed by state of India's rapidly growing rural population forest departments through working plans for have multiplied while land availability has each forest division. These plans have focused shrunk. The resulting pressures have destroyed on commercial forestry, implying that the a largely self-regulating and sustainable system objective of sustainable extraction of timber of forest land use and replaced it with practices overrides the obj ective of protecting of overexploitation of natural resources and biodiversity. Huge tracts of forests have been alienation of local communities from forest destroyed by commercial felling. Only about management and regulation. Even protected half the forests have a crown density of more areas suffer from problems caused by the than 40 percent, and in many places the forest pressures of human population. A survey cover has disappeared. Deforestation and conducted by the Indian Institute of Public degradation proceeded at a rate of I million Administration found that of the 32 national hectares a year until 1980. The diversion of parks and 138 sanctuaries responding, 18 parks forest lands for nonforestry purposes was and 100 sanctuaries reported human habitation reduced significantly with the enactment of within their boundaries (IIPA 1994). The the Forest Act in 1980 and its amendment in average density was just over 2.5 people per 1986. In addition, the Environment Act hectare-higher than the national average. mandated environmental impact assessments 2.19 Illegal use of forest lands for for various types of developmentprojects and cultivation, grazing, and fishing is another activities. issue facing protected area managers. In the past, protected areas were policed to limit these LEGAL activities. Park authorities deployed fences, guns, and guards, which led to confrontations 2.21 The level of legal protection for with local people and their livestock. Serious biodiversity conservation varies, wvith conflicts between park management and local domesticated varieties receiving less coverage people have occurred in nearly 21 percent of than natural biodiversity. Some ecosystems, the protected areas. such as grasslands and deserts, lack any .51 fl, lndia's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities specific legal protection. State control of forest responsibility, but it lacks authority over other lands and lack of central authority to make ministries, which makes for poor coordination. states comply with national laws makes The Ministry of Environment and Forests governance of fo:rest areas very difficult. appears better-suited to wildlife conservation People living in protected areas also have legal than biodiversity conservation for a number rights pertaining to grazing, habitation, of reasons: biodiversity conservation requires agriculture, fuelwood collection, and collection a broader scope of activities than wildlife of minor forest produce. Thus states have to conservation; both central and state cope with balancing the pressures of governmentsareresponsibleforimplementing commercial exploitation with environmental biodivzrsity conservation, whereas the state conservation. is responsible for wildlife conservation; and ATTITUDES the institutional network for implementing biodiversity conservation is inadequate. As a 2.22 Officials see themselves as result, wildlife institutions are implementing policemen, not as facilitators of a partnership many of the biodiversity conservation between biodiversity and its users. This often programs, even though they have not been results in conflict between the officials and properly trained for this additional the local users. While the government is responsibility. starting to focus more on collaboration and less on policing, as mandated in the National Lack sy leadership for protecting other Forestry Policy, the process will take time. ecosystems In response to these concerns, the Ministry 2.25 There is no designated agency at of Environment and Forests has recently the state or the central government level for undertaken capacity-building activities, including curriculum changes for the Indian protecting grasslands. Grasslands that come Forest Service and special wildlife protection within forest areas are controlled by the Forest training for the Wildlife Institute in Dehradun. Departrment, but little attention has been paid e o r ato their management. For grasslands located neglected. outside protected areas, the state and central Depart:ments of Environment can offer INSTITUTIONAL protection under general acts such as the Environment (Protection) Act and the Wildlife 2.23 Capacity building activities are Act. But there is no central scheme or policy minimal and lack sufficient budgetary support. for protecting and managing grasslands. Data on this level of support needs to be 2.26 Decisionmaking for wetland compiled, especially at the state level. management iS concentrated in a National Limit,ed capacity Committee on Wetlands, Mangroves, and Coral Reefs within the Ministry of 2.24 The Ministry of Environment and Environment and Forests, supported by state- Forests, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the level steering committees. Implementation is Ministry of Rural Development are the central difficult because jurisdictions over these agencies responsible for conserving wildlife ecosystems differ. Wetlands that have been and biodiversity. The MOEF has lead declared national parks or sanctuaries and 52. Biodiversity rivers are managed by the ministry, where Economic and financial incentives management expertise is land- or forest-based. 2.29 An incentive framework must Except for mangroves, most natural wetlands are anagd bythe eparmentof Fsheres, be created that motivates the different actors are managed by the Department of Fisheries, (forest officials, women, NGOs, community- the Mnisty of gricltureand ocal based organizations, revenue officials) to authorities. While the Department of Fisheries bute tiodive nservatio an -.may have an interest in conserving aquatic development. The system could, for instance, resources, the ministry and local authorities reveldsnentives fort v nstao h dremove dss.centives for the involvement of often have different views of wetlands. the private sector in the development of 2.26 No government institution degraded forest lands. This framework already specifically safeguards the environment of has been established in unprotected forest areas mountain ranges. In fact, a few institutions, through the joint forest management strategy. such as the North Eastern Council, are Legal loopholes promoting the economic development of hill regions. 2.30 While India has a comprehensive and coherent legal framework for environment RECOMMENDATIONS protection, loopholes exist that exclude domesticated varieties from legal coverage 2.27 A number of changes, properly and should be removed. In addition, specific implemented, could improve significantly the legislation covering grasslands and desert state of biodiversity conservation efforts in ecosystems should be created. Laws where India. they exist should be changed to remove government rights to forests, restrictions on Sociocultural Changes felling trees on private lands, transit pass 2.28 Government officials and local requirements, and mandatory sales of forest populations must work toward collaborative produce to the government. management of biodiversity. Changes in 2.31 There also is a need for broader attitudes and behaviors come slowly and can criteria for classifying protected areas in order be achieved only through a multidimensional to protect a wider range of biodiversitv. India approach,startingwithbettertrainingforforest lacks a uniform criteria for classifying officials, forums for discussions of protected areas, with the result that some areas biodiversity, and promotion of public support of great biological value are declared for conservation. The government already has sanctuaries rather than national parks or are instituted curriculum changes for forest left out altogether, while some parks and officials. The Bank's ecodevelopment project sanctuaries include areas of low biological (currently in the pipeline) recommends the value. Even areas that are designated as establishment of protected area research sanctuaries are not immune to degradation advisory committees at the local and national since directives often are ignored. levels, comprising all relevant actors and stakeholders, to review progress and priorities 2.32 The Wildlife Institute of India is for biodiversity management in the eight sites conducting a study on expanding the protected of the project. The project also supports public areas network to include important biomes awareness campaigns. currently left out, and to provide links between 53 Indias Fnvironment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities parks to facilitate seasonal migration and wildlands and wetlands. A short-term action outbreeding. But the government has yet to plan should be designed to collect and assess determine which remaining areas are a high baseline data on the current situation of priority for conservation, which lands are so wetlands. This plan would enhance a long- encroached on or degraded that they are term holistic plan for managing wetlands, unavailable for development, and what to do biodiversity and afforestation. Two strategies with the degraded forest areas that fall between could be developed to conserve biodiversity those two categories. The goal ultimately in the wetland ecosystem: should be to develop a flexible law with gradations in zones. LI A freshwater wetlands strategy is needed that prioritizes investments for protecting Policy framework a representative sample of these 2.'33 A policy framework is required ecosystems. These wetlands, which that integrates management of the green sector iin,clude Himalayan, Kashmir Valley, 'th tine brown andagementsoftthsgreenlsecto Himachal Pradesh, and the Indo- with the brown and water sectors. While the Gangetic area, experience intense Environment Action Program is a first step, pressures from land use and urbanization there is a need for actions across sectors to in their watersheds. The GOI has a be prioritized. For instance, an analysis of the freshwater wetlands program which constraints that apply to forestry development could be built upon. from nonforest policies (tax, industrial, and so on) would be fundamental to a forest action LI Coastal and marine wetlands experience plan. The development of state policies on intense pressures from land and sea uses, forest rnanagement within a coherent national and from coastal urbanization. Priorities policy should be encouraged. In this context, need to be set among different wetland the Bank's ecodevelopment project supports types in relation to their economic the integration of protected area concerns into importance and biodiversity regional planning and regulation, as well as conservation potential. These wetlands joint forestry management of buffer zones of include brackish water, mangroves, the protected areas. Bank-assisted forestry seagrass beds, submerged banks, coral projects in West Bengal, Maharashtra, and reefs, mudflats, and beach sands. A rich Andhra Pradesh have similar objectives. diversity of marine organisms-some of 2.34 Expand the role of NGOs and them unique species-use coastal and the private sector in biodiversity marine wetlands. management. The government has started to 2.36 Set up marine parks and reserves. encourage local participation in the In view of the physical contiguity of coastal management of village and forest lands and buffgemerone of protagected aorestlads. Bt and marine wetlands, a system of marine parks implementaione of thiaproaecht o arlarge But and reserves could capture representative implementation of this approach on a large smlso hi aidhbtt n scale will require redirection of current samples of their varied habitats and investment patterns and some fundamental esystems. Theosystem co uld include policy changes. spawninLg grounds of commercially important fish species; feeding, nesting, breeding, and 2.35 Evolve strategies for protecting nursery grounds for important aquatic species 54. Biodiversity and threatened habitats and ecosystems; or equivalent to ensure the expertise needed recreational areas such as fisheries and for managing coastal and marine areas. A start geological, historical, cultural, and aesthetic has been made with the establishment of sites; and near-shore and adjacent land in marine biosphere reserves and bird coastal zones undergoing rapid change as a sanctuaries, even though the reserves are not result of agroindustries and human activities. yet legally protected. These reserves are Gulf of Mannar, Sunderbans, Great Nicobar, North Institutional reforms Andaman, and the Little Rann of Kuchchh. 2.37 Government officials must begin Technical changes thinking of themselves as facilitators of biodiversity conservation rather than merely 2.39 The World Bank is planning to as policemen. A change in government attitude support a biodiversity information project toward the private sector could be which would improve access to, use of, and accomplished by designing a conceptual management of scientific and ethnobiological framework of comparative advantage. As information on biodiversity and protected area noted earlier, the change in attitudes could management. The project would improve the be accomplished through training, curriculum collections data bases in the Zoological Survey change, and workshops for officials and of India, the Botanical Survey of India, and policymakers. the Wildlife Institute of India, among others. No aquatic or marine sciences training is 2.38 In addition, an agency should be currently available for the Department of designated at the state and national levels to Forests, since aquatic resources and manage grasslands and mountain ranges. A biodiversity were traditionally under the focus on wetlands and coastal area purview of the Department of Fisheries. This conservation, also essential, may require area needs further study. In addition, a study consideration of institutional issues, such as of the impact of biodiversity degradation on the establishment of a marine parks authority tribals and rural poor should be undertaken. 55 $W India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Category: Survey of Natural Resources Government Objectives/Programs:1 Survey plant resources; taxonomic studies, of allflora; detailed listing offauna; enlist endangered species; identify, collect and preserve economically useful specimens ofplants; prepare national daJa base of herbarium collections; and survey existing and proposed protected wetlands. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Forests Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre British (ODA) £95,000 (US$153,567 equiv.) Andaman & Nicobar Islands USA US$122,000 Flora Andaman & Nicobar Islands USA US$122,000 Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Fauna Andaman & Nicobar Islands USA US$122,000 Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Category: Conservation of Natural Resources including Forestry and Wildlife Government Objectives/Programs: Conserve biodiversity and genetic integrity ofplants, animals and micro-organisms; promote research assisting ecological conservation, extend support for ex-situ conservation in zoological and botanical gardens; provide facilities for international cooperation; establish farms for medicinal and other commercially valuable plants; support wildlife conservation projects i. e. Project Elephant & Project Rhino;.set up extension support projects for agro-forestry; evolve programs for sustainable management of man-made water bodies such as reservoirs, urban tanks, village ponds, percolation and irrigation tanks. The National Lake Conservation Plan proposes to augment the on-going program on wetlands by large scale conservation activities such as resource surveys by way of remote sensing technology and GIS, prevention oJ point and nonpoint source pollution, catchment area treatment, desilting and weed control. GOI programs in biodiversity conservation have been extracted from India's Environment Action Program and the Annual Reports of The Ministry of Environment and Forests (1993-94 and 1994-95) 56. Biodiversity Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Biosphere Reserves, Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs West Bengal Forestry' World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Forest conservation - Tamil Nadu Social Forestry Sweden (SIDA) SK313 M (US$35 M equiv.) Orissa Social Forestry Sweden (SIDA) SK263 M (US$30 M equiv.) Western Ghats Forestry British-ODA £23.19 M (US$37.5M equiv.) Changar Integrated Forestry Germany DM 8.5 M (US$11.7 M equiv.) Andhra Pradesh -Agro Forestry Canada C$4.87 M (US$6.63M equiv.) Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. Madhya Pradesh (MP) Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124 M equiv. West Bengal Forestry World Bank US$34.0 M equiv. Wildlife conservation Wildlife Management and Eco-development UNDP US$1.4 M Capabilities2 West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya World Bank US$216.0 M equiv. Pradesh Forestry Projects and the Forestry) Research Education and Extension Project (FREEP)3 Ex-situ / In-situ conservation Strengthening Medicinal Plants Resource Denmark DK 26.6 M (US$4.0 M Base in South India equiv.) Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Category: Institutional Development and Strengthening of the Forestry Sector Government Objectives/Programs: Development of appropriate management systems for protected areas taking into consideration local needs and ensuring local support and involvement. Emphasizing the"need to involve local communities in the management ofprotected areas through an eco-development strategy addressing the impact of localpeople 1 Project contributes towards afforesting or rehabilitating about 28,000 ha of mangrove areas. 2 Project contributes towards wildlife conservation but not particularly Project Tiger or Project Rhino. 3 Projects contributes towards wildlife conservation but not particularly Project Tiger or Project Rhino. $3qf, India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities on protected areas and impact ofprotected areas on people. Demand management development projects to improve protection of newly afforested areas and areas undergoing natural regeneration. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Efficient Management Support to Indian NGO's Sweden (SIDA) US$0.4 M equiv. Himachal Pradesh Forestry British-ODA £3 M (US$4.85M equiv.) Andhra Pradesh Forestry World B3ank US$77.4 M equiv. Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124 M equiv. Forestry Research Education and Extension World Bank US$47.0 M equiv. Technical Development Plant Genetic Resources USA US$27.95 M Establishment & Assistance to the Wildlife UNDP US$1.95 M Institute of India. US$0.47 M Maharashtra Forestry World Blank US$124 M equiv. Category: Incentives for Community Collaboration Government Objectives/Programs: Biodiversity protection within multiple use areas. Increase community participation in forest management through jointforest management programs. These programs emphasize government and local collaboration in designing inputs into sustainable land practices, alternative income generating initiatives, rural cottage industries and marketing strategies. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Eco-development Support to Indian NGOs Sweden (SIDA) US$0.4 M equiv. Support to N I Vavilov Research of the Sweden (SIDA) US$0.15 M equiv. MS Swaminathan Research Foundation Western Ghats Forestry British-ODA £23.19 M(US$37.5 M equiv.) Changar Integrated Forestry Germany DM 8.5 M (US$11.6 M equiv.) Andhra Pradesh - Agro Forestry Canada C$4.87 M(US$6.63 M equiv.) Wildlife Management and Eco- UNDP US$1.4 M development Capabilities Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. Forestry Research Edu.and Extension World Bank US$47.0 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equiv. Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. West Bengal Forestry World Bank US$34.0 M equiv. 58s Biodiversity Category: Research/Education Government Objectives/Programs: Conduct research to evaluate ecological importance, biotic potential, conservation value of wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs and disseminate conservative education; conduct natural resources accounting studies for coral reefs, forests, mangroves, wetlands, protected areas and biodiversity; initiate research on cultivation of commercially valuable wild plants; conduct research on various species of domesticated animals for conservation of traditional domesticated species, many of which are being replaced by modern hybrid breeds; encourage research and development on bio-energy programs such as high density energy plantations and efficient fuel wood use systems by institutionally strengthening the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun; and encourage networking of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and Botanical Survey of India (BSI) with universities and other nongovernmental organizations. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Fundina Forestry/Plant Research Support to N I Vavilov Research of the Sweden (SIDA) US$0.15 M equiv. MS Swaminathan Research Foundation Plant Genetic Resources USA US$27.95 M Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. Forestry Research Education and Extension World Bank US$47.0 M equiv. Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. West Bengal Forestry World Bank US$34.0 M equiv. Forestry Education, Training and Extension Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Center British-ODA £95,000 (US$0.15 M equiv.) Forestry Research Education and Extension World Bank US$47.0 M equiv. (FREEP) *59 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities World Bank Support Project: Andhra Pradesh Forestry Fisca]l Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$77.4 million (equivalent) Description: Finance a six year program to support: (a) Regenerating or afforesting degraded forest areas with multitier coverage under participatory management arrangements with local populations; plantation forestry including silvicultural operations on teak plantations; and expanding community and farm forest coverage. (b) Alleviation of poverty through employment and sustainable forest benefits targeted to fringe forest. dwellers, tribals and small farmers. (c) Special action programs geared to improve forestry research and plant propagation, support the joint forest management process through training and some funding to NGOs, improve biodiversity conservation and protected areas management, undertake collaborative fodder development with the Forest Department and other organizations, and a tribal development plan. (d) Buildings, vehicles, equipment, training studies, incremental staff and operating costs for the forest administration. Project: Forestry Research Education and Extension Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$47.0 M (equivalent) Description: To be implemented over five years and cover the following: (a) Research management based on the development of Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) to improve the management and coordination of forestry research and extension, through staff training, studies and consultancies to develop priority setting methodologies and a management information system, and provision of a headquarters, building and equipment. (b) Research program support providing necessary infrastructure, equipment and operating expenses for selected research programs in ICFRE institutes, the establishment of a research 60. Biodfversity grant fund to commission research by public and private sector agencies, measures to improve the quality of planting stock, human resource development through staff training, scientific review of institutes and programs, and the improvement of library and information systems and statistical services. (c) Forestry education involving the development and validation of forestry curricula in formal education through provision of funds for review and revision work, and development of the Deemed Forestry University at DehraDun. (d) Forestry policy and preparation which would strengthen capabilities within the MOEF for the analysis of forest policies and preparation of future forestry projects through staff training and provision for studies and consultancies. (e) Conservation of biodiversity which would support development of programs for eco-development around two protected areas, by involving communities in the planning and implementation of programs for creation of alternative natural or social resources or for income generation. Concurrent improvements in the planning and management of the protected areas would also be financed. The project would support research and monitoring and evaluation programs. Project: Madhya Pradesh Forestry Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$58.0 million (equivalent) Description: The main objective of the project would be to assist with the implementation of the Government of Madhya Pradesh's strategy for development of the forestry sector in Madhya Pradesh. The most important strategy under the project would be the attempt to rationalize and improve management of villagers' forest usage activities, through encouragement of more sustainable forest management strategies and by replacement of the Madhya Pradesh Forest Department's existing command and control style of management with a more participatory approach. The project will be consistent with the national strategy for forest management, protection and biodiversity conservation, addressing eight priority regions: afforestation and wasteland development, demand management to improve protection of newly afforested areas/areas undergoing natural regeneration, development programs for pasture regeneration, extension support services for agro forestry, developing a detailed listi'g of fauna of ecologically important locations, s61 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities research on cultivation of commercially valuable plants, establishment of farms for medicinal plants, and support for ex- situ conservation. Project: Maharashtra Forestry Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$124.0 million (equivalent) Description: Project to undertake sector reforms through: (a) Reorganization ofthe publicforest administration and seeking a more active role of the NGOs, village panchayats, cooperatives and the private sector in the development of the sector. (b) Improvements of the state 's technical capability particularly in the field of seed production, genetic planting material, nursery and planting practices and planning, and management, including monitoring of the forest resource base and training. (c) Rationalization of the policies and regulations constraining the sector. The project would also support five discrete investment activities related to land treatment: (i) Village eco-development and joint management. (ii) Rehabilitation of wasteland and degraded lands. (iii) Production forestry. (iv) Biodiversity conservation. (v) Pasture and fodder development. Project: West Bengal Forestry Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$34.0 M (equivalent) Description: Finance a five-year programL to support: (a) Forestry works consisting of regenerating or afforesting degraded forest areas with multitier coverage under joint management arrangements with local populations; plantation forestry; strip plantations; and expanding farm forest coverage. Provisions are also made for some ongoing forestry development works. (b) Supporting works including survey and demarcation of forest land, roads, small earthen dams, ponds and wells. (c) Special action programs geared to improve forestry research and plant propagation, train all forestry staff, support the joint management process through training and funding to 62. Biodiversity NGOs, improve wild life and protected areas management, and afforest or rehabilitate mangrove areas. (d) Buildings, vehicles, equipment, incremental staff and operating costs for the Forest Department. (e) Fodder development in forest and nonforest areas with the Forest Department and the Animal Resources Development Department. *63 i f~India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Other Donor Support Project: Tamil Nadu Social Forestry Donor: Sweden (SIDA) Loan/Credit Amount: SK313 million Description: Creation of productive resources and ecological restoration and employment generation. Project: Orissa Social Forestry Donor: Sweden (SIDA) Loan/Credit Amount: SK263 million Description: Creation of productive resources and ecological restoration. Project: Support to N I Vavilov Research of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation Donor: Sweden (SIDA) Loan/Credit Amount: US$150,000 equivalent Description: Community involvement in the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity. Project: Support to Indian NGOs Donor: Sweden (SIDA) Loan/Credit Amount: US$400,000 equivalent Description: To establish the viability and cost effectiveness of new approaches to sustainable land forests management, including joint forest planning and management in Kullu and Mandi districts and their potential replicability elsewhere in Himachal Pradesh. Project: Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £95,000 Description: This is to be a national center for the collation and dissemination of data and information relaiting to biodiversity and conservation management in India. Project: Changar Integrated Forestry Project Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: D.M. 8.5 million 64- Biodiversity Description The project aims to narrow considerably the existing gap between biomass production and its consumption and improve the living conditions of the people by bringing about behavioral change in the use of natural resources through a social development approach with the help of governmental and nongovernmental organizations. - Project: Agro-forestry Phase II (Andhra Pradesh) Donor: Canada Loan/Credit Amount: C$4.87 million Description: Reduction of environmental degradation through community-based forestry conservation. Project: Plant Genetic Resources Donor: USA Loan/Credit Amount: US$18.70 million Description: Strengthen the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources and improve its capability to play a more effective role in scientific conservation and sustainable use at the national, regional and global levels. Major activities supported under the project include construction of four controlled-environment plant quarantine greenhouses at selected locations, procurement of modern scientific equipment, establishment of a data base network for global use, advanced training of scientists, provision of expert technical assistance and the carrying out ofjoint explorations and collaborative research in identified biodiversity areas of mutual Indo-U.S. interest. Project: Andaman & Nicobar Islands Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$122,000 equivalent Description: Identification of areas where biodiversity conservation is needed. Project: Strengthening Medicinal Plants Resource Base in South India Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 26.6 million equivalent Description: Conservation of medicinal plants in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Fifteen in-situ medicinal plants conservation areas, thirty ex-situ medicinal plants conservation parks, information network and medicinal plant data base. fls India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project: Strengthening Wildlife Management and Eco-development Capabilities Donor: UNDP Loan/Credit Amount: US$1.4 million Description: Develop management and eco-development planning capabilities within the central and state government agencies. This will ultimately lead to proper management--planning and implementation of eco- development plans around the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, thereby minimizing the conflict between the wildlife and human beings. Project: (a) Assistance for the Establishment of the Wildlife Institute of India (b) Assistance to the Wildlife Institute of India Donor: UNDP Loan/Credit Amounts: (a) US$1,949,848 (b) US$470,915 Description: To strengthen the technical capability of the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, in the field of wildlife biology, wildlife conservation and wildlife extension activities so as to enable it to act as a premier institution and to provide necessary training to forest officers in managing the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in the country. 606 Chapter 3 Afforestation, Wasteland Development, and Conservation of soil and Moisture A Rle E India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Afforestation, Wasteland Development, and Conservation of Soil and Moisture Restoration of Degraded Lands through Afforestation and Integrated Watershed Management 3.01 India's Environment Action 3.03 The government is addressing the Program recognizes that the improper use issue of wasteland reclamation and of land resources has created serious management through a number of related ecological and socioeconomic problems. programs and investment projects. Numerous Growing demand for fuel, wood, fodder, ministries and government agencies are and food has depleted and even eliminated responsible for these efforts. The results have protective vegetative cover in many areas. been somewhat confusing, with programs As much as half the country's land area is overlapping as the government struggles to subject to some form of degradation. deal with different aspects of the wasteland restoration problem. 3.02 For years the government has emphasized tree-planting schemes as the 3.04 Efforts to develop wastelands principal mechanism for arresting and through afforestation and integrated watershed reversing land degradation trends. The management are based in the Ministry of Rural government has set, and sometime achieved, Development and the Ministry of Environment ambitious targets for these schemes. Despite and Forests. The Ministry of Rural these achievements, some critics maintain Development is home to the Department of that many wasteland reclamation programs Wastelands Development, the National amount to little more than temporary rural Wastelands Development Board, the Drought- employment schemes. While tree-planting Prone Area Program, and the Desert programs have provided some relief, there Development Program. To address wastelands are doubts about the long-term sustainability on forest department lands, the Ministry of of these schemes, and insufficient attention Environment and Forests has established the has been given to the monitoring and National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment evaluation of plantation works (survival Board. This board is responsible for promoting rates, productivity, and so on). Thus the afforestation, tree planting, ecological long-term benefits of these schemes, both research, and ecodevelopment activities. economically and ecologically, are poorly 3.05 Attempts to measure the understood and are rarely used to evaluate geographical extent of wastelands have been the programs. The benefits of these schemes problematic. Many agencies collect to individuals, local communities, and the information on wastelands, but only one nation are thhs taken as a matter of faith. comprehensive review of wastelands and their 68. Afforestation potential has been carried out. In 1989 the of degraded wasteland types at the national National Wastelands Development Board level is shown in Map 3.1. commissioned a survey of wastelands in 186 of the most seriously affected districts. While 3.07 Generalizations about the causes this survey helped to determine the extent of of wastelands often mask the complexities of wastelands, it has not been used to guide local conditions. The main physical manifes- wastelan ds, it sed toiguide. tations of degraded lands are the removal of * plnnngortostririietopsoil through wind and water erosion and 3.06 Other attempts to quantify the gradual increase in the toxicity of root zones wastelands have been carried out in the past through salinization. Human land use practices fifteen years; a summary of these efforts also can accelerate the physical deterioration appears in Table 3.1. The types of degraded of the land, and differences in tenure land and their causal factors vary widely arrangements significantly alter the ability of among regions (Table 3.2). The distribution local communities to address land management Table 3.1. Estimates of the Extent of Degraded Land in India Estimated By Area Considered Comments Degraded (million hectares) National Commission on 175 Included in this figure are 85 million hectares of Agriculture (GOI 1976) agricultural land, the degradation of which has been questioned by Bhumbla and Khare (1984). Gadfil and others (1982) 88 These authors' breakdown is pasture, 12 million hectares; degraded forests, 36 million hectares; culturable waste, 1 7 million hectares; and fallows, 23 million hectares. They assumed that the entire area of culturable waste, fallows and pasture lands was degraded. Cultivated degraded lands were not considered in the estimate. Bentley (1984) 115 This includes 15 million hectares of marginal agricultural lands and recently deforested forest lands. Bhumbla and Khare (1984) 93 They considered only nonforest wastelands. Adding 36 million hectares of degraded forest area brings the total to 129 million hectares. The National I Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) accepts this figure of 129 million hectares. Vohra (1985) 103 The breakdown is forest land, 30 million hectares, and uncultivated land, 33 million hectares. Khan (1987) 80 According to Khan, a forester working in the NWDB, this consists mostly of degraded forests and private marginal land. World Bank (1988) i15-130 This includes 32-40 million hectares of degraded agriculture land. The rest of the breakdown is similar to that of Gadgil and others. Source:Chambers, Saxena, and Shah 1989, in Molnar and Jenson, Campbell. *69 India s Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Map 3.1. Estimated Total Degraded Areas (SPWD 1989) 1 ~~~The boundaries, ecolors, denominations & any other or acceptance of suich boundaries State Degraded Area (sq. kmn) State Degraded Area (sq. kmn) 1 Madhya Pradesh 201400 1 2 'Haryana 24800 2 Raj asthan 199300 1 3 H[imachal Pradesh 19600 3 Maharashitra 144000 14 MVeghalaya 19200 4 Andhra Pradesh 114200 1 5 Assamn 17300 5 Kamnataka 91700 1 6 Jammu & Kashmir 15700 6 Uttar Pradesh 80600 1 7 Manipur 14400 7 Gujarat 78400 1 8 Nagaland 13900 8 Orissa 63800 1 9 Kerala 12800 9 Bihar 54600 20 Punjab 12300 1 0 Tamil Nadu 44000 2 1 Trripura 9700 1 1 West Bengal 25400 22 Sikkim 2800 70 *,Source: SP"D 1989. Afforestation Table 3.2. Suimmary of Land Degradation in India (sq. mi.) State Degraded Degiraded Total Nonforest Wasteland Subject to Forest Nonforest Degraded Saline Subject to Wind Erosion A rea Water Erosion Andman Islands 0 0 0 0 0 0 Andhra Pradesh 37,340 76,820 114,120 2,400 74,420 0 Arunachal Pradesh 0 0 0 0 0 0 Assamr 7,950 9,350 17,300 0 9,350 0 Bihar 15,620 38,960 54,580 40 38,920 0 Gujarat 6,830 71,530 78,360 7,040 52,350 0 Haryana 740 24,040 24,780 5,260 2,760 15,990 Himachal Pradesh 5,340 14,240 19,580 0 14,240 0 JammuandKashmir 10,340 - 5,310 15,650 0 5,310 0 Kamataka 20,430 71,220 91,650 4,040 67,180 0 Kerala 2,260 10,530 12,790 160 10,370 0 Madhya Pradesh 71,950 129,470 201,420 2,420 127,050 0 Maharashtra 28,410 115,600 144,010 5,340 110,260 0 Manipur 14,240 140 14,380 0 10 0 Meghalaya 11,030 8,150 19,180 0 8,150 0 Mizoram 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nagaland 8,780 5,080 13,860 0 5,080 0 Orissa 32,270 31,570 63,840 4,040 27,530 0 Punjab 790 11,510 12,300 6,880 4,630 0 Rajasthan 19,330 180,010 199,340 7,280 66,590 106,230 Sikkim 1,500 1,310 2,810 0 1,310 0 Tamil Nadu 10,090 33,920 44,010 40 33,880 0 Tripura 8,650 1,080 9,730 0 1,080 0 Uttar Pradesh 14,260 66,350 80,610 12,950 53,400 0 West Bengal 3,590 21,770 25,360 8,500 13,270 0 Toial 331,740 1927.960 1,259,700 66,390 727.140 122.220 Source: Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development 1989. .71 fT. India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities issues. Any long-term strategy to rehabilitate refinemnents in methodology and availability degraded lands will need to recognize the of data. And while the aggregate national importance of developing technical, institu- picture may be stable, significant regional tional, and policy options that recognize the problems persist, particularly in the physical and regional variation in degraded northeastern states. The remote-sensing lands. surveys do not assess the qualitative aspects of the forest-especially the condition of the 3.08 The government also has unders-tory, which is vital to the long-term introduced an ambitious program to track condition of forests. The surveys also do not forest land degradation at the national level. the rests. The surve fore o not Usin reote-ensng echnlog, th Foest gauge the relative value of the forests with Using remote-sensing technology, the Forest respect to different use options, such as Survey of India has executed four biennial commercialtimberproduction,villageforest "State of the Forest" surveys. These data production, wildlife conservation, watershed provide a good indication of forest cover management, and plantation site suitability. change. The latest report (1993) suggests that forest cover at the national level has stabilized, 3.10 Finally, the State of the Forest with a marginal (22 square kilometer) increase reports do not quantify forest resource deficits in total forest cover. Recent trends in forest at the local level. The conclusions of the reports cover are summarized in Table 3.3. Map 3.2 seem inconsistent with operational field illustrates the distribution of forest cover at experience, which suggests that hundreds of the national level in 1993. Indian villages are incapable of meeting basic fuel, fodder, and timber supply due to lack 3.09 This possible stabilization of forest of quality forests. Efforts should be made to cover should not lead to complacency on the reconcile the contradictions between the field- governlment's part. Many of the changes in based surveys and the remote-sensing surveys. the estimates of forest cover result from 72 Afforestation Table 3.3. Summary of Forest Conditions in India (sq. km.) State State Forest Dense Open Forest Forest Dense Open Man- Forest Area Area Forest Forest Area Area Forest Forest grove Area (Admi- 1989 1989 (Actual (Actual 1993 1993 1993 1993 (Actual nistra- 1989) 1991) 1993) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~tive) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Andaman Islands 8,290 7,171 6.518 133 7,624 7,622 6,567 91 966 7,624 Andhra Pradesh 276,820 63,726 25,535 21,971 47,911 47,290 25,008 21,870 47,256 Arunachal Pradesh 83,580 51,540 54,272 14,491 68,763 68,757 54,510 14,151 68,661 Assam 78,520 30,708 15,688 9,370 26,058 24,751 15,998 8,510 24,508 Bihar 173.880 29,230 13,412 13,522 26,934 26,668 13,172 13,415 [ 26,587 Goa 3,810 1,256 975 322 1,300 1,225 995 249 3 1,247 Gujarat 195,980 19,388 5,259 5,999 11,670 11,907 6,301 5,324 419 12,044 Haryana 44,220 1,685 130 433 563 513 329 184 513 Himachal Pradesh 55,670 37,591 7,100 6,277 13,377 11,780 9,565 2,937 12,502 Jammu and Kashmir 222,240 20,174 10,824 9,600 20,424 20,064 10,953 9,490 20,443 Karnataka 191,770 38,644 247,490 73,510 32,100 32,199 24,852 7,491 32,343 Kerala 38,870 11,222 8,312 1,837 10,149 10,292 8,421 1,915 10,336 Madhva Pradesh 442,840 155,414 91,448 41,743 133,191 135,785 95.537 39,859 135,396 Mahrashtra 307,760 63,861 26,177 17,767 44,058 44,044 25,688 18,024 155 43,859 Manipur I 22,360 15,155 5,060 12,825 17,885 l 17,685 5.307 12,314 17,621 Meghalaya 22,490 9,496 3.427 12,263 15,690 15,875 3,305 12,464 15,769 Mizoram 21,090 15,935 3,883 14,295 18,178 18,853 4,238 14,459 18,697 Nagaland 16,530 8,625 4,632 9,724 14,356 14,321 3,487 10,861 14,348 Orissa 155,780 59,555 27,561 19,384 47,137 47,205 27,151 19,799 195 47,145 Punjab 50.360 2,842 l 97 1,064 1,161 1,343 481 862 1,343 Rajasthan 342,210 31,559 2,902 10,064 12,966 12,835 3,581 9,518 13,099 Sikkim 73,000 2,650 2,410 714 3,124 3,033 2,395 724 3,119 Tamil Nadu 130,070 22,699 9,759 7,909 17,715 17,713 9,422 8,283 21 17,726 Tripura 10,480 6,292 1,214 4,111 5,325 5,535 1,819 3,719 5,538 Uttar Pradesh 294,411 51,502 22,632 11,212 33,844 33,609 22,965 10,966 ,2,119 36,050 West Bengal 87,850 11,879 3,3322 2,953 8,394 8,015 3,362 2,705 6,067 Total 4 3,350,881 t769,779 1600,049 323,493 639,919 j 638,919 385,4012 0,184 4,256 639,841 a 73 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Map 3.2. Actual Forest Colver (sq. km.) V~~~~ ;~ N 1 j The boundaries, colors, denominations & any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of World Bank: Group, any judgement or the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries State Actual forest cover (sq. km.) State Actual forest cover (sq. km.) 1 Madhya Pradesh 135369 14 Nagaland 14348 2 Arunachal Pradesh 68661 15 Rajasthan 13099 3 Andbra Pradesh 47256 16 Himachal Pradesh 12502 4 Orissa 47145 17 Gujarat 12044 5 Maharashtra 43859 18 Kerala 10336 6 Uttar Pradesh 36050 19 Andaman Islands 7624 7 Karnataka 32343 20 West Bengal 6067 8 Assam 24508 21 Tripura 5538 9 Jammu & Kashmir 20443 22 Sikldm 3119 10 Mizoram 18697 23 Bihar 2658 11 Tamnil Nadu 17726 24 Punjab 1343 12 Manipur 17621 25 Haryana 513 13 Meghalaya 15769 Source: MOEF 1993. 74 . Afforestation Eg Afforestation and Wastelands Reclamation of Nonforest Lands 3.11 Strategies for wastelands Institutional issues development have evolved considerably in * 3.14 Government schemes to recent years. While most schemes still 3.1 Goenmn scees t remp arsize.tr pla as tchepeferred rehabilitate degraded public lands outside forest estates fall within the jurisdictions of treatment, government programs are beginning . . to address other technical possibilities as well vilgpacytauhrie,om nlnd under customary group tenure, lands managed as alternative sources of income generation by road and railway authorities, and lands as part of their wastelands development loosely administered by the district collector. strategies. 3.1 5 Reforestation and wasteland 3.12 There is a widespread recognition rcmi semeshave expeimeted that achieving sustainable wastelands reclamahon schemes have experimented with reclamation and afforestation prograstes wil a number of institutional strategies for reclamation and afforestation programs will developing revenue lands. These usually require solving the underlying economic and involve transfer to panchayat bodies under social concerns of individuals and communi- tree tenure schemes such as panchayat ties. The government has endorsed community woodlots. All have proved problematic due participation in setting objectives and to conflicts over competing land claims. The implementing programs as an important tenure arrangements on revenue lands often component of wastelands restoration programs. are complex and may be understood differently NGOs and voluntary organizations figure by different users. prominently in current strategies to address wasteland issues. In addition, the government 3.16 Government programs addressing now endorses the concept of integrated wastelands reclamation through afforestation planning and management of wastelands and watershed management on nonforest lands reclamation using micro-watersheds (about have encountered problems. These include 500 hectares) as the preferred unit of program unclear institutional responsibilities, and implementation. unclear administrative procedures for investment planning, monitoring, and ISSUES IN WASTELANDS DEVELOPMENT evaluation. The operational management of land reclamation schemes, especially 3.13 Programs to restore and manage watershed projects, has experienced problems degraded lands have struggled with a number due to clashes between line agencies and the of constraints. These issues comprise a range lack of coordination of work programs. of institutional, technological, and sociological problems that have undermined the 3.17 Each agency approaches the sustainability of investments in wastelands problem of wasteland development from its development. own perspective. Programs such as the a 75 Sj l India 's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Drought-Prone Area Program (DPAP), the options to be implemented. Desert Development Program (DDP), and the National Watershed Development Program in 3.20 As noted at the outset, wasteland Rainfed Areas have developed guidelines for development programs tend to be one- land restoration and conservation that reflect dimensional, focusing on tree-planting their individual objectives and criteria. While activities. The technologies proposed for the geographic focus of these programs varies, reforesting wastelands often reflect a limited the processes by which management plans are knowledge of local conditions and tend to developed and implemented are quite similar. stress well-known, commercial tree species. In addition, the technical models offered to 3.18 While the government recognizes local communities were developed as the importance of NGOs in the process of land production forest plantation models and rarely reclamation and restoration, few NGOs with match community development needs. appropriate technical skills, operational Initiatives that are poorly matched to local experience, and the ability to service large needs and conditions are not fully accepted areas have been identified. Many NGOs, or adequately maintained. thoug:h skilled at motivating communities, are less adept at the technical aspects of land 3.21 The issue of quality control in reclamation. In addition, current models of nurseriles and quality assurance for planting participatory planning require large numbers stock will continue to plague afforestation of staff both from the government and from efforts. In general, the links between the the NGO community. The sheer area of regional research centers and the implementing waste.lands to be reclaimed and the number agencies are poor. In recent years there has of villages to be coordinated will continue to been a move away from engineering strain the already limited sources of approaches to soil and water conservation experienced personnel. toward vegetative approaches. Field experience suggests that such combinations Technological issues of teclnologies often are appropriate and should be explored during project design. 3.19 Several problems have emerged with respect to the technical aspects of Economics and sustainability wastelands reclamation. While operational expediency, quality control, and extension 3.22 The related issues of economics, services are greatly improved if a limited replication, and sustainability of wasteland number of well-understood technologies are reclamation and watershed management efforts promoted-the government's approach thus are poorly understood. Wastelands restoration far-the wide range of agroecological schemes historically have been regarded as conditions found in India makes it impossible rural employment programs rather than as to deelpaomotchialp er prograrms with intrinsic ecological merit. While to develop a common technical package for r g g wasteland development. Despite these these schemes have emphasized equity variations, there is still a tendency to take a concerns, they have made little effort to top-down approach to planning, with line quantify the costs and benefits of specific agencies dictating the range of technical project investments. Restoration efforts tend 76. Afforestation to be evaluated in terms of physical initiatives. achievements rather than rates of adoption. Limited information is available on the Integrated Wastelands Development Program performance of restoration investments, which 3.25 The IWDP under implementation makes ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 32 The diffcul unde saywhetherthe makes it difficult to say whether the since 1989, promotes an integrated approach government should continue to invest i these to wastelands development on micro- programs. watersheds. The plans are based on intensive community participation and promote soil and 3.23 he goermnet recgnize that moisture conservation, natural regeneration past initiatives have failed to meet physical oisture convon , atrlregnation and~~~~~~~ ~ fiaca.agt. niiul n of village common lands, afforestation and and financial targets. Individuals and agroforestry on private lands, pasture communities will support restoration and ipoeet n oa nttto-ulig conservation efforts only if a clear link to increased productivity can be demonstrated. 3.26 About 65 percent of the Sustainability also is linked to effective Department of Wastelands Development's participation and clear rules on benefit-sharing. 1993 budget of Rs. 25 crores was allocated to these schemes. By end-1993 about fifty such GOVERNMENT INITIATiVES projects had been implemented nationwide. 3.24 In 1985 the National Wastelands These projects address wasteland development DevtBoard was established within on a watershed basis; the average watershed DhevlMenistr of Environment and Forests to size is about 500 hectares. The 1994 program the Ministry of Environment a:nd Forests to fude anadtoa. evnenshms promote the reforstation of India' funded an additional seventeen schemes. promotelands.In1992 the re satn os Indias Rs.40.72 crores were allocated under the 1994 wastelands. In 1992 the board was made a bde ocvraot4,0 etrso part f th Deprtmen of asteands budget to cover about 44,000 hectares of part of the Department of Wastelands Development within the Ministry of Rural wasteland reclamation. Development. The board continues to have a 3.27 One of the program's recent mandate to promote programs and approaches objectives is to encourage projects that are for developing wastelands in nonforest areas. more responsive to local needs. To this end The Department of Wastelands Development the program is promoting the establishment is also responsible for the National Land Use of state-level steering committees to monitor and Wastelands Development Council; for progress, ensure the timely flow of funds to promoting rural development through the project sites, and improve interdepart- wastelands development; for promoting fuel, mental coordination. Many states, however, fodder, and timber production on nonforest are finding it difficult to establish state lands, including private wastelands; for committees because of vertical administrative research and development of low-cost structures that effectively inhibit coordination technologies; for coordinating inter- between the various agencies dealing with departmental and interdisciplinary programs; agriculture, land use planning, soil con- and for promoting participation and public servation, forestry, and economics. Experience cooperation. As part of these roles, the from the Bank's pilot project for rainfed department oversees a number of schemes and agriculture indicates that it can take as long n77 Sfr.l India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities as five years to establish these committees. in both the technical approach and the Where committees have been established, most institutlional and management arrangements seem ineffective. based on local conditions and constraints. 3.28 To ensure a more consistent 3.31 Withregardtoinstitutionalsupport approach to the design and implementation and funding, the guidelines endorse the of wasteland rehabilitati-on schemes, the concept of mutually exclusive watershed Ministry of Rural Development has published development programs. Thus, rather than Guidelinesfor Watershed Development (MRD trying to coordinate activities among the 1994). This document provides a DPAP. DDP, IWDP, and other schemes, comprehensive reference on micro-watershed individual watersheds would be developed development. The guidelines emphasize the under only one scheme. This will reduce organizational and institutional aspects of confusion over responsibilities and will help watershed management, explicitly specifying to eliminate conflicts over the channeling of the roles of Zila Parishads/District Rural funds. Predefined cost limits are avoided in Development Auth e D s p t the guidelines, but there are suggested Dmplevementing authoies, (DRDas)y pRojet expenditures on such items as treatment (80 ompganmentions, wagenies, Panchayanti Reaj, percent), administrative overhead (10 percent), organizations,swatersheddevelopmentteams, commLunity organization (5 percent), and watershed associations, and watershed trinn (5prcn) traimnin (5 percent). development committees. 3.29 The guidelines also cover technical Grants-in-aid scheme and administrative aspects of watershed 3.32 The grants-in-aid scheme is development, including local design criteria; designed to promote NGO involvement in criteria for selection of participant villages; wastelands development. NGOs and voluntary establishment of users groups; recommended organizations receive 100 percent funding to institutional arrangements at the state, district, promote wastelands development programs. and village levels; development of watershed Activities eligible for funding under this plans; and requirements for investment scheme include nursery improvement, soil and monitoring and evaluation. moisture conservation, plantation work, and public awareness campaigns. In 1993-94 the 3.30 While these guidelines endorse a budgetary allocation for the grants-in-aid common set of operational objectives, scheme was about Rs.3 crores, an increase strategies, and financial planning norms, they over the previous year's budget of Rs.85 lakhs. are nolt restrictive in terms of the treatment models or technical solutions that may be Commwnication, education, and public applied in a given situation. In addition to awareness traditional afforestation and nursery activities, the guidelines promote a range of technical 3.33 The department continues to be approaches that are eligible for program active in raising public awareness through funding, including in situ soil and moisture publications, public service films on wasteland conservation, drainage line treatments, water development, media outreach, NGO field trips, harvesting, basic surveys, and pasture and conservation awards in recognition of development. The guidelines stress flexibility innovative and outstanding work. 78 a Afforestation New initiatives experiences in this field include: 3.34 The Ministry of Rural LI Himalayan Watershed Management Development has proposed a number of Project (closed in 1992). schemes. These include investment promotion schemes, formulation of a wastelands LI Pilot Project for Watershed Development development task force, establishment of a in Rainfed Areas (completed in 1993). unit for promotional and critical support services, and an initiative to improve program Project (hills and plains). appraisal, monitoring, and impact evaluation. New technical initiatives would expand the LJ Uttar Pradesh Sodic Lands Reclamation. technological packages beyond tree-planting efforts to include other productive investments, 3.37 The Bank's projects have such as promotion ofjoj oba plantations in arid contributed to the government's understanding and semi-arid regions. In addition, investments of the organizational, technical, institutional, in cashew and tea plantations are being and sustainability issues involved in considered. wastelands reclamation and micro-watershed development. Watershed projects have been BANK INVOLVEMENT IN WASTELANDS more effective at achieving physical targets DEVELOPMENT than at meeting major institutional or 335 TheWordBnksaricltu sustainability objectives. In general, it has been 3.35 The World Bank's agricultural difficult to quantify the benefits of micro- portfolio historically has included investment watershed treatments. projects that focus on land management. The Bank's operational experience in soil and WORK OF INTERNATIONAL DONORS moisture conservation dates to 1980 and has included efforts in a number of agroclimatic 3.38 Financial assistance from the conditions throughout India. The principal international community has not been a major counterpart in these efforts has been the source of program funding for wastelands Ministry of Agriculture, although recent development schemes within the Ministry of watershed projects have required the Rural Development. In fact, no program was involvement of numerous agencies at the state, identified as receiving external assistance. local, and central levels. Wastelands development projects are, however, being implemented through the 3.36 In recent years the Bank has Ministry of Environment and Forests. For discouraged engineering approaches to soil example, the Swedish International conservation in favor of approaches stressing Development Agency is funding an Integrated vegetative control technologies. Experiences Wastelands Development Project in Rajasthan generally have been positive, although through the MOEF, and the European Union numerous operational problems have emerged is funding a project for the rehabilitation of (see below). The Bank's recent operational common lands in the Aravallis in Haryana. m 79 Sjm, India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Afforestation and Wastelands Reclatmation of Forest Lands 3.39 Despite a long tradition of Box 3.1. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and managing public forest lands, degradation and 1988 Amendments declining institutional capacity are evident The act provides for the conservation of forests throughout India. Controlling this degradation and matters related to the same. It calls for will be impossible without significant changes restrictions on the dereservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forest purposes i.e. the in the performance of the forestry sector. The clearing of any forest land for the cultivation of government recognizes the growing pressures tea, coffee, spices, rubber, palms, oil-bearing on forest resources and is seeking ways to plants, horticultural crops or medicinal plants, or any purpose other than reafforestation. It also mranage them in a more sustainable manner. providles for the constitution of advisory There is general awareness that the problems committees and outlines the jurisdictions of confronting the sector are not primarily government departments and provides the central government with power to make rules for carrying technical, but are social, economic, and out the provisions of the act. political. Source: Desai 1994; GOI, Ministry of Environment ISSLJES IN FORESTRY MANAGEMENT and Forests, Forest Conservation Act, 1980, Rules and Guidelines. 3.40 I wo major explorations of the issues confronting forestry management Act and the 1988 Forest Amendment Act (Box have been completed: the World Bank's 1993 3.1), the 1972 Wildlife Act, and the 1986 Forest S'ector Review and the Government of Environment Act. India's National Forestry Action Program. 3.42 These acts are supplemented by These reviews conclude that the most the 1988 National Forest Policy (Box 3.2). important issues facing the sector relate to The policy sets a goal of having one-third of the incentives for local participation and the country's total area under forest or tree private development, the quality and cover. There has been considerable debate performance of investments, the effectiveness about whether this target-which would total of public sector forest protection and 100 million hectares-is realistic. Some management, and the areas for future analysts (Molnar, Jansen, and Campbell 1995) development. Now that these problems have argue that only about 74 million hectares of been defined, there must be consensus on how India's land base can be realistically developed and when they will be solved. as a productive forest or silvo-pastoral resource. The policy also recommends LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK maintaining two-thirds of hilly and mountainous regions under forest cover. 3.41 Legislation governing forestry manageiment has been introduced at the central 3.43 One of the most significant aspects and state levels. The principal central acts are of the policy is its emphasis on a massive the 1927 Indian Forest Act, the 1980 Forest people's movement for achieving forest 8 0 Afforestation Box 3.2. National Forest Policy, 1988 management objectives. A major shift from the traditional approach to forest management The National Forest Policy focused on a new... strategy of forest conservation which included came in 1990 when the Ministry of preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, Environment and Forests ordered State Forest restoration and enhancement of the natural Departments to involve village communities environment. The following are the objectives and voluntary agencies in the regeneration of governing the forest policy:* governing the forest policy: degraded forest lands. This resolution suggests * Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and where necessary, restoration a flexible approach to collaborative manage- of the ecological balance that has been ment and stresses that no restrictions should adversely distributed by serious depletion of be placed on membership in village the forests of the country. committees. The resolution also suggests that * Conserving the natural heritage of the country communities be given rights over timber and by preserving the remaining natural forests nontimber products, that communities be with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which involved in developing working plans, and represent the remarkable biological diversity ommun help to pre f st fro and genetic resources of the country. that communities help to protect forests from * Checking soil erosion and denudation in the illegal forest practices. At least fourteen state catchment areas of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs governments have approved resolutions in the interest of soil and water conservation, enabling forest-dependent communities and for mitigating floods and droughts, and for the State Forest Departments to experiment the retardation of siltation of reservoirs. * Checking the extension of sand dunes in the with collaborative forest management. desert areas of Rajasthan and along the coastal tracts. 3.44 Experience with joint forestry * Increasing substantially the forest tree cover management has had favorable results. Still, in the country through massive afforestation a number of important issues need to be and social forestry programs, especially on worked out. These include the relationship all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands. of village committees to local government, * Meeting the requirements of fuelwood, fodder and minor forest produce and small timber of resolution of the long-term rights of the rural and tribal populations. participating communities, clarification of the * Increasing the productivity of forests to meet legal authority of community management essential national needs. programs, provisions for extending member- * Encouraging efficient utilization of forest ship in village committees, resolution of pre- produce by maximizing substitution of wood. existing user rights in forest areas, overreliance * Creating a massive people's movement with of user groups on forest departments, and the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives and to minimize pressure on existing clarification of the role of women. forests. In addition, the policy outlines the essentials of GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS forest management, strategies of afforestation, social forestry and farm forestry, wildlife 3.45 The Government of India conservation, forest-based industries, and forest continues to make progress toward achieving education and research. its environmental objectives for the forest Source: GOI, Ministry of Environment and Forests, sector (Box 3.3). The Ministry of Environment National Forest Policy, 1988. and Forests has prepared a National Forestry Action Program based on the forestry action *81 SJE, India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities 'Box 3.3. India's Initiatives in Implementation of the Principles of the National Forest Policy Initiatives Relating to National Policies and Programs * Adoption of the National Conservation Strategy in 1992. * Eighth Five-Year Plan provides for conservation, development and sutainable management of existing resources and eco-restoration of degraded lands. * The National Ecodevelopment and Afforestation Board and National Wastelands Development Board involve women, farmers, tribals. * The National Forestry Action Program prepared in line with the National Forest Policy. It emphasizes the critical role played by forests in environmental protection and social and economic development. * Scheme launched by the government in 1992 to associate tribals and rural poor in regeneration of degraded forests on usufruct sharing basis with the aim of improving the biomass resource base in degraded forests and providing gainful employment. * Guidelines for Joint Forest Management make women's participation in executive committees mandatory. * Appropriate methodologies for the realistic valuation of forestry goods are being employed. * Forest management strategy focuses on conservation of the existing natural forests with emphasis on natural generation, development of degraded forests, and afforestation in nonforest lands including agro-forestry on private lands. * Increasing attention being given in various afforestation programs to plantation of indigenous species. * Ecodevelopment programs being expanded. * A network of protected areas including national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves has been developed. Initiatives Relating to Information Sharing * Environmental Information Service is being networked with national and international institutions. * The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Wildlife Institute of India, Indian Plywood Industries Research Institute, Center for Environment Education, state forest departments, and state agricultural universities all carry out forestry-related research. * Indian foresters and forestry scientists regularly attend educational and training institutions throughout the world for skill updating. Initiatives Relating to Strengthening of Institutional Capabilities, * ICFRE provides financial support to universities for strengthening forestry faculties. * The Forest Survey of India, the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, and the Indian Institute of Forest Management being strengthened by staff training, course content revision, and research. Initiatives Relating to Planted Forests * Indigenous and exotic species are being planted in production iorestry programs. * Massive programs of afforestation and tree planting, with an emphasis on fuelwood and fodder development on all degraded and denuded lands in the country, as well as discouraging monoculture on all unutilized lands whether forest or nonforest, have been identified as a natiional imperative. Initialives Relating to Trade and Tariffs on Forest Products * The National Forestry Action Program identifies aspects of marketing and processing of forest products to be comprehensively analyzed and lead to better strategies. Initiatives Relating to International Initiatives * Cooperation with Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations Environment Program, United Nations Development Program, International Trade Organization and other international organizations. * Ensuring technology transfer. 82. Afforestation plans for every state in the country. The encourages public involvement in project national plan has been undertaken with design and implementation. Funding is financial support from the United Nations provided to NGOs and voluntary Development Program and with technical agencies working at the grassroots level. assistance from the Food and Agricultural Organization. In addition to the state reviews, ° Seed development schemes. This sixteen national studies have been carried out program promotes higher-quality dealing with a variety of thematic issues, planting materials by developing including agroforestry, rural sociology, market facilities for the collection, testing, analysis, seed technology, and pasture and certification, storage, and distribution fodder development. of seeds. THE NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND °I Aerial seeding. This program supports ECODEVELOPMENT BOARD efforts to regenerate inaccessible areas through airborne seeding systems. 3.46 The National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board was established BANK INVOLVEMENT to promote wastelands reclamation on forest 3.47 The World Bank has been the lands. To this end, the board has instituted a leader among international donors in funding number of programs, including the following: for forest initiatives and has taken a leadership role in engaging the government in a dialogue O Integrated afforestation and eco- on national forest sector reforms. In the past development projects. About 126 the Bank has provided substantial support to integrated watershed management social forestry initiatives in various states. projects promoting afforestation of These projects focused on increasing the degraded forest lands covering 360,000 supply of fuelwood, timber, fodder, and minor hectares are under implementation. forest products by establishing village woodlots and other plantations on government Oe Fuelwood and fodder scheme. This and village wastelands. The Bank's investment ascheme augmrovdens fuelrand fodder su , strategy has evolved in recent years to develop as well as provides programs to manage projects that address a wider range of forestry demandhinritr identifiedeash issues. The Bank is currently supporting five comprehensive state forestry projects (West 3 Raising minor forest produce. About Bengal Forestry, Maharashtra Forestry, Bihar twenty-five projects covering about Forestry, Andhra Pradesh Forestry, Madhya 44,120 hectares provide assistance to Pradesh Forestry). In 1993 the Bank completed state governments for increasing minor a national forest sector review. Through its forest products, including medicinal Forestry Research Education and Extension plants. Project, the Bank is addressing forest research and education priorities. Global Environment O Grants-in-aid. About 600 projects Facility ecodevelopment projects are being addressing tree planting have been prepared that address issues related to funded under this scheme, which biodiversity conservation through improved *83 f;l India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities management of priority parks and protected Donor support focuses on afforestation, on- areas. site soil and moisture conservation, fuel-saving WORK OF OTHER DONORS technologies, and management practices. About ten additional forestry projects have 3.48 Although a number of international been identified for donor support, but no donors are currently active in the sector, future funding sources have been secured. support for forestry projects appears limited. 84. Afforestation j9 Major Issues and Recommendations 3.49 The Indian government is reform, technology development, and committed to addressing wastelands performance monitoring and evaluation. reclamation through afforestation and watersheds development. Several programs INSTITUTIONS AND POLICIES have achieved progress, both strategic and technical. As mentioned, the government's 3.51 Institutional and policy approach to wastelands reclamation is slowly weaknesses are inhibiting the development evolving from a one-dimensional approach of sector resources and require strengthening (tree-planting) to one using integrated and restructuring to promote growth. The watershed development. The current approach government should remove disincentives to correctly stresses the need for community private investment in farm forestry, involvement in setting objectives, choosing afforestation, and wastelands reclamation on technical design, performing implementation, private lands. Current models emphasizing and sharing benefits. government funding, technical input, and extension cannot be sustained on the scale 3.50 Still, there is scope for improving required to have meaningful impact. Rules program performance. The two main regarding tree tenure, harvesting of trees on weaknesses relate to the quality of afforestation private lands, transit regulations, and works (nursery materials, survival rates, marketing restrictions must be revised if species selection, site analysis, site private investment in afforestation is to maintenance, extension, and training) and the increase. incentives for long-term maintenance and sustainability of these works. The forestry 3.52 In addition, the government should sector does not require major new initiatives; continue to build on its relationships with rather, the government must do more to NGOs and seek to develop partnerships. improve the effectiveness of policies and Expansion of the grants-in-aid schemes could programs already in place. Programs should help to increase the skills of NGOs and stress the quality of afforestation over the voluntary agencies. The government should quantity of area planted. This, of course, encourage partnerships between NGOs with implies some refinements-such as complementary skills. Efforts also should be consolidating overlapping programs. The made to increase the number of state and government is investing adequately in district-level agencies for wastelands afforestation and watershed development reclamation. Finally, there should be better efforts, but programs and policies must be integration and coordination of inter- reoriented to improve performance in key departmental programs, particularly watershed areas: institutional strengtheni,ng and policy development programs. .85 Sj r India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities TECHNOLOGY required to improve the monitoring and sustainability of afforestation schemes. The 3.53 New technology must be government has recognized the importance harnessed to enhance productivity. To this of these efforts but has achieved few results. end, the government should continue to Efforts should be made to demonstrate the promote efforts that improve the quality of economic benefits of afforestation and planting stock, including nursery and seed wastelands reclamation schemes. Lessons from improvements. Programs also should watershed projects indicate that projects will emphasize planning to better match species be supported when there is a clear link between with site characteristics. Such efforts will afforestation efforts and benefits. Where require improving the information base, both benefit;s are not clear or where use rights are with respect to applied research and to the poorly articulated, afforestation efforts are not creation of data bases that target priority sustained. development areas. Research could be expanded to include horticulture planting 3.55 Sustainability will also be schemes for shrubs and grasses, development strengthened if the government continues to and use of nontimber forest products, and rural expand the experience base in participatory income-generating schemes. Extension planning and beneficiary involvement. services could be expanded to private farmers Although progress has been made, there is interested in farm forestry. Finally, better clearly:more scope for involving beneficiaries technical models are needed for the in the process of wastelands reclamation. There development of restocking and enrichment is still a tendency for programs to be supply planting of natural, secondary forests. driven, especially regarding species choice and benefits sharing. This issue is key to the SUSTAINABILITY initial success and long-term sustainability of afforestation efforts. 3.54 More systematic efforts are 86 Afforestation GOI Program Objectives Category: Degradedforest lands development Government Objectives/Programs:' Besides tree planting as the preferred treatment, the GOI has strongly endorsed community participation in objective setting, program implementation and benefits sharing as an important component of all watershed restoration programs; identifying priority districts regardingfuel andfodder deficits; supporting efforts to augment fuel and fodder supply; providing assistance to state governments for increasing minor forest products; implementing a grants-in-aid scheme by providing funding to NGOs; promoting improved quality of planting material; and supporting efforts to regenerate inaccessible areas through airborne seeding systems. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Integrated Afforestation by Watershed Development! Management Afforestation in Aravalli Hills Japan (OECF) US$81 M equiv. Forestry Dev. Rajasthan Japan (OECF) US$42 M equiv. Hyderabad Greenbelt Netherlands US$2.67 M equiv. Comprehensive Watershed Dev. Tamil Nadu (R) Denmark US$4.0 M equiv. Karnataka (D) Watershed Dev. Denmark US$7.42 M equiv. Comprehensive Watershed Dev. Koraput, Orissa Denmark US$7 M equiv. Watershed Dev. Maharashtra (Tech. Coop.) Germany US$0.68 M equiv. Watershed Dev. Karnataka Germany US$27.4 M equiv. Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. West Bengal Forestry World Bank US$34 M equiv. Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58 M equiv. Fuelwood and Fodder Scheme Afforestation & Pasture Dev. along Indira Japan (OECF) US$79.0 M equiv. Gandhi Canal Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development Netherlands US$0.45 M equiv. Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equiv .87 j|tk India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project DoEnor Funding Grants-in-Aid HydLerabad Greenbelt Netherlands US$2.67 M equiv. Watershed Dev. Maharashtra (Tech. Coop) Gerimany US$0.68 M equiv. West Bengal Forestry World Bank US$34.0 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equiv. Seeds Development Schemes Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equiv. Category: Wastelands development Government Objectives/Programs: Promoting an integrated approach to wastelands development using micro- watershed as the primary unit of implenmentation; plans based on intensive community participation andpromotion of in-situ soil and moisture conservation, natural regeneration of village common lands, afforestation and agroforestry on private lands, pasture improvement and local institution building. Grant- in-aid schemes designed to promote NGO involvement in wastelands development. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding The Integrated Wastelands Development Program Dungarpur Integrated Wastelands Sweden(SIDA) US$10 M equiv. Rehabilitation of Common Lands in Aravallis EU US$31.17 M equiv. Hyderabad Greenbelt Netherlands US$2.67 M cquiv. Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development Netherlands US$0.45 M equiv. Comprehensive Watershed Dev. Tamil Nadu (R) Denmark US$4.0 M equiv., Comprehensive Watershed Dev. Tamil Nadu (T) Denmark Phase I-US$3.8M equiv. Phase II-US$10.5 M equiv. Maharshtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equi. Madhya Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$58.0 M equiv. Bihar Plateau Development World Bank US$117.0 M equiv. U.P. Sodic Lands Reclamation World Bank US$54.7 M equiv Integrated Watershed Dev. Hills World Bank US$75.0 M equiv. Integrated Watershed Dev. Plains World Bank US$55.0 M equiv. 88. Afforestation Project Donor Funding Communications, Education and Public Awareness Strengthening/Dev. of Indian Council of Forestry UNDP US$2.56 M equiv. Research and Education Andhra Pradesh Forestry World Bank US$77.4 M equiv. Maharashtra Forestry World Bank US$124.0 M equiv. .89 Sf k India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities World Bank Support Project: Andhra Pradesh Forestry Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$77.4 M (equivalent) Description: Finance a six-year program to support (a) Regenerating or afforesting degraded forest areas with multitier coverage under participatory management arrangements with local populations; plantation forestry me>.c:, silvicultural operations on teak plantations; and expanding community and farm forest coverage. (b) Alleviation of poverty through employment and sustainable forest benefits targeted mainly to fringe forest dwellers, tribals and small farmers. (c) Special action programs geared to improve forestry research and plant propagation., support the joint forest management process through training and some funding to NGOs, improve biodiversity and protected areas management, undertake collaborative fodder development with the forest department and other organizatiorns, and a tribal development plan. (d) Buildings, vehicles, equipment, training studies, incremental staff and operating costs for the forest administration. Project: West Bengal Forestry Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$34.0 M (equivalent) Description: Finance a five-year programn to support: (a) Forestry works on consisting of regenerating or afforesting degraded forest areas over with multitier coverage under joint management arrangements with local populations; plantation forestry; strip plantations; and expanding farm forest coverage. (b) Supporting works including survey and demarcation of forest land, roads, small earthen dams, ponds and wells. 90. Afforestation il (c) Special action programs geared to improve forestry research and plant propagation, train all forestry staff, support the joint management process through training and funding to NGOs, improve wildlife and protected areas management, and afforest or rehabilitate mangrove areas. (d) Buildings, vehicles, equipment, incremental staff and operating costs for the forest department. (e) Fodder development in forest and nonforest areas with the Forest Department and the Animal Resources Development Department. Project: Maharashtra Forestry Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$124.0 M (equivalent) Description: Project to undertake sector reforms through: (a) Reorganization ofthepublicforest administration and seeking a more active role of the NGOs, village panchayats, cooperatives and the private sector in the development of the sector. (b) Improvements of the state 's technical capability particularly in the field of seed production, genetic planting material, nursery and planting practices and planning, and management, including monitoring of the forest resource base and training. (c) Rationalization of the policies and regulations constraining the sector. The project would also support five discrete investment activities related to land treatment: (i) Village ecodevelopment and joint management. (ii) Rehabilitation of wasteland and degraded lands. (iii) Production forestry. (iv) Biodiversity conservation. (v) Pasture and fodder development. Project: Madhya Pradesh Forestry Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: US$58.0 million (equivalent) *91 jr India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Description: The main objective of the project is to assist with the implementation of the Government of Madhya Pradesh's strategy for development of the forestry sector in Madhya Pradesh. The most important strategy under the project would be the attempt to rationalize and improve management of villagers' forest usage activities, through encouragement of more sustainable forest management strategies and by replacement of the MAadhya Pradesh Forest Department's existing command and control style of management with a more participatory approach. The project will be consistent with the national strategy for forest management, protection and biodiversity conservation, addressing eight priority regions: afforestation and wasteland development, demand management to improve protection of newly afforested areas/areas undergoing natural regeneration, development programs for pasture regeneration, extension support services for agroforestry, developing a detailed listing of fauna of ecologically important locations, research on cultivation of commercially valuable plants, establishment of farms for medicinal plants, and support for ex-situ conservation. Project: Bihar Plateau Developmient Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$117.0 M (equivalent) Description: The project is designed to help the Government of Bihar in its efforts to increase rural incormes and reduce the incidence of poverty in the underdeveloped plateau area of southern Bihar State by: (a) Making investments in critical areas of infrastructure needed for improved delivery of agricultural services to increase production and ease marketing problems. (b) Strengthening the platnning, coordination and monitoring function of the tribal area administration. (c) Introducing a participatory and integrated approach to planning and implementation of multisectoral activities. (d) Supporting environmentally sustainable activities. Project: Uttar Pradesh Sodic Lands Reclamation Fiscal Year: 1993 Loan /Credit Amount: IDA-US$54.7 M (equivalent) 92d Afforestation Eg Description: The project would build on past experience to reclaim sodic lands in the state by establishing models which in the future could be replicated on a much larger scale, emphasizing participatory management: (a) Land reclamation through provision of effective drainage network; on-farm development; application of chemical amendments; irrigation development; and support for the establishment of food and tree crops on privately owned land, and forest tree species on community land. (b) Institutional development, comprising strengthening of (i) Uttar Pradesh Land Development Corporation, the main implementing agency. (ii) The Remote Sensing Application Center (RSAC) responsible for site identification and selection in the planning process and for monitoring and reclamation induced evaluation of changes to soil and ground water environments. (iii) Participating NGOs through training to assist beneficiary participation. (c) Agricultural development and technology dissemination consisting of demonstrations of reclamation models for the production of crops, fruit tree and forestry species on sodic lands; nursery development for fruit tree seedlings production; and extension support involving motivational campaigns, production of publicity material, and use of mass communication techniques (d) Reclamation technology development and special studies comprising adaptive research to improve existing reclamation technology, diversification of cropping systems, and development of methods for preventing further expansion of sodicity, along with special studies to improve the efficiency of drainage system and shallow tubewells. Project: Integrated Watershed Development (Hills) Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: IBRD Loan US$13.0 M / IDA Credit US$75.0 M (equivalent) * 93 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Description: This project addresses one of India's most serious environmental problems: watershed degradation. The seven-year project would help finance remedial programs in ecologically fragile and agroeconomic zones and support cost-effective vegetative technology which can be replicated over a wide area to conserve soil and moisture in both arable and nonarable lands. Other treatments include introduction of horticulture in marginal arable lands and livestock improvement programs, such as introducing improved bulls for natural breeding and promoting stall feeding. The project would also traiin staff of implementing agencies in this type of technology and in interactive planning with beneficiaries to ensure sustained management of common property resources. Project: Integrated Watershed Development (Plains) Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: IBRD Loan US$7 M / IDA Credit US$55 M (equivalent) Descriiption: The main goal is to stabilize selected watersheds in the participating states (Orissa, Rajasthan and Gujarat) through a menu of land treatments emphasizing soil and moisture conservation and by introducing more sustainable land management systems, including seeking long- term, community-based, management solutions for public nonarable lands. The project consists of the establishment of vegetative contour barriers and demonstrations of associated production systems, such as agroforestry, alley cropping and dryland horticulture on arable, private land; land treatments such as vegetative soil and moisture conservation measures, afforestation, silvipasture development on nonarable, public land; and structural and vegetative treatments for stabilization of natural drainage lines on both arable and nonarable land, and on nurseries. The project would also support strengthening implementing agencies, including NGOs, through physical and participatory watershed planning, and enhancing monitoring capability, research and training. 94 i Afforestation iN Other Donor Support Project: Dungarpur Integrated Wastelands Project Donor: Sweden (SIDA) Loan/Credit Amount: US$10 M equivalent Description: Improve rural incomes through capability building in natural resources management and ecological restoration. Project: Re]habilitation of Common Lands, Aravallis Donor: EU Loan/Credit Amount: ECU23.2 M (US$31.17 M equivalent) Description: Forestry/land development Project: Afforestation and Pasture Development along Indira Gandhi Canal Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: X7,869 M (US$79 M equivalent) Description: To protect canals, agricultural fields, and infrastructural facilities such as roads and other communication linkages from blown desert sands and to meet the local need of fuel and fodder. Project: Afforestation in Aravalli Hills-Rajasthan Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: Y8,095 M (US$81 M equivalent) Description: To check desertification and to restore the ecological status of the Aravalli by intensive reforestation. To meet the fuelwood, fodder and household needs in the area by increased production of fuelwood, tree fodder, grass, timber, fruit and minor forest products. To provide employment to the rural/tribal population and thereby improve their socioeconomic conditions. To improve the habitat for wild animals in the wildlife sanctuaries. To check soil erosion and thereby improve infiltration of water and hydrological balance. Geni-pool conservation and improvement of biodiversity of flora and fauna. .95 JL India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Proje,ct: Forestry Development, Rajasthan Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: V4,219 M (US$42 M equivalent) Description: To check desertification and to restore the status of the area by intensive afforestation and silvipasture development by adopting "bottom-up" planning approach; to meet fuelwood, fodder, small timber and minor prod-ucts requirement of the local people on a sustained basis; to provide gainful employment to the rural poor and thereby improve their socioeconomic conditions. Project: Hyderabad Greenbelt Donor: Netherlands Loan/,Credit Amount: US$2,672,000 equivalent Description: Reforestation of urban areas and reclamation of derelict lands with the help of Hyderabad Urban Development Authority, local NGOs and local community. Stretches of wasteland will be planted with tree crops to provide fuelwood and other products in a sustainable manner in the urban environment. Project: SPWD (Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development) National Level Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$450,000 equivalent Description: Support projects on rehabilitation of degraded land, supply of fuel and construction wood to the poor; development and better management of soil and water resources. Project: Comprehensive Watershed Development, Tamil Nadu (Ramanathanpur) Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 26.423 M (US$4.0 M eq[uivalent) Description: Promoting the practice of dryland agriculture, range management, horticulture and forestry incl-uding conservation and use of natural resources on a sustainable basis. The broad interventions are in- situ soil and moisture conservation measures, establishment of shelter belt with emphasis on agroforestry promotion benefiting nearly 12,000 hectares of land. 96. Afforestation Project: Karnataka Watershed Development, Dharwar Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 48.8 M (US$7.42 M equivalent) Description: The project aims at developing an appropriate land use system through soil and in-situ moisture conservation activities with emphasis on low- cost vegetative measures and promotion and cultivation of perennial tree crops to increase overall production in the area. Project will benefit nearly 20,000 hectares of arable and nonarable land including capacity building of watershed community and skill training in agriculture to farming community. Project: Comprehensive Watershed Development Koraput, Orissa Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 46.3 M (US$7.0 M equivalent) Description: The project aims at establishing an ecologically sound land use system that enables the poorer rural communities to improve their living conditions and their supply of food, fodder and other essentials. The project benefits nearly 40,000 hectares of arable and nonarable land including strengthening the training infrastructure and facilities at Soil Conservation and Training Institute at Koraput. Project: Comprehensive Watershed, Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli) Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: Phase I: DK 25.OM (US$3.8 M equivalent) Phase II: DK 68.4 M (US$10.5 M equivalent) Description: The project aims at arresting further erosion of degraded land and development of sustainable and cost-efficient utilization of various types of degraded land. This goal will be achieved through establishment of shelterbelts and wind breakers including in-situ soil and moisture conservation measures. Nearly 44,000 hectares of arable land would be benefited. Project: Strengthening and Developing the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) Donor: UNDP Loan/Credit Amount: US$2,560,000 *97 J5 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Description: This assistance to ICFRE and its six institutes is to contribute to human resource development undertake appropriate forestry-related research, and develop mechanisms for effective transfer of technology to users for sustainable development. Project: Replication of Self-Help Activities in Watershed Development in Maharashtra Donor: Germany Loan/'Credit Amount: DM 50.00 for Tech. Cooperation (US$685,850 equivalent) Description: Develop micro-watersheds through village self-help group initiatives. Major components include soil, land, water, crop management, and afforestation. Project: Watershed Development, Karnataka Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: DM 200.00 M (US$27.4 M equivalent) Description: Provide ecological stability to the area, with erosion control, minimization measures, grouandwater management, social forestry measures, afforestation and cleaning the drainage system. 98. Chapter 4 Prevention of Suirface and Groundwater Pollution I. A _~ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities ~~ /CDt- . r;-> , i- - e q-- 7 ---, -- I --- I-I 4.01 In 1992 the government issued for the conjunctive treatment of water resource a policy statement on pollution abatement. The management and water pollution prevention statement affirms the government's intention because water quantity and water quality'are to integrate the environmental and economic closelv linked: Water scarcity results not just aspects of pollution abatement into decision- from inadequate quantity but from inadequate making at all levels and promote technologies quality as well. that reduce industrial pollutants. Specific steps identified in the policy to meet this objective THE DEMAND FOR WATER AND are: MALNAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES O iPreventing pollution at the source. 4.04 India's economic well-being and LI Encouraging, developing and applying future growth depend on the prevention of the most effective and practical technical water pollution and on the overall planning solutions. and management of water resources. India's O Ensuring that the polluter pays for water resources are limited and unevenly pollution and control arrangements. distribuated. Irrigation, which accounts for 93 percent of gross water withdrawal, likely O Focusing protection on heavily polluted will continue to be the dominant user of water areas and river stretches. as India strives to be self-sufficient in meeting O Involving the public in decisionmaking. the foo(d requirements of its large and growing population. At the same time, competing LI Increasing the safety of industrial deman(dsforwaterareemergingamong states operations. and sectors. By 2025 community use is 4.02 Discussed in this section are expected to double, and industrial and power MOEF programs that relate directly to the use is expected to increase sevenfold. prevention of water pollution. Industrial Balancing these demands and mitigating the pollution prevention programs also have a environmental impacts of development require direct bearing on the prevention of pollution careful analysis and targeting of development of walter resources. These are covered in planning. Chapter 5. 4.05 In the past, food demands were 4.03 The Environment Action Plan met with increased commercial agriculture segregates water management issues from (primarily irrigated agriculture), which has water pollution prevention issues and therefore contributed to nonpoint sources of water addresses the two as separate issues under pollution.' Large urban populations coupled different priority areas. This chapter argues with industrial concentration around urban . ~ A, Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution areas have resulted not only in the underestimated. concentration of water demand, but in the intensification of water pollutants from urban Water resource management areas. High pollution loads render critical the 4.07 India's constitution does not view need to maintain minimum flows on rivers, water as a natural resource that is part of a particularly during the dry season, in order to larger ecological system. Instead, every state flush pollutants and dilute wastewater. This government has the power to legislate water concentration and interdependence of water rights and use patterns in an integrated and demand and water pollution together environmentally sustainable way, keeping in exacerbate the constraints on water availability, mind its particular needs. The current policy envisages planning for entire river basins but makes no reference to river basin entities. In 4.06 Water is polluted mainly by organic addition, water policy has only the force of waste, waste generated from industrial consent; the council overseeing its implemen- processes, chemical agents from the fertilizers tation was established by resolution and lacks and pesticides used for crop production, silt the force of law. Still, with the prime minister from degraded catchments, and saline intrusion as chairman, and several central ministers, from the sea in coastal areas. In order to all the chief ministers of the states, and the prioritize and target the actions needed to lieutenant governors of the union territories tackle water pollution, informed estimates of as members, the council is a body where pollutant levels are essential. Furthermore, national consensus can be achieved (Iyer given the close link between pollution and 1994). Treatment of water as a national water availability and the fact that state resource and planning for river basins as whole boundaries do not coincide with river basin entities requires multistate consensus. Yet the boundaries, the political complexity of water government's Eighth Five-Year Plan merely pollution abatement must not be emphasizestheneedfor riverbasinplanning. More than 55 percent of agricultural output is from irrigated lands, with production elsewhere being constrained (World Bank 1991). India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities The Status of Water Pollution 4.08 This section summarizes the industries have partial or complete current status of water pollution as discussed effluent treatment systems, and many in the Environment Action Program (EAP) of these do not achieve the stipulated emission standards. With no ecological SOURCES OF POLLUTION zoning, water pollution in certain areas exceeds the carrying capacity of those 4.09 The EAP discusses water scarcity areas. In addition, distant water sources in different regions of the country as well as that were developed to supply water to the declining water quality in various areas, cities are polluted. particularly along river stretches, water L Irrigated agriculture. The EAP courses, and canals. The EAP highlights point recognizes that irrigated agriculture, and nonpoint sources of water pollution of both ' surface and groundwater. The specific opedawith indeqatenattenin to contribution of each source is difficult to orriations s an mintenane n int determine at any one location and varies from irras .o ser hasuincred icplin area to area. In addition to waterlogging and souremonatedrpion, chemicall .. . . . . ~~~~~contaminated drinking water, and salinity, the EAP identifies the following overexploited groundwater aquifers. causes of water pollution: Tubewells and open or dug wells account Oi Domestic sewage. The primary source for nearly half of the net irrigated area of water pollution in India, especially in the country. Siltation of reservoirs, in and around urban areas, is pollution tanks, and other surface irrigation from domestic sewage and is largely a sources has reduced the irrigation consequence of inadequate sewage potential and lessened the groundwater collection and treatment facilities, as well recharge potential of these surface water as the lack of sanitation. sources. Distributional deficiencies, unbalanced use of irrigation water in the Oi Industrial effluent. Instead of being command areas, and irrational systems concentrated in urban centers, industry of water use and cropping have caused irIndia iS regionlally diversified. Th1e command areas to be affected by protection afforded to industry and the increasing salinity and waterlogging. emphasis on decentralization of ro industrial development have resulted in LEVELS OF DEGRADATION a proliferation of small-scale polluting industries in the paper, sugar, leather, 4.10 The EAP focuses on nonpoint and chemicals sectors. Small-scale sources resulting from deforestation, mine industries are not being subjected to sites, agricultural activities, urban solid waste vigorous pollution controls. Only about disposa.l practices, and the concentration of half of the large and medium-scale human and animal waste in places of 102. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution pilgrimage. Emphasizing that limited access coasts of West Bengal and Orissa, the to natural resources will perpetuate, if not coastal water quality remains almost worsen, the problem of poverty in India, the stable, although dissolved oxygen levels EAP makes the following general statements in some areas have dropped to critical about the pollution of India's water resources: levels. LI Rivers are faced with increasing water LI Groundwater, particularly in regions with quality deterioration due to pollution a high concentration of irrigated from industrial, municipal, and domestic agriculture, has turned brackish and is waste, while the groundwater near urban chemically contaminated with excess centers has deteriorated due to a high fluoride, iron, arsenic, and nitrates from concentration of nitrates, rendering it fertilizers and pesticides. Groundwater unfit for consumption. A study on water quality in coastal areas is threatened by pollution in the Ganges basin found that saline intrusion. about 75 percent of the wastewater LI Command areas of irrigated areas are generated is from municipal sources, affected by waterlogging and salinity. with 88 percent of the municipal sewage coming from Class I cities. Few rivers meet the standards for safe drinking water (Central Pollution Control Board Water pollution 1990). This is an important issue because rivers and lakes are the primary source pollu tim atesoure or for of drinking water, most of which is pollution from different sources or for the untreated. pollutant loads covered in the EAP. The United States Agency for International Development LO Most urban lakes suffer from estimates that untreated sewage and other environmental degradation, and many nonindustrial wastes account for four times arebecomingdegradedbeyondthepoint as much pollution as industrial effluent of recovery. The water is becoming (USAID 1994). It is unclear whether this increasingly unfit for drinking and estimate includes the pollution that is not recreational activities, as well as for captured by the wastewater conveyance supporting aquatic life. system; as such the estimate could prove to be a gross underestimate. LI Neglect of surface irrigation structures like tanks and reservoirs has reduced Waterlogging and Salinity their irrigation and groundwater recharge 4.12 The Ministry of Water Resources potential. 41 h iityo ae eore has measured the rise in the water tables in LI Coastal waters are polluted with high India but has not estimated the area affected concentrations of lead, cadmium, and by waterlogging. Estimates of waterlogging mercury, especially along Thane Creek vary by source because some estimates include in Bombay. The coastal water along areas waterlogged during the monsoons as well Cochin region is affected predominantly as lands affected by seepage from canals and by petroleum hydrocarbons. Along the farm irrigation (Tables 4.1 and 4.2) ^ ~ India's Environment -Taking Stock of Platns, Programs, and Priorities Table 4.1. Ministry of Agriculture Estimate of Table 4.2. Waterlogging, Salinity, and the Extent of Water Logging (million hectares) Alkalinity in Irrigation Projects (hectares) State 1984-85 1990 No.-Of' WVater- Salinit% Alkalinity Projei ts| logging l_____ -- - I A[lecied.j Andhra Pradesh 0.34 0.33 266,040 5,000 22,040 Assam 0 0.45 - - - Bihar 0.12 0.71 3 362,670 224,300 Gujarat l 0.48 0.48 7 89,408 1,214,165 Haryana 0.62 0.62 3 229,840 Jammu and Kashmir 0.01 l 0.01 0 1,500 Karnataka 0.05 0.01 9 24,543 34,244 Kerala 0.11 0.06 8 11,600 10,610 Madhya Pradesh 0.06 0.06 1 4,260 Maharashtra 1.10 0.11 1 6,000 Orissa 0.35 0.06 1 196,260 Punjab 0.02 1.10 1 200,00 1,008,000 1,211,300 Rajasthan 0.81 0.35 1 179,500 70,000 Tamil Nadu l 1.85 0.02 1 18,000 20,120 27,480 Uttar jPradesh 0 l 1.98 1 35,200 483,000 West Bengal 1.00 12.18 360 - 17.170 Total 5.98 8.52 42 1.625.181 3,069,439 Note: Estimates are based on depths of less than 2 meters. Source: Vaidyanathan 1993; Suryanarayanan 1995. Siltation lakes, and reservoirs. No assessments have been made of the location-specific water 4.13 The deposition of eroded material pollution that results from sedimentation. in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and irrigation systems is a major management problem. In Groundwater the irrigation sector siltation poses high costs in terms of shortened life of investments, high 4.14 No quantitative assessments have maintenance costs, and reduced services. As been made of groundwater pollution. Pollution a major source of pollution of both surface of groundwater aquifers as a result of the and groundwater, it increases treatment costs leaching of chemicals is, however, of concern for potable water. Siltation in rivers inhibits in India. the minimum flows required to support aquatic life and flush pollutants. Eroded material brings with it agricultural contaminants-fertilizer 4.15 The average annual precipitation and pesticide residuals, livestock wastes, and in India is about 4,000 cubic kilometers. Some so on. In time these contaminants damage of this precipitation goes into groundwater aquatic life forms, pollute deep water acquifers, storage and surface water sources. The rest make water unsuitable for human consumption, is lost through evapotranspiration. The average and contribute to eutrophication in rivers, flow in the river systems is estimated to be I 104 Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution _ 1,880 cubic kilometers. More than 90 percent Table 4.3. Current and Projected Demand for of the annual runoff in peninsular rivers and Water more than 80 percent of the annual runoff in luse i 1990 2000 2025 the Himalayan rivers occurs during the 25 3 -- monsoon months of June to September, Irrilalion 46(1 630 7711 necessitating the storage of floodwaters in 6 - reservoirs. About 690 cubic kilometers of Eneri! 1 27 7 water can be stored in surface structures. The IndusIpx 1 3 1t I availability of extracted groundwater has been n 30 37 estimated to be about 450 cubic meters. Total Total 552 750 1.050 water available is therefore estimated to be Source: Ramasubban 1993. 1,140 cubic meters (Ramasubban 1993). Given the runoff regimes on the river systems, this figure from both sources is very high. Since Water demand groundwater and surface water in India are not assessed conjunctively, there is a need 4.16 The EAP includes no estimates of for caution when working with estimates of water demand. A recent estimate is shown utilizable water resources. in Table 4.3. 105I .* India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities The Environment Actio(n Program 4.17 "Afforestation, wastelands Plan will augment the ongoing program on development, conservation of soil and wetlands conservation by undertaking moisture, and ensuring that water sources large-scale conservation activities in are not polluted" is the second of the seven selected lakes. The program will concentrate priority action areas listed in the EAP. initially on major urban lakes that are "Strengthening scientific understanding of seriously threatened by an inflow of enviironmental issues and structures for rnunicipal sewage. Conservation plans will training for water management problems" be cleveloped on the basis of Geographic is included in the sixth priority area. Ensuring Infcrmation Service (GIS) and remote- that water resources are not polluted and sensing technology, as well as research and water management are, as discussed earlier, studies. The conservation plans are intended inextricably linked. In fact, water pollution to prevent point and nonpoint source is related, directly or indirectly, to all the pollution, improve catchment area priority areas of action, including treatment, control desilting, promote weed biodiversity, urban pollution, industrial control, improve research and development pollution, clean technology, and alternative for flora and related ecological aspects, and energy. integrate development involving the people in the area. INDIA'S EIGHTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (1992-97) 4.20 Scientific criteria prescribed by 4.18 India's Eighth Five-Year Plan the International Union for the Conservation suggests action on four fronts for water of Nature and Natural Resources form the pollution control: basis of guidelines that states will use to compile information about the lakes. LI Preventing pollution from domestic Twenty-one lakes in nine states have been pollutants. identified; eleven of these (those listed first in Table 4.4) will be included in the first rl Mitigating irrigation impacts. phase. Financial support for the initial study LI Water resource management. and development of plans will be provided to state governments by the central LI Mitigating the impacts of irrigation government. With specific commitments practices. fromt state governments, donor support will be sought to support the implementation GO'VERNMENT OF INDIA RIVER AND LAKE of the lake conservation and development ACTIOIV PROGRAMS plans. The iVational Lake Conservation Plan 4.21 The eleven urban lakes included in the first phase of the National Lake 4.19 The National Lake Conservation Conservation Plan are shown in Map 4.1 106 Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution X Map 4.1. National Lakes Conservation Plan Phase I Dal Lake I - Sukhana Lake Nainital Lake Udaipur Lake _ System Sagar Lake Rabindra Sagar -. Bhoj Lake A A Powai Lake Hussein Sagar Kodaikanal Lake$ Ooty -Lake, ^ff The boundaries, colors, denominations & any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of World Bank Group, any judgement or the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries 107 , ~ India's Environmen - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Table 4.4. Lakes Identified in the National Pollu(ion Assessment using Monitoring Lakes Conservation Program Water quality monitoring-surface water St1ite Lake Jarmmu and Kashrrmir Dal 4.23 Inland water monitoring is being Madhya Pradesh Bhoj done under the Monitoring of the Indian MadhyaPradesh Sagar National Aquatic Resources System; the Andhra Pradesh Hussein Sagar Global Envirornental Monitoring System; and A.r Pradesh HusseinSagathe Ganga Action Plan. A total of 480 stations Uttar Pradesh Nainital UTtaml Padesh Nainital are in place under these programs, of which Tamil Nadu Ooty 398 stations are for rivers, 39 are for lakes, Tamil Nadu Kodaikanal and 27 are for groundwater sources. Sixteen Maharashtra Powai stations are at miscellaneous locations. Rajasthan I Udaipur lake system Chandigarh Sukhana Water quality monitoring-groundwater West Bengal Rabindra Sagar West Bengal Suchindra Tank 4.24 In 1993-94 the groundwater quality West Bengal Adra projec-t assessed water quality in twenty-one West Bengal Salt Lake of twenty-four critically polluted areas (Map West Bengal Santragchi 4.2) (Govindhgarh in Punjab, Udyog Mandal West Bengal Subhash Sagar in Kerala; Parwanoo and Kala Amp in West Bengal Halishahar cluster Himachal Pradesh; Vapi in Gujarat; Singrauli West Bengal Garden reach area in Uttar Pradesh; Korba, Ratlam and Nagoda West BenglBehorasyin Madhya Pradesh; Digboi in Assam; Talcher in Orissa; Bhadravati in Karnataka, Howrah West Bengal Mirik in West Bengal, Dhanbad in Bihar; Pali and Jodhpur in Rajasthan, Manali and North Arcot in Tamil Nadu; Visakhapatnam and Patancheru Pollution assessment using surveys in Andhra Pradesh; Chembur in Maharasthra; Najafgarh in Delhi). Thirty-four parameters River basin studies were rmonitored at these twenty-one sites through a network of 134 sampling locations. 4.22 india contains fourteen major, The data are being interpreted with a view to r fourmedium, and fifty-five minor river preparing a comprehensive report. basins. Intensive surveys to assess the pol- lution load in the basins were undertaken, Automatic water quality monitoring station and reports have been published on the of the Ganga Yamuna sub-basin and the Ganga, Subarnarekha, Bhraman-Baitarani, Sabarmati 4.25 Of the nine locations identified and Krishna basins. Reports have been pub- along the stretches of the Ganga River, six lished on the Mahanadi, Tapi, Narmada, automatic water quality monitoring stations Cauvery, and Godavari basins. Reports on are installed and operational (one in Kannouj, the Mahi and Indus basin are being prepared. two in Kanpur, one in Patna, one in Varanasi, Studies on the Brahmaputra, Pennar, and and one in Allahabad). These continue to Ulhas basins are underway. mrnHtor three parameters at one- hour intervals, 1 08. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution . Automatic water quality monitoring of the Box 4.1. The Water (Prevention and Control Yamuna of Pollution) Act, 1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) 4.26 Eight basic parameters are Act, 1974 providesforthe pre%ention and control monitored through two automatic water of water pollution and niaintaining or restorinLt quality monitoring stations. good qualiRN of water for au) establishllienit. The act assigns functions and powers to the central Control of Industrial pollution along the andstateboards for pre%ention and controlof %%ater Ganga pollution and all related niatters. On a case-b)- case basis orM here there mav be a union territor) 4.27 Sixty-eight industries along the involved, the act allows for the constiitution of a Ganga continue to be monitored for the joint board i.e bi tvo or more ooernments of provisions 1974 contiguous %tates or b:. the central goVernment implementation of the provisions of the 1974 Subject to the pro% isions of the act. functions arid Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) po%%ers of central as well as the state boards have Act (Box 4.1). been delineated indi% idually and i th respect to each other Water quality atlas of India For the pre% ention and control of water pollution, the state e o-ernment has the power to restrict the 4.28 A water quality atlas released in applicationi of the act to certain areas. obtain June 1994 by the Survey of India has thirty- information, take saniples of effluents and follo%% seven plates with relevant text and individual appropriate procedures ihereafter. enier and inspect basic maps. The information provided an establishnient. prohibit use of streams or wells includes the water quality monitoring stations tor disposal of polluting material, restrict ne%% outlets and discharges. restrict existing dischari-e and the monitoring indices wherever possible, oof se% aee oif trade effluent. and refuse or it ithdra%% polluted stretches. of various rivers, problem an% consent bN the state board. areas, Class I and II towns, and information The central board as well as the state boards are pertaining to the seventeen major categories eligible for contributions fronm the central of high-polluting industries. government and state go%ernments respectiicl% to enable the boards to perfornm their functions appropriate1%. The act also prescribes stringent GANGA ACTION PLAN, PHASEpenalties for those who operate their industry % ithout the %alld consent or in % iolation of consent 4.29 The Ganga Action Plan, funded conditions. entirely by the central government, was The Water (Pre ention and Control of launched in 1986 to improve the quality of Pollution) Amendmenl Act. 1988 the water in the river. Three states -Uttar This act *%as passed to overcome adrministratime Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal-are and practical difficulties in implementing the involved in the implementation of the first provisions of the original act. phase. This first phase involves 261 schemes, of which 237 are complete. These schemes are: O Forty-three low-cost sanitation schemes, all of which are complete. Cl Interception and diversion of sewage at eighty- eight points along the Ganga, O Twenty-eight electric crematoriums, of of which seventy-nine are complete. which twenty-six are complete. LI Thirty-five sewage treatment plants, LI Thirty-five riverfront facilities, all of 109 '~ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Box 4.2. The Water (Prevention and Control of is planned over five years, at an Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 estimated total cost of Rs. 3,570 million, This act provides for the levy and collection of a assistedbyasoftloanof Y17.77billion cess on water consumed by persons carrying on certain by the Government of Japan. Pollution industries and by local authorities, with a view to abatement works include the inter- augment the resources of the central board and the ception, diversion, and treatment of 770 state boards for the prevention and control of water mld. of sewage through the construction pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and of twenty-nine sewage treatment plants Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. It also covers specifications on affixing of meters, furnishing of of varyig capacity. Works are planned returns, assessment.of cess, interest payable for delay in fifteen towns ( Delhi, eight towns in in payment of cess, and penalty for nonpayment of Uttar Pradesh, and six towns in cess within the specified time. Haryana). Project feasibility reports for Salient feature of this act are: the eight towns in Uttar Pradesh have * The assessing authority under the act levies and been approved. Apart from the sewage collects a cess based on the amount of water facilities, construction of community consumed and the purpose for which the water is toilets, electric and improved wood- used. based crematoriums, afforestation, and * The concerned industries are required to install standard water meters for measuring and recording the development of ghats are envisaged. the quantity of water consumed. LO Pollution abatement of the Gomti River * Based on cess returns to be furnished by the industry is planned over five years at an estimated every month, the amount of cess is assessed by cost of Rs.640 million in three towns the assessing authorities. Uttar Rsh (Luckn ow ns * Aggrieved persons may appeal the assessment to in Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow, Sultanpur, the Appellate Authority. and Jaunpur). A total of 243 mld. of * The act also provides for a 25 percent rebate on domestic waste from the three towns is the cess, payable to those industries that consume to be intercepted, diverted and treated, water within the quantity prescribed for that with 230 mld. of sewage being from category of industries and also comply with Lucknow alone. The Overseas prescribed effluent standards. Development Administration is contributing funds for the implemen- which are complete. tation of this plan. Preliminary surveys, Li Thirty-two schemes for biological such as CCTV surveys, and sewer of . . . cleamnin works have been taken up In regeneration of the river, all of which g are complete. Lucknow with expertise provided by the Thames Water Authority, and low-cost GANGA ACTION PLAN, PHASE ll sanitation schemes and electric crematoria have been sanctioned for 4.30 Phase II of the Ganga Action Plan, Sultanpur and Jaunpur. In addition to although sponsored by the central government, the above, proposed works include is funded equally by the central and state riverfront development, afforestation, governments. Its two main components are and solid waste management. the cleanup of the Yamuna (including the river Hindon) and Gomti rivers. 4.31 There is some discrepancy in the available information regarding the cost of LI Pollution abatement of the Yamuna River this program. There seems to be no sewage 110. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution expansion planned to link large residential Table 4.5. River Action Plans areas developed by both private developers Nameof j Se%age to be Cost as well as the Lucknow Development River Treated (crores Rs.) Authority and the Housing Board, which do (mid.) not have a sewage system. These residential Sabarmati 891 98.70 areas dump their solid waste into the Kukrail Sutlej 350 229.04 drain, which carries as much as 40 mld. of Tapti 12 5.53 effluent into the Gomti. Khan-Kshipra 170 70.69 4.32 The cities that are covered under Betwa _ 9.09 Narmada 152320 Phase II of the Ganga Action Plan are shown Warmada 15 2,312.00 on Map 4.2. Wain Ganga 6.3 2.80 Krishna _ National River Action Plan Chambal 108 17.86 Cauveri _ 43.55 4.33 An approach paper on the National Subarnarekha 96 32.22 River Action Plan was approved by the Total 1.648.3 2.821.48 government. The paper proposes an outlay of Rs.10,000 million over a period of ten yer,with the central government providing capacity for 891 mld. of sewage. The cost is years, h The pl inmes cleaning estimated to be Rs. 840 million. Forty hectares about half. This plan includes cleaning up of land will be acquired to set up sewage grossly polluted stretches of rivers (based on treant pll at acquired ost of sew 0 the pollution loads identified by the Central treatment plants, atian estimated cost of Rsa20 Pollution Control Board) that are not included million. In addition to sewage diversion and in the Ganga Action Plans. Fourteen highly treatment, 400 toilets (Rs. 1 million), one polluted stretches in nine rivers and fourteen electric crematorium (Rs.4 million), and les polued trechs i eihtother rivers twenty hectares of afforestation (Rs.0.4 less polluted stretches in eight ote ies million) are envisaged. The total estimated have been identified. Work on polluted cost is Rs. 987 million. stretches of eighteen rivers in ten states at an estimated cost of Rs.7,720 million is being Sutlej River Action Plan considered for inclusion under the plan. 4.36 Interception, diversion and 4.34 The eleven river action plans treatment of the 350 mld. of sewage produced presented by the National River Action Plan each day by the towns of Ludhiana, Jalandhar, are listed in Table 4.5. Phagwara, and Phillaur are envisaged under this plan, at an estimated cost of Rs.1,550 million. In addition, there are plans for low- 4.35 The Sabarmati, flowing through cost sanitation facilities, electric and improved Ahmedabad, receives the discharge of 998 crematoriums, solid waste collection and mld. of sewage. Under this plan, interception disposal, and afforestation programs. The and diversion of the sewage outfalls is overall cost of the program is estimated to envisaged through a 18.75 km. sewerage line be Rs.2,229 million, with construction spread as well as through installation of treatment over five years. .11 India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Map 4.2. G6nga Action Plan: Phase 11 & Critically Polluted Areas . J / / ~~~~~~~~~PonblSn Aba emenl part'of Worl Bank Grou* Oany andt orth _f~~~~~~~~~o acetac of suhhu re A)e~~~~ § ~~~The boundaries, colors, denominations & any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of World Bank Group, any judgeruent or the legal statu of any tenTitory or any endorsement ~~~ ~or acceptance of such boindaries Water Quality Assessed in Critically Polluted Areas Area State Area State I Govindgarh (Punjab) 12 Manali, North Arcot (Tamil Nadu) 2 Parwanoo (Himachal Pradesh) 13 Vishakhapatanam (Andhra Pradesh) 3 Kala Amp (Himachal Pradesh) 14 Patancher (Andbra Pradesh) 4 Najafgarh (Delhi) 15 Talcher (Orissa) 5 Singrauli Area (Uttar Pradesh) 16 Ratlam (Madhya Pradesh) 6 Pali (Rajasthan) 17 Nagoda ( Madhya Pradesh) 7 Jodhpur (Rajasthan) 18 Korba (Madhya Pradesh) 8 Vapi (Gujarat) 19 Dhanbad (Bihar) 9 Chembur (Maharashtra) 20 Howrah (West Bengal) 10 Bhadravati (Kamataka) 21 Digboi (Assam) 11 Udyog Mandal (Kerala) _ __ 112I Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution Tapti River Action Plan years. 4.37 The major stretch of pollution on Narmada River Action Plan this river lies between the towns of Nepanagar and Burhanpur. Pollution from Nepanagar is 4.40 Sewage from Jabalpur, a town of predominantly industrial, and will be tackled about 900,000 people, is carried by six drains by enforcing existing law. Sewage interception, into the Narmada either directly or through diversion, and treatment is planned for the 12 its tributary, Prayat. Sewage from the two mld. of sewage from Burhanpur which finds major drains, Omti and Moti Nallas, are to its way into the Tapti through seven major be intercepted, diverted, and treated. Diversion drains. In addition, ten improved, wood-based is planned for 15 mld., with a treatment crematoriums, five units of community toilets, capacity of 5 mld. In addition, there are plans riverfront development activities, tree-planting, for improved, wood-based crematoriumsp low, affores-tation, and solid waste management cost sanitation schemes, ghat development components are planned. The total cost of this solid waste collection and disposal and plan is estimated to be Rs.56 million, with afforestation. The estimated cost of the plan the outlay being spread over three years. is Rs.23,120 million, with an expected implementation period of five years. Khan-Kshipra River Action Plan Wain Ganga River Action Plan 4.38 The Khan River is a tributary of the Kshipra River. Together the two carry the 4.41 This river is highly polluted between untreated sewage of Ujjain and Indore. About Chapra and Quarali in Madhya Pradesh. About 170 mld. of sewage will be intercepted, 6.3 mld. of sewage from Chapra, Seoni, and diverted, and treated. In addition, there are Quarali will be intercepted diverted and treated at an estimated cost of Rs. 12.5 milion. plans for low-cost sanitation programs, t here aredpasfor improv improved, wood-based crematoriums, In addition, there are plans for improved, riverfront facilities, solid waste collection and wood-based crematoriums, low-cost sanitation disposal, and afforestation programs. The total facilities, riverfront development, solid waste cost of the plan is estimated to be Rs.706 9 management, and afforestation programs, at costof te pln isestiatedto b Rs.06.9 an estimated cost of Rs.l1 5.5 million. The total million. Once initiated, the program is expected cost of the plan is Rs.28.0 million. to be operational in four years. Krishna River Action Plan Betwa River Action Plan 4.42 Preparation studies are under way for 4.39 Interception, diversion, and pollution abatement on this river. Hyderabad, treatment of sewage from Mandi Deep, Pune, Satara, Sholapur, Kholapur, Bizapur, Vidhisha, and parts of Bhopal are planned. Belgaum, Raichur, and Kurnool lie on the In addition, solid waste collection and disposal, banks of the river. More than 500 important low-cost sanitation facilities, ghat industrial units (many of which are large-scale development, crematorium construction, and industries) are located along this stretch of tree planting projects are planned. The total the river. Once feasibility reports are *cost of the plan is estimated to be Rs.90.9 completed, bilateral assistance will be sought million, with an implementation period of four to undertake pollution abatement works. .11 - India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Chambal River Action Plan K.R. Nagar) and five towns in Tamil Nadu (Erode, Bhavani, Pallipalyam, Kumar Palyam, 4.43 A major tributary of Yamuna, the and Tiruchi). In addition, there are plans for Chambal is the major source of drinking water low-cost sanitation schemes, crematoriums, for Nagda, Ratlam, Nimuch, and Kota, among solid waste management, riverfront others. About 6 mld. of sewage from Nagda development, and afforestation schemes. and 102 mld. of sewage from Kota is Feasibility studies and surveys are not yet discharged in to the river in addition to complete. Preliminary estimates place the cost industrial effluent. An investment of Rs.39.2 of the program for the two states at Rs.43 5.5 million inNagda and Rs. 139.4 million in Kota million. is envisaged for the interception, diversion, Subarnarekha River Action Plan and treatment of sewage, in addition to wood- based crematoriums, bathing ghats, solid waste 4.45 Sewage from Ranchi, Jamshedpur, managementprojects,low-costsanitation,and and Ghat-Shila is discharged into the afforestation schemes, as well as the promotion Subarnarekha through open drains. About 96 of environmental awareness through public mld. is to be intercepted, diverted, and treated participation. using low-cost sewage treatment technologies. In addition, there are plans for low-cost Cauvery River Action Plan sanitation, crematoriums, riverfront development, and afforestation programs. The 4.44 The governments of Karnataka and total cost of the plan is estimated to be Rs.322.2 Tamil Nadu will undertake sewage million. interception and treatment using low-cost 4.46 Map 4.3 shows the location of the methods in four towns in Karnataka rivers under the National River Action Plan. (Shrirangapatna, Nanjangud, Kollegal and I 14. Prevention of Surface and Groundwvater Pollution Map 4.3. River Cleanup Planned Under the National River Adion Plan ¶= S ,' I -_ The boamdaries, colors, denominations & any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of World Bank Group, any judgement or the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries 1. Sutlej River 7. Subarnarekha River 2. Chambal River 8. Tapti River 3. Khan Kshipra River 9. Wain Ganga River 4. Betwa River 10. Krishna River 5. Sabarmati River 11. Cauveri River 6. Narmada River India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Major Issues and Recommendations 4.47 Two important conceptual issues groundwater has to be assessed. While the arise from the EAP's discussion of point and EAP includes pollution from open mine sites nonpoint sources of water pollution. First, the as a concern, the magnitude, range, and EAP does not recognize that most water location of impacts and health and productivity pollution from urban areas is nonpoint source losses of this pollution are not clear. The same and not confined to the banks of rivers. In holds true for discussions about river water fact, given the slow progress in collecting and pollution. Without gross estimates that treating human wastes, there is considerable differentiate pollution by sources of pollution pollution in the open spaces surrounding slum and pollutant loads, it is difficult to set settlements. Second, the EAP does not priorities and weigh alternatives for pollution differentiate between pollution sources that abatement, and to allocate the costs of pollution can be dealt with within a reasonable time to the polluter-a step identified by the frame (point source pollutants) and those that government in its policy for pollution cannot (nonpoint pollutants). These oversights prevention. impede rational decisionmaking. Criticalie environmental concerns based on specific 4.49 The setting of priorities among tecnvional criteriaann be rorosly pollution mitigation actions should be based analyzed, priority actions cannot be defined, on a systematic comparison of social costs project formulation is made difficult, key and benefits. Having identified priority areas stakeholders cannot be identified, and effective for environmental action, as well as the factors implementation cannot be ensured. that impact water pollution, the next steps are to define realistic objectives for pollution 4.48 The EAP acknowledges that there abatement, determine the most cost-effective are regional variations in water pollution. priority actions within and between sectors, While the causes of water pollution in India and choose environmental instruments that are indeed generic (population growth, reflect cost-benefit and cost-effective analyses. development, and poverty exacerbated by market, government, and institutional failures), PREVENTING POLLUTION FROM DOMESTIC water pollution is location specific. Mitigating SOURCES the environmental and economic impacts of Urban wastewater water pollution requires differentiating these impacts by source of pollution. When 4.50 Water pollution from urban areas highlighting coastal pollution, for example, is normally considered point source pollution. it is not clear how much of India's coastline This classification assumes that wastewater is polluted. Whether coastal pollution is is an identifiable stream and therefore can be only a problem in certain hot spots, what the brought to a point and treated before discharge. economic and social costs of the loss of marine Such a classification is erroneous in India. resources are, whether there are impacts on Class I and Class II cities in India collect less tourism, and whether the pollution is impacting than 5 percent of the total wastewater in 116 . Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution conveyance systems and have the capacity to sewer system. In India there is no clear treat about 15 percent of the wastewater information on the quantity of water that is collected. The rest passes uncollected and delivered to individual cities, the quantity that untreated into the environment. Discharges is actually distributed through the mains, the are not made directly into water bodies, but extracted groundwater that augments begin as residuals in soil before they ultimately municipal supply, or the wastewater that is reach the larger bodies of water. There is no actually collected through a city's sewers. defined waste stream and therefore no way Thus, it is difficult to estimate either generated ofmitigatingtheharmfuleffectsofwastewater wastewater or the domestic pollution before it reaches the major water system. Other emanating from wastewater. nonpoint urban sources of pollution of both ground and surface water include human 4.53 About 80 million people-30 excreta, garbage, and leachate from garbage. percent of the country's urban population- The lack of an effective collection system for live in slums in the twenty-three major cities 95 percent of the wastewater generated by in India. Most have inadequate access to cities, coupled with gross deficiencies in solid potable water and sanitation. Given the waste disposal, makes urban water pollution inadequate sanitation coverage, it is not difficult to monitor and in some ways gives possible to estimate the amount of nonpoint it the nonpoint characteristics of agricultural organic pollution from open defecation pollution. practices in Indian cities. These pollutants stay in soil until they degrade or get washed away 4.51 The EAP recognizes bankside into surface water sources. There is no water pollutants (washing, defecation, and information on whether this pollution exceeds disposal of corpses) as nonpoint sources of the assimilative capacity of the soil and water pollution, and the government has designed (especially in areas of high density) or what programs and schemes to address this type role such practices play in the spread of disease of pollution. But the environmental, health, through water pollution. The government has economic, and poverty impacts of the large implemented several toilet construction quantities of uncollected wastewater in cities schemes in slums on municipal land. There could be more severe than the impacts of are, however, reports that the toilets are bankside pollutants; bankside pollutants are inadequate, choked, dilapidated, and at least confined to definable areas and impossible to use. The toilets constructed by therefore are easier to mitigate. A sharper the government should be surveyed to ascertain focus is needed on the nonpoint source the effectiveness of these programs before such pollution resulting from uncollected municipal programs are expanded or replicated. Most wastewater. It is technically feasible to deal public toilets, whether constructed by the with this dispersed pollution, but not until the government or by the private sector, are located wastewater is captured in a stream or conduit in congested areas and discharge their effluent and treated before discharge into water bodies. into septic tanks; there are no digesters for the treatment of raw sewage. This poses a significant pollution threat to groundwater. 4.52 Sewerage coverage is usually Ironically,thereisnoaltemativetoseptictanks expressed in terms of the share of wastewater until the sewerage system is extended to generated by a city that is collected by the unauthorized colonies and slums. .117 _~. India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Integrated management of liquid and solid municipal waste into these sources of supply. wastes New Delhi and Tirupur regularly have to deal with contaminated water supplies due to these 4.54 Sewerage coverage is far from factors. comprehensive in Indian cities. As a result open stormwater drains and natural gullies MITIGATING IRRIGATION IMPACTS are major carriers of untreated sewage- including indiscriminately dumped solid waste 4.57 The EAP gives considerable (often including toxic and hazardous waste) - attention to the water problems arising from into rivers. This leads to clogging and flooding India's irrigation sector. But although it of open stormwater drains and overburdens identifies priority areas in the sector, it does any scheme to intercept, divert, and treat not recommend specific programs. The Eighth discharges from stormwater drains before they Five-Year Plan suggests several avenues to enter the rivers. Treatment plants frequently mitigate the impacts of irrigation; in fact, it break down because of the excess solid waste classifies waterlogging and salinity as a that comes with inflows of stormwater, making national menace and calls for systematic it impossible to realize the benefits of water surveys and a phased program for cost- pollution abatement schemes. effective reclamation and restoration of Contaminated piped water supply irrigated land. 4.55 Municipal water supply is also Water utilization and the needfor reliable routinely contaminated by sewer line leakages data that seep into the water supply through 4.58 Economical use of water is perhaps cracked or broken pipes or as a result of the the most important challenge facing India suction effect that is created in supply pipes today. About Rs.360 billion has been invested when supply is intermittent. Cities must since 1950 to create a surface storage capacity implement their own programs for minimizing totaling about 18 million hectares in the the chances of water contamination (including irrigation sector. About half of this capacity replacement of old water mains, internal pipe is unused, and only 10 to 15 percent of it linings, and so on). reaches farmers due to transmission losses and evaporation from reservoirs. Government data regarding the area served by irrigation paint 4.56 Growing water scarcity in urban conflicting pictures. Moreover, these figures areas has led to the development of water cite system potential, not the actual areas that schemes at great distances from cities in order get irrigated after construction is over and the to augment the supply. The quality of these systems are working. Groundwater irrigation, supplies is threatened by a lack of protection on the other hand, has taken place almost of the watersheds, largely because industry entirely from private investment. While not is allowed to locate in the watershed, often always available in all locations as an close to the water sources. Inadequate alternative to surface water, groundwater is enforcement of water pollution regulations an important source that a farmer can control. inevitably leads to either contamination by Estimates of groundwater availability and use industrial pollutants or the discharge of are suspect, however, because groundwater 118. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution and surface water are not conjunctively Siltation managed; furthermore, there is no systematic, 4.60 Apart from reducing the continuous observation of groundwater extraction. Rational decisionmaking for water groundwater recharge potential, siltation of water bodies also contributes to water development, allocation, and pollution pollution. As a body of water becomes silted, prevention requires comprehensive data on the eroded soil washing into the water source the economic and environmental costs and can cause water quality deterioration due to benefits of various approaches. While it is the transference of pollutants. Siltation from recognized that collecting information is eroded soil treated with fertilizer can over expensive, affordable ways of collecting basic time, lead to the deterioration Of water quality information need to be found in order to due to the dissolution of potassium and efficiently manage and sustain the water phosphorous. Siltation also reduces the supply. availability of light for photosynthesis and Waterlogging and salinity ultimately can have major negative impacts on the aquatic life in the body of water. 4.59 The total area subject to waterlogging in India was estimated by the Water resource management National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 4.61 Beyond the problems of salinity at 6 million hectares, including both rainfed and waterlogging, perhaps the most significant and irrigated areas. This figure is thought to negative impact of irrigation has been the be a substantial underestimate. Based on data inefficient use of water. To underscore the from individual command areas, it is estimated importance of irrigation in the overall that irrigation has induced waterlogging or management of water, it is important to note -salinization on about 3 percent of the created that resolution of conflicting demands for command area. Waterlogging problems have water requires answering critical economic developed in about 250,00 hectares of land and social questions that go beyond the in northwest India, and another 3 million confines of individual users and states. These hectares may be injeopardy over the next thirty conflicts are unlikely to see resolution in the to fifty years. As in urban areas, water supply near term. But efficiency of water use can be network expansion in irrigation has not been enhanced in the near term for all sectors of accompanied by an expansion of drainage. the economy. Improved efficiency of water While the need for drainage has long been use in irrigation, while politically the most recognized, such investments have been complex goal to achieve, is technically the deferred in favor of new irrigation investments. most important. Where drains have been constructed, they often have been poorly maintained. Apart from inadequate drainage, overwatering at head- 4.62 The National Water Policy adopted reaches is common and has created in 1987 brought all water development under waterlogging that is exacerbated during the a single ministry, the Ministry of Water monsoons. Resources. The ministry, however, lacks the _ I I c India 's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities power to impose its policies on states. Since 4.64 Wells now serve a larger area than water allocation cannot be imposed by the the canal systems. The gross area irrigated central government, states have tried to make by wells is estimated to be at least 30 million claims on the water in the river basin. hectares (Repetto 1994). The overexploitation Decisionmaking for water allocation is not of groundwater is reflected in a progressive based on information about the availability deepening of wells and a permanent lowering of the resource; rather, the decisions are of the water table in different parts of the determined politically, and historically have country, especially in areas that rely on wells been dominated by irrigation demands. This for irrilgation (for example, the average depth situation persists despite the fact that the of water is estimated to be falling by I to 33 national water policy gives irrigation second centimeters a year in different districts in priority in allocation, with the first priority Haryana). In most states average groundwater given to domestic and livestock needs. Without levels have fallen by more than 2 meters in analysis of the resources available and the the past ten years; in many areas the fall current uses, supported by reliable exceeds 4 meters. Groundwater organizations hydrological data, India can neither develop have rnade only minimal attempts to keep hydrological data, ~~records of the number of wells, the annual definitive criteria for different user groups nor rerd, or the arerigated. In ancipl explicily incrporate enviromental water yield, or the area irrigated. In principle, explicitly incorporate environmental the groundwater markets developed all over considerations. Such analysis and priority the country over the past two decades give setting are essential if India expects to non-well owners access to groundwater. For successfully develop and manage its water the most part, however, the bulk of water resources. pumped is used by the owners, with only the Groundwater development and management surplus being sold. 4.63 The constitution assigns 4.65 State regulations governing well groundwater development rights to state locations and spacing have failed in the past. governments. None of the Indian states, For political reasons, states are unwilling to however, has introduced any form of legal deny credit and energy to wells in violation. control over groundwater development. Small farmers, who typically cannot afford Surface and groundwater resources are parts their own well, are further disadvantaged as water tables fall and crop yields decline. While ofy action the h ogical sthe of a rierivs, there is clearly a need to regulate groundwater Any extraction that mroundi ather flowr f the rivl use, it must be borne in mind that past attempts the extraction of groundwater, or the biological atrgliohvebnuscesf. or chemical characteristics upstream affects the hydrology of the basin and impacts MITIGATING THE IMPACTS OF IRRIGATION downstream users. In the absence of a sound government program for developing private Nonpoint sources of water pollution groundwater irrigation, exploitation of 4.66 The EAP gives considerable groundwater to its maximum potential as attention to water pollution from irrigated envisaged in the Eighth Five-Year Plan could agricultural activities. Some of the chemical result in overexploitation of the resource and fertilizers and pesticides that are applied to therefore is cause for concern. irrigated land to increase crop yields leach 1 20 Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution into the groundwater or are washed off into where endosulfan also was detected. Options rivers and lakes. This kind of pollution is most for controlling agricultural pollution are thus common in Europe and North America, but more limited than for other environmental pollution from agricultural chemicals in discharges because fewer opportunities for northwest India is approaching levels abatement exist, at least in the near future. comparable to the industrial countries. While Equally important, it must be recognized that there is a need to address this issue, it is equally pollution from agricultural activities is important to recognize that India has nearly widespread and does not lend itself easily to reached the limits of land available for mitigation efforts. cultivation, and improving agricultural productivity is critical to meeting growing RECOMMENDATIONS demand. Achieving crop production at the production target of 285 million tons by 2006- Preventing pollution from domestic 07 will require increasing the use of fertilizers pollutants by 60 percent by the final year of the current Five-Year Plan compared with fertilizer use 4.69 Most of the government's efforts in the final year of the last Five-Year Plan. to protect water resources from domestic On pesticide control and management, the pollutants have been the projects under the Eighth Five-Year Plan is limited to suggesting Ganga Action Plan. Several studies have been the gradual phasing out of DDT and BHC. undertaken under the plan, but they have focused on physiochemical and biological Fertilizers and pesticides water quality parameters. There have been no studies on the ecosystem processes, river-flood 4.67 Fertilizer use is concentrated on plain interactions, or problems caused by flow five crops-rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and regulation, nor have the roles of point and maize- in about 150 irrigated districts. There nonpoint sources of pollution been are no longer differences in chemical fertilizer investigated. Management strategies for the use between large and small farms, although prevention of pollution have been developed there are differences between irrigated and in the absence of critical strategic analysis. unirrigated areas. For instance, nearly 6 million tons of nitrogenous fertilizer are applied to 4.70 About Rs. 4 billion has been spent less than one-third of the gross irrigated area. on the Ganga Action Plan since 1985. The average nitrate content of groundwater Prevention of pollution of the Ganges river increased almost two and a half times from has been attempted by capturing sewage 1975 to 1982. streams from cities, diverting and treating the 4.68 Pesticide use grew by more than sewage, and then discharging it into the river. 6 percent between 1970-71 and 1990-91 No projects under the plan have been Nearly 70 percent of the pesticides used in undertaken to expand the inadequate sewage Indiaarly70percenned of thevpesticdest ed fr collection network in these cities or to link India are banned or severely restricted for u ra htmyb oee yaswg agricultural uses in other countries. Pesticide up areas that may be covered by a sewage residues of DDT and BHC have been detected network but that lack connections to the in the aquatic invertebrates and mollusks found system. in the Yamuna River (Ganges basin) as well 4.71 The plan's primary intention has as in crabs collected from Andhra Pradesh, been to cleanup the river water, not the cities . 121 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities through which the river water flows. No health the Ganga Action Plan, as well as in the benefits were expected for the populations of National River Action Plan. Thus neither plan the cities as a result of the cleanup of the reflects any lessons learned or questions raised river. Furthermore, projects under the plan under the first phase of the Ganga Action Plan. have not been conceptually comprehensive because they have dealt only with sewage treatment and disposal, and have not addressed Ganga Action Plan nor the National River solid waste management in the urban centers. Action Plan contains quantitative assessments In India a conjunctive approach to the two is of expected water quality improvements after imperative in order to realize sustainable pollution abatement works are undertaken benefits, along various river stretches. Instead, the expected benefits are couched in the hope that 4.72 Sewage treatment technology river quality will improve to the "desired best choices under the plan are questionable designated use." because many of the treatment facilities 4.75 An increasing number of financed under the program are either uneuilzd inopee no comisine international donors are getting involved in environmental management in India. It is or broken down, or construction has not yet begun. The 1974 Water Act and its important that support be given to amegndmen require indusWateriAlt eff ts to comprehensive environmental programs so amenetnetai stauireinda strds; m f,un a iti that environmental mitigation efforts in one sector are not nullified by the environmental responsible for domnestic sewage, however, aresponotbl coveredoby stheact a generaly haver neglect of a closely allied sector. For example, are not covered by the act and generally tave the benefits of investments in sewage stanards for inds tryalong th . riv ent expansion are not likely to be realized or givedards consinderatio t londred river standar sustainable without a concomitant program atve conspecifi ationsto depirendringr oanduse for solid waste collection and management, requiredat thati location,dependingon the rv sa es as the two are closely linked to water pollution crqitcal diltioncation, the asserss w.aste issues. Furthermore, support must be given assimilative capacity of the river. As a result, to strategic priorities that have been determined the standards are arbitrary, disregard the total amount of effluent discharged at any point 4.76 Consideration should be given to or upstream, and do not take into account the providing support to achieve priority natural assimilative capacity of the river in objectives: different places at different points in time. i To ensure that pollution control Furthermore, the act applies only to point investments are cost-effective, a discharges from specific units, so several large and many small drains are not covered by the cmmon tregoredonors finan act and continue to receive discharges from projet under theugonm spogram small-scale industry and slum areas. to prevent water pollution should be promoted. This strategy should be based 4.73 Despite these shortcomings, the on strategic analysis of realistic same concepts for river water pollution environmental objectives and technically management are used in the second phase of sound methods for achieving desired 122. Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution water quality, with priority given to the Box 4.3. Solving Water Problems with balance between costs and benefits. Local Initiatives The water crisis in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, has U Donor consensus should be forged in been steadily worsening. Intensive groundwater order to end replication of environmental extraction far exceeds the recharge rate. The strategies that have not proved municipality's proposal for solving the water successful. Low-cost sanitation schemes problem consisted of a dam 20 km. away, estimated under the Ganga Action Plan are a case to cost Rs. 48.55 crores and with a completion in point. Performance evaluation of these time of twenty-two years. schemes should be encouraged, and A voluntary group, Samaj Pragati Sahayog, prvt ecnin these has a proposal before the planning commission. The proposal abandons the centralized supply schemes should be strongly supported. approach and recommends a three-pronged strategy to overcome the water deficit: total watershed LI A simple study to model and estimate planning which will regenerate aquifers in the the water quality impacts of open Dewas region; recycling of water in industries and defecation and uncollected sewage in a of municipal sewage to meet industrial demand typical Indian city should be undertaken. for water; and reviving traditional water storages typ*ca in Dewas town. The plan covers 4,170 hectares If the study could be modeled so that that comprise three microsheds, includes city managers and municipalities could afforestation measures that cover wastelands and feed in their own population and other commons, outlines measures for gully control and data, it could become an important tool drains, and proposes the construction of fresh storages. This action plan is expected to yield a that would enable governments, donors, total of 12.62 mld. of water for Dewas within a development banks, international and couple of years, turning the deficit in the current national nongovernmental organizations supplies into a surplus. (NGOs), and the public to make more infonned strategic decisions for pollution abatement. are irrelevant in the context of preventing L Assistance should be provided to the the pollution of water resources, in fact government to develop standards that water scarcity is closely linked to water determine water quality at different pollution (Box 4.3). points according to flow, assimilative 4.77 In order to prevent hidden drains capacity, and local conditions. and natural drainage channels from emptying Furthermore, a mechanism could be into rivers, a pilot that demonstrates the instituted for constant monitoring and effectiveness of a covered drain that runs updating of effluent and treatment parallel to the river (intercepting and collecting efficiency standards. wastewater) and discharges downstream would O Voluntary organizations, local civic illustrate a low-cost technically sound option bodies, or other NGOs should be for channeling wastes and improving the water encouraged to formulate plans for quality along river reaches. This study in solving the water supply problems in conjunction with a comprehensive approach their areas. While it may seem that to environmental improvement under Phase initiatives for solving water problems II of the Ganga Action Plan or under the . 12_ t. India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Box 4.4. Drip Irrigation System Saves Water IMPROVING WATER RESOURCE and Improves Efficiency MANAGEMENT While not applicable for field grain crops like rice and wheat, drip irrigation system (DIS) offers 4.78 The World Bank's Irrigation marked advantages for systematicallyplanted row Sector Review puts forth a series of crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers and cash recommendations that cover actions to crops like sugarcane, cotton, spices, tea, and coffee. improve water policy and planning, DIS is especially suitable and appropriate in water- . a scarce areas and near urban centers where high- expenditures and financial management, and value crops can be marketed. The Eighth Five-Year technical performance of the irrigation Plan targets 500,000 hectares for DIS. departrnents as well as defining the roles of DIS can be adapted to poor soil and water the government and nongovernment sectors quality as well as to difficult terrain. The system in irrigation. While these recommendations requires 40 to 50 percent of the water used by flood are not covered here, close attention to the irrigation because only roots get watered, thereby i minimizing weed proliferation. In combination with rrigation sector iS important because of the liquid fertilizer use, it offers ilte furiher adL aniaee close links between water quality and water of reducing fertilizer wsC bN the 20 to 30 pprcent quantity. Given the needs of India's growing that normally gets dispersed in the air. Unlike population-and the fact that there is little conventional irrigation methods that erode soil scope to harness more water in surface storage fertility due to waterlogging and salinity, it pi eser els soil fertility. DIS also reduces labor costs and structures-the need for efficiency in water addresses the basic issue of efficient water use cannot be stressed enough. Throughout management. Increasing productivity, rather than Asia, planners are concentrating less on increasing the area under cultivation, will be the developing new supplies and more on only way to meet the needs of a growing population. managiing demand. Support can be provided Despite its proven track record, the system to these efforts with the following: has not gained a foothold in India since its introduction in the 1970s, largely because of Li Introducing market-based pricing for government indifference, farmer resistance, and . * . . the poor quality of the systems available for drip irrigation atthattime. Therehasbeen someprogress pesticides would encourage farmers to since then. About 36,500 hectares of land is irrigated use natural resources and other inputs by the drip method in six states, but the high initial more efficiently. India's agricultural investment and lack of know- how about its use policy sets official prices for are impeding progress in other states. commodities and production inputs, Source: Khanna 1992. thereby encouraging farmers to deplete natural resources and use water inefficiently. This leads to over- National River Action Plan should be piloted. exploitation of groundwater, overuse of Support for a pilot lake project under the surface water (waterlogging and government's Lake Conservation Program that salinity), and overuse of fertilizers and promotes an integrated approach to sustainable pesticides. Getting the prices right is the management should also be considered. Rather first principle for demand management. than capital investments for pollution L Ecologists, epidemiologists, and other abatement alone, the project should cover the specialists should study current region that contains the lake. agricultural practices in order to ascertain I2 4 . Prevention of Surface and Groundwater Pollution the economic significance of the health technology). Agricultural departments impacts of groundwater contamination, should be trained to promote DIS. pesticide use, and other problems related Comprehensive projects to promote DIS to agricultural production. would be in keeping with the government's objectives for rural poverty OL A stocktaking exercise of drip irrigation alleviation. system (DIS) in conjunction with other donors in the sector should be initiated LI River basin planning should address (Box 4.4). Based on this exercise, a downstream reservoir flows during cohesive national strategy to promote months of water scarcity to ensure that DIS could be formulated to underpin pollutant load dilution is within the projects in regions where groundwater assimilative capacity of the river. This or spring water can be used (because is especially important for large rivers the two carry less sediment, which tends and for rivers that carry high pollution to choke the filtration systems of DIS loads. 125 _ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Category: Irrigation related Government Objectives/Programs:' Rehabilitation and catchment area treatment for major and medium irrigation works; water management plans based on detailed soil surveys and land use capability for major and medium irrigation works; developing networks with government departments with research institutions and experts for research, design and evaluation of irrigation projects; developing data base for post- evaluation studies for periodic monitoring of actual crop patterns, water use pattern and productivity in all irrigation commands; review of command area development programs in each state for streamlining the program for better returnsfrom irrigated agriculture andfor optimum use of water; rehabilitation of system and nonsystem irrigation tanks; promotion ofprograms and projects for conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources; rehabilitation and utilization ofpublic tubewells; organization strengtheningfor better operation and maintenance systemsfor irrigation works; protection for small surface storage structures in rainfall-short areas; dissemination and extension of low-cost rainfed, agronomic and soil conservation technologies to small and marginalfarmers; mission mode project on development, demonstration and promotion of biofertilizers; survey on waterlogging, saline soils, flood hazards, etc. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Watershed Development, Karnataka Germany US$27.4 M equiv. Maharashtra Rural Water Supply/Environmental World Bank US$109.9 M equiv. Sanitation Haryana Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$258.0 M equiv. National Hydrology World Bank US$158.6 M equiv. Karnataka Rural Water Supply / Env. Sanitation World Bank US$92.0 M equiv. Punjab Irrigation and Drainage World Bank US$165.0 M equiv. Maharashtra Composite Irrigation III World Bank US$160.0 M equiv. Tamil Nadu Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$282.9 M equiv. lGOI programs were extracted from India's Environment Action Program and the 1994-95 annual reports of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. 126. Prevention of Ground and Surfacewater Pollution Category: Capacity building Government Objectives/Programs: Formulation of Flood Control Master Plans for major river basins and for undertaking post-facto evaluation of flood control works; organizational strengthening ofState Land Use Boards for the tasks of soil and water conservation; natural resource / agricultural statistics in respect of dry land agriculture, irrigation and hydrological data for better crop planning, optimum application of water and flood mapping, and environmental impact assessments for river valley and agricultural development projects; schemes to involve women for implementation of national programs in agriculture, including watershed development and soil conservation schemes. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Watershed Development Kamataka Germany US$27.4 M equiv. Haryana Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$258.0 M equiv. National Hydrology World Bank US$158.6 M equiv. Tamil Nadu Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$282.9 M equiv. Category: Institutional development Government Objectives/Programs: Framing of legislative measures, fiscal measures and credit delivery schemes for proper exploitation of groundwater; formulation of a regionwide pricing policy. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Haryana Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$258.0 M equiv. Kamataka Rural Water Supply and Drainage World Bank US$92.0 M equiv. Punjab Irrigation and Drainage World Bank US$165.0 M equiv. Tamil Nadu Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$282.9 M equiv. Category: National Lake Conservation Plan Government Objectives/Programs: Carrying capacity studies in environmentally sensitive areas to identify actions to be taken to conserve, protect and preserve the environment as well as to draw up sustainable development plans so that the overall development of the area is optimal. . _7 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Conservation of Lakes, Bhopal Japan (OECF) US$71.0 M equiv. Category: Environmental statistics and mapping Government Objectives/Programs: Information on location of water and air quality monitoring stations, location of critically polluted areas, designated best use classification of streams, major cities with populations over one lakh, administrative divisions-district boundaries, major river basins and drainage network Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding National Hydrology British-ODA US$12.1 M equiv. Biomonitoring Kallada Netherlands (Not available) Environmental Action Program Netherlands US$222 M equiv. Haryana Water Resources Consolidated World Bank US$258.0 M equiv. National Hydrology World Bank US$158.6 M equiv. Category: Water quality monitoring Government Objectives/Programs: Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic Resources System, Global Environmental Monitoring System and Ganga Action Plan. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Surface water Watershed Management Germany Phase I:US$3.57 M equiv. Phase II:US$10.9 M equiv. Gomti River British-ODA US$48.5 M equiv. Water Quality Monitoring Stations Netherlands US$0.39 M equiv. Biomonitoring Netherlands Groundwater Water Quality Monitoring Stations Netherlands US$0.39 M equiv. Automatic water quality monitoring of River Yamuna Yamuna Action Plan Japan (OECF) US$178.0 M equiv. Prevention of Ground and Surfacewater Pollution a World Bank Support Project: Maharashtra Rural Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Fiscal Year: 1991 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$109.9 M (equivalent) Description: To be implemented in about ten districts in Maharashtra. It would raise the standard of living in rural areas through improved health and productivity by expanding access to potable rural water supply systems and environmental sanitation facilities. The rural water supply component would include about 75 large, regional piped water supply schemes, 170 individual village piped water supply schemes, and the installation of about 3,000 India Mark III hand pumps. The project would promote enhanced approaches to environmental sanitation and health communications through the development of new strategies and their implementation through innovative programs. The environmental sanitation component would promote the disposal of wastewater in villages with piped water supply through improved drainage and the construction of low-cost latrines. The health communications component would create greater community awareness and demand for improved hygiene, giving field staff in the Department of Public Health a greater role in promoting a cleaner environment. Project: Haryana Water Resources Consolidated Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$258.0 M (equivalent) Description: The project would be a sector investment loan, financing a statewide program to improve the water distribution and drainage systems and upgrade institutional capacity for water management and planning. The project would finance the fellowing investments under the areas of the Bhakra Canal System and Western Yamuna Canal System: (a) Rehabilitation of the existing canal and drainage systems and selective lining of canals and watercourses. (b) Modernization of canal and drainage systems and watercourses. e 129 -~ India 's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities (c) Upgraded operation and maintenance of the water distribution and drainage system. (d) Institutional strengthening to support administration, data collection, planning, design, beneficiary participation and formation of water user associations, research and training. Investments would be supported by reforms to reorganize the Haryana Irrigation Department. A water policy framework would be developed through multi-use water resource planning and formulation of a state water plan. Project: National Hydrology Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$158.6 M (equivalent) Description: The project would assist the GOI and participating states to develop comprehensive, easily accessed and user friendly data bases covering all aspects of the hydrological cycle, including surface water and groundwater in terms of quantity and quality and climatic measurements, particularly of rainfall. The project supports the objectives of the GOI's National Water Policy and the Bank's strategy for India's water sector and policy regarding water resources management. Special attention would be paid to standardization of criteria, processes and procedures for measurement of hydrological parameters and for storage and retrieval of information so that data series would be structured as a six-year operation and include support of upgrading and expanding the physical infrastructure for all aspects of the collection, collation, processing and dissemination of hydrological and hydrometeorological data; provision of equipment and materials; training and technical assistance; and institutional strengthening including new buildings and incremental operating and maintenance costs. Project: Karnataka Rural Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: IDA-US$92.0 M (equivalent) Description: The project would be implemented in about twelve districts, including 1,200 villages, expanding access to potable rural water supply systems and environmental sanitation facilities and comprising of: (a) Construction of new and rehabilitation of existing water supply schemes, including leakage repair works, water quality I 30. Prevention of Ground and Surfacewater Pollution monitoring program, and measures for groundwater recharge. (b) Construction of environmental sanitation facilities. (c) Health communication for creation of greater community awareness and demand for improved hygiene and environmental sanitation. (d) Institutional strengthening through community development and comprehensive training programs. NGOs would play a key role in the planning and implementation of the environmental sanitation and health communication components. Project: Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Fiscal Year: 1989 Loan/Credit Amount: US$15 million (equivalent) / US$150 million (equivalent) Description: The project would follow the successful Punjab Irrigation Project (Credit 889-IN), which supported investments in canal and watercourse lining. These investments, which were well executed and economically sound, would be continued and expanded to include facilities (communications and canal regulation structures) designed to allow improved system operation. Development of the Kandi area, which is the poorest region in the state, would be supported. The proposed project would also support investments and planning in drainage, which is an increasingly serious environmental and economic threat to large areas of northwest India. Institutional facilities would be provided to support the recent reorganization of the Irrigation Department into functionally specialized departments. Project: Maharashtra Composite Irrigation III Fiscal Year: 1985 Loan/Credit Amount: US$160 million (equivalent) Description: The project would encompass two command areas: Jayakwadi and Majalgaon. (a) The main components for Jayakwadi would be: (i) Completion of irrigation systems. (ii) Completion of main drains, link drains, and rural roads. (iii) Construction of field channels, drains and structures , India's Environment-Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs and Priorities and field channel protection. (iv) Landshaping. (v) Development of three specially developed distributaries (SDDs). (vi) Technical support to farmers. (b) For Majalgaon the project would include: (i) Construction of 116 canal regulation structures. (ii) Construction of Majalgaon main canal from 67 km. to 100 km. (iii) construction of the distribution system up to the 1 cusec outlet. (iv) Construction of main and secondary drainage and road networks (v) On-farm developments and landshaping. (vi) Development of a Majalgaon SDD on 4,000 ha. (vii) Technical support to farmers. (c) Other investmaents would include: (i) Equipment for landshaping and telecommunication. (ii) Monitoring and evaluation. (iii) Extension service. (iv) Technical and agricultural extension and research support. (v) Training, studies, study tours and consulting services. Project: Tamil Nadu Water Resources Consolidation Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: US$282.9 million (equivalent) Description: The project would be a sector investment loan, to improve the productivity and sustainability of Tamil Nadu's irrigation sector, to introduce multisectoral water planning, to integrate farmers in irrigation management, and to strengthen the state's institutional and technical capability in vvater development, management and planning. Project components include: (a) Systems improvement and farmer turnover to improve productivity through rehabilitation and modernization of the existing irrigation systems. I 3 . Prevention of Ground and Surfacewater Pollution (b) Scheme completion investments to complete viable investriient on existing schemes for increased availability and reliability of water. (c) Capacity building in water planning, environmental management and research. (d) Institutional strengthening of Tamil Nadu's Water Resources Organization. (e) Associated land acquisition and economic rehabilitation for project-affected persons. India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Other Donor Suplport Project: Watershed Management (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: Phase I: DM2.6 M (US$3.57 M equivalent) Phase II: DM 8.0 M (US$10.97 M equivalent) Description: The broad objective of the project is to improve integrated watershed management based on hydrological monitoring in selected watersheds. On completion of phase II, the project aims to provide the central government, state departments and local people a strong data base and an appropriate imodel for water and soil conservation. The project has an on-the-job training component. Project: Replication of Self Help Activities in Watershed Development in Maharashtra. Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: DM 50.00 for Tech. Coop. (US$6.85 M equivalent) Description: The project aims to develop micro-watersheds in a comprehensive manner through participatory village self-help group initiatives so as to enhance the ecological basis of production and sustenance systems in order to create adequate and sustainable livelihood opportunities for all in the area of survival, thus leading to mitigation of the impact of drought and alleviation of poverty. Major project components are soil, land, water, crop management, afforestation, animal husbandry, rural energy management, human resource development and other nonfarm activities. Project: Watershed Development, Karnataka Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: DM 200.00 M (US$27.4 M equivalent) Description: The broad objective of the project is to ensure long-term sustenance basis for the rural population of the project area and to provide ecological stability to the area. Erosion control, minimization measures and groundwater management shall be undertaken. Rehabilitation of the affected population within a framework of five project areas covering 54,000 hectares of land with active 134. A Prevention of Ground and Surfacewater Pollution participation of the local population is envisaged. This will involve social forestry measures, afforestation and assistance in cleaning the existing drainage system. Project: Yamuna Action Plan Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: Y 17.773 M (US$178.0 M equivalent) Description: The objective is to reduce pollution load on the Yamuna River and thereby improve the water quality. Project: Conservation of Upper/Lower Lakes of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: X 7.055 M (US$71.0 M equivalent) Description: Conserve and manage the Bhoj Wetland that consists of the Upper and Lower Lakes of Bhopal, which are now subject to severe environmental degradation due to pollution. Ensure availability of water from the Upper Lake, which is one of the major sources of water supply to Bhopal city, by increasing quantity and providing satisfactory quality. Project: Gomti River Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £30 M (US$48.5 M equivalent) Description: Reduce the amount of pollution in the Gomti River and address causes of pollution in Lucknow. Project: National Hydrology Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £75 M (US$12.1 M equivalent) Description: ODA to contribute training and other TC funds toward World Bank project to develop computerized data bases at national level in eight states covering important aspects of the hydrological cycle. Project: Water Quality Monitoring Stations Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$390,000 equivalent Description: Technical assistance to the Central Pollution Control Board in the I 3 _ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities appraisal of the functioning of two water quality monitoring stations during a period of two years. Project: Biomonitoring, Phase I and Phase II Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: Not available Description: Phase I: Compilation of a draft manual on biomonitoring of Indian surface waters (rivers), accompanied by an elaborate data base computer program. Phase II: The use of the manual and the biomonitoring method will be tested by application in a monitoring program set up for this purpose with the help of the Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control IBoards. Project: Kallada Environmental Action Program (Quilon District, Kerala State) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$2,220,000 equivalent Description: Development of a strategy for sustainable river basin management, including nature conservation as a pilot project. 136. Chapter 5 ControI of Industrial Pollution . 9mn India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Control of Industrial Pollution Industrial Growth and Pollution 5.01 Between 1963 and 1991, industrial machinery and transport equipment account output in India quadrupled, growing at an for another fifth. The highest growth rates average annual growth rate of about 5.5 during these three decades were in the percent. The share of industry in gross garments, petroleum refineries and chemicals, domestic product (GDP) increased from 20 beverages, and ferrous and nonferrous metals percent in 1963 to about 27 percent in 1992. subsectors. Within the sector there have been modest shifts. In 1963, textiles and food products 5.02m Industria ow hasr been accounted for nearly half the output; by 1991 accompanied by a variety of environmental their share had declined to about a quarter. prole weeas6industoutu rew Iron, steel, refineries, and chemicals now fourfold between 1963 and 1991, toxic releases account for nearly a third of output, and grew sixfold (Figure 5.1). Toxic releases Figure 5.1. Toxic Pollution and Industrial Growth, 1963-91 700 600 500 400 /-__ Regal GDP Real output 300 Toxic emissions 200 100 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1991 138. Control of lndustrial Pollution include heavy metals, cyanides, and about 20 percent of the industrial output. pesticides. Preliminary work by the National Productivity Council in the State of Gujarat 5.04 Reliable data regarding the share indicates that about 1 ton of toxic waste is of industrial pollution in the total pollution generated by industry every year. load are hard to come by. The Ministry of Environment and Forests estimates that 5.03 World Bank estimates show that pollution from industrial sources contributes pollution is concentrated among a few more than a third of the total pollution in industrial subsectors and that a sector's rivers and other bodies of water. Data contribution often is disproportionate to its collected for the Bombay metropolitan region contribution to industrial output (Table 5.1). indicate that industry contributes only about For example, industrial chemical and iron 10 percent of the total pollution generated and steel producers contribute nearly 70 in the region (Coopers and Lybrand 1994). percent of the toxic release but produce only Table 5.1. Industrial Contributions to Pollution by Subsector (percent) Sector Share of Share of total Pollution Industrial I output Toxics BOD Particulates Suirurl Nitrogen Industrial chemicals 7.5 44 29 8 11 15 Iron and steel 12.5 23 0 23 2 5 Nonferrous metals 2.1 6 10 3 1 0 Other chemicals 6.8 6 1 1 0 Food products 15.3 1 38 11 4 8 Paper and pulp products 2.0 2 19 4 15 11 Nonmetallic mineral products 3.4 1 0 32 3 10 Petroleum refineries 6.8 6 2 6 31 21 Textiles 11.1 3 1 6 30 23 Total 67.5 9' l00 9 I 97 * 19 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities The Environment Action Program 5.05 The Indian government identifies other priorities of the EAP also refer to control of industrial and related pollution as industrial pollution: one of the seven priority areas in the Li Improving access to clean technologies. Environment Action Program (EAP). The EAP advocates a mix of regulatory and economic ° Tackling urban environmental issues. measures to deal with industrial pollution and O Strengthening training, awareness, and recommends increasing taxes to promote scientific understanding of environ- environmental protection (Box 5. 1). Three mental issues. Box 5.1. Priority Actions and Programs for Industrial Pollution Identified in the EAP * Modernization of the leather, textiles, and pulp and paper industries. * Institutional strengthening for research on natural dyes. * Development of techniques to quantify pollutants from nonpoint sources (such as runoff from agricultural fields, waste disposal sites, leaky septic tank systems, mining and logging activities, and construction sites). * Development of capacity to make reliable and cost-effective decisions on nonpoint sources of pollution control. * Development of technologies for control of nonpoint sources based on past land-use practices. * Development of physical methods for ascertaining the role of hydrology in influencing pollutant behavior, relating landuse to pollutant transport and effects on water bodies, relating contaminant concentrations to management practices, and addressing spatial and temporal variability in pollutant generation, transport, and delivery. * Development of cost-effective water treatment technologies, particularly for desalination of brackish water, solutions to taste and odor problems, and removal of nitrates, pesticides, and heavy metals from drinking water. * Dissemination of wastewater recycling technologies. * Projects for least-hazardous methods of mining, erosion control in mining areas, proper mineral storage, proper disposal of mineral wastes in mined areas, pollution control from roads in mining areas, control of pollution in post-mining period, water diversion to prevent water contamination, and environmental rehabilitation of mined areas. * Establishment of a national center for long-term training in environmental impact assessment and of a network of regional centers in various institutes for the preparation of these reports, including disaster management plans. * A variety of training programs to create environmental awareness and to provide training on environmental matters. 1 41) Control of Industrial Pollution GOI PROGRAMS Industrial Waste and Waste-Water Treatment 5.06 The following GOI programs are as identified in India's Environment Action LO Development and demonstration of Program. cost-effective water treatment technologies, particularly for removal Leather, Textiles, Paper of nitrates, pesticides and heavy metals LI Modernization for cleaner production in from drinking water, desalination of the leather, textiles, and paper and pulp brackish water, and providing solution industries, to taste and odor problems. LI Demonstration and dissemination of O Organization strengthening for research wastewater treatment recycling and reuse on natural dyes. technologies for water conservation. Nonpoint source pollution Mining LO Development of techniques for LI Projects for least-hazardous methods of quantification of pollutants from mining, control of erosion in mining nonpoint sources, for example, runoff areas, proper storage of minerals, proper from agricultural fields, waste disposal disposal of mineral wastes in mined sites, leaky septic tank systems, mining areas, prevention and control of pollution and logging activities, and construction from roads in mining areas, prevention sites. and control of pollution in post-mining Li Development of physical methods for period, water diversion to prevent ascertaining the role hydrology plays in contamination of water, and influencing pollutant behavior; relating environmental rehabilitation of mined land use to pollutant transport and effects areas. on water bodies; addressing spatial 5.07 The following programs are as (single catchment, multiple catchments) identified in the annual report of the Ministry and temporal (annual, event-based, condtinuous) variabl intpolutan of Environment and Forests, 1994-95. These generatinuon,) tranprtianlivery; pland also include programs in hazardous waste generation, transport and delivery; and mage ntsoordbthCnrl conamiantcocenratonsto management sponsored by the Central relating contaminant concentrations to Pollution Control Board. management practices. Li Development of decision-oriented Hazardous Substances Management methods to help make reliable and cost- effective decision about nonpoint sources 5.08 Management of hazardous of pollution control methods and their chemicals cost and relating contamination conetratnd tolmanagentapractice Li Creating infrastructure in State Pollution concentration to management practices.CotlBarsoregaeth Control B oards to regulate the LI Development of technologies for control management of hazardous substances of nonpoint pollution as a result of past handled by hazardous industries. land use practices. .141 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities LO Mandatory safety audits in Major 5.09 Hazardous waste management Accident Hazard Unit. LI Handling and Management of LO In order to reduce risk and prevent off- biomedical waste. site consequences of accidents on-site, LI Studies on inventorying of hazardous preparation of hazard analysis and off- waSte oneinventories in various site emergency plans. ~waste generating industries in various site emergency plans. , states. LO For enhancing safety and emergency 5.10 Crisis management preparedness in units and reducing off- site consequences, initiation of industrial LI Management of crisis due to oil slick. pocket-wise hazard analysis studies. 142. I Control oflndustrial Pollution l Major Issues and Recommendations 5.11 Industrial pollution abatement Box 5.2. Policy Statement for Abatement requires comprehensive efforts to improve of Pollution the legal and regulatory framework, policies, The Government of India issued a Policy Statement institutions, and technologies that oversee and for Abatement of Pollution in February 1992. The interact with industry. policy statement affirms the government's intention to integrate environmental and economic aspects in development planning, w ith stress on the preventive LEGAL aspects of pollution abatement, and promotion of 5.12 Comprehensive legislation covers technological inputs to reduce industrial pollutants. The overall policy objective is to integrate all the major aspects of industrial pollution environmental considerations into decisionmaking and environmental management. The Water at all levels. Act of 1974, amended in 1988, created central and state pollution control boards to enforce Specific steps identified to meet this objective are: the Act. This was followed by the Air Act of * Prevent pollution at source. 1981, which was amended in 1987. In 1986 * Encourage.de%elopandapph thebesta%ailable the Environment Act was passed. In addition, practicable solutions there are Hazardous Wastes Rules (1989) and * Ensure that the polluter pays forthe pollution Manufacture, Storage, and Import of control arrangement. Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989). * Focus protection on hea% il' polluted areas. * lnvolve the public in decisionmaking. POLICY FRAMEWORK * Increase the safet) of industrial operations. 5.13 In 1992 the government issued To achie%e the objectiNes. maximum use will be a Policy Statement on Pollution Abatement madeofanmix of insuruments m the fomi of le-islafion (Box 5.2). The Statement, reflecting a broad and regulation. fiscal incentives. voluntarN approach, emphasizes that it is not enough agreements. educational programs and information campaigns. The emphasis 11il be on increased use for the government to create laws; it also must of regulations and an increase in the development integrate environmental concerns with and application of financial incenives. development planning, with an emphasis on preventing pollution and promoting techno- Source: GOl March 1992. logical inputs to reduce industrial pollutants. The overall policy objective is to integrate arrangements; focusing protection on heavily environmental considerations into decision- polluted areas and river stretches; involving making at all levels. Specific steps identified the public in decisionmaking; and increasing to meet this objective include: preventing the safety of industrial operations. pollution at the source; encouraging, developing, and applying the best, most 5.14 Most enforcement for pollution practical technologies; ensuring that the abatement is based on regulatory standards. polluter pays for pollution and control As a result of the Environment Act, the Central * 143 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Box 5.3. Fiscal Incentives to Encourage Control Discharge Standards). These standards are and Prevention of Pollution comparable to standards in many industrial The Government of India offers several incentives countries. In addition, states are allowed to to ensure that industries are motivated to comply with the various environmental standards prescribed establish more stringent standards. New under different acts and rules to control and prevent industrial units have to undergo an environ- pollution. Some major fiscal incentives are as mental impact assessment, and to obtain follows: Exemption from income tax. In order to ensure clearances to establish and to operate. All enthusiastic public involvement, particularly of the established industrial units must renew these corporate sector and private individuals, donations given by a taxpayer to any association or institution clearances every one to three years, depending for programs on conservation of nature and natural on thei r activities and location. Though resources are exempt from income tax. The standards are largely concentration-based, the Secretary of the Ministry of Environment and Forests approves such institutions and associations. government is moving toward load-based Depreciation allowance. A depreciation allowance standards (level of pollution related to level of 30 percent is allowed on devices and systems of production), especially for highly polluting installed by industrial units for minimizing pollution or for conservation of natural resources. industries. Most regulations, guidelines, and Investment allowance. An investment allowance standards are fairly well developed. There is at the rate of 3 5 percent of the actual costs of new machinery or plant to assist in the control of eed, however, to establish a stronger link pollution and protection of the environment is between source-specific and ambient granted. The central government has notified a list standards. of machinery and plant on which investment allowance is granted. Exemptionfrom tax on capital gains. The purpose 5.15 Some fiscal instruments for of this incentive is to encourage industries to shift pollution abatement exist: excise and customs from congested urban areas. Capital gains arising e from transfer of buildings or lands used for business xempt ons and an accelerated depreciaton purposes are exempt from tax if these are used allowance on pollution control equipment, for acquiring or for constructing buildings for the soft-loan schemes, water levies, and so on purpose of business at a new place. Excise and duty exemption on utilization offly- (Box 5.3). But these instruments are limited ash, phosphogypsum, and so on. in scope and do not reflect an overall strategy * Excise duty is exempted on the production of for environmental management. The policy low- cost building materials and components. statement recognizes the need to review these * Excise duty is exempted on the production of building materials using fly-ash or incentives and to identify a set of economic phosphogypsum as raw material in 25 percent instruments to deal with pollution. Given the or greater quantities. d * Custom duty is exempted on the import of eregulationandtaxreformthatareunderway equipment, machinery and capital goods in India, there is both a need and an opportunity required for the production of building material to develop a broadly based set of economic such as bricks, light weight aggregates, light weight concrete elements, and so on, using fly- instruments for pollution abatement. ash or phosphogypsum. * Reduction in excise duty up to 15 percent is INSTITUTIONS allowed on prefab components required for housing. Source: MOEF 1994. 5.16 The Central Pollution Control Board and the State Pollution Control Boards Pollution Control Board has established were established to implement the provisions comprehensive national standards for of the Water Act. Although the increasing industrial operations (Minimum National number of environmental laws require the 144 Control of Industrial Pollution boards to operate as environmental manage- boards have excessive numbers of non- ment agencies, their operating philosophies technical staff. and staff attitudes have changed little since the boards were established. Most of the boards 5.19 Also limiting technical progress have inadequate facilities and infrastructure. are the many constraints to accessing clean For example, while most of them have basic technologies, ranging from information testing equipment at the central or state problems to constraints imposed by industrial headquarters, this capacity is lacking at and trade policies. These constraints are regional and local offices. Accordingly, there discussed in Chapter 6. is a need to modernize the boards. FINANCIAL ISSUES 5.17 Although enforcement has improved significantly over the past several 5.20 Some of the enforcement years in some of the more industrial states, boards are financially independent and do this improvement is limited to nontoxic air not depend on the state or central government and water pollution from large and medium- for their operating budgets or, in some cases, size private industrial units. Regulations for for their capital budgets. These boards generate public units are poorly enforced due to political 80 to 90 percent of their revenues from interference in the functions of the state boards. licensing fees, water levies, and other charges. In addition, the boards cannot deal with the Collection rates from industrial units are high; large number of small-scale industrial units. the same cannot be said about collection from Most boards lack the capacity to monitor and municipalities. enforce regulations related to hazardous waste management. As with other enforcement 5.21 Given the rapid changes in the activities in India, corruption is pervasive. Indian financial markets, there are no obvious During the past few years, however, constraints for large industrial units wanting enforcement has been strengthened by active to access resources for investment in pollution public interest litigation. The judiciary, abatement. There are, however, real con- especially at the highest levels, is taking an straints to investment by the small and increasingly proenvironmental stance. Still, medium-scale sector, since they often are not the judiciary has been unable to deal with prime-rated borrowers. policy issues, largely because it lacks the technical background that is needed to evaluate PARTICIPATION environmental impacts (Roychowdhury 1994). 5.22 As mentioned, public interest TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ISSUES litigation has been a driving force behind more effective environmental enforcement. The 5.18 India has a large pool of skilled government's policy statement for pollution technicians and managers capable of dealing abatement recognizes this fact and addresses with pollution issues. But given the boards' public partnership as a priority. But budget constraints and low salaries, it is suppression of or inaccessibility to information difficult to attract and retain staff that is on has been a major stumbling block in litigation. par with the private sector. As a result, many Government officials often prevent access to 145 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities documentation. Given that enforcement 5.24 Bank assistance to India so far has agencies are weak, the capacity of the public focused on industrial pollution and has helped to bring pressure on polluters must be to establish fairly strong foundations for strengthened. This cannot happen without a dealing with this problem. Bank assistance formal and transparent public disclosure also has been a magnet for other multilateral process. and bilateral donors. The programs supported by the Japan's Overseas Economic Cooperation RECOMMENDATIONS Fund and the Nordic Investment Bank have 5.23 An examination of the interaction adopted the same structure as the Bank-assisted between industry and the environment projects. The Bank has developed a strong identifies three major categories of environ- working relationship with the Ministry of mental issues: industrial pollution, chemical Environment and Forests and other central and accidents, and occupational health (Figure 5.2). state agencies. Though environmental These issues are identified based on their management in India has improved signifi- impacts on human populations, ecosystems, cantly in the past several years, institutions and the economy. are still weak, and the policy and implemen- Figure 5.2. Environmental Issues in Industry | ~INDUSTRIALv ENV'IRONNIENTAL ISSLIES INDULSTRIAL I CHENIAL OCCLIPATIONAL POLLUTION ACCIDENTS HEALTH * air I. process safer ,. processing * %%ater * handling. storaoe. * handling * solid i%aste and transportation * enuissions * hazardous % aste of hazardoLIs niaterials Impacts on Impacts on Communities and Workers , Property , nImpacts on Ecosystems and the EconomnN 146. Control of lndustrial Pollution tation framework needs strengthening. Thus Box 5.4 Area-based Pollution there is a need for further Bank assistance. Abatement Strategy The firstpriority is to refine and expand current Area-based pollution abatemetii strategies focus efforts at industrial pollution abatement. The on areas '%here pollution is at ornear a crisis sta2e. second priority is to develop assistance and develop action plans A set of ambient programs inotherareas ofindustrial environ- standards is usualI determined for an area 13 mental management. ~xatershed. an airshed) based on exidence of en% ironnien[al de-radation of iunman healih and welfare. * ith the recoznition of some tulture Refining and expanding industrialpollution oplarion %ioh tlie ecoacmnt f so population gro%%th. enicroachnient factors. anidsio abatement efforts on. Wk hile theoreticalIl there is a sctentiticallI optimiial level of pollution. it is niore realistic to 5.25 The two Bank-assisted projects select acceptable anibint standards throuLh some have helped the government establish -a basic process oftcolecEik e choice. as % ith other public framework for pollution abatement. Still, the goods. A progran of en% ironmental mana2enent approach to industrial pollution abatement should then ensure th at the aggregate polution trom thle area does not exceed the established must be refined in order to achieve further standarea Tois n exceed theuabhea standaids. Thils call be achie%ed: ifilrot4h a progress. regulatory resime. a market-based reimiie. or a cotbiniation of the two. Policy framework 5.26 The Bank could assist the all sources of pollution. government in two areas: developing an area- based approach to pollution abatement. 5.28 The EAP addresses economic instruments for pollution abatement as a 5.27 The government's ctsrategy priority in the industrial pollution strategy. for pollution abatement iS sector-based, Sm iclicnie o niomna focusing on industrial units in the chemical rot oe aircad inclae in enindustal an allied sectors. While such as approach does py sector, such as the water levy, though their reduce pollutio frminvidual ouresit effectiveness is questionable. Under the does not guarantee achievement of desirable Industrial Pollution Prevention Project, the ambient conditions intaodefined areathe Ministry of Environment and Forests has Central Pollution Control Board has identified established a task force to examine the twenty-two nonmetropolitan areas where feaib.i of usi ecnmcisrmnst pollution is at critical levels, and action plans g complement the regulatory regime for have been prepared for fourteen of these areas. industialtpolutionuaate nt Iisimpor - . . . m~~~~~~~idustrial pollution abatement. It iS important But these plans only address industrial units that this initiative be considered a priority in belonging to the seventeen highest-polluting the Bank's dialogue with the government on categories. This approach is inadequate environmental management. because an area's pollution often comes from multiple sources, requiring a strategy that 5.29 Beyond this, one of the major identifies a hierarchy of cost-effective causes of industrial pollution is industrial interventions across the different sources. Such policy. For example, the cost-plus pricing of an area-based strategy (Box 5.4) focuses the outputs, together with an inward-looking trade efforts and resources of enforcement agencies regime, has favored the development of on targeted reductions of pollution and covers energy- and capital-intensive sectors with 147 -. A India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Z.J Box 5.5. The Public Liability Insurance suboptimal plant sizes. Artificially low raw Act, 1991 material prices provide few incentives for The Public Liability Insurance Act was enacted efficient use of materials or for resource on January 23, 1991, to provide immediate relief recovery and recycling. High product prices to persons affected by accidents while handling arising from high effective protection hazardous substances. The act requires that: encourage expansion of capacities that may * Where death or injury to any person (other than not be consistent with India's comparative a workman) or damage to any property has advantage and that provide enterprises with resulted from an accident, the owner is liable little incentive to be efficient. Suboptimal plant to give relief on a "no fault basis." sizes increase both production costs and * Every owner must take out, before he starts treatment costs (especially in the small-scale handling hazardous substances, one or more sector) and make it difficult for firms to meet liability insurance policies equal to its paid up environmental standards. In addition, policy capital or Rs. 500 million, whichever is less. The policy has to be renewed every year. New constraints such as weak intellectual property undertakings must apply for liability insurance laws may inhibit the availability and transfer before starting their activity. of technology. The liberalization and structural * Accidents are verified by the District Collector, reform currently under way should address who may hold an inquiry into the claim (s) and many of these issues; it would be useful to may make an award determining the amount study the changing industrial policies and their of relief. suytecaggmutllplce n hl impacts on the environment. * The central government will set up an Environmental Relief Fund to be utilized for paying, in accordance with the provisions of Insttutional strengthening the.Act. The owner also has to pay an amount equal to its annual premium to the central 5.30 While institutions for pollution government's Environment Relief Fund. The abatement exist at the central and state levels, reimbursement ofrelief to the extent of Rs.2500 improving their capacity to meet their per person is allowed in case of fatal accidents mandates is an ongoing task and should be in addition to the reimbursement of medical expenses up to Rs. 12,500. The liability of the ntegral to any Bank assistance program. The insurer is limited to Rs. 50 million per accident boards have to be reoriented to deal with up to Rs. 150 million per year or up to the tenure pollution abatement strategically, rather than of the policy. Any excess claims will be paid just conLtrolling pollution from all sources and from the environment relief fund or by the at all places. To this end, the boards should owner. prepare action plans for areas under their Owners must provide the final compensation, if jurisdictions where environmental conditions any, arising out of legal proceedings. are critical and should focus their resources The Public Liability Insurance Amendment Act on these areas. There also is a need for training specifies the responsibilities of different participants and recruitment programs to address the large under the liability law. numbers of nontechnical staff. Source: The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, Ministry of Law and Justice, Jan 23, 1991; The 5.31 While the capacity of the eight Public Liability Insurance Rules, 1991, Ministry state control boards supported through Bank- of Environment and Forests, May 15, 1991; fmanced projects to monitor and regulate large Handbook of Environmental Procedures and and medium-size industrial units in the highly Guidelines, GOI, Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1994. polluting sectors has improved, there is little enforcement in the small sector or in the area 1IX. Control of lndustrial Pollution of toxic and hazardous waste. In addition, many Box 5.6. The Environmental Audit state boards are unable to enforce compliance Notification, 1992 in the public sector (especially thermal power This notification applies to every person carrying plants) due to political interference. The on an industry, operation or process requiring credibility of enforcement in the private sector consent to operate under the Water Act, Air Act, or both, or authorization under the Hazardous has been strengthened in recent years by Wastes (Management and Handling Rules), 1989, landmark proenvironmental judgments by the issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, Supreme Court. But enforcement continues 1986. to be an uphill battle, and strengthening the The notification requires that an environmental capacities of the state boards and other statement for the financial year ending March 31 enforcement agencies (through training, better be submitted to the concerned State Pollution facilities, and professional technical staff) must Control Board on or before September 30 every be a part of any environmental management year, beginning in 1993. work in India. The realization that industry and environment should go hand in hand so as to achieve sustainable development was brought in realization to consider environmental protection a bare necessity. 5.32 Effortstostrengthenthetechnical "Environmental Audit" is a technique being .32t Efforts tostrengthenboardshe thee tkehintroduced for integrating the interest of the industry capacity of the boards have been linked to and the environment so that these could be mutually organizational restructuring of the boards, and supportive. have given them more autonomy in recruitment The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution and compensation. Still, there are constraints by the Government of India, provides for to the development of cleaner technologies submission of environmental statement by all in India. To address the information problems concerned industries, which would subsequently and lack of demon-stration, the Ministry of evolve into an environmental audit. Environment and Forests has started [Environmental Auditing is a management tool developing a Clean Technology Information comprising a systematic, documented, periodic and objective evaluation, of how well the management Network. This activity is being supported systems are performing with the aim of: waste through the Bank-assisted Pollution Prevention prevention and reduction, assessing compliance Project. The network must receive the full with regulatory requirements, facilitating control support and participation of private industry of environmental practices by a Company's in order to succeed. management and placing environmental information in the public domain]. Financial issues Source: Desai 1994; Central Pollution Control Board 5.33 Some of the State Pollution Control 1993. Boards have demonstrated the capacity for financial autonomy and effectiveness. The rest the boards' operational costs. of the boards should emulate them. The issue of the boards' resource management is related 5.34 While such concessionary financ- to the framework of economic policy ing may not be the answer for the medium- instruments. There seem to be no obvious size and small units, an argument can be made constraints to financial resources for the large for bearing the cost of concessions or subsidies industrial units; these units should be made through taxes levied on polluters, managed to contribute, through licenses and levies, to by an Environmental Fund. U 149 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Box 5.7. The Manufacture, Storage and that environmental quality cannot be achieved Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 by the actions of the government alone," there The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous is a need for more transparent public Chemicals Rules were developed under authority disclosure. The Environmental Statement and conferred by the Environment (Protection) Act, Audit Process could be extended to meet this 1986. The principal objectives of the rules are the objective. There is also the possibility of prevention of major accidents arising from industrial supporting nongovernmental organizations activities, the mitigation of effects of such accidents on people and on the environment, and the (NGOs) with equipment and training to harmonization of various control measures and monitor industrial units. Further, the state agencies to prevent and limit major accidents. control boards could periodically release a list The rules specify three levels of requirements. of environmental violators in the local press * General or low-level requirements apply to 434 and television. chemicals and require the industrial unit to take necessary precautions to prevent major Expansion of the Industrial Pollution accidents, to report those that do arise and take abatement program steps to limit consequences, prepare a Material Safety Data Sheet, report imports, and properly 5.36 The Bank's efforts to reduce label the hazardous chemicals handled. industrial pollution in India are on track, but * The medium-level control applies to 179 there is room for a few refinements (suggested chemicals and requires that the unit in control above). There are however two critical areas of the relevant activity provide workers on site a with information, training and necessary in industrial pollution abatement that could equipment to ensure their safety as well as an benefit from Bank involvement: off-site emergency plan. * The high-level controls apply to 17 chemicals O A program to strengthen the toxic and in quantities that are unsafe. Users of these hazardous waste management system, chemicals must prepare a Safety Report. New focusing on reduction, safe handling and industries are required to prepare the Safety transportation, and safe disposal of waste Report within five years of beginning operation. tEoxs 5.7 and s.p o t An on-site emergency plan for dealing with (Boxes 5.7 and 5.8). major accidents is also required. * Both medium and high-level controls require LI An expanded pollution abatement public disclosure. Information regarding a program for small-scale industrial units, potential off-site spill or an on-site accident building on the common effluent must be provided to the District Collector for treatment plants and environmental the preparation of an off-site emergency plan extension program already under way before commencement of the activity. Also, the thro n projets. public in the vicinity of the plant needs to be through Bank projects. informed of the nature of a major accident that D might occur on-site and what to do in case of eveloping assistance programs in other such an occurrence. areas of industrial environmental manage- Source: MOEF 1992,1994. ment Participation 5.37 India must develop new ways of dealing with industrial safety and 5.35 While the government's pollution efficiency issues if industrial development is abatement policy "encourages new forms of to be sustainable and beneficial. Industrial public partnership, recognizing the vital fact safety efforts and the environmental agenda I o. Control of Industrial Pollution accelerated following the 1984 Bhopal Box 5.8. The Hazardous Wastes (Management disaster. The government has passed compre- and Handling) Rules, 1989 hensive legislation and created institutions to The Hazardous Wastes (Handling and deal with industrial safety. But these efforts Management) Rules require industries to classify have not prevented a series of chemical wastes into categories. Other provisions include: accidents and associated casualties. Though * The occupier generating hazardous wastes must the impacts have not been as calamitous as take all practical steps to ensure that such wastes the Bhopal incident, the frequency of accidents are properly handled and disposed off. has raised questions about the effectiveness * Hazardous wastes must be collected, treated, of enforcement and available facilities. stored and disposed of only in facilities authorized for this purpose by the State 5.38 The Indian chemical industry is the Pollution Control Boards. second largest in the world, producing more * Before hazardous wastes are delivered, the million tons of chemicals each year facility occupier or operator must ensure that than 102 m1lllon tons of chem1ca eacn year ithe hazardous wastes are packaged in a manner (Shrivastava 1994). The consumption of suitable for storage and transport. fertilizers increased from about 200,000 tons * The state government or a person authorized in 1959 to about 12 million tons by 1992, and by it must undertake an ongoing program to the toxicity of more than 60 percent of the identify disposal sites and compile and publish chemicals that go into fertilizer production periodically an inventory of disposal sites is unknown. The number of urban-industrial within the state. complexes with chemical factories is * Tfie occupier generating hazardous waste and expanding rapidly. the' operator of a facility for collection, reception, treatment, transport, storage and 539 TheMini fEnvironment and disposal of hazardous waste must maintain 5.3 9 The Ministry of Evrnetadrecords of such operations. Forests has indicated interest in a Bank-reodofscopatn. Forestsi hassted program sterengthen te cpacy * When an accident occurs during transport of assisted program to strengthen the capacity hazardous wastes, the facility occupier or of government agencies, the private sector, operator must'report the incident immediately and communities to improve industrial safety to the State Pollution Control Board. and to mitigate the impacts of accidents when * Import of hazardous wastes from any country they occur. Dialogue on this subject is fairly to India for dumping and disposal is prohibited. well advanced, and the ministry has deter- However, import of such wastes may be allowed mined the structure of a program of assistance. for processing or reuse as raw material. Source: Notification of the Ministry of Environment 5.40 Two other areas should be and Forests, New Delhi, July 28, 1989; Desai 1994. explored for Bank assistance. The first, occupational health, is a component of environmental issues associated with the highest level of fatal accidents in the industrial sector. The second, fuel reformu- manufacturing sector-about 25 deaths per lation, is indirectly associated with the 100,000 workers every year. It is not known industrial sector in that policy reforms and how many of these fatalities are caused by investments have to be made in the exposure to pollution, fugitive emissions, and petrochemical sector. handling of toxic material in industrial units. Nor is it clear how morbidity levels are affected 5.41 International Labor Organization by such exposure. The Ministry of Labor and statistics show that India experiences the third the State Factory Inspectorates are responsible India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities for worker safety under the Factory Act of strategy should include fuel reformulation 1947. As preliminary steps toward exploring involving unleaded gasoline, reduction of the Bank involvement, it would be useful to sulfur amd aromatic content of diesel fuel, and understand the magnitude of this problem, and introduction of alternative fuels such as to determine whether the mandate of the compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum government agencies includes occupational gas, or alcohol fuels. These efforts would health, the possibility of enforcing that require investments in the industrial sector, mandate, and the capacity of the private sector especially in petrochemical units. Bank to meet that mandate. involvement in this area would be worth exploring, since it would address one of the 5.42 Any air pollution mitigation major urban environmental problems in India. 152. Control of industrial Pollution GOI Program Objectives Category: Environment Action Program Government Objectives/Programs:' Modernization for cleaner production in leather, textiles, paper and pulp industries; research on natural dyes; development techniques for quantification of pollutants from nonpoint sources, such as runofffrom agricultural fields, waste disposal sites, leaky septic tank systems, mining and logging activities and construction sites; development of physical methods for ascertaining the role of hydrology in influencing pollutant behavior, relating land use to pollutant transport and effects on water bodies and contaminant concentrations to management practices; development of technologies for control of nonpoint pollution as a result ofpast land use practices; development and demonstration of cost- effective water treatment technologies, particularlyfor removal of nitrates, pesticides and heavy metals from drinking water, desalination of brackish water and providing solution to taste and odor problems; demonstration and dissemination ofwastewater treatment recycling and reuse technologies for water conservation; least-hazardous methods of mining, control of erosion in mining areas, proper storage of minerals, disposal of mineral wastes in mined areas, prevention and control ofpollution from roads in mining areas, water diversion to prevent contamination of water and environmental rehabilitation of mined areas Donor Agency Support Project Doinor Funding Leather, Textiles, Paper Industrial Counseling, Tanneries Netherlands US$1.56 M equiv. Industrial Counseling, Mysore Paper Netherlands US$0.78 M equiv. Industrial Counseling Audit, Gujarat Netherlands US$0.23 M equiv. Environmental Audit, Tanneries Netherlands US$0.02 M equiv. Central Leather Institute Netherlands US$2.28 M equiv. Pollution Control in Tanning Industries Switzerland US$0.026 M equiv. Treatment of Tannery Effluents UNIDO US$1.53 M million GOI programs were extracted from India's Environment Action Program and the annual reports of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1994-95) India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Progranms and Priorities *--_ Project Donor Fundino Nonpoint Source Pollution Fly-Ash Pond Monitoring Netherlands US$0.61 M equiv. Industrial Waste! Water treatment Industrial Counseling, Gujarat, Fertilizers Netherlands US$2.05 M equiv. Industrial Pollution Control World Bank US$124.0 M IDA US$31.6 M equiv. Industrial Pollution Prevention World Bank US$250.0 M Category: Hazardous Substances Management Government Objectives/Programs: Creating infrastructure in State Pollution Control Board to regulate the management of hazardous substances handled by hazardous industries; mandatory safety audits in Major Accident Hazard Unit, preparation of hazard analysis and off-site emergency plans; initiation of industrial hazard analysis studies; handling and management of biomedical waste; management of crisis due to oil slick. Studies on inventorying of hazardous waste generating industries in various states. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Hazardous Waste Management Toxic & Haz. Waste Mgmt. Tamil Nadu ADB US$0.52 M I4- Control of Industrial Pollution A World Bank Support Project: Industrial Pollution Control Fiscal Year: 1991 Loan/Credit Amount: IBRD US$124.0 million / IDA US$31.6 million (equivalent) Description: The project objective is to support the GOI's efforts to prevent and alleviate environmental degradation caused by industrial operations and assist in the successful attainment of the proposed short- and medium-term targets of its environmental policy. The proposed project comprises three components: (a) An institutional component designed to strengthen the Central and State Pollution Control Boards in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The component would finance a training program in technical and managerial skills; acquisition of equipment required to upgrade technical capabilities of the Boards; and other managerial skills. (b) An investment component designed to finance : individual projects in target sectors dealing with waste minimization, resource recovery and pollution abatement; the set up of common treatment facilities at industrial estates, for the treatment and disposal of liquid and solid wastes; and selected demonstration projects based on their prototype nature or novelty of application in India. (c) A technical assistance component designed to assist the Ministry of Environment and Forests to evaluate environmental problems and develop solutions; and the DFI's to assist enterprises in undertaking the required feasibility studies for pollution control investments. Project: Industrial Pollution Prevention Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: US$250.0 M (equivalent) Description: The project objective is to assist in the implementation of the government's policy on pollution abatement and promote cost- effective pollution abatement from industrial sources. The project will focus on the most polluting industrial sectors and comprise three components: India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities (a) An institutional component designed to strengthen the State Pollution Control Boards in the states of Raj asthan, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In addition, support to the boards in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh will continue to be provided, complementing the activities already sponsored under the Industrial Pollution Control Project. (b) An investment component will support subprojects by individual firms for pollution abatement, with a focus on waste minimization, and adoption of cleaner methods of production. The line of credit for priority investments provided under the first project would be continued. Resources would also be renewed for financing common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) which would now include funding for industrial water recycling plants (IWRPs) that use sewage as input. (c) A technical assistance component to support: (i) The establishment of a "clean technology institutional network" designed to promote the development, diffusion and transfer of technologies with environmental benefits for industry. (ii) Extension services for the identification of waste minimization and abatement methods for small-scale industry, and the organization of waste minimization circles. (iii) Preinvestment studies for CETPs, IWRPs, and other waste minimization facilities proposed to be financed under the project. (iv) Finance for other training and consulting services under planning by the MOEF, including the training requirements for the preparation of environmental statements by industries. 1'6 Control of Industrial Pollution Other Donor Support Project: Toxic and Hazardous Waste Management-Tamil Nadu Donor: ADB Loan/Credit Amount: US$521,000 Description: The objective of the TA is to assess the feasibility of establishing a toxic and hazardous waste collection, storage, and treatment facility to service the Manali and Ennore industrial complex. The TA, which will be carried out in two phases, will focus on the required institutional arrangements and financial instruments to ensure long-term financial sustainability and full cost recovery. Project: Industrial Counseling; Tanneries (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$1, 556,000 equivalent Description: To disseminate economically viable clean technology in combi- nation with occupational health measures in the leather industry, it is proposed to set up a revolving fund and to finance technical assistance for the introduction of chrome recovery plants in tan- neries. Project: Industrial Counseling; Mysore Paper Mill Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$778,000 equivalent Description: To demonstrate the techno-economical viability of clean technol- ogy in the paper industry in order to introduce environmental/ safety measures along with energy conservation and mitigation of health hazards. Project: Industrial Counseling, Gujarat State Fertilizers Comp. Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$2,056,000 equivalent Description: To demonstrate and disseminate clean technology in the fertilizer industry, including safe occupational health measures, by coop- eration with a fertilizer-producing company in Vadodara (Gujarat State). .157 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Project: Industrial Counseling, Textiles Audit (Jetpur, Gujarat State) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$236,000 equivalent Description: To provide insight into the degree and nature of pollution caused by a cluster of 1,200 textile dyeing and printing facilities in Jetpur, Gujarat State, and to explore opportunities for pollution abate- ment and reduction of residues. Project: Environmental Audit Tanneries (Jajmau area of Kanpur) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$23,000 equivalent Description: Conduct an environmental audit; recommend appropriate inter- ventions in the production cycle to reduce pollution of the Ganges River and indicate measures to mitigate occupational health haz- ards for workers in the industry. Project: Industrial Counseling; Fly-Ash Pond Monitoring Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$611,000 equivalent Description: Monitor dispersion in groundwater and soil for heavy/toxic met- als from a wet fly-ash disposal site of a large-scale power plant. Set up laboratory experiments such as leaching test facilities to forecast dispersion of these components in the environment. Project: Central Leather Research Institute of India (CLRI) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$228,000 equivalent Description: Research program by the CLRI and the TNO Research Institute of the Netherlands, directed at reduction of pollution and envi- ronmental degradation by the leather industry in India. Project: Assistance in Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South- east Asia Donor: Switzerland Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.026 M equivalent Description: To assist the leather industry to expand without causing unneces- sary damage to the environment or undue economic burden on the industrial enterprises. Control of Industrial Pollution Project: Assistance in Treatment of Tannery Effluents Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$1,534,500 Description: The immediate objective is containment of environmental degra- dation emanating from a selected agglomeration of tanneries in Tamil Nadu. The development objective is to assist the Indian leather industry to expand without causing unnecessary damage to the environment. Chapter 6 Improving Access to Clean Technologies A 4 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Improving Access to Clean Technologies 6.01 Indian industrial output has already have been generated, reducing their quadrupled in real terms over the past volume and toxicity. Clean technologies, by thirty years (see Figure 5. 1). Accompanying contrast, reduce waste and emissions at their this industrial expansion has been rapidly source (Box 6.2). Clean technologies can be growing consumption of energy and rising used together with end-of-the-pipe treatment pollution. Clean technology is one of the tools to considerably reduce pollution. Clean available to deal with this pollution. technologies are a cost-effective means of abating pollution, since the reduction of wastes 6.02 Two technological interventions adpluat nacspoesefcec n are used to control pollution. The end-of-the- and pollutants enhances process efficiency and pipe method treats wastes or emissions that production quality. Box 6.1. Cleaner Technologies Institutional Network The World Bank-funded Industrial Pollution Prevention Project is supporting the establishment of a Clean Technology Institutional Network (CTIN) with a $2 million IDA credit. The CTIN is expected to facilitate information exchange through a computer-based network between various interest groups on opportunities for pollution prevention. A Host Center will be located at the MOEF, and a National Information Center for Cleaner Technologies (NICCT) will be located at the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). Supporting the Host Center and NICCT will be sectoral centers and sub-centers located at different premier research institutions and universities. User centers will be located at different State Pollution Control Boards and industrial associations. NICCT will be supported by grants from the MOEF during the first five years of operation and thereafter be autonomous. The CTIN is expected to develop a master data base of clean technologies, provide information for quality control, develop guidelines for selection and implementation of demonstration projects, and network with regional systems. The data bases developed by the CTIN are expected to contain: * National and international environmental policies and legislation. * Financing mechanisms and incentives for implementation of cleaner technologies. * Raw material usage, energy/water consumption and waste generated per unit of production. * Waste minimization technologies, including the stage of development, terms of supply, sources and benefits. * Energy conservation technologies. * End-of-pipe treatment technologies, facilitating waste utilization, recycling, reuse, and by-product recovery; * Integrated waste management technologies. * Technologies for reduction/elimination of toxic and hazardous chemicals. * Listing of equipment suppliers for environmental management. * Listing of human resources for environmental management, includihg academic, research, and training institutions; consultants and consulting firms; and voluntary organizations. Source: NEERI 'Establishment of Cleaner Technology Information Network in India," a proposal submitted to the World ak, 1994. 162- Improving Access to Clean Technologies The Environment Action Program 6.03 The Environment Action Program promoting cleaner technologies through (EAP) identifies "improving access to clean government policies, research and technologies" as one of the seven priorities for development institutions, industry environmental management. The EAP notes that associations, financial institutions, and pollution prevention efforts are a priority regulatory agencies. because of the limited supply of raw materials and the need to adhere to global environmental ° Formulate industry-specific task forces norms on production output and processes. The to select demonstration and development growing incidence'of energy shortages also has projects. emphasized the need for clean technologies, which conserve energy.O Identify cleaner technologies developed in research laboratories and industrial 6.04 The EAP envisages clean units in India and abroad and facilitate technologies as providing valuable tools for their transfer and adoption. dealing with the environmental problems associated with the industrial and energy O Establish centers for cleaner assciaedithth inutra an enrg technologies to develop a centralized sectors. The program identifies a variety of dtecnlges to pdev antrmaized measures that would improve access to these data base and to provide information to technologies while addressing environmental idustries. concerns: IO Build capacity for environmental audits O Strengthen institutions for research and to prevent pollution. technology development under the National Materials Initiatives for raw O Build indigenous engineering capacity material upgrading; improving the for the adoption, adaptation, and performance of conventional materials; improvement of imported technology. and promoting energy substitution, conservation, and environmental J~ Formulate standards for waste dischargJe conservation, and environmentalpeuntoramtril sustainability under the science and technology program under the industrial sector. O Formulate legal and economic measures to ensure adoption of clean technologies. O Launch a technology mission on cleaner J Build capacity for environmental impact production to coordinate activities for assessment of clean technologies. . 163 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Major Issues and Recommendations 6.05 Several constraints inhibit the Bo. 6.2. Waste Minimization and WVaste adoption of clean technologies. The govern- Nlinimization Circles ment must address these issues if the industrial Waste minimization is an example of a clean and energy sectors are to adopt such zechnologN intenention. technologies. The Bank-financed Industrial Pollution Pre% ennon Proiect pro ides Technical Assistance (USS500.0)O LEGAL for extension services for the identification of appropriate %%aste minimization and abatement nmethods for small- 6.06 One of the main issues associated scale industrial units. and the orRanizanon of %asie with the adoption of clean technologies is nminimization circles. The TA builds on experience 2ained in India x% ith respect to pollution abateiment in intellectual property rights. One view, often small-scale industrial units. Snudies carried out bN the held by developing countries, is that Confederation of Chenmical Industries. National enforcement of such rights prevents Producti% ii) Council (NPC?.and the Indian Institute developing countries from accessing of Technolog. Bomba%. indicate that up to a 2' percent developing countries from accessing reducfion in %% asstegeneration is possible through siniple technologies from industrial countries and Loitekeepin _ masures tihihdo not reusielae , ., ., . ~~~~~holisekeeepin- nicasures %%hich do iiot require large suggests that firms from industrial countries in%estmenLs. Ilore recentl). the LINIDO-furded. NPC- license their technology on favorable terms. executed project demonstrated that such results could The opposing view, held by industrial be obtainied in most induistrial subsectors '~ith a pa, - countries, is that inadequate intellectual back period for invesrment ofless than a sear. property rights enforcement in developing Waste minimization circles are self-tunciioninB countries discourages investment and -oups de\eloped among firms in the same industrial subsector m a geographical region, to share expenences technology licensing. in the promotion of %%aste minimization. Then should pro% ide a forum for small-scale entrepreneurs Io come 6.07 Indianindustrialpolicy focuses on ioiaeiher to seek conimon solutions to %%aste self-reliance; this has led to attempts to minimization and pollution abatement. Some technical integrate local and imported technologies. expertise %%ill be provided through NPC and other When these efforts were hampered by technical institutions. inefficiencies and delays, the government encouraged importing technology in the context of large-scale turn-key projects. But changes on development and adoption of clean technology imports are constrained by technology is not yet understood. cumbersome procedures. Although these limitations may have encouraged the develop- POLICY FRAMEWORK ment of local technological capacity, they often have curbed the effective use of these techno- 6.08 One of the underlying causes of logies. The policy and institutional framework industrial pollution in India is industrial associated with technology transfer and policy. For example, the cost-plus pricing of absorption is slowly changing as economic outputs, together with an inward-looking trade liberalization spreads. But the impact of these regime, has favored the development of 164. ImprovingAccess to Clean Technologies energy- and capital-intensive sectors with these institutions have the capacity to develop suboptimal plant sizes. Suboptimal plant sizes clean technologies or to help in the assimilation increase the costs of production and treatment of imported clean technologies. (especially in small firms) and make it difficult for firms to meet environmental standards. 6.11 A major problem constraining the Artificially low raw material prices provide development and use of clean technologies little incentive for the efficient use of materials is that research institutions and business groups or for resource recovery and recycling. High lack a means of exchanging information. product prices arising from high effective protection encourage the expansion o Knowledge regarding available technologies, cprcitioen th.e epnsion of their environmental impacts, and their cost- capacities that may not be consistent with India's comparative advantage and that effectiveness is not easily accessible by the provide enterprises with little incentive to be industrial sector. efficient. TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC OBSTACLES 6.09 The government offers a variety of fiscal incentives-excise exemption, 6.12 The technical and scientific accelerated deprecation allowance, customs development of clean technology is hampered allowance, soft loans, and grants-for pollution by approaches that focus on hardware. It often control equipment. It is not known whether is assumed that once equipment is installed, there are similar incentives for clean pollution reductions will follow automatically. technology, though there is an accelerated This orientation neglects the software compo- depreciation allowance for technology nent of the clean technology approach-skills, developed by approved firms with in-house ... ~~information, and support. Indeed, cost- research and development facilities.-.- effective approaches to pollution reductions INSTITUTIONS often depend on skills and information, with little need for hardware. Such approaches- 6.10 India has a large technology good housekeeping, improved plant layout, infrastructure, with an extensive network and collection and recycling of wastes- should be large expenditures on public research and fully explored before approaches requiring development institutions.' Public institutions hardware are pursued. account for more than three-quarters of research expenditures and have little private 6.13 Coal will continue to be the main orientation in their activities. Under the fuel in the power sector for the foreseeable ongoing liberalization, however, public future, with severe impacts on the local and institutions are being encouraged to augment global environment. The projected develop- their budgetary resources by working for the ment rate of renewable energy technologies private sector. This orientation should make will hardly contribute to the levels of research institutes more responsive to demand anticipated energy demand. Under these while providing the industrial sector with a circumstances, no clean technology initiative well-developed research network. Some of in the power sector can afford to neglect coal. 'In 1989, India spent about 0.9 percent of its gross domestic product on research and development. * 165 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs and Priorities Box 6.3. Common Effluent Treatment Plants undertaken in the short run, could help to The Bank-financed Industrial Pollution identify opportunities for introducing clean Control Project pros ided US$36 million (US$24 technologies. million IBRD/US$l2 million IDA) to finance design and implementation of common effluent Legal treatment plants (CETPs) for the treatiment of %sastewater and solid materials at industrial estates 6.16 Intellectual property rights policies and other sites with a heav! concentration of and the legal issues associated with the import chemical and related industries, especially in the - ~~of technologies should be reviewed to small-scale sector. Most CETPs are constructed and operated by industrial cooperati'.es. %%hile determine whether they constrain domestic others are managed by incorporated companies technological innovation or international or industrial estate authorities, technology transfers. So far, seventeen CETPs have been financed. accounting for a total of LIS$14.7 million. These Policy framework plants together meet the wastewater treatment needs of over 3.200 mosilN small and mediunm- 6.17 Itwouldbeusefultoexaminehow scale industrial units The total design capacitN changing industrial policies and tax regimes- is about 1 25.000 cubic meters per day. removing in the context of ongoing liberalization and more than I100 ton s of BOD e% er-N da%. Twoo CETPs mo*e than 1 osdyTotax reform-will influence technological (Tarapore, Palla% arani) have been commissioned and are in operation. The CETP approach to dealing innovation and adoption, specifically as they w%ith pollution from sniall-scale industrial units relate to clean technologies. has pros ided a cost-effecti%e and practical approach to the problem. The NIOEF and the State Institutions Pollution Control Boards look to CETPs as the main plank of the strategr to deal s% ith pollution 6.18 The ongoing Bankassistance to the froni the small-scale sector. Clean Technology Information Network (Box 6.1) is a priority activity that will bring FINANCIAL ISSUES together the large network of research 6.14 For industrial units, borrowing institutions. Careful attention needs to be paid for pollution prevention efforts is not a major to this activity during implementation. The problem. Since most pollution prevention private sector should play a leading role in measures produce financial returns, most the establishment and operation of this network borrowers could borrow at market rates to to ensure that its outputs respond to demands undertake these investments. There might be from the industrial and energy sectors. constraints, however, for nonprime borrowers from medium-size and small-scale industrial Technical and scientific issues units. 6.19 India has the capacity to RECOMMENDATIONS develop and apply clean technology, though some state-of-the-art technology may have to 6.15 The focus on clean technologies be imported. It is important that clean should be central to sector work and project technology be used in World Bank supported activities, and should not be seen as a stand- operations, and that cost-effective pollution alone activity. Some specific measures, prevention options be examined before 166 Improving Access to Clean Technologies A& resorting to end-of-the-pipe approaches. This may not be a constraint for large firms approach should involve both equipment and investing in clean technologies, medium-size techniques, emphasizing techniques where and small firms may require financing they alone could solve the problem. arrangements. While concessionary financing Developing skills and techniques in clean may not be the optimal solution, a strong case technologies could probably be the main can be made for bearing the cost of concessions strategy for dealing with the small - scale sector. or subsidies through taxes levied on polluters and managed through an environmental fund. Financial issues 6.20 Although financial resources X 167 + j India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Category: Research and Technology Development Government Objectives/Programs:1 Organization strengtheningfor research and technology development under the National Materials Initiatives under industrial development program for raw material upgradation, performance improvement in conventional materials, energy substitution and conservation and environmental sustainability under the Science and Technology Program under the industrial sector. Launching of a Technology Mission on Cleaner Production to coordinate activities for promoting cleaner technologies in India through government policies, strengthening of R&D institutions, industry associations, financial institutions and regulatory agencies. Formulation of industry-specific taskforces for selection of demonstration and developmental projects. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Industrial Pollution Control ADB US$0.6 M Industrial Pollution Control, West Bengal Japan (OECF) US$45.0 M equiv. Industrial Pollution Prevention World Bank US$25.0 M Cement Industry Restructuring World Bank- US$300.0 M Power Utilities Efficiency Improvement World Bank US$265. 0 M National Capital Power Supply World Bank US$485.0 M Private Power Utilities (TEC) World Bank US$98.0 M Renewable Resources Development World Bank IBRD US$75.0 M IDA US$115.0 M equiv. Category: Technology Transfer Government Objectives/Programs: Identify cleaner technologies developed in research laboratories/industrial units in India and abroad andfacilitate transfer and adaptation of such technologies in India. Establish centers for cleaner technologies in various parts of the country to develop a centralized data base andprovide information to industries. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Indo-Nordic Industrial Pollution Control Nordic Group US$40-45 M equiv. Renewable Resources Development World Bank IBRD US$75.0 M IDA US$115.0 M equiv. GOI programs are as identified in the Environment Action Plan and the 1994-95 Annual Report of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. 168. Improving Access to Clean Technologies Category: Capacity Building and Technical Development Government Objectives/Programs: For environmental audit for pollution prevention; developing indigenous design engineering capabilityfor absorption, adaptation and improvement of imported technology; and assessment Of environmental impact of clean technologies. Formulation of standards in terms of waste discharge per unit quantity of raw material. Formulation of legal and economic measures to ensure absorption of clean technologies. Action would be taken to establish a National Center for Long Term Training in Environmental Impact Assessment and evolve a network of regional centers in various institutes for training in the preparation of impact reports, including disaster management plans. Donor Agency Support Project _Agency Funding Industrial Counseling, Tanneries Netherlands US$1.55 M equiv. Industrial Counseling, Mysore Paper Mill Netherlands US$0.78 M equiv. Industrial Counseling, Gujarat Fertilizer Netherlands US$2.05 M equiv. Industrial Pollution Control ADB US$0.60 M Category: Development and Promotion of Cleaner Technologies Government Objectives/Programs: Scheme to set up Cleaner Technologies Promotion Network. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Industrial Pollution Control ADB US$0.6 M Industrial Pollution Prevention World Bank US$250.0 M Category: Clean Technologies in Small-Scale Industry Government Objectives/Programs: Training and awareness programs for personnel in Small Industry Development Organization (SIDO) andfor entrepreneurs by Small Industry Service Institute. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Industrial Pollution Prevention World Bank US$250.0 M Category: Waste Minimization Government Objectives/Programs: Develop the concept of waste minimization circles-groups of representatives of similar types of industries in a cluster working collectively to promote waste minimization in their respective units as part of their overall business strategies. * 169 India 's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Waste Min. in Automotive Components Sector UNIDO US$0.04 M Industrial Pollution Prevention World Bank US$250.0 M Category: Montreal Protocol Implementation Government Objectives/Programs: Phasing out manufacture of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Non-CFC Refrigerators Germany US$2.06 M equiv. Conversion of Cleaning Processes for CFC-113 UNIDO US$0.07 M to Non-CFC Recovery/ Recycling of CFC refrigerants UNIDO US$0.05 M Phaseout of ODS (UTNIDO) MFMP US$0.05 M Phaseout of ODS (World Bank) MFMP US$13.0 M 'Multi-Lateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol 170 Improving Access to Clean Technologies World Bank Support Project: Industrial Pollution Prevention Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: US$250.0 M Description: The project objective is to assist in the implementation of the government's policy on pollution abatement and promote cost- effective abatement of pollution from industrial sources. The project will focus on the most polluting industrial sectors and comprise three components: (a) An institutional component designed to strengthen the State Pollution Control Boards in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, which as a group constitute the next tier of industrialized states in India. In addition support to boards in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh will continue to be provided, complementing the activities already sponsored. (b) An investment component to support subprojects by individual firms for pollution abatement, with a focus on waste minimization and adoption of cleaner methods of production. The line of credit for priority investments provided under the first project would be continued. Resources would also be renewed for financing combined effluent treatmentplants (CETPs), which would include funding for industrial water recycling plants (IWRPs) that use sewage as input. (c) A technical assistance component to support: (i) Establishment of a Clean Technology Institutional Network (C T IN), designed to promote the develop- ment, diffusion and transfer of technologies with environmental benefits for industry. (ii) Extension services for the identification of waste minimization and abatement methods for small-scale industry, and the organization of waste minimization circles. (iii) Preinvestment studies for CETPs, IWRPs and other waste minimization facilities proposed to be financed under the project. .171 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities (iv) Finance for other training and consulting services under planning by the MOEF, including the training requirements for the preparation of environmental statements by industries. Project: Cement Industry Restructuring Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: US$300 M Description: The project is designed to support cement industry restructuring through the following components: (a) A technical assistance component to assist the DCCI in studying policy options for the mini-cement sector, coal washery and use of lignite, environmental protection and pollution control measures for the cement industry. The project would finance installation of pollution control equipment, ensure better environmental assessments, and encourage productive use of slag, a waste product from steel plants which must be disposed off in an ecologically acceptable manner. (b) A pilot bulk cement transport component to finance a pilot bulk cement transport system including loading facilities at participating cement plants. (c) A human resource development component to assist and finance a demand-driven, in-plant training system at selected regional training centers. (d) An industry modernization and restructuring component which would finance capacity expansion in cement-deficit regions and assist the industry in adjusting to a competitive environment. Project: Power Utilities Efficiency Improvement Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$265 M Description: Project objectives are to (a) Support government efforts to make Power Finance Corporation (PFC) a viable and effective instrument for improving the power sector. (b) Strengthen the operations of the beneficiary utilities by lending 172' Improving Access to Clean Technologies only to those willing to undertake acceptable reform pro.grams. (c) Foster better use of existing power facilities by reducing constraints in the transmission and distribution systems. (d) Mitigate the adverse environmental impact of thermal plants in operation by providing adequate antipollution and monitoring facilities. (e) Improve the preparation of power projects and promote the development of the local consulting industry by funding preinvestment studies and engineering for power projects. The project comprises a program to strengthen PFC's capabilities to discharge its responsibilities, the creation of a preinvestment fund in PFC, and five components to be financed by PFC: (i) Implementation of a pre-identified segment of the lending program of PFC. (ii) Environmental upgrading of power plants. (iii) Engineering studies for system renovation. (iv) Institutional strengthening of power utilities. (v) Improvements in State Electricity Boards' billing and collection. Project: Renewable Resources Development Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$75.0 M/US$1 15 M (equivalent) Description: The Project comprises: (a) Financing through the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) of private - sector investments in renewable energy subprojects, namely, irrigation-based small hydros, wind farms and solar photovoltaic systems. (b) Expansion of Tamil Nadu Paper Limited's bagasse-based paper mill. (c) Technical assistance for institutional development of IREDA and promotion of renewable energy technologies. The main benefits of the project are: (a) Demonstration on a commercial scale of renewable resource systems that could lead to their replication in other parts of India and the world. . 173 ii India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities (b) Mobilization of private investments into the energy sector and newsprint industry. (c) Reduced reliance on fossil fuels and forest resources and thus less environmental degradation. (d) Increased availability and improved reliability of power supply to help meet the industrial and decentralized rural energy needs. (e) Increased domestic newsprint supply in India. Project: National Capital Power Supply Fiscal Year: 1987 Loan/Credit Amount: US$485 M Description: The main objective of the project is to assist in meeting electricity demand in the capital area through the addition of 840 MW of thermal capacity. The project comprises the installation of four coal-fired 210 MW units at Dadri (Uttar Pradesh), as well as the construction of about 1 10 km of 400-KV transmission lines and four associated 400-KV and 220-KV substations to complete the 400 KV transmission around Delhi. Project also provides for the rehabilitation of an existing 710 MW thermal power station at Badarpur, near Delhi. In addition, the project will provide for institutional strengthening of Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking (DESU) through studies for reorganization and the development of a distribution master plan, and through the execution of a financial recovery plan. Consultancy support will be provided for these studies as well as for studies for the improvement of the quality of coal used in power generation, for rehabilitation of existing plant at Indraprastha, and for design and engineering of the main plant. The project will introduce dry ash disposal as anew technology in India. There are no unusual risks, as the dual firing feature of the power plant minimizes the risk of plant unavailability that could result from the transportation of coal over a long distance. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) is experienced in the design and construction of generation and transmission facilities, but will receive assistance from consultants on the design of the dry ash disposal system. Project: Private Power Utilities Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: US$98 M 174u Improving Access to Clean Technologies Description Project objectives are to increase Tata Electric Company's peak generating capacity, reduce their dependence on the Maharashtra State Electricity Board, reduce the average cost of generation and improve system reliability and quality of supply to consumers in the Bombay area. The project comprises five components: (a) A pumped storage unit at the existing Bhira hydroelectric station to generate 150 MW additional peak power by consuming off-peak power. (b) A 220 KV transmission line to carry this power to the license area. (c) A gas-based combined cycle unit of 180 MW at the Trombay thermal power plant. (d) A second flue gas desulphurization unit to control the sulfur dioxide emissions from the coal and oil burning unit no.5 at Trombay. (e) Review of design and technical specifications and supervision of construction of the Bhira pumped storage scheme and acquisition of know-how for the extension of the flue gas desulphurization facility at Trombay. * 175 + India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Other Donor Support Project: Industrial Counseling; Tanneries (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$1. 55 M equivalent Description: To disseminate economically viable clean technology in combination with occupational health measures in the leather industry, it is proposed to set up a revolving fund and to finance technical assistance for the introduction of chrome recovery plants in tanneries. Project: Industrial Counseling; Mysore Paper Mill Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.78 M equivalent Description: To demonstrate the techno-economical viability of clean technology in the paper industry in order to introduce environmental/safety measures along with energy conservation and mitigation of health hazards. Project: Industrial Counseling, Gujarat State Fertilizers Comp. Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$2.05 M equivalent Description: To demonstrate and disseminate clean-technology in the fertilizer industry, including safe occupational health measures, by cooperation with a fertilizer-producing company in Vadodara (Gujarat State). Project: Industrial Pollution Control Donor: ADB Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.6 M Description: Strengthen the monitoring/enforcement abilities of the pollution control boards of the heavily industrialized states; install pollution control devices, establish effluent treatment plants and introduce clean technologies. Project: Production of Non-CFC Refrigerators Donor: Germany 1 76 Improving Access to Clean Technologies Loan/Credit Amount: DM 1.5 M (US$2.06 M equivalent) Description: Transfer of technologies to transform the conventional fridge production into a CFC-free one. Project: Industrial Pollution Control West Bengal Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: Y4,525 M (US$45 M equivalent) Description: Strengthen the West Bengal Pollution Control Board, promote investment for pollution control and meet technical expertise and technology needs. Project: Conversion of Electronic Cleaning Processes for CFC-113 Alcohol Blended Solvents and 111-Trichloroethane to Non- CFC Cleaning Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.07 M Description. Assist the Indian government in formulating projects as per the project subject. Project: Feasibility Study for the Recovery and Recycling of CFC Refrigerants Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.05 M Description: Assist the Indian government in reducing and phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Project: Phasing Out of ODS in Unorganized Sector Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.05 M Description: Assist the Indian government/industry in formulating projects for phasing out ODS in unorganized sector. Project: Indo-Nordic Industrial Pollution Control (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) Donor: Nordic Group Loan/Credit Amount: Approximately US$40-45 M equivalent Description: Emphasis on clean Nordic technologies, directed towards small e177 India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities and medium-scale industries. Technical assistance aiming at competence development in the field of industrial pollution control and the dissemination of information on Nordic clean technologies. Project: Study on Waste Minimization in the Automotive Components Sector Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$0.04 M Description: Demonstrate financial and environmental benefits of cleaner production approach to industrial environmental management; demonstrate that pollution prevention is possible in the short term and that it has financial and environmental advantages; devise a systematic approach to pollution prevention and test its usefulness and efficiency; identify obstacles to the introduction of pollution prevention options and formulate strategies to overcome these; disseminate results of the case studies by written reports and by industry seminars. 178. Chapter 7 Ut bail Environmental Issues B India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities ,,~~~~~~~~~~~~~nT fl 1 . ,l,! a, . ., = 7 . Urbanization 7.01 Like most other developing less than 12 percent in 1940. Before 1940 countries, India is experiencing massive only one city in India had a population of urbanization. At 217 million, the country's more than 1 million; by 1991 there were urban population is one of the largest in the twenty-three. Some cities (Ludhiana-Punjab, world. The urban population currently makes Surat-Guj arat, and Hyderabad-Andhra up 26 percent of the total population, up from Pradesh) have grown by 70 percent in the Table 7.1. Urbanization in India, 1971-91 Slate Le% el of A%erage Annual I Urban-Rural Rank Uirbanization Uirban Exponential.(Gro%%1h Dirrerential ____- ___: Gro'uih _ _- 'QS- ' _ _ 19c1 i l 19w-1l81 ] I-91 I 9, I - I 1 CIS 1 -91 _ C) 1lI l 1981 91 India 25.72 3.83 3.09 2.05 1.29 - Andhra Pradesh 26.84 3.96 3.55 2.39 1.88 7 7 Assam 11.08 3.27 3.27 1.27 1.29 16 16 Bihar 13.17 4.37 2.65 2.49 0.62 14 15 Gujarat 34.40 3.47 2.9 1.46 1.51 3 2 Haryana 24.79 4.67 3.58 2.67 1.73 8 9 Himachal Pradesh 8.70 2.98 3.11 0.92 1.46 17 17 Jammu & Kashmir 23.83 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. 9 10 Karnataka 30.91 4.10 2.55 2.35 0.97 4 4 Kerala 26.44 3.19 4.76 1.73 4.44 12 8 Madhya Pradesh 23.21 4.45 3.71 2.69 1.71 11 11 Maharashtra 38.70 3.36 3.27 1.74 2.92 1 1 Orissa 13.43 5.22 3.08 3.76 1.4 15 14 Punjab 29.72 3.68 2.56 2.07 1.00 5 5 Rajasthan 22.88 4.62 3.31 2.19 1.07 10 12 Tamil Nadu 34.20 2.47 1.76 1.25 0.56 2 3 Uttar Pradesh 19.89 4.74 3.29 2.94 1.27 13 13 West Bengal 27.39 2.76 2.54 0.91 0.47 6 6 N.A. = not available Source: Government of India, Planning Commission, Eighth Five-Year Plan, 1992-97. 18`0 Urban Environmental Issues past decade. cities in North Bihar. Even cities like Bombay and New Delhi have experienced increasing 7.02 Rural-urban migration is a major numbers of urban slum dwellers. More than factor in India's urban growth. Even though half of Bombay's population lives in slums. the birthrate in urban areas is lower than that Increased population pressures have reduced in rural areas, urban populations are increasing the urban resource base, increased industrial at a rapid rate. The urban sector's contribution activity and motorization, and exacerbated to the economy increased from 20 percent in problems of safe water supply, sanitation, solid 1951 to 47 percent in 1981; by 2000 the urban waste treatment and disposal, overcrowding, share is expected to be 60 percent. Economic and congestion. activity will continue to draw people to the cities. 7.04 Three areas will require concen- trated action if urban environmental issues are 7.03 Urban population growth has not to be alleviated: air pollution, solid waste been accompanied by a growth in urban management, and water pollution. All three prosperity. In some urban areas economic factors, typical of an urban agglomerate in stagnation has been just as severe as in some India today, have adverse health implications rural areas. For example, there has been a and will require multifaceted strategies and steady decline in the growth of Class I and II city-specific planning. Table 7.2. Urban Population Projection, 1991-2001 Wear Total Urban Population I Percentage Urban Population Share orf illion-Plus iNMillioni Cities to Urban Population Commnittee of No" Committee of No%% (percent) E \perts Projection Projected Experts Projection Projected 1991 235 217 27.5 25.7 32.5 (23) 1997 - 267 - 28.3 2001 332 307 33.0 30.5 35.8 (40) Note: Figures in brackets indicate number of million plus cities. Source: Government of India, Planning Commission, Eighth Five Year Plan, 1992-97. India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Box 7.1. National Housing Policy The National Housing Policy specifies the following objectives and goals to be achieved: * Reduce houselessness and assist, especially the vulnerable sections, to secure affordable shelter through access to developed land, building materials, finance and technology. * Create an enabling environment for housing activity by developing an efficient and equitable system for the delivery of housing inputs. * Increase developed land and finance to different income groups and expand the provision of infrastructure facilities in rural and urban areas. * Undertake within the overall context of policies for poverty alleviation and employment, steps for improving the housing situation of the poorest sections by direct initiative and fnancial support of the state. * Promote the use of energy-saving building materials and cost- effective construction technologies to help mobilize resoprces and facilitate the expansion of investment in housing to meet construction and upgradation of infrastructure needs. * Promote a more equal distribution of land and houses in urban and rural areas and curb speculation in land and housing. * Promote vernacular architecture, preserving the nation's heritage in human settlements. * Assist in the upgradation of all unserviceable houses in rural and urban areas, particularly improving the housing conditions of the rural homeless, slum dwellers, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other vulnerable sections. * Provide the minimum level of basic services and amenities to ensure a healthy environment within the framework of integrated development of rural and urban settlements. The main elements of the housing policy include the following: * Housing norms-standardized housing designs for each geoclimatic region. * Rural housing. * Slums and squatter settlements, and housing for urban poor. * Supply and management of land. * Infrastructure-stepping up public and private investment in infrastructure. * Conservation and housing stock and rental housing-modifications in building regulations; fiscal/property tax incentives; access to materials and technical assistance. * Housing finance. * Building material and technology. * Special programs for disadvantaged groups. * Role of government, private sector and community. * Fiscal policy. * Legal and regulatory framework. * Human resource development. * Action plan-state government's and union territories to play the primary role in formulating action plans and programs suited to local needs and conditions. Source: Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development, National Housing Policy, New Delhi, August 1994. 182 . Urban Environmental Issues {4 Urban Water Supply, Sanitation, and Sewerage 7.05 India's urban population is sewers in cities where they exist. expected to grow to 330 million people in 2001, with the slum population growing at a crExpanldn trunk netw ork iwee significantly higher rate than the other critically needed with appropriate segments of the urban population Table (7.2). technology. About one-fourth of urban dwellers live in O Providing sewage collection where slums today. With more than 60 percent of lacking. gross domestic product (GDP) generated in the manufacturing and service sectors of the O3 Treating collected sewage before economy (located predominantly in urban indiscriminate discharge into water areas), India cannot afford to have the bodies and open channels. economic gains from industrialization Water overshadowed by the economic and social costs of water mismanagement and the 7.07 Inadequate mechanisms for consequent environmental degradation (MOEF meeting the demand for drinking water, 1992). Only 30 to 40 percent of the urban poor industrial water and wastewater removal for in India have access to a safe water supply, 75 percent of India's urban population, as well and just 15 percent of urban households have as the inadequate treatment of wastes before private toilets. More than 60 percent of disposal, threaten the existing water supply households must resort to open defecation systems. The annual demand for water in 1990, (Sivaramakrishnan 1992). Without immediate 2000, and 2025 is summarized in Table 7.3. intervention this situation will worsen. Sewerage ISSUES FACING THE SECTOR 7.08 It has never been possible to obtain 7.06 The critical environmental any comprehensive information on sewerage priorities in the urban water supply, sanitation, systems in urban areas As a result it is and sewerage sectors are: impossible to know how much wastewater is generated, collected, and treated. Some LI Ensuring water quality and supply for information is available in a report prepared urban areas, especially the large urban by the Central Pollution Control Board, titled conglomerations. "Status of Water Supply and Waste Water LI Providing safe and adequate drinking Collection, Treatment and Disposal in Class water to the urban poor. I Cities 1988." The report painted a dismal picture of extremely limited collection and LI Providing extensive low-cost sanitation even more limited treatment. The situation has in low-income neighborhoods. since worsened. El Providing sewer connections to trunk 1.09 The lack of sewerage systems has * 183 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Table 7.3. Water Use and Demand, 1990-2025 industries that account for 60 to 65 percent (cubic kilometers) of the pollution. As a result, 70 percent of Ilse 199(1 2000 2025 India's surface water is seriously polluted Domestic 25 33 52 (MOEF 1992). The water of the Yamuna River Irrigation 460 630 770 in Delhi, for example, is so polluted that many Energy 19 27 71 local industries cannot use its water during Industrial 15 30 120 the worst months of the year, forcing some Other 33 30 37 units to shut down during this period. It has Total 1.552 750 1.050 become increasingly clear that the economic losses that are caused by water-related Source: Ramasubban 1992. environmental problems-disease, costs of resulted in the bulk discharge of municipal boiling water, productivity- are greater than waste, domestic waste, and industrial effluent previously imagined. into surface water bodies, contributing to Inadequate urban water supply surface and groundwater pollution. Conse- quently, water pollution harms more people 7.12 Growing municipal and industrial than any other environmental problem. Of all water demand, coupled with mismanagement deaths in urban areas in India in 1987, 60 of the sector, has led to large cities being placed percent were due to water related diseases like in direct competition for water resources. cholera, dysentery, and gastroenteritis. Conflicts between cities and populations from areas where water is drawn are becoming Sanitation common and are likely to increase with 7.10 More than half the urban urbanization. Water-related environmental population-I 25 million people-lacks access issues relating to urbanization have direct links to basic sanitary facilities, and instead makes with upstream regions both within and outside use of open spaces surrounding slums, state and country boundaries. If not managed fostering the spread of fecal-borne diseases comprehensively, the entire hydrological such as dysentery, hepatitis, worms, and region (extending well beyond urban cholera (Repetto 1994). The most effective jurisdictions) is likely to suffer damage that intervention is safe sanitation and sewerage investments are unable to reverse. facilities, but infrastructure provision lags 7.13 Lack of resources and ineffective behind water supply. management are more pronounced in smaller Industrial water pollution urban municipalities that have smaller financial bases, limited management capacity, 7.11 Industrial units located primarily low technical expertise, and little motivation. in densely populated urban areas discharge Municipalities will have to establish a good their effluent untreated into surface water track record with their clientele before they channels, land sites, and sewers. While India are able to recover costs for services they is pursuing a policy of industrial pollution deliver. A large part of the clientele is used control, the focus so far has been on the large to paying nothing or next to nothing for industries, despite the fact that more than half services, imposing a substantial burden on of the industrial output comes from small-scale government budgets. 184 Urban Environmental Issues Sector needs water pollution, both due to industrial and 7.14 The United Nations Children's municipal waste discharge. The EAP highlights Fund, World Bank, and United Nations the following urban water supply, sanitation, Development Program recently concluded that and sewage issues: providing 90 percent of the population in O Inadequate urban services. developing countries with water and sanitation services would require a threefold increase O High levelsofwater pollution asaresult in the average annual level of investment over of waste disposal, inadequate sewerage the average sector (UN 1993). The government and drainage, and improper disposal of allocated Rs.47,364 million for urban water municipal and industrial effluent. supply and sanitation during the 1980s. The L Toxic or hazardous industrial or Eighth Five-Year Plan Working Group commercial wastes released in urban recommended a provision of Rs.148,440 water bodies and land sites without million for urban water supply and sanitation- about three times the investment in the 1 980s- proper treatment. yet only Rs.57,573 million was allocated in LO Indiscriminate dumping of solid waste, the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-97). Clearly, leading to groundwater pollution of the the targets set out in the plan cannot be met aquifers underlying urban areas. with government financing, indicating a need to mobilize private resources. Even if METROPOLITAN CITIES investments in water were raised 50 percent and sanitation raised 30 percent, the number 7.17 With the number of cities with of people unserved might still increase. The populations of more than one million projected most effective approach is a combination of to increase to forty by 2001, the EAP's focus policy reforms and accelerated investment. is on the environmental problems faced by 7.15 The sector not only requires metropolitan areas. The high levels of water pollution and improper disposal of toxic and Investments, but a management style that haaduwstsavbenmtie.Ohr makes the water cycle work. Past investments hazardous wastes have been mentioned. Other make th waer ycl wok. astinvstmnts problems include dumping of refuse in low- have taken the form of large capital projects l eas whch contributest ln and but little has been done for low-income groups lygng areas, which contributes to land and at the community level. Without visible groundwater pollution, and congested and environmental improvements, communities unsanitary dwellings in slums, which lead to will not support (politically or financially) any infant mortality rates that are almost four times program for environmental improvements. as high in slums as in urban areas. According to the EAP, the deteriorating urban THE ENVIRONMENT ACTION PROGRAM environment is a result of increasing and unevenly distributed urban growth, escalating 7.16 India's Environment Action per capita costs of providing services, the Program (EAP) identifies urban environmental rapidly increasing number of urban poor, weak issues as one of its seven priorities. The EAP financial and organizational capacity, and focuses on urban air pollution, especially in inadequate wastewater collection, treatment, the metropolitan areas, and on river and coastal and sanitation facilities. .15 India's Environment-Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities CLASS I CITIES AND SMALL TOWNS iinvestment in water supply and 7.18 The EAP identifies the main water sanitation based on sustainability and supply, sanitation, and sewerage issue facing quality. Class I cities (those with populations of more OI Formulating city-level environmental than 100,000) as inadequate treatment capacity action plans. for sewage outside the metropolitan centers. The EAP identifies water pollution as the main ° Strengthening institutions responsible source of pollution in 241 small towns, with for pollution control, waste management, 90 percent of the water supply being polluted natural resource accounting, risk and just 1.6 percent of the municipal assessment, and environmental wastewater being treated before discharge. assessment in urban areas. OL Protecting natural water sources to meet RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES AND the needs of water users. PRIORITIES 7.19 To tackle urban environmental LI Managing storm water drains in cities. issues related to water supply, sanitation, and O P'rotecting urban parks, beaches, and sewerage, the EAP recommends the following: vvetlands. LI Updating information in the 1988 Report O Strengthening urban forests. by the Central Pollution Control Board on sources of pollution. ASSESSMENT OF STRATEGIES AND PRIORITIES O Finding solutions for community water 7.20 The EAP recognizes that supply to eliminate excessive salinity, inadequacies and inequities in service levels pesticides, and nitrates. are caused by weak organizational and L Developing water treatment plants for financial capacity-but goes no further. It small communities. claims that the number of urban poor who cannot afford services is growing, while the OI Research and development for cost of providing services is escalating. This application of genetic engineering for is inconsistent with evidence from other resource recovery-based wastewater deeopincontries ere data i tea treatment. developing countries, where data idicate a high willingness and ability to pay for El Developing an objective method for improved services. The urban poor pay much assessing water quality. more for a unit of water bought from private vendors than the urban rich pay for the same LI oTreauceting sewa to risem e pandthogue unit of water. Often, the success of revenue to reduce the risk of disease and to use wastewater for irrigation, recovery programs depends to a great extent on how revenue is collected. The barrier often LI Examining the economics of treatment is not an inability to pay, but rather the lack and reuse of wastewater for urban of an innovative cost recovery program. Given agriculture or industry. people's reluctance to pay to government LI Removing pollution caused by urban departments, alternative means of collecting areas in order to encourage community and managing funds should be developed. 186. Urban Environmental Issues 7.21 The EAP does point out that poor Demand management financial and organizational management has resulted in subsidized services. However, these 72 ihu eadmngmn,i resultedinsubsidieszaccruedo ther s poowr, , thee is impossible to assess the need for increases subsidies accrue not to the poor, but to the i ae upyt oewt ouaingot rich Andwhil comunit invstmet in in water supply to cope with population growth and economic activity. Unless prices are water supply and sanitation, based on principles of sustainability is encouraged, the rectur toreflectnsector demand, EAP does ot discuses how ths might b projections for future demand will continue to be overestimated, leading to flawed or done whether such a strategy would require premature investments. Demand management substantial institutional changes. has the potential for enormous savings. In 7.22 The EAP's recommended New Delhi, for example, introducing demand strategies largely focus on water quality and management and reducing water losses could resource recovery issues. The EAP save 55 percent of current production volume. recommends that the information on pollution sources should be updated, at the national Lack of coverage of poor communities and level. But given the urgent need for such inequities in distribution information, it is not clear that undertaking 7.25 Wfater. While the EAP recognizes this exercise at the national level is the most that services are inadequate, it does not expedient approach. Since water is a state mention that half of the urban poor lack access issue, and pollution is concentrated in urban to adequate and safe water supply. Nor does areas, cities may have a role to play in the it emphasize that distribution systems are not collection of this information. Private in place. The poor usually obtain water from industries and communities may also have a a public standpost. Women and children bear role to play. The EAP also does not address the brunt of water shortages, spending hours the environmental issues that affect the daily lives of most urban residents, particularly the urban poor. Despite the fact that the number 7.26 Sanitation. The EAP recognizes of cities with more than 1 million residents that removal and disposal of human feces is is projected to increase to forty by 2001, none a critical health need in the 300 or so Class I of the recommended actions will have a direct towns but does not refer to sanitation needs impact on these cities. The link between in the metropolitan cities. This may be the poverty and environmental degradation should result of inadequate data. Still, there has been be more explicit. Communities which are even less progress in sanitation coverage than unlikely to benefit from water resource in water coverage: 125 million people defecate protection efforts in their lifetime, limit in open spaces. Urban poor settlements are grassroots support for these initiatives. generally extremely dense and located on 7.23 A number of issues that are critical environmentally hazardous land with no security of tenure. The lack of land imposes to sustainable and equitable development of limits on in ure phovisiondnitewaer water resources should also be addressed in supl noratricanre provided when the context of urban environmental issues. land is available. These are discussed in the following 7.27 av lo s u s i paragraphs. 7.27 A low-cost pour-flush toilet . 187 . * India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities module based on twin leach pits has been the hour water supply, it is generally limited to a widely disseminated solution for sanitation few hours a day. Several problems arise from in India. This module can, however, only be this intermittent supply: water quality used where soil and density conditions permit deteriorates because pollutants are absorbed leach pits -small and medium-size towns, and into the system from leakage points (because peri-urban areas. More research is needed on of shifts in flows and drops in water pressure); sanitation and waste disposal technologies consumers hoard water (often discarding this appropriate for high-density low-income supply as stale once service restarts); and settlements. In addition, the various low-cost meters do not rewind when water flow is sanitation components implemented by state reversed. The system's inefficiency is further governments under the Ganga Action Plan and exacerbated by the fact that intermittent supply the Integrated Development of Small and systems require more staff. Developing Medium Towns Scheme should be assessed. countries with soundly run utilities typically 7.28 Sewage. The EAP does not have six to eight staff to 1,000 connections; recommend strategies for sewage disposal. in India the ratio is more than 20 employees Sewerage systems offer considerable per 1,000 connections. economies of scale in densely populated areas, 7.31 The incidence of unaccounted-for yet they exist mainly in less densely populated, water in distribution networks is high due to upper-income areas. Despite large investments system leakage arising from poor construction, in these systems in the major cities, the threat operations, and maintenance. This results in of disease and the potential for destruction large financial losses for utility companies, of aquatic organisms serving the food chain clogs sewers and drains, and prematurely have limited their use. Distributional inequities disables structures and equipment. The are not the result of flawed technical design, percentage of unaccounted-for water in New but rather the result of political imperatives. Delhi is estimated at 40 percent by the Department of Housing, Urban Development 7.29 In Bombay the sewerage system and Municipal Affairs. Formal control policies covers the entire urban area, but slum dwellers at rucepal losses (trou leakag (about 40 percent of the population) lack detectioncandhrepair)landenonphysicalllosses connctios tothe vste. Coventonal detection and repair) and nonphysical losses connections to the system. Conventional (through improved management) cost $5-b0 sewerage systems are inappropriate in low- per capita. Savings and increased revenues income settlements because of their high costs, frmscpoiesanayortscstwhn yet hey ontiue t beadvoatedby lcal from such policies can pay for this cost within yet they continue to be advocated by local engineers. In Bombay, where water tables and a reasonable period. Still, so long as water population densities are high, it would be supply remains intermittent, metering and feasible to lay shallow, narrow pipes that could detection programs are technically impractical. discharge into the sewer system or some other Private sector involvement discharge point. Such systems are half as costly as conventional sewerage systems. 7.32 Given the limited resources, needed investments in water, sanitation, and In efficient service sewerage, and the inefficiencies in 7.30 Although urban water supply construction, operations and maintenance, and systems in India are designed for twenty-four- billing and collection, there is tremendous 188. Urban Environmental Issues scope for private involvement in the formal 7.36 Sanitation. For hygienic reasons, and informal sectors. Water meters in Kerala bathrooms and toilets traditionally have been are serviced by a private firm. New Delhi constructed away from the home. Because a provides community toilets and showers run large number of the urban poor are rural on a private concession. While wholesale migrants who are used to open defecation, it privatization of water supply should be a long- is likely that this practice will persist. Clearly, term goal, in the near future selected functions any sanitation solution that does not take into should be privatized. Since water supply is account the social segregation and privacy currently a statutory service of local requirements of women will be unsuccessful. governments, private participation will require changes in the legal framework. 7.37 Tragedy of the commons. While indiscriminate dumping of solid waste and Weak regulatory and legal environments refuse in public areas is common, this pattern of behavior will likely cease once the urban 7.33 None of the Indian states has legal poor have been provided with sanitation control over groundwater development. The pons hat caerotired with clear central government proposed a groundwater property rights. Studies of public toilets control bill to state governments in the 1 970s, consrte in M irp an puaai under but only Gujarat passed the bill. Municipalities the Ganga Action Plan found that levels of have laws for groundwater extraction but do leGanle vAried dPendi the toile to not apply them. ~~~~cleanliness varied depending on the toilet's location, level of use, quality of management, Sociocultural barriers and the availability of water and electricity. Still, the study found that most toilets were 7.34 Water. The popular perceptionthat clean and that conditions would improve if water is a free good adversely affects the the water supply was not intermittent and if implementation and sustainability of water operations and maintenance were better. Some investments. This perception also affects the toilets were underused due to improper site political process through which goals, resource selection, lack of water, or inadequate allocations, and programs are formulated. The rehabilitation. While some of the problems institutional and financial conditions of the of public toilets can be solved with user water sector reflect this perception-consumers participation, design modifications and better would be less likely to hoard water if cost management, other problems will require recovery mechanisms were in place. community education and involvement. 7.35 As in most countries, an unmotivated and poorly paid bureaucracy is a barrier to better performance. Most local 7.38 Insufficient data. The absence of institutions are not oriented toward the comprehensive, current data at the state level provision of services. To some degree, makes it difficult to estimate the magnitude Maharashtra and Gujarat are exceptions. There of the investments that are required to address have been impressive changes in the Bombay urban water supply sanitation and sewerage Water Supply and Sewerage Department, needs. As a result priority setting for which now recover most of its operational investments is often flawed, with the most cost- costs. effective measures being overlooked. . 189 --. * sIndia's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities 7.39 Inadequate cost recovery. With 7.42 Technically appropriate solutions. few exceptions, water and sewerage authorities For largely institutional reasons, the most recover less than half of their costs. There is technically appropriate solutions have not little attempt to link cost recovery with service always been adopted in India. Engineers are provision. A successful policy of charging by familiar with modern solutions, governments volume requires that connections be pursue failure-proof and maintenance-free universally metered and read, that bills be construction, and politicians wish to avoid issued and collected, and that rates be set on being accused of demodernizing services. a sliding scale to induce water conservation. Taken together these tendencies lead toward Since tariffs do not reflect the costs of water unrealistically high standards. production and distribution, consumers perceive water as a free good, with little public RECOMMENDATIONS awareness of its associated costs. Without an effective metering system, it is impossible to 7.43 A number of initiatives must be obtain information on consumption levels. undertaken-supported by the government, Current tariffs are so low that only if the local private sector, nongovernmental organizations urban bodies double the rates and improve (NGOs), the World Bank, and other collection levels to about 70 percent (from international organizations-to ensure that 30 to 40 percent) can they hope to meet sector goals and priorities are addressed. The operations and maintenance costs. following are the major recommendations: Technical issues 7.44 Demand management LI All large cities should develop a water 7.40 Mishandling ofequipment. Large policy and plan. projects in the sector are executed by state agencies, with little involvement or training LI Within states, comprehensive demand of the local municipalities that have to operate projections should be developed, with and maintain these investments. Sophisticated coordination across sectors. imported equipment becomes useless because LI All costs for water-related services utilities are ill-equipped to maintain it or to should be calculated. procure spare parts. 7.41 Poor quality of construction. The Strengthening institutional public sector has the advantage of being able performance to undertake and execute large civil works. LI In anticipation of increased private However, the quality of construction should participation, water utilities (especially be monitored by an independent agency, in in the megacities) should inventory their order to ensure compliance with predetermined assets and build up a bank of qualified, standards. Civil works often require middle-level managers. rehabilitation well before the end of their design life, leading to a premature deterioration L Pilot privatization projects should be in assets. taken up in small and medium-size 190 Urban Environmental Issues towns. community workers, NGOs, street theater) to better inform citizens of environmental 7.46 Lack of coverage of Poorer protection needs, as well as the need for communities accountability. O Efforts should be made to promote 7.49 Piloting strategic planning for private community-based firms that can sanitation. As has been successfully done in manage segments of operations requiring Ghana, a strategic sanitation plan should be good community outreach and links. piloted for a city in India. Such a plan has O Cities should support the formation of been developed with the assistance of the water users groups that can own, operate, United Nations Development Program-World and maintain their facilities. Bank Water and Sanitation Group. The plan recommends technical options for each type O With the help of NGOs, community of housing in the city, considers user groups should be encouraged to develop preferences and willingness to pay, uses a their own plans for service provision, relatively short planning horizon (ten to fifteen The groups should be given technical years), and breaks the overall plan into projects supportto evaluate technical options and that can be implemented independently but that together provide full coverage. U Municipal workers should be trained in 7.50 Piloting a city environment participatory techniques to develop a management plan. The EAP recommends that service orientation toward poor cities develop environment management plans. communities so that they can develop This recommendation holds promise and site-specific cost recovery programs. should be pursued with the help of an U Where sewerage coverage exists, international agency experienced in the community-based management initiati- formulation of such plans. ves should be encouraged with appropriate technical guidance from the sector institutions. U A universal system of metering should 7.47 Inefficient Service. Water utilities be instituted, with meters designed must focus on leak detection programs and specifically for intermittent supply. on reducing the incidence of unaccounted-for Sewerage charges should be set as a water. Utilities could decentralize their percentage of water consumption. operations to manageable zones of perhaps Metering must be supported with 500 connections, with an individual caretaker stringent billing and collection that responds rapidly to leaks. This caretaker practices- a segment of operations that would become the utility's interface with could be contracted out to the private consumers. sector. 7.48 Urbanpublic relations campaign. U Since it is not the inability of poor Cities should launch public awareness communities to. pay that hinders cost campaigns that employ various communi- recovery, an innovative cost recovery cation schemes (school curriculums, mechanism should be developed. ,* India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Urban Air Pollution Control 7.52 Although India has made great Box 7.2. The Air (Prevention and Control strides in recent years in managing of Pollution) Act, 1981 environmental issues, urban environmental The objective of the Air Act is to prevent, control degradation is heading toward a crisis. Not and reduce air pollution including noise pollution only does India have three of the world's and to establish boards at the States/Union megacities (populations of more than 10 Territories to achieve this. This act prohibits the million), but the rate of urbanization is also construction or operation of any industrial plant mapidll ion), easing. The rate of urban without the consent of the State Pollution Control rapidly increasing. The rate of urban Board (SPCB). population growth is projected to almost The act assigns powers and functions to the Central double-from 28 percent growth in 1990 to and SPCBs for prevention and control of air 51 percent in 2025, or from 238 million to pollution and all otherrelatedmatters. The act states 737 million people. World Bank analysis has that state boards for the prevention and control found that India's economic policies are not of water pollution are to be the state boards for only distorting, but they also effectively the prevention and control of air pollution. In subsidize environmental degradation ad .addition, the CPCB can exercise the power and subsidize environmental degradation and perform the functions of a state board in the Union increase the costs of environmental protection. Territories. 7.53 The Indian government has For the prevention and control of air pollution, increased its efforts to analyze the issue of the state government in consultation with SPCB has the power to set standards for emissions from urban environmental degradation. Far- automobiles, impose restrictions on use of certain reaching public interest litigation on industrial plants, and prohibit emissions of air environmental matters has also led to serious pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by policy reviews. The most famous example is the SPCB. It can also make an application to court the Supreme Court ruling on air quality in for restraining persons from causing air pollution. In addition, it also has the power of entry and Delhi, where the national government was inspection, power to obtain information and power asked to clean up the city's air by April 1995. to take samples of air emissions and conduct the Despite these efforts, it has been difficult to appropriate follow-up. get air pollution control activities moving. The CPCB as well as the SPCBs are eligible for contributions from the central government and state 7.54 The Environment Action Program government, respectively, to perform their functions (EAP) for India notes that air quality problems appropriately. The act also allows for appropriate are particularly acute in New Delhi, Bombay, penalties and procedures for noncompliance. Calcutta, and Madras. The records of the The Air (Prevention and Control of Central Pollution Control Board show high Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987 incidences of solid particulate matter, sulfur This act includes amendments to facilitate dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and heavy metals implementation of the 1981 act. in New Delhi. The EAP further notes that the Source: Desai 1994; Pollution Control Act and Rules industrial deregulation initiated in recent years with Amendments, CPCB, 1989. 192. Urban Environmental Issues is accelerating industrialization and urbani- pollution. Annual average levels of total zation, with commensurate increases in air suspended particulars in these cities are at least pollution. three times the World Health Organization (WHO) standard; in Delhi, Calcutta, and 7.5 5 The combinaton of urbanization, Kanpur, annual average values are more than increasing urban poverty, and deterioration five times the standard (Table 7.4). More than of~~~ ura ai,ln,ad.ae ult 90 percent of the national monitoring stations necessitates a broadly based urban environ- . . o mental strategy. The EAP identifies urban record particulate concentrations exceeding 75 micrograms per cubic meter, the midpoint efaction, of the WHO recommended standard. Average but it fails to address the issues explicitly or annual concentrations of sulfur dioxide and to set a schedule for their resolution. This chapter builds on the urban air pollution nitren co ntrat,ial inbmost priorities identified in the EAP and suggests ctiesc actions and projects deserving immediate consideration. 7.57 Particulates are associated with THE MAGNITUDE OF THE URBAN AIR premature death from respiratory illness and POLLUTION PROBLEM cardiovascular disease and increased sickness (increased prevalence of chronic obstructive 7.56 Six of the largest cities in India- lung disease, especially bronchitis, and Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Ahmedabad, increased incidence of upper and lower Kanpur, and Nagpur-have severe air respiratory tract infections). With certain Table 7.4. Average Annual Levels of Four Pollutants in Major Indian Cities, 1991 Ci0% SulCfur Nitrogen Total suspended LeadI dioxide dioxi(le particulates Recommiienlded standard' 50.0 100.0 75 0.7500 Bombay 25.4 29.2 245 0.1158 Calcutta 63.3 40.8 392 0.3985 Delhi 20.8 34.8 390 0.2775 Hyderabad 11.0 19.0 152 0.2215 Madras 14.1 19.8 130 0.0718 Ahmedabad 26.7 30.6 306 0.0785 Kanpur 9.5 13.8 448 0.2450 Nagpur 8.3 15.5 265 Cochin 6.1 14.4 106 'All standards are WHO standards except for nitrogen dioxide, which is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards are expressed in terms of micrograms per cubic meter. Source: Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and total suspended particulates: National Ambient Air Q...: , Statistics of' India, 1991; Lead:.-Air Q... Statnis, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute. _ I t - t India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities technical caveats, extrapolations from WHO standards in the same ten cities epidemiological studies in industrialized sites suggests: are useful in estimating the magnitude of the health effects of particulate air pollution O 975,000 fewer respiratory hospital in India. Reducing particulate levels to the admissions and emergency room visits. WHO standard would save nearly 37,000 LI 85 million fewer restricted activity lives in the ten major Indian cities. An days. economic valuation of these premature deaths, using a statistical life value of $9,640 LI 721 million fewer "respiratory (derived using a human capital approach), symptom" days. suggests a value of $350 million. In addition, LI 3 million fewer lower respiratory reducing particulate levels would likely illnesses in children. reduce the incidence of chronic lung disease and respiratory tract infections, especially O 9 million fewer asthma attacks. in children. Asthma attacks also would be reduced. Preliminary estimates of the ° 240,000 fewer cases of chronic physical impact of reducing air pollution to bronchitis. Table 7.5. Particulate Levels and Premature Deaths, 1991 Population' A%erage Amount bN I Number of Deaths a,oided annual | hich level deaths as a percentage total exceeds b% achie*ing ol total annual suspended WHO guidelineb deaths 3particulate guidelines levels II Bombay 12,571,720 244.7 | 154.7 - 6,263 8.17 Calcutta 10,916,272 391.0 301.0 11,797 15.89 Delhi 8,375,188 390.2 300.2 8,429 15.85 Hyderabad 5,361,468 152.3 62.3 1,146 3.29 Madras 5,361,468 130.3 40.3 752 2.13 Ahmedabad 3,297,655 306.3 216.3 3,314 11.42 Kanpur 2,111,284 448.2 358.2 3,274 18.91 Nagpur 1,661,409 235.2 145.2 776 7.66 Jaipur 1,514,425 265.3 175.3 1,079 9.25 Cochin 1,139,543 106.4 16.4 59 0.86 Total,I) cifie%! 51.' 10.432 36,889 10.56 Arithmetic average of annual mean values at all monitoring stations. Calculated using the following equation reported in Ostro (1994): change in mortality = 0.00096 x change in particulate matter,, x crude mortality= rate x exposed population (assumes PM1o= 0.55 x TSP). Source: Central Statistical Organization, Statistical Pocketbook: India, 1992; National Ambient Air Quality Statistics of India, 1991. 194a Urban Environmental Issues SOURCES OF PARTICULATE AIR possible to assess the relative importance of POLLUTION various categories of vehicles to total vehicle emissions of particulate matter. In Bombay, 7.58 The contributions of motor for example, vehicles with two-stroke engines vehicles, industry, and domestic sources to contribute 20 percent of particulates, whereas air pollution-especially to particulate diesel-fueled vehicles contribute 67 percent. pollution-are not well understood. While Scooters with two-stroke engines are likely studies have measured the total emissions of to contribute a greater share in New Delhi each major pollutant from each source, it is and Madras since they constitute a much higher harder to determine the contribution of each fraction of the vehicle fleet (approximately source to ambient pollution levels. A 70 percent, compared with 40 percent in dispersion model is used to link emissions from Bombay and Calcutta). each source to ambient levels observed elsewhere. TECHNICAL OPTIONS FOR CONTROLLING URBAN AIR POLLUTION 7.59 The most careful study of source contributions to particulate emissions was 7.62 The large contributions of vehicles, commissioned for Bombay by the URBAIR refuse burning, and industry indicate that the program (Table 7.6). This study shows the relative importance of motor vehicles, the aoacheto contlln ariulatea burning of refuse, and the industrial burning approach to controlling particulate air Of fuels. Focusing on inhalable particulate poltn.Dcdgwhhmesrso ofafuels. Focus),wing inhreeaslab pantrtates implement requires first calculating the costs tte (PM ad, whichfore ,e pevnt ort and associated reduction in pollutants for each theuang heand is a therefoimored rvant refoe option. The second step is to identify the policy human health, it was estimated that refuse intuet txs eisossadrs burning contributes 28 percent of pollution; vehicle exhaust, 25 percent; resuspended road inspection and maintenance schemes) needed to implement the technical solutions and the d15 percent; fuel burned by industry and power, appropriate government level and agency for * 1 pecen; felbured y idutryandpowr, implementing the policy. 12 percent; and other sources such as marine, 3 percent. Control strategiesfor particulate emissions 7.60 No similar emissions inventory has from two-stroke engines been produced for New Delhi. The Tata Energy 7.63 Replace two-stroke with four- Research Institute has compiled an emissions stroke engines. A four-stroke motorcycle inventory for industrial sources of particulates, engine of 250 cubic centimeters (cc) or less but the corresponding data on area sources emits 90 percent less particulates and are poor. It is possible, however, to assess the importance of various industries to total hydrocarbons than a two-stroke engine of the same size. A four-stroke engine motorcycle industrial particulate emissions. It also appears costs $60 to $80 more to manufacture than a that coal burning is a more important source two-stroke motorcycle. The four-stroke engine of particulates in New Delhi than in Bombay. gets better gas mileage but it is less powerful 7.61 Given existing data, it is also than a two-stroke engine of the same size. . 1 5, India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Table 7.6. Source Contributions to Air Pollution in Bombay, 1992 V I alues I Percentage r (ons) Pareua e TSP Particulate ____ matter,, (iono) mntter,,,(Ions) Vehicles Gasoline Cars 492.0 492.0 0.0158 0.0333 Motorcycle 737.0 737.0 0.0237 0.0499 Diesel Cars 765.0 765.0 0.0245 0.0518 Buses 445.0 445.0 0.0143 0.0301 Trucks 1,234.0 1,234.0 0.0396 0.0835 Sum or Vehicle Exhau,l 3.6-3.0 | 3.6'3. 0 0.11-9 0.2485 Resuspension froni Roads 1EXO(I.0 '2.500.(I 0.32'3 0.1691 Fuel Combustion Industrial LSHS 167.0 84.0 0.0054 0.0057 FO 1,646.0 1,399.0 0.0528 0.0947 LDO 12.0 6.0 0.0004 0.0004 Diesel 12.0 6.0 0.0004 0.0004 LPG 0.5 0.5 0.0000 0.0000 Power plants 300.0 300.0 0.0096 0.0203 sum or Industrial and Po%ier 2.137.5 0,9 1.0686 0. 1 15 Domestic Wood 4,395.0 2,198.0 0.1410 0.1487 Kerosene 23.0 23.0 0.0007 0.0016 LPG 14.0 14.0 0.0004 0.0009 stim or Domeslic 4,432.0 1,224.0 0.14 0.1212 Marne--…-- t----------- --- -------- Marine FO 540.0 459.0 0.0173 0.0311 LSHS 16.0 8.0 0.0005 0.0005 Diesel 2.0 1.0 0.0001 0.0001 LDO 1.0 1. 0_ 00000 0.0001 Suni of Miarine ,59.0 -469.0 0.0.179 1).U31' Refuse 4,108.0 4,108.0 j 0.1318 0.2779 Stone Crushers 6,053.0 0.1942 Toial 31.162.5 14.7 8P.0 1.0000 1.0000 Source: URBAIR. IC).h Urban Environmental Issues 7.64 Use smoke-free oil. The Control strategies for particulate emissions particulates produced by two-stroke engines from diesel vehicles come from fuel additives and from the oil that is used to lubricate the engine. Because the 7.67 reformulate diesel oil must be mixed with the gasoline, it enters main sources of particulate matter n diesel the vehicle's exhaust. Droplets of this oil the sulfur in dies el fuel. Reducing produce the whitish-blue smoke emitted from the sulfur content of fuel from 0.7 percent to two-stroke engines. Smokeless oil would 0 5 percent reduces sulfate particulate matter reduce the total suspended particulates from by 30 percent; reducing sulfur content from most (but not all) of the oil consumed by two- 0.7 percent to 0.2 percent reduces sulfate stroke engines, but the possibility exists that particulate matter by 90 percent. The most its use would increase emissions of toxic air effective method of reducing the sulfur content contaminants. of fuel is by hydrodesulfurization, which is widely used by refineries. Diesel fuel additives 7.65 Install catalytic converters on (barium or manganese compounds) or newer vehicles with two-stroke engines. Catalytic compounds that do not rely on heavy metals converters reduce carbon monoxide and may reduce particulate emissions by 40 to 60 hydrocarbon emissions by more completely percent. oxidizing these substances. Catalytic converters also reduce the smoke (particulate 7.68 Proper engine maintenance and matter) coming from the exhaust of two-stroke engine modifications. Engine modifications engines by oxidizing the lubricating oil in the that will reduce the amount of smoke produced exhaust. Since catalytic converters are not by a diesel-fueled engine include high-pressure designed to reduce particulate matter fuel injection systems that more precisely emissions, exact measurements of their regulate the air-fuel mixture; turbocharging effectiveness in reducing these pollutants are of the engine, which increases the air intake not available. of the engine and allows fuel to be burned 7.66 Catalytic converters for two-stroke more completely; and preventing lubricating engines are being installed on newly oil from mixing with fuel by improving piston manufactured mopeds and motorcycles in order rings and valve stem seals. to meet Taiwan emission standards. Their use 7.69 Treat diesel exhaust. It is possible requires a heat shield because of the high to install a particulate matter trap system, temperatures (500 degrees Centigrade) which filters all exhaust gases through ceramic reached. Researchers at the International foam. The system continuously cleans the filter Transport Research Institute have recently by burning accumulated particulate matter. successfully retrofitted a 125 cc motorcycle Such systems can reduce particulate matter engine with a catalytic converter. It should emissions by 80 to 90 percent. An alternative be noted that burning leaded gasoline with a ethod of tretn parculat e n that catalytic converter will destroy the catalyst; method of treating particulate emissions that hence, the use of catalytic converters requires can be used only in diesel vehicles that use unleaded gasoline. Researchers at the Indian low (less than 0.2 percent) sulfur fuel is an Institute of Technology in New Delhi are trying oxidation catalyst system. This is cheaper than to develop a catalytic converter that will work a particulate matter trap system and requires with leaded gasoline, less maintenance, but it also reduces a smaller 1E l d7 I 0 [ndia's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities fraction of particles-60 to 80 percent of the sulfur content by 10 to 30 percent. soluble organic fraction of particles. 7.74 End-of-smokestack controls. 7.70 Replace diesel-fueled engines with Various end-of-smokestack controls, whether compressed natural gas-fueled engines. For in the form of mechanical cleaning, fabric buses and other high-use vehicles, it may be filters, or electrostatic precipitators, will reduce cost-effective to replace diesel-fueled engines by 90 to 99 percent the particulate emissions with natural gas-fueled engines. In a study produced by a conventional coal-fired boiler of the cost-effectiveness of reducing particulate with no controls. These controls can be matter in Santiago, Chile, converting buses implemented at a relatively low-cost anywhere to compressed natural gas reduced particulate from 1 to 4 percent of generation costs. matter at a cost of $17,000 a ton, about the Additional controls for sulfur dioxide (such same cost as reducing a ton of particulates as flue gas desulfurization "scrubbers") and by improving the performance of diesel nitrogen oxides add to the cost but can abate engines on trucks. 90 percent of those emissions as well. Control strategies for particulates from 7.75 Making boilers more energy efficient. industriqlfuel combustion Changing the combustion method of the conventional boiler will abate almost all of 7.71 Coal supplies almost 58 percent the particulate matter at a minimal added of total commercial energy consumption in generation cost and eliminate the need for India, while petroleum products contribute 32 sulfur dioxide controls. Two of these methods percent. Indian coal, especially coal burned are fluidized bed combustion, in which crushed by power plants, has a high (25 to 40 percent) coal is fluidized with sand or limestone, and ash content. In the case of fuel oil, it is the combined cycle technology, in which coal is high sulfur content that generates particulates gasified prior to burning to drive gas turbines (in the form of sulfates). There are a number and improve thermal efficiency. As with fuel of technical options for controlling particulates switching, however, this approach is more from industrial fuel consumption and policy easily implemented if it is introduced with instruments that might be used to implement new investment rather than through retrofitting. these controls. Control strategies for particulates from 7.72 Relocating industry. Locating domestic sources industry in less densely populated areas reduces the health risk of any pollution level. 7.76 Switch to cleaner fuels. Switching While it obviously is expensive to relocate from wood-burning stoves to alternative fuels existing firms, zoning laws can control the such as kerosene, oil, natural gas, or electricity location of new firms. Policies can be used will reduce both indoor and outdoor particulate to discourage highly polluting industries if it emissions, but at a cost. Poor households could is the country's intention to avoid the highly be encouraged to switch to cleaner fuels by polluting stage of industrialization. subsidizing the cost of these fuels; this, however, may lead to unintended substitutions. 7.73 Coal washing. Washing coal prior Subsidized kerosene can be marketed as an to burning removes the nonburning mineral alternative to diesel fuel, but it is more highly content that produces ash and will reduce the polluting than diesel fuel. More compact fuel ,c .. Urban Environmental Issues sources, such as charcoal or bundled wood, engine) and then compute the associated will burn more efficiently and thus produce reduction in pollution. Computing the cost- less particulate matter. effectiveness of reducing one pollutant can be complicated, however, if more than one 7.77 Use more energy-efficient stoves, pollutant is reduced. For example, retrofitting More energy-efficient stoves require less diesel buses with natural-gas engines will biomass fuel and thus will produce less reduce carbon monoxide and nonmethane particulate matter. These stoves must serve hydrocarbons, as well as particulates. the individual's needs if they are to be adopted. 'For example, a kerosene stove may be a poor 7.81 Since ambient concentrations of substitute for the more even heat of a wood- pollution affect human welfare, it is also burning stove. The stoves also must be easily necessary to compute the cost of reducing produced, suggesting the subsidization of mass ambient pollution concentrations. This production rather than of consumer purchases. calculation requires knowing where (spatially) the reduction in emissions will occur and the 7.78 Vent smoke outdoors. Placing a effect on ambient air quality. From this, one chimney on the traditional Chula reduces the can estimate the health and related benefits health risk of indoor particulate matter, but of the proposed measure. Determining how this approach simply pushes the problem extensively to institute controls requires a outside. comparison of the costs and benefits of reducing pollution levels. Certain data are still 7.9 Ipoegraecleto*n required to calculate more careful estimates disposalpractices. Refuse burning, particularly for India. in urban areas, is a major contributor to particulate emissions. Improved garbage THE POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTING collection will reduce these emissions. If the garbage is being burned for heat, then a 7.82 India already has taken some substitute should be found, especially since action on urban air pollution. The most garbage is very inefficient in heat production important effort concerning vehicular compared with other types of fuel. pollution is the provision in the amended Central Motor Vehicles Rules (1993) that cars CALCULATING THE COSTS AND BENEFITS must be certified twice a year for compliance OF REDUCING URBAN AIR POLLUTION with prescribed standards. To date, however, these regulations have not been implemented. 7.80 To maximize the reduction in In addition, the Department of Petroleum will particulate emissions achieved for a given begin supplying low-lead gasoline in the four expenditure, it is important to know the cost metropolitan cities by April 1995, although per ton of particulate matter removed for each details on pricing and number of outlets are of the technical control options. These costs not known. For the metropolitan area of New have not yet been computed for cities in India, Delhi, the Ministry of Environment and but cost-effectiveness studies exist for air Forests has prepared an action plan that pollution control measures in Mexico City and includes stricter vehicle inspections and traffic Santiago, Chile. The basic approach is simple: management, as well as other measures. calculate the annualized cost of a control option (say, retrofitting a bus with a natural gas 7.83 The planning and implementation . 1L9 Indias's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities of pollution programs are complicated by the monoxide and ozone are monitored only fact that the problem involves national, occasionally. Particulate matter is not regional, and local agencies. While standards monitored at all, although NEERI monitors are laid down by the central authorities, respirable particles. activities like vehicle inspection, traffic management, and public transport are 7.87 The regular monitoring of generally the responsibility of individual particulatematterlead,carbonmonoxide,and agencies at the state and municipal levels. In ozone should be instituted at all Central many cases, responsibilities overlap. This Pollutilon Control Board stations. Knowing situation impedes the formulation and particulate matter levels is crucial to measuring implementation of cost-effective air quality human health effects. Carbon monoxide and management policies. ozone may become serious problems as vehicle fleets grow. Loans to improve monitoring 7.84 Lack of technical skills and activity would be useful and appropriate. authority, particularly at the local level, is another impediment. For example, no Studies of health effects metropolitan agency in any major Indian city is capable of taking an overall view of air 7.88 Several studies are under way to quality and of planning and guiding measure the health effects of particulates on implementation of a long-term program. Many urban populations in India. In New Delhi, municipalities do not even perceive air World Bank-supported work is calculating the pollution as aproblem requiring their attention. first dose-response functions for all air The increased decentralization of monitoring pollutants in India. In Bombay, several health and enforcement responsibilities for air diary studies were undertaken by R.S. Kamat pollution, while worthwhile, will not be easy. and Associates in the 1970s and 1980s, but current efforts (under the Indira Gandhi EFFORTS TO CONTROL URBAN AIR Institute) to revisit these studies in order to POLLUTION do more comprehensive analysis are not yet 7.85 The Indian government has complete and may not contain enough information to be useful. undertaken a number of studies and projects- some with World Bank support -in an effort 7.89 Epidemiological studies of the to arrest the urban air pollution problem. health effects of air pollution must be carried out to determine the benefits that will accrue Monitoring of air pollution levels from reducing urban air pollution. 7.86 Total suspended particulate, sulfur Extrapolations from U.S. studies are difficult dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide levels are because of differences in baseline health and monitored every three to four days at stations pollutioni levels, and because people in the operated by the National Environmental two counftries die of different diseases and at Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), different ages under the jurisdiction of the Central Pollution Source-receptor studies Control Board, and at other central monitoring stations. NEERI also analyzes the levels of 7.90 The most successful attempt at lead and other metals in particulates. Carbon measuring the contribution of different sources ,I ou I Urban Environmental Issues /4 Ye . of particulates to population exposures was studies cannot be overemphasized. Without commissioned by URBAIR in Bombay. information on the contribution of different Studies by the TATA Energy Research sources to ambient pollution at population Institute and by H.B. Mathur at the Indian centers, policymakers may end up trying to Institute of Technology in Delhi have control sources that really do not contribute attempted similar analyses, but with less significantly to the air pollution problem. success. URBAIR has initiated source-receptor modeling for Bombay, but no such studies exist for Delhi or Calcutta. 7.91 Efforts to control urban air 7.95 Cost-effectiveness studies. It is pollution first require identifying current essential that the cost per ton of particulate levels of pollution and their potential matter removed be calculated for the various impacts. Studies can help the Indian control strategies outlined for Delhi, Bombay, government to set priorities and will be useful and Calcutta. After this initial step is taken to donors that are interested in funding and a source-receptor model is developed, it pollution abatement projects. should be possible to translate the effect of a 7.92 Emissions inventories. Setting given control strategy into the associated priorities for controlling urban air pollution reduction in ambient concentrations of in India will require that emissions inventories particulates and, in turn, into reductions in be established for each major city. The population exposure. emissions inventory locates (in a GIS data base) the major industrial, domestic, and mobile sources of common air pollutants and pollution. To determine how far pollution estimates the emissions from each source control strategies should go, it is first necessary (based on the quantity of fuel burned and to compare the costs and benefits of these appropriate emissions factors). strategies. Once cost-effectiveness studies and source-receptor modeling have made it 7.93 Source-receptor studies. Keeping possible to predict reductions in population the emissions inventory in GIS form facilitates exposures to particulates that result from a the next link-from emissions to ambient air given control strategy, it becomes possible quality. Source-receptor (dispersion) models to predict the reduction in morbidity and predict the effect of emitting a ton of a pollutant mortality that would result from the pollution in a given location on ambient air quality at control strategy. Linking the ultimate health receptors throughout the city. Since ambient benefit to the cost of pollution control implies air quality affects human welfare, it is essential a cost per life or workday saved. Whether such to establish this link. Most source-receptor expenditure should be made depends on the studies make some assumption about the value that the members of society attach to population distribution around the various recetors hece te ipacton te ppulaion gaining an ex;tra workday or year of life. At receptors; hence the impact on the population present such calculations cannot be made based of a change in emissions in a particular location on Indian data because no dose-response can be determined. functions exist to link pollution levels in Indian 7.94 The importance of source-receptor cities to health effects in the population. * 2011 P'.00^ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities 7.97 Urban air pollution abatement LO A detailed state and municipal agency projects in India should have three plan for implementing the 1993 Central components: Motor Vehicles Rules concerning vehicle inspection and enforcement of standards. LI A policy and regulatory component concentrating on the formulation of LO Clarification of the roles of central, state, target-oriented action plans, covering and municipal agencies in setting such several contributors to air pollution, and financial measures as fuel taxes, including cost-effectiveness analysis of pollution charges, and penalty fines, as options. wvell as agreement over the spending of such resources. LI A technical assistance component LI Evidence that state and municipal focusing on development of a pollution agencies are willing to tax polluters monitoring program, urban transport within the scope of current law. management systems, and enforcement of transport, refuse, and industry-related LI A time-bound Petroleum Ministry regulations. program for introducing unleaded LI An investment component concentrating gasoline. on such items as upgrading of monitoring 7.99 Any air pollution control project equipment, vehicle fuel reformation will, by necessity, have to deal with more than (low-sulfur diesel and unleaded one agency. One project implementation gasoline), retrofitting of existing vehicles structure could be to work with the national- (especially high-use vehicles such as level standing committee on air pollution buses and diesel trucks), improved solid chaired by the Secretary, Ministry of waste management (including recycling, Environment and Forests and comprising incineration, and landfill), cleaner coal, members from the ministries of Urban and smoke-free domestic wood-burning Development, Health, Transport, Industry, and stoves. Petroleum. The degree of lending and technical assistance to state and municipal-level 7.98 As preconditions to an area- implemrenting agencies will depend on the specific air pollution projects in one or more project design in each city. In general, of India's metropolitan cities, concrete progress implementation authority should be in the following areas is necessary: decentralized to each metropolitan area. _(10_ Urban Environmental Issues Municipal Solid Waste Management 7.100 Municipal solid waste manage- dwellers live in slums, this is a significant ment is a serious challenge for Indian cities. problem. Even well-planned cities such as Most garbage that is collected from urban areas Chandigargh have problems with garbage is disposed of in uncontrolled landfills. These collection. The city was planned for 500,000 sites are generally garbage dumps where waste people by 2000-and currently has a population is used to fill in low-lying areas without any of 770,000. This rapid expansion has left the consideration given to precautionary measures. city unable to cope with domestic refuse. In The lack of specific environmental measures New Delhi, 1,500 tons of garbage remain often results in surface and groundwater uncollected every day. The quantities of pollution. Other problems include odor, municipal solid waste generated each day in rodents, and unsightliness. As the urban some major Indian cities are shown in Table population and population density increase, 7.7. Although many of these collection rates municipal solid waste collection and disposal seem relatively high, the amount that is left will be critical to preventing the spread of uncollected piles up in and around the cities, disease'and further pollution. The September creating a haven for rodents and a health hazard 1994 plague in Surat is an example of the for people. To put this in perspective, problem of poverty that afflict India's cities. following the plague in Surat a wave of cleanup 7.101 Almost all the slums in Indian efforts rippled through the states of India. The cities have little or no garbage collection. Since New Delhi government announced that the 25 percent of the country's 217 million urban municipal corporation was collecting between Table 7.7. Municipal Solid Waste Generation and Collection in Major Indian Cities, 1994 Citx Solid W%aste Solid %% asle Share Collected Share Lincollecied Generated itons/da!) Cleared (tonslda%) (percenfl (tons,! ear Ahmedabad 1,500 1,200 80 109,500 Bangalore 2,130 1,800 85 120,450 Bombay 5,800 5,000 86 292,000 Calcutta 3,500 3,150 90 127,750 Delhi 3,880 2,420 62 532,900 Lucknow 1,500 1,000 67 182,500 Madras 2,675 2,140 80 195,275 Patna 1,000 300 30 255,500 Surat 1,250 1,000 80 91,250 Source: : "Our Filthy Cities: Can We Clean Up the Mess?" India Today,, pp.36-47. October 31, 1994. India 's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities 5,000 and 7,000 tons of municipal solid waste waste are often mixed, creating a each day. Considering that 3,800 tons of waste disposal problem and a health hazard. is generated each day, this is an alarming admission of the quantity of waste that had l The practce of dumping solid waste in previously gone uncollected, low-lying areas pollutes groundwater, is responsible for the emission of 7.102 The collection and disposal of offensive odors over wide areas, and municipal solid waste remain pressing issues creates a breeding ground for disease for the municipal corporations commissioned vectors such as rats, pigs, and by the state to collect refuse. The responsibility mosquitoes. for refuse collection often is delegated to the municipality's health officer rather than to °i Garbage collection poses a problem to municipal engineers, which results in public municipal agencies because households health or clinical orientation rather than in do not separate dry and wet wastes. efficient operation, safe disposal, and disease LI People are unaware of environmental prevention. Most of those working with solid sanitation and of the hazards of exposed waste are from the scheduled castes, since garbage. others refrain from this type of work. Municipal officers face many problems with 7.105 The EAP identified the following regard to the management of workers, mainly priority programs to address solid waste issues because the public is not interested in sanitation in the ujrban environment: issues and because state governments provide inadequate funding. Many municipal LI Strengthen the platform for technology operations overlap, and it is difficult to transfer and its application in the shelter determine the percentage of municipal funds sector. that is spent on municipal solid waste Li Promote the commercial production of management. It is estimated that this share is innovative materials using fly ash, red between 40 and 60 percent. nmud, phosphogypsum, and agricultural THE ENVIRONMENT ACTION PROGRAM waste for the appropriate design of houses in both rural and urban areas. 7.103 The Environment Action Program (EAP) identified poor solid waste management L Develop strategies to reduce the solid practices as a contributing factor to India's waste generated in cities, with an rising urban environmental problems. The EAP emphasis on wastes that impose disposal identified domestic solid waste (refuse), difficulties (such as tube lights and used nonhazardous commercial and industrial solid battery cells). wastes, and hazardous commercial and LI Develop biodegradable packaging industrial waste as the three main types of materials through labeling schemes and waste generated in metropolitan areas. fiscal incentives. 7.104 The EAP identified the following LI Propose innovative designs for the municipal solid waste management issues: improvement of refuse vehicles (garbage LI Domestic, commercial, and industrial trucks). 2(14. Urban Environmental Issues 1 ' LI Formulate plans to assess space bins. The areas surrounding the bins are requirements for solid waste treatment. generally strewn with waste, making it difficult to approach. This mess discourages workers OI "Rehabilitate" ragpickers. from cleaning up, since it shows a lack of pride LI Protect surface and groundwaters to meet on the community's part. Solid waste that is the needs of water users. left uncollected often finds its way into urban drainage systems, interfering with the flow El Provide health services that emiphasize and resulting in local flooding and health health education, awareness, and risk problems. assessment. 7.109 Inadequate or inappropriate OL Manage stormdrains in cities. equipment also adds to the inefficiency of garbage collection. In some cities garbage MAJOR ISSUES crews lack shovels for cleaning the area around 7.106 Like many other developing communal bins. In other cities halfhearted countries, India suffers from shortcomings attempts are made to clean these areas in order in solid waste management. While the EAP to minimize the handling of refuse, since it identified some pressing issues, other areas often contains feces. In cases where workers also will require attention if solid waste are supplied with protective clothing, they must management is to improve. pay the full cash value of these clothes. The lack of labor motivation and cultural issues Institutional issues adds to the inefficiency of service. 7.107 Lack of coverage of poor 7.110 Suspicion of the private sector. communities. In some Indian cities as much Although privatization of solid waste as 30 percent of the population is not served management services remains an attractive by solid waste collection programs. Areas that solution, at least with respect to garbage are unserved almost always house the poor collection, municipal officials are reluctant and are unincorporated, periurban settlements to implement this strategy. Indian unions are or slum communities with small or strong and they oppose the use of private inaccessible streets. Residents in these areas garbage collectors. Even if private contractors have little political clout since most are of took over parts of city collection, the the lower castes. Prosperous residential areas, municipality would be unable to lay off by contrast, are well served and cleared of workers or to assign them other duties. Only garbage on a regular basis. through natural attrition would labor costs be reduced. An associated issue is the ability of 7.108ction servicesareinefficient serc e. lid waste private firms to recruit personnel for such work. collection services areinefficient evenin areas Sic wokr hre drctyb te where the municipality furnishes garbage municipalters . re e mnrects an are municipalities receive many bengfits and are collection services. Considerable amounts of refus are eft ncollctedaroun the protected by the unions, working for a private refuse are left uncollected around the communal bins. The refuse around the bins firm may not appear attractive at the outset. comes from residents who are reluctant to 7.111 Benefits of recycling. Recycling dump their household waste directly into the is practiced around many dumps and at refuse India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities collection points and is a source of income of technical and logistical components of waste for a small portion of the urban population. management. If operational responsibility lies Recycling efforts are badly organized, to the in the hands of the public works or engineering disadvantage of the scavengers and to the department, less thought is given to the health advantage of the municipalities and middle- impacts. This institutional conflict provides men. Scavengers are paid very little for their no incentive for these departments to cooperate toil considering the long hours spent at landfills or coordinate with one another. and dumpsites. Because they are poor or belong to lower classes, these people usually have Sociocultural issues few rights and no benefits. 7.115 Cultural barriers. Low community 7.112 The impact of this type of recycling status is accorded to employees of the solid is not well understood by municipal officials, waste management industry. Although class who consider it a minor activity with little and caste associations are illegal, these systems impact on the final waste stream. Interviews continue to govern the daily life of Indians. with scavengers and recyclers at each dump, Cultural norms dictate which social classes however, revealed that several families were are to be employed as sweepers, truck loaders, able to earn a living from gathering materials. drivers, supervisors, and managers. These Furthermore, recycling was found to be quite norms inhibit worker flexibility and municipal prevalent among households, and visits to management with regard to efficient human many poor neighborhoods indicated a lively resource allocation. trade in recycled materials. 7.116 Workers who choose to work in 7.113 Weak regulatory and legal areas not usually associated with their caste frameworks. Little is done by municipalities do so by keeping their identity anonymous. or authorities to discourage indiscriminate This is especially the case with recyclers, who dumping of refuse. Although municipal codes for flexibility and earnings potential have prohibiting such activities exist in most urban chosen to do the task of scavenging while not areas, municipal employees and authorities belonging to the untouchable class. have other priorities-such as the provision 7.117 Tragedy of the commons. Private of clean water-that require more of their interests are always more powerful than shared attention and leave less time to enforce public interests. This fact is manifested in how antidumping regulations, people treat common areas outside their own 7.114 Weak municipal management. households. Indians show little concern for Major decisions regarding solid waste are made common areas such as streets, sidewalks, and by elected officials; as a result the public toilets. Indiscriminate dumping and decisionmaking process often becomes an defecation near communal bins reflect exercise in protecting local interests. The disregard for public interests. Furthermore, operational aspects of daily management are unmanaged solid waste collection points often usually the responsibility of the municipality's become a site not only for public defecation, health department. The health departments tend but also for indiscriminate dumping of to overemphasize health issues to the detriment industrial waste. Urban Environmental Issues Economic andfinancial issues a garbage tax provided that it improves the efficiency and timeliness of service. The 7.118 Lack ofdata regarding real service specific level that they would be willing to costs. The real cost to Indian municipalities pay is not known. of solid waste management is not well understood because many municipal costs for 7.121i Lal orand api tichoto solid waste management overlap with water Municipal manageen is aemptin and sanitation activities. Although 40 to 60 drsolid waste management. Although there percent of the municipal budget is allocated in sold ws managem lalthoug there for solid waste issues, no serious consideration is a surplus of available labor, few apply for has been given to cost-cutting measures in conservancy positions due to their low status. solid waste management. A budget shortfall merely results in reduced service levels or in mechanization as a way of reducing labor subsidies from state governments. State problems and physical contact with the refuse. governments traditionally have provided small Technical issues cities with the capital for new equipment, and municipalities have financed the operation 7.122 Mishandling of equipment. Most from their revenue base. solid waste handling equipment is either under constant repair or permanently disabled. This 7.119 Municipal managers fail to is the result of neglected maintenance and understand the tradeoffs among labor, capital, repair expenditures, a budget item ignored by and economies of scale because they must planners and managers. Half the refuse spend their time dealing with daily crises and collection fleet in a typical municipal garage operational difficulties. Few analytical is out of service. resources in municipal governments are capable of dealing with the efficient allocation 7.123 Failure of experimental of resources. technology. Solid waste technologies that have proven viable in other countries have failed 7.120 Inadequate cost recovery. The link in India for institutional, social, financial, and between the delivery of and payment for solid technical reasons. Lessons from these failures waste management services is obscured. Tax are not well documented. Some of the revenue is generated based on a property's technologies explored without success include owners, not its inhabitants. Whereas residents composing and incineration. The notion that can easily see the connection between water composing is a natural process-and therefore and electricity use and their monthly utility does not require attention to process bills, the link between payment for refuse fundamentals or adequate equipment-has collection and disposal and property taxes is contributed to the failure of this process. less clear. Inefficient tax collection practices Changes in refuse composition over the years worsen an already weak financial situation and frequent breakdowns of windrow by not providing the maximum possible equipment, trucks, and mechanical separation revenue. Some residents, especially the equipment have contributed to the failure of wealthy, have indicated a willingness to pay composing plants. India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities RECOMMENDATIONS reflects the country's social, economic, and 7.124 The solid waste sector in India cultural conditions. Such a volume would help has many financial and technical needs. Most planners and municipal managers develop operational procedures at the least cost. It Bank assistance has been in the form of loans p for equipment such as trucks and bins and the should introduce computer-based planning occasional incinerator. It has become clear that techniques, such as low-cost Geographical assistance to acquire technology is not Information Systems (GIS), as a tool to sufficient and must be supplemented with enhance planning. assistance for institution-building and field 7.127 Training institutes. Officials technical assistance and monitoring. To should establish a centralized demonstration broaden the scope of future investments, a program in a single institution that trains comprehensive policy framework should be municipal managers, engineers, and health adopted that takes into account the physical, officials on sound solid waste management technical, legal, institutional, financial, practices. These professionals could, in turn, environmental, and sociocultural aspects of train others at the local level. Using this municipal solid waste management in Indian approach would eventually produce thousands cities. The following recommendations, of local officials prepared to face the technical, developed after review with municipal institutional, social, and financial challenges officials, are intended to address the municipal that cities face as they grow. solid waste management problems in India. Sociocultural issues Insfitutional issues 7.128 Community self-help projects. 7.125 Private contracting in urban areas. Community self-help projects should be Consideration should be given to privatization organized in the poor urban and periurban areas of solid waste collection, at least on a pilot where solid waste management services are basis. Privatization would assist the inadequate or nonexistent. These projects municipality in selecting and procuring a could be developed as pilots to aid in local contractor and in monitoring the contractor collection, recycling, and transfer to a for a specified time, followed by a thorough secondary municipal pickup point. It is evaluation. The evaluation should examine all imperative that drains be clear of refuse and aspects of the contracting arrangement, that waste be collected in these areas to avoid particularly institutional and economic issues unnecessary health problems. and the potential for replication in other urban settings. 7.129 Urbanpublicrelations campaigns. Cleaning up urban areas will require soliciting 7.126 Municipal solid waste planning the help of social and political activists capable manual for municipal managers. Most of spearheading an urban public relations municipal managers in India oversee a fixed campaign. These campaigns should educate number of employees and a limited capital the public regarding the health hazards equipment budget. These factors constrain involved in improper waste disposal practices planning and optimization. Hence, it is and could include contests for the optimal essential that a solid waste management design of, for example, dust bins. Winners training or planning manual be developed that would be given monetary awards or a contract ,10.x Urban Environmental Issues to supply the city with the bins. The public composting is a favorable disposal option, L must learn that their participation is essential examining the performance of existing for clean cities. composting plants-and determining the reasons for failure of the many inoperative Economic and financial issues ones -may provide the insight needed to 7.130 In-depth evaluation of recycling operate a successful plant. activities. Assessing recycling activities in 7.135 Demonstrations of new equipment specific municipalities will help to determine and technology. Municipal solid waste the impact of recycling on the waste stream, equipment can be made more efficient through the economic benefits to ragpickers, and the field research by manufacturers of such potential for improvement and expansion to equipment. Such projects forge links between meet a broader range of urban objectives. Such private manufacturing companies and an evaluation also would determine the amount municipalities and aid in the development of of solid waste reduction potential. equipment suited to local conditions. China, 7.131 Improved municipal solid waste for example, has successfully developed financial accounting. Projects should be collection bins and refuse collection trucks initiated that assist municipalities in suited to local conditions, reducing collection initiatedg thacomputerassist municipalts oin problems in the country. A program to daseveopin a comunteiven muncirpalsl demonstrate the new types of equipment could waste cost- accounting system. Concurrently, ... a training program should be developed be introduced in selected municipalities in emphasizing the importance of data gathering collaboration with local manufacturers on a and the monitoring of operations. Up-to-date cost-sharing basis. software and adequate training should improve financial forecasting and the deployment of MEDICAL WASTE labor and material resources. 7.136 Rapid urbanization is straining 7.132 Research program in municipal service delivery system in the largest Indian solid waste financing. New financing cities. Infrastructure systems are incapable mechanisms should be developed to purchase of adequately collecting, transporting, and capital equipment, which is currently funded disposing of solid wastes. Each day, millions by municipal and state taxes. Educating the of tons of solid waste mixes with medical and public on the costs of municipal solid wvaste other hazardous waste, creating health hazards management will increase their willingness and potentially disastrous public health crises. to pay for improved municipal services. This section assesses and recommends strategies for dealing with the handling, 7.133 Private financing of municipal storing, transfer, and disposal of medical waste solid waste services. This option may be more in urban areas. successful in the more prosperous cities, since India is generally regarded as too poor to have THE ENVIRONMENT ACTION PROGRAM an active market for municipal bonds or revenue-based financing . 7.13 7 The EAP emphasizes the National Health Program's strategy of tackling urban Technical issues environmental issues and safely disposing of hazardous wastes that are injurious to human 7.134 Composting evaluation. Since health. One of the EAP's seven priority areas 2 209 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities is controlling biohazardous medical waste professional organizations such as mcdical within the context of industrial and related certification and hospital accreditation groups. pollution, particularly hazardous wastes. The World Health Organization (WHO) 7.138 More specific to hospitals and categorizes hospital and medical waste as: clinics are the 1989 Hazardous Waste Rules O General, nonhazardous waste, similar to covering eighteen types of hazardous wastes domestic wastes. and 434 flammable and explosive chemicals. Several of the chemicals listed-acetone, ° Pathological waste, including tissues, phenol oxide, tolune (blue), ammonia, and oans, boycarts, human fetuses, chlorine-are commonly found in hospitals. a lcaass The rules also established a National Register body fluids. for Potentially Toxic Chemicals. LI Radioactive waste, including solids, 7.139 The EAP defines two types of liquids, and gases from analysis government programs: those related to procedures, body organ imaging, and environmental protection and those dedicated tumor localization and treatment. to natural resource conservation and O Chemical waste, including toxic, protection. Hazardous waste management is corrosive, flammable, reactive, geno- categorized under environmental protection. toxic (capable of altering human genes), Programs include financial assistance for or nonhazardous. research projects, and assistance to the State Pollution Control Boards to strengthen their LI Infectious waste containing pathogens capacities to regulate hazardous waste in sufficient quantity that they pose a management. The EAP singles out hazardous serious threat. waste from hospitals and research laboratories LI Sharps (any item that could cause a cut as contributing to the problem of water and of puncture). land pollution. LI Pharmaceutical waste, whether surplus, Definitions and categories of medical waste spilled, outdated, or contaminated. 7.140 Categorizing medical waste is a Li Pressurized containers. complex task that must include defining the sources that generate the waste. For EXTENT OF THE MEDICAL WASTE PROBLEM example, a focus on pathogens could include allwasteandexudatesfrominfectedpersons, 7.141 Estimates of the volume of while a focus on occupational worker safety medical waste generated in India are imprecise. would include work site hazards such as Engineers in Bombay, Delhi, and Madras asbestos. Another area of ambiguity is the estimate that medical solid waste ranges from overlap of medical waste categories. One cause 0.85 kilogram to 2.25 kilograms per hospital of the overlap concerns the different interests or clinic bed per day. Estimates vary because involved in medical waste management, in most cases, medical waste is neither weighed including environmental protection agencies, nor segregated, and some estimates do not worker safety groups, health and human include small (fewer than ten beds) clinics services organization, civil codes, and and private clinicians. National government },, _~ Urban Environmental Issues guidelines for medical waste management Table 7.8. Estimates of Medical and Infectious being prepared by the MOEF include all Waste in Three Municipalities (metric tons per day) sources generating potentially infectious Municipaliti l Solid Medicall lnfeclilious waste, such as dispensaries, laboratories, Waste Waste veterinary clinics, blood banks, and Bombay 5,000 75.0 37.5 hemodialysis centers. Delhi 4,600 69.0 34.5 Madras 3,500 52.5 26.3 7.142 The total amount of solid waste Total 13,100 196.5 98.3 (including medical waste) generated in three a Half of medical waste. mnunicipalities i.e. BombaY, New Delhi, Source: Solid waste: UNDP/World Bank; medical Madras, is estimated by sanitation engineers waste: Central Pollution Control Board and discussions based on the average number and capacity of in each city; infectious, waste: discussions with city truckloads to disposal sites each day. In sanitation engineers and World Bank estimates. addition, the Central Pollution Control Board recently published estimates of the solid waste that 1.5 percent of total solid waste is generated generated daily in eighty-four cities and towns. by hospitals, nursing homes, and dispensaries. The two sets of estimates are similar and do Estimates of medical waste as a part of total not differentiate between hazardous and waste are based on this statistic (Table 7.8). nonhazardous waste. 7.145 Medical waste in India is 7.143 The share of infectious and commonly categorized as solid waste. potentially infectious medical waste in total Excluded from this categorization are hospital and clinic waste in unknown potentially infectious blood and body fluids, Estimates made by hospital infection control sc stoeetrn h riaesse commtteememers arid frm 2 perent such as those entering the drainage system committee members varied from 25 percent from postmortems. For example, one major to 85 percent, depending on whether the hospital averages five postmortems a day. An hospital specialized in treating infectious estimated 2.5 liters of blood and body fluids diseases. The exact proportion of infectious are released during each procedure-releasing and potentially infectious waste is morethan4,000litersofpotentiallyinfectious unimportant, since the lack of waste fluid into the drainage system each year. This segregation eventually contaminates all waste estimate does not include the common practice at either the pickup bins or the disposal sites. observed in hospitals of rinsing into the sink The 50 percent contamination estimate used or drain potentially infectious cultures, in this exercise is based on discussions with laboratory instruments, slides, and fabrics. hospital authorities and observation of disposal at disposal areas from twelve government, Policies and practices in medical waste municipal, and private hospitals. About 98.3 disposal metric tons (216,260 pounds) of contaminated and infectious materials are disposed of in 7.146 Health officers, sanitation officials, the municipal disposal sites in the three and staff of Pollution Control Boards are alert municipalities each day. to the dangers of hazardous medical waste and are aware that the daily amount of 7.144 A 1993 joint study by the infections and contaminated waste is unknown. government and UNDP-World Bank found Of the 5,800 metric tons of solid waste *21 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities collected in Bombay each day, an estimated 7.149 Uncollected hazardous medical 800 tons remain uncollected. waste outside the hospital premises is another problem. Sharps and other potentially 7.147 Of immediate concern is the health infectious material are exposed regardless of threat to Class IVl workers who are exposed whether an incinerator was available. It is not to infectious and contaminated hospital waste. uncommon for contractors to pay hospitals For example, more than 5,000 workers handle for scavenging rights to mixed medical waste mixed hospital waste in Bombay, and another that included sharps, syringes, bags, plastic 10,000 "rag pickers" scavenge at the two tubing, and fabrics-for resale. The potentially transfer stations and four disposal sites. There infectious materials are resold without are no estimates of the number of unofficial sterilization. The sorters often do not use scavengers at risk from the public bins that personal protective equipment, and the include hazardous waste from small clinics, dressings, bandages and other materials which dispensaries, private clinics, and nursing they scavenge tend to be scattered by shoes homes. Madras has about 9,000 Class IV waste and other traffic. It also has been reported that handlers and scavengers handling infectious Class IV handlers are selling scavenging rights waste on 330 trucks, eight transfer stations, at the back door. and two disposal sites. The workers who are specially at high risk of infection are thlose 710 Thrisacneustte spcal at hig ris of ineto .rhs munici-nal level that the volume of solid waste working on the two trucks dedicated to the P daily collection of human tissue, placentas, has overloaded infrastructure, budget, and body parts from four of the corporation collection and disposal facilities, and that the hospitals that specialize infectious diseases. hazardous medical waste problem is not yet Despite separate collection, transport, and fully appreciated. Medical waste is considered disposal of these infections pathogens, tissue more of an engineering problem than a threat and materials all are infected after being mixed to publc health. in the high temperatures and humidity typical Policies and practices in hospital waste of Madras. management 7.148 It has been suggested that 7.151 Public and private hospitals individual or regional incinerators be installed employ a variety of safety measures. Their to solve the infectious waste problem. responsibility for infectious waste and other Incinerators in public hospitals however, are potentially infectious material, however, is poorly maintained, insufficiently filtered for p infect terial,-hor is ' ~~~~~~~considered to end at their back-door site. As particulates, do not enable revolving or a result, even pathogens and tissue that are turbulence, and usually operate at too low a bagged and separated for collection end up temperature. Madras recently issued a mixed at transfer stations and disposal sites. regulation that hospitals and clinics with more than fifty beds must have their own incinerator 7.152 The use of Universal Precautions to dispose of infectious medical waste. varies in public and private hospitals with Incinerator specifications (size, fuel type, private hospitals having more written filtration method, turbulence capabilities, and guidelines and procedures for managing operating temperatures) have not been issued. hospital waste than public institutions. Most Urban Environmental Issues hospitals have infection control committees Very few hospitals train Class IV workers in that meet periodically to review infection hazardous waste handling, and an even smaller statistics and observe infectious waste handling number screen the health status of handlers practices. Often, however, there is a before employment. discrepancy between guidelines and practice. 7.156 After many years of sponsoring In addition, monitoring and compliance for and providing technical assistance for health infection control are not viewed as an integral s o part of professional responsibility. Nonmedical prgas-mn ofwih eeat considerable infectious waste, it is only in bioengineering specialities are uncommon in .. . . ..... the most recent of Bank-assisted projects hospitals and appear limited to environmental (Health Systems II Project in Karnataka, engineering faculty in professional engineering Punjab and West Bengal) that components for schools. uabadWsBeglthtcmoesfr training in infectious waste management have 7.153 Safe practices often are limited to been included. It was suggested that both the health professionals in infectious wards, government and the international community operating theaters, and so on, and essentially have neglected infectious medical waste issues. ignore Class IV waste handlers. Budgets for personal protective equipment are so Governmen responses inadequate that availability usually is limited 7.157 The Indian government has to professionals, and Class IV workers are initiated a number of activities to address not trained in the safe collection, handling, the public health dangers of hazardous medical transfer, and disposal of hazardous waste waste: within the hospital. O A committee on urban solid waste 7.154 Class IV workers in hospitals management was formed in October rarely use masks, gloves, and coveralls as they 1994 to assess the impact of current solid collect and deliver reusables and disposables waste management practices on for decontamination, laundry, and disposal community health. The interim meeting bins. Even when personal protective equipment in April 1995 reported on technological is available, Class IV workers considered it options for the safe collection, burdensome and preferred not to wear it. transportation, and disposal of urban 7.155 There is concern among medical solid waste. The next task is to identify staff about the risk of contracting infectious potential hazardous wastes, including disease in the hospitals. This concern is caused hospital waste, and their associated by the incidence of tuberclosis, HBV, HCV, public health risks. HIV, and meningitis in India. The need for O In April 1995 the Ministry of Health and training for hospital waste management is Family Welfare collaborated with the recognized. However, except for guidelines World Health Organization for a and materials covering radiological waste and workshop on sanitation and materials, neither pre-service nor in-service environmental health. Topics covered training for physicians and matrons includes included urban low-cost sanitation, solid discrete modules on the management of waste management, involving non- infectious and other hazardous hospital waste. governmental organizations and India 's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities voluntary agencies in sanitation efforts, requests to purchase incinerators are but and technology for the disposal of stopgap measures if budget, maintenance, hospital waste. infrastructure, and other elements of handling, LU The Central Pollution Control Board has collection, decontamination, and disposal are published "Management of Municipal not also addressed. Solid Wastes-Status and Options," 7.160 The current high level of which identifies seven reasons that government and inter-jurisdictional attention municipal waste disposal systems are to medical waste issues is an important first poorly operated and maintained: step. WVell-known remedial steps, however, inadequate finances, the multiplicity of can be taken immediately and do not require agencies for operations and maintenance, extensive study. The following recommen- inadequate training, lack of performance dations should be carefully considered by the monitoring, inadequate emphasis on government and by donors: maintenance, lack of management, and l Every hospital and clinic should be held lack of community appreciation of the importance of solid waste disposal. responsible for the waste it deposits for importanc ocollection and disposal. Hospital El The Ministry of Environment and administrators should ensure that staff Forests has drafted rules for biomedical have the knowledge, skills, supplies and waste management and handling. The systems needed to segregate, deconta- ministry is also surveying hazardous minate, and dispose of infectious wastes. waste generation and tracking practices L Each institution should develop and in hospitals, clinics, veterinary medical i ntion ste an d clinics, dentists, and bloods banks. implement a medical waste management plan. RECOMMENDATIONS LII The private sector, consistent with the 7.158 The volume of hazardous EAP, should forge a partnership with medical and nonsegregated infectious wastes the government to collect and dispose has reached proportions that will cause public of infectious waste from medical health crises if not addressed immediately. facilities that are unable to deconta- Medical waste management problems and minate their waste. potential solutions cross jurisdictions, sectors, LI Cost recovery from waste generators and disciplines. Both public and private actions should be mandatory, and enabling are required. Urban sanitary engineers are legislation passed where appropriate. currently the sole decisionmakers for hazardous medical waste collection and O Collection and safe disposal should disposal practices. This approach has many follow universal standards for closed and shortcomings. leakproof containers, collectors, and trucks. 7.159 Medical waste management must be comprehensive, and policies and regulations O The Ministry of Environment and must be accompanied by budget, training, and Forests and Central Pollution Control monitoring for compliance. Requirements or Board should remain responsible for 214. Urban Environmental Issues environmental policy, status, and morbidity rates for hospital doctors. regulations. The Ministry of Health and Costs and benefit studies of preventive Family Welfare should remain respon- measures undertaken now compared sible for overall scientific and clinical with expenditures required when plague medical policy and regulations. The new and dire infectious episodes occur would Occupational Health and Safety entities be useful. should be responsible for ensuring O Long-term environmental policies, provisions for personal protective guidelines, and statutes should be linked equipment, training, and safe practices with immediate requirements to for workers, particularly Class IV segregate and decontaminate medical handlers and scavengers. waste at its source. This linkage should Ol Municipal and State Pollution Control include appropriate technology for ~ Muncipaland Sate olluton Cotrolsustainable environmental and public Boards should have the capacity to ssanbeevrnetladpbi Boaitrd shoupldiavce wthmedicapacityet health protection, rather than imported monitor compliance with medical waste high-technology incinerators that are transport and disposal guidelines, rules, hg.tcnlg nieaosta r transporte. a expensive to purchase and difficult to and policies, maintain. O Nongovernmental organizations and L India's multilateral and bilateral partners scientific organizations should be funded should support programs for medical to study the infectious waste threats to waste management in current and future public health; including the current TB health projects. India's Environment-Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Category: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Wastewater Collection and Treatment Government Objectives/Programs:1 Protection of natural water sources, surface and sub-surface, to meet the needs of water users/usages; managing storm drains in cities; community participation, behavioral pattern and technology transfer aspects of water supply; evaluation and assessment of the rural water supply system; preventive maintenance of water distribution system with reference to leakages and carrying capacities of the mains; leak detection measures; hydraulic analysis and optimum design of water distribution systems etc. Use of solar energy in the rural water supply; hydraulic rams for the rural water supply in hilly areas. Development ofpackage water treatment plants. R&D on the conversion of brackish water and sea water to drinking water. In sanitation, areas for research and development relate to sanitary latrines; integrated bio-gas system for the treatment of excreta and animal wastes and the utilization ofgas; low-cost waste water collection. Improve the quality of life of the poor who do not have access to safe water, involvement of urban local bodies; privatization of implementation, operation and maintenance. Donor Agency Support Project Doior Funding Efficient Management Urban Community Water Supply and Sanitation WHO US$0.27 M Urban City Water Supply Japan (OECF) US$68.0 M equiv. NGO Support Fund Netherlands US$3.34 M equiv. Ganga ICD Strengthening Netherlands US$1.94 M equiv. Kerala SPCB Netherlands US$2.66 M equiv. Environmental Sanitary Engineering, Kanpur I Netherlands US$17.61 M equiv. Environmental Sanitary Engineering, Kanpur II Netherlands US$30 M equiv. Environmental Sanitary Engineering, Kanpur III Netherlands US$10.89 M equiv. Ganga Action Plan Support Netherlands US$27.78 M equiv. UASB Bihar Netherlands US$0.20 M equiv. UASB Design Support Netherlands US$0.19 M equiv. Low-cost Sanitation for Liberation of Scavengers NGO Support Fund Netherlands US$3.34 M equiv. Madras Water Supply, Sanitation World Bank US$ 53.0 M US$16.0 M equiv. ' Programs are as identified in India's Environmental Action Plan, 1994-95. Annual Report of the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment, the Eighth Five-Year Plan. 21 t' Urban Environmental Issues Project Donor Funding Accelerated Urban Water Supply Program Urban Infrastructure Development,Karnataka ADB US$100.0 M Madras Water Supply, Sewerage Japan (OECF) US$171.0 M equiv. Hyderabad Water Supply, Sewerage World Bank US$53 M US$79.9 M equiv. Madras Water Supply, Sanitation World Bank US$53.0 M US$16.0 M equiv. Third Bombay Water Supply, Sewerage World Bank US$40.0 M US$150.OM equiv. Second Madras Water Supply World Bank US$275.8 M equi. Category: Solid Waste-Related Government Objectives/Programs: Strategies for bringing down the solid waste generation in cities with focus on those which are difficult to dispose of such as tube lights, used battery cells etc. Designing fiscal instruments for waste minimization of non-biodegradable and non-recyclable packaging materials used for packaging of food products, medicines, soft drinks, machine parts, oils, breakables, etc. Developing biodegradable packaging materials through the Eco-Mark scheme and through fiscal incentives. Design innovations for improving refuse vehicles. Formulation ofplans for assessing space requirements for solid waste treatment. Rehabilitation of ragpickers. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding NGO Support Fund Netherlands US$3.34 M equiv. Uttar Pradesh Urban Development. World Bank US$150.0 M equiv. Category: Transport-Related Government Objectives/Programs: Policies to promote public transport. Introducing innovative fiscal instruments tofinance the public transportprojects to charge the entire range of beneficiaries rather than only the direct users. Road pricing practices for overcoming congestion. Setting up monitoring system for air pollution control. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Environmental Management of Road Projects ADB US$0.24 M Tamil Nadu Urban Development World Bank US$300.2 M equiv Uttar Pradesh Urban Development World Bank US$150.0 M equi. India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Category: Urban Development Government Objectives/Programs: Framing enabling housing policy. Strengthening of Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council to provide a platform for technology transfer and application in the shelter sector, and promoting commercial production of innovative materials, using fly-ash, red mud, phosphogypsum and agricultural wastes, and for appropriate design of houses both in urban and rural areas. Health services with focus on health education, awareness and health risk assessment. Protection of urban amenities such aspublicparks, beaches. Erection and strengthening of urban forests. Formulation of city-level environmental management plans. Important components ofIDSMT are traffic and transportation, markets and mandis, tourist amenities, parks andplaygrounds, slaughter houses, street lighting, localized drainage works, sites and services etc. Training Programs. Developing Urban Management Development Program. Nehru Rozgar Yojana, Urban Basic Services for the Poor. The Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums. Donor Agency Support Project Don..ir Fundino Improved Management of Degraded Urban Living Areas, Slums, etc. Urban Infrastructure Development, Karnataka ADB US$100.0 M Control of Environmental Health Hazards WHO US$0.22 M Calcutta Environmental Strategy British-ODA US$3.2 M equiv. NGO Support Fund Netherlands US$3.34 M equiv. Tamil Nadu Urban Development World Bank US$300.2 M equiv. Uttar Pradesh Urban Development World Bank US$150.0 M equiv. Poverty Alleviation Programs Urban Infrastructure Development, Karnataka ADB US$100.0 M Uttar Pradesh Urban Development World Bank US$150.0 M Family Welfare (Urban Slums) World Bank US$79.0 M equiv. Category: Energy-Related Government Objectives/Programs: Programs for energy efficiency in street lighting; alternative energy programs and energy efficiency in urban areas, formulation ofpricingpoliciesforpromoting energy conservation; improving public distribution system for kerosene; increasing -the use of coal in urban areas through introduction of methods such asfluidized bed processing or pelletization for smoke reduction and improving the thermal properties. This program could be successfully linked to the proposedprogram of improved cookstoves. Preparation of energy audits for each city. 218 . Urban Environmental Issues Category: Urban Mapping Government Objectives/Programs: Obtain aerial photographs, develop technical capabilities of town planning organizations, prepare base maps, generate digital graphic inputs for GISfor updating base maps. India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities World Bank Support Project: Hyderabad Water Supply and Sewerage Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: US$10.0 million / US$79.9 million (equivalent) Description: Project would increase Hyderabad's water supply by about 23 percent. It would also help realize more benefits from prior investments in water supply and sanitary sewerage and expand capacities to meet future. needs, through the rehabilitation and strengthening of the existing water supply and sewerage systems. The latter is seriously overloaded and this causes environmental pollution and health risks. The project would also address the safe excreta disposal needs of the community through a low-cost sanitation program. It would also strengthen Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sanitation Board's management, financial and operational performance through technical assistance and personnel training components. Project: Madras Water Supply amd Sanitation Project Fiscal Year: 1987 Loan/Credit Amount: US$53.0 million/US$ 16.0 million (equivalent) Description: The project would finance about 60 percent of Madras Metropolitan Water Supply and Sanitation Board's 1987-1995 investment program aimed at increasing water supply and improving water distribution and sewerage services in metropolitan Madras. The project would make better use of existing resources and assist Madras in devcloping a plan to identify medium- land long - term water supply solutions of a larger scope. It would also significantly strengthen MMWSSB's financial and operational performance and improve its capacity to manage the sector. Specifically, the project would: (a) Augment water supply and extend distribution networks by about 35 percent of present supply. (b) Improve and extend sewage collection and treatment systems. (c) Initiate a program of low-cost sanitation. (d) Support improvements in operational and financial efficiency aimed at making MMVVSSB commercially viable and more efficient. .2 Urban Environmental Issues (e) Improve policy formulation, analysis and prioritization through improved planning and rnanagement. Project: Tamil Nadu Urban Development Fiscal Year: 1988 Loan/Credit Amount: US$300.2 million (equivalent) Description: The project aims to strengthen the functioning of urban institutions involved with the delivery of urban services and the implementation of urban investments; improve shelter for 176,000 families; and increase the efficiency of the urban transportation system. Toward these aims the project would include the following components for ten cities: (a) Institutional (i) A new Municipal Urban Development Fund to fund equipment and civil works, maintenance and delivery of services and remunerative enterprises, primarily in eighty municipalities. (ii) Technical assistance, training and related equipment for project coordinating and implementing agencies. (b) Shelter (i) Construction of services, residential plots, core housing and community facilities and provision of shelter loans for 70,000 low-income households. (ii) Guided development involving home expansion loans to low- income families and provision of off-site infrastructure and community facilities. (iii) Construction of on-land off-site infrastructure, provision of tenure and community facilities to improve neighborhoods containing about 94,000 households on public and private land. (c) Traffic management and transport (i) Construction and improvement of roads, bridges, signals and pedestrian facilities. (ii) Support for the Pallavan Transport Corporation's Five - Year Investment program, to procure about 1,000 buses and related civil works and equipment including depots, terminals, a major workshop and passenger shelters. India's Environment- Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Project: Uttar Pradesh Urban Development Fiscal Year: 1987 Loan/Credit Amount: US$150.0 million (equivalent) Description: The government of Uttar Pradesh's objectives under the Uttar Pradesh component are to improve cost recovery and resource utilization and mobilization; strengthen sector organizations; and provide essential urban infrastructure and services. The Uttar Pradesh component includes sites and services, slum upgrading, area development, water supply, sewerage and sewage treatment, drainage, low-cost sanitation, solid wastes management, maintenance management and traffic engineering and management elements in each of up to sixteen towns, low-cost sanitation in up to eighteen towns, and technical assistance and training. Project: Third Bombay Water Supply and Sewerage Project Fiscal Year: 1986 Loan/Credit Amount: US$40.0 million/US$150.0 million (equivalent) Description: The project would: (a) Provide an increment of 455 million liters of water per day to help reduce Bombay's current deficit. (b) Expand Bombay's sewerage system. (c) Provide site specific sanitation and water supply facilities to serve the needs of the urban poor; (d) Further strengthen the operational efficiency of BMC's Water Supply and Sewerage Department in areas, including revenue collection, financial planning and audit controls, waste water waste and leakage reduction. The project would have the following main impact: reduction of water shortage from present 36 percent to 18 percent of demand, with particular benefit to the poor; investment and operational designs and improvements in leakage detection, repair and financial management capacity. Project: Family Welfare (Urban Sluims) Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$79.0 million (equivalent) Description: The project would include the following components in the cities of New Delhi, Calcutta, Hyderabad and Bangalore: Increasing the supply of Family Welfare Services to slum populations through improvements in outreach services using volunteer female health workers recruited from the slum communities, and the Urban Environmental Issues upgrading of existing and construction of new health facilities. Improving the quality of family welfare services provided to slum populations, by upgrading the supervisory, managerial, technical and interpersonal skills of all levels of workers. Increasing the demand for family welfare services through expanded information, education and communication activities. Improving the management and administration of the municipal health departments through appropriate upgrading of project supervision, management information systems (MIS), and information, education and communication (IEC) functions. Innovative schemes which cover a range of additional services including supplementary nutrition and environmental sanitation drives. Preparation of future projects which would support the detailed preparation and project launch activities in another fifteen designated cities. Project: Second Madras Water Supply Fiscal Year: 1995 Loan/Credit Amount: US$275.8 million (equivalent) Description: The project's major objectives are to: (a) Provide water from a reliable source within the State of Madras on an urgent basis in order to provide health, economic efficiency and environmental benefits. (b) Improve the distribution of water within Madras. (c) Strengthen conservation. The project would consist of the following components: (a) Source works at the existing Veeranam irrigation tank on the Cauvery River system. (b) A transmission pipeline from Veeranam to Madras, with associated treatment and pumping facilities. (c) Continuation of distribution improvements within Madras being undertaken in the First Madras Water Supply Project (LN2846/CR1 822-IN). (d) A water conservation program including tariff increases to encourage more efficient use of water. (e) Technical assistance in the form of project preparation and implementation support. Adequate steps would be taken to ensure that people adversely affected benefit from the project where this is possible and otherwise are made no worse off as a result. India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Other Donor Support Project: Urban Infrastructure Development, Karnataka Donor: ADB Loan/Credit Amount: US$100 M Description: The objectives of the TA is to assess the feasibility of an integrated urban development project in Karnataka State, focusing on development of the Bangalore-Mysore axis and of the counter-magnets to Bangalore, to: (a) Improve urban efficiencies through the provision of adequate infrastructure. (b) Improve the urban environment. (c) Reduce urban poverty. (d) Improve the institutional and financial capacity of the urban sector agencies. (e) Enhance the involvement of the private sector in urban development programs. The physical components of the projects may include Bangalore-Mysore road transport improvements, urban roads, drainage, water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, integrated area development and slum area upgrading. The Bank will finance US$100 million. Project: Environmental Management of Road Projects (India-wide) Donor: ADB Loan/Credit Amount: US$240,000 Description: Technical assistance to strengthen the capability of MOST and the PWD's to carry out environmental assessment of road projects and to ensure that road projects in the country are planned, designed and implemented in accordance with the Bank's environmental guidelines and the government's relevant regulations. The TA will concentrate on preparation of environmental guidelines appropriate to road projects in India and on providing training to selected staff from the Ministry of Surface Transport and the Public Works Department's in environmental impact assessment and environmental management of road projects. 24. Urban Environmental Issues Project: Urban Community Water Supply and Sanitation Donor: WHO Loan/Credit Amount: US$278,774 Description: To strengthen the infrastructure facilities of the sector, increase trained manpower, and keep abreast with technological developments in water supply and sanitation. Project: Control of Environmental Health Hazards Donor: WHO Loan/Credit Amount: US$220,513 Description: Recognition and control of environmental health hazards and conditions that affect health. Project: Urban City Water Supply Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: Y6,788 M (US$68 M equivalent) Description: To augment the water supply system in Solapur city and New Bombay to meet the growing demand of increasing population. Project: Madras Water Supply and Sewerage System Donor: Japan (OECF) Loan/Credit Amount: X17,098 M (US$171 M equivalent) Description: To make functional improvements to the Madras City water and sewage transmission systems. To make sewage renovations for industrial uses on a wide scale and conserve precious groundwater and thus help the groundwater aquifer to recover to its undepleted level in this coastal city. This would help prevent possible environmental risks from salt water intrusion and land subsidence in the depleting aquifer region. Once this is achieved, the groundwater can again be made available for profile water supply. Project: Calcutta Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan. Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £2,000,000 (US$3.2 M equivalent) Description: This project aims to establish an environmental management system for Calcutta; the project will also aim to produce proposals for later infrastructure projects. 225 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project: NGO Support Fund-Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Gujarat Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$3,340,000 Description: Support NGO initiatives iFor sustainable development of urban areas by financing small environmental projects in urban and semi-urban areas in education, water supply / sanitation, energy, waste management, pollution and local implications of global environmental issues. Project: Ganga ICD Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$1,940,000 Description: Strengthen local authorities on state and municipality level in order to operate and maintain sanitary and drinking water facilities already implemented and to be implemented under the various Indo-Dutch integrated environmental and sanitary engineering projects in Uttar Pradesh. Project: Strengthening The Kerala State Pollution Control Board Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$2,667,000 equivalent Description: Strengthening of the Kerala State Pollution Control Board in the areas of monitoring, data analysis and reporting. Project: Kanpur/Mirzapur Environmental and Sanitary Engineering (Phase I and Phase II) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$17,610,000 equivalent Description- Demonstration of the UASB wastewater treatment plants, combined with the applicaltion of an integrated urban sanitary/ drinking water approach an introduction of clean production techniques in polluting industry (tanneries). Project: Kanpur/Mirzapur Envirommental and Sanitary Engineering (Phase III) Donor: Netherlands Loan / Credit Amount: US$3 M equivalent Description: Technical assistance in the start-up phase of the constructed UASB water treatment plants, combined with a training course 2'f26 Urban Environmental Issues 4 for technicians in operation and maintenance of the plants. Project: Mirzapur Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$10,889,000 equivalent Description: Demonstration of the UASB wastewater treatment technology through the construction of a wastewater treatment plant and the application of an integrated sanitary engineering scheme. Project: Ganga Action Plan Program Support (Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur Municipality) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$27,778,000 equivalent Description: Support of the Ganga Action Plan Phase II by financing integrated urban sanitation and drinking water projects. Project: UASB Chapra, Bihar Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$200,000 equivalent Description: Provide technical assistance to local organizations in design construction and start-up of UASB wastewater plant. Project: UASB Design Support Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$195,000 equivalent Description: Abatement of pollution by supplying technical assistance to several Indian state government bodies in the appraisal of and amendments to designs of twenty UASB wastewater treatment plants. Chapter 8 Environmental Education and Training 4A India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities __ i rl n7 ill' - F ! J_1 llhi -. 8.01 Environmental education held in Tbilisi in 1977 established the develops an environmentally literate, following basic aims for environmental informed, and concerned citizenry, capable education: of making ecologically sound decisions. Much more than simply a process of raising A basic aim of environmental education awareness, environmental education requires commucces underst and education at all levels of society using flexible communities understand the complex methods that come from within societies. nature of the natural and the built Every society has a rich history of interaction environments resulting from the imteraction oftheir biological, physical, with the land and the natural environment, social, economic, and cultural aspects From that interaction cultures developed that al, comic, andgcutualaes allowed humans to exist in harmony with and aqieteko l vals, attitudes and practical skills to the natural environment in a sustainable way. participate in a responsible and 8.02 Humans change as their effective way in anticipating and relationship with the natural environment solving social problems, and in the changes. In India, rapidly expanding management of the quality of the populations, increased use of technology, and environment. changing patterns of water, land, and energy 8.05 The International Workshop on use have altered the way that humans interact Environental Education in Belgrade in 1975 with their environment and with each other. defined the objective of environmental Attitudes, knowledge, and skills must adapt education as: to these changes in the environment. Environmental education forms the basis for To develop a world population that is adjusting to these changes. aware of and concerned about the environment and its associated 8.03 In traditional societies problems, and which has the environmental knowledge is the result of a knowledge, skills, attitudes, close relationship with the environment. In motivations, and commitment to work modern and traditional societies impacted individually and collectively toward by rapid modernization, environmental solutions of current problems and the education requires institutional efforts to prevention of new ones. impart awareness and skills that used to be an integral part of the traditional education 8.06 The workshop also defined the process. following objectives: 8.04 The First Intergovernmental El Awareness-to help individuals and Conference on Environmental Education groups acquire an awareness of and 230. Environmental Education and Training sensitivity to the environment and its organizational structures that implement problems. environmental education, while LI Knowledge-to help individuals and nonorganizational functions implement groups acquire a basic understanding programs. of the environment, its problems, and 8.09 India has developed a policy humanity's role in it. framework that serves as the basis for environmental education efforts. While the O Attitude- to help individuals and task of implementing a nationwide groups acquire values and feelings of environmental education program is not concern for the environment and the complete, the basic elements of this effort motivation to participate in its are in place. protection and improvement. POLICY O Skills-to help individuals and groups evaluate environmental measures and 8.10 Policy regarding environmental education programs in terms of education can be found in documents of the ecological, political, economic, social, Ministry of Environment and Forests and the aesthetic, and edticational factors. Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development. Finalized in 1992, U Particiation-to elp indivduals.an the National Policy on Education declared groups develop a sense of responsibility that: regarding environmental problems to ensure appropriate action to solve these The National System of Education will problems. be based on a national curricular 8.07 Environmental education varies framework which contains a common among countries and cultures. In India the core along with other components adverse effects of environmental degradation which are flexible. The common core are felt most by the poor; poverty, in turn, will include the history of India's causes degradation through resource freedom movement, the constitutional depletion. The level of cultural diversity in obligations, and other content essential India contributes to the need for flexible and to nurture national identity. These location-specific enviromnental education. elements will cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote values ONGOING EFFORTS IN INDIA such as India's common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy 8.08 Various governmental and and secularism, equality of the sexes, nongovernmental organizations in India protection of the environment, removal are responsible for the implementation of of social barriers, observance of the environmental education and training. smallfamily norm and inculcation of These organizations carry out a wide the scientific temper. variety of organizational and non- organizational functions. Organizational 8.11 The policy also states that within functions strengthen and coordinate the the reorientation of the educational process *231 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, anid Priorities there exists the "paramount need to create a in the entire education process" (MLHRD 1992). consciousness of the environment" that must -"permeate all ages and sections of society, 8.12 The various institutions beginning with the child. The environmentzal involved in formal, informal, and training consciousness should inform teaching in (semiformal) activities in environmental schools and colleges, and should be integrated education are shown in Table 8.1. Table 8.1. Environmental Education and Training Activities Sector Educatlion Level lnstitutions and Organizations Inslitutional Role and Mdethods Formal School education * Nationa:l Council of * Central guidance and direction education (primary, secondary EducationalResearch and * The environmental orientation and upper secondary) Training (NCERT) and State to school education scheme Councils of Educational ' Curriculum and materials Research and Training development (SCERT) * Eco-clubs * Ministry of Environment and * Training of trainers Forests * Formal and informal teacher * Centers for Environmental inservice training Education and NGOs * Curriculum development University education * Undergraduate colleges and * Post-graduate programs graduate institutions * Short-term courses * Research programs * Disciplines with environ- mental components * Environmental courses Teacher education * NCERT * Pre- and in-service training of * Regional Colleges of teachers Education * Contact programs * State Institutes of Education * Development of teacher guides * NGOs and manuals * Centers for Environmental * Training of trainers Education Vocational and * Vocatiornal schools * Programs and courses in technical education * Indian Institutes of environmental sciences Technology Informal Government efforts * Primary and secondary * Socially useful productive education schools work or work experience sessions in schools * School science clubs program * MinistrN of Environment * Environmental Information and Forests System * National Environmental Awareness Campaign * Centers of Excellence * National Museum of Natural H istory * National literacy mission * Wildlife Action Plan 232. Environmental Education and Training Sector Education Leiel Institutions and Organizations Institutional Role and Methods Citizen efforts NGOs * Identification and awareness raising of local environmental issues * Distribution of literature and other media * Innovative methods such as the use of traditional art and drama to spread environmental messages Training Government Ge.nera/l arn711111g S Full courses on general aspects tSentiforinal) etforts * Administrative Staff College. of the en% ironmenr Ahmedabad * Indian Institute of Public Administration. Delhi * Institutes of Mlanag,ement * Wildlife Institute of India Spe,1,a/.i:o.J iraimu1,g * Specialized courses for * National Env ironmental Engin- professionals eering Research Institute * Tate Energ> Research Institute. Delhi * 'Wildlife Insiltute of India. Dehradun * Indian Institute of Forest Nianazenient, Bhopal * Indian Council of ForestrN Research and Training. Dehradun * Indira Gandhi National Forest Academ>. DehraduLn * Center for En% ironnient Edui- cation. Ahmedabad Citizen efforts * Boniba Natural History SocietN * Specialized courses for * W% orld \Wide Fund for Nature professionals * Center for Science and En' iron- iiient * Center for Enm ironniental La" * Socier% for Promotioni of Waste- land De%elopinent * Bharat Induitrial At-ro Indtiusrial Foundiation * Action for Food Production | De\elopnient Alternatikes India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities FORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL that train teachers to integrate environmental EDUCATION education into teacher training programs. In addition, environmental education is not 8.13 Environmental education in the formal educational setting is critical to an essential ingredient of student developing an environmentally literate assessments, and teachers therefore do not .. . . ......... ~~~see it as an essential component of the citizenry. The EAP established that environ- curriculum. mental education should be integrated in curriculum. educational settings from the early school 8.17 The Environmental Orientation levels through university graduate and to School Education scheme was launched postgraduate programs and into professional by the Ministry of Human Resources training programs for everyone from Development to redefine learning in the government administrators and context of the environment and local decisionmakers to business and NGO conditions. This program has not yet been professionals. evaluated. In addition, the program only targets middle schools, which leaves little SCHOOL EDUCATION environmental education content in the 8.14 India integrates environmental higher secondary level. education into formal education at the 8.18 Eco-clubs, a concept put forth primary and secondary levels using the recently by the MOEF, are designed to "infusion" method. Rather than identifying encourage the participation of school environmental education as a separate subject children in activities relating to ecological area, environmental concepts are infused into conservation and environmental all subject areas when appropriate, preservation. Targeted at students in standard 8.15 The National Council of VI to X, the clubs will provide a forum for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) the students to share their knowledge of provides guidance and direction to all schools environmental issues and will motivate the and assists the Ministry of Human Resources general public to participate in environmental Development in formulating and preservation efforts. implementing educational programs. The 8.19 In addition to the various National Curriculums for Elementary and government institutions, NGOs and the Secondary Education developed by NCERT various centers for environmental education in 1988 provides a framework on which all (such as the Center for Environment schools can build curriculum that respond Education, Ahmedabad, and the CPR to local needs. The framework also provides Environmental Education Center, Madras) the basis for the development of educational also conduct regular teacher training courses materials, assessment, and teacher training. and develop curriculum and training 8.16 The framework provides a materials. The Center for Environment sufficient basis for environmental education Education has established satellite offices in the classroom. But it remains the in six regional centers where curriculum responsibility of the educational institutions materials are based on local issues and Environmental Education and Training written in local languages. NGOs such as include ecological genetics, environmental the World Wild Fund for Nature, India, also planning, field ornithology, field mamn- conduct regular teacher training seminars on malogy, and nonconventional energy. such issues as biodiversity and resource conservation. 8.22 Unlike at the primary and secondary levels, the infusion method has 8.20 Despite these efforts, been unsuccessful at the university level. environmental education remains largely a Environment courses tend to be fragmented, voluntary or optional subject that is taught resulting in graduates with little background only by teachers with the inclination or in the range of economic, scientific, and concern to teach it. According to the social concerns relating to the environment. Environment Action Program, "in the One reason for the limited number of absence of drastic changes in the teaching interdisciplinary environment courses and environment, far more comprehensive and programs at the university level is the lack in-depth changes in teacher education, and of environmental employment opportunities changes in curricula, the incorporation of for graduates. environmental concerns is likely to be slow". Efforts to increase the level of qualified TEACHER EDUCATION training personnel in environmental education and a coordinated system of 8.23 Teacher education and training integration in teacher training institutions is essential to the implementation of will be required to implement the proposed environmental education. Teachers are strategies at the primary and secondary levels. ultimately responsible for implementing any environmental education program at the UNIVERSITY EDUCATION formal level. NCERT's Regional Colleges of Education and the State Institutes of 8.21 There has been a dramatic Education (SIE) are responsible for increase in the level of environmental organizing preservice and inservice teacher education at the university level. By the end training. In addition, NGOs, citizens groups, of 1991 there were forty-two institutions and institutes, like the various environmental under the University Grants Commission education centers, conduct teacher training. offering post-graduate programs, five 8.24 According to the NCERT, institutions offering short-term courses, environmental training of teachers should twenty-seven research programs, and twenty- include: two disciplines with an environmental component. Another survey revealed the El Basic training in ecology. presence of environment-related courses in I Field or laboratory experience in more than sixty universities and academic environmental sciences. institutions, including technical institutes. Environmental science is the most common O Knowledge of environmental issues offering. Others include ecology, environ- and problems of resource management. mental biology, and environmental or public O Competence in environmental problem health engineering. Less frequent subjects identification, investigation, evalua- India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities tion, and citizen action. form of education that is outside the traditional school setting. It includes, among Oi Opportunities to develop value others: clarification skills and knowledge of the role of human values in LI Public awareness education. environmental issues. LO Professional training programs. 8.25 NCERT identifies the following Li Interpretation programs. requirements for teacher training: LO Pre- and inservice training of teachers. LI Popular movements and community groups. Li Contact programs. GOVERNMENT EFFORTS O Development of teacher guides and manuals. 8.28 The government has produced many informal environmental education O Inservice environmental training programs, including the Socially Useful through correspondence courses. Productive Work and Work Experience sessions in schools and the School Science Clubs Program. Although government 8.26 Although NCERT has laid down programs have only been introduced recently, these basic requirements, most institutions community groups have been communicating offering the bachelor of education degree environmental messages for decades. The do not offer independent courses or training MOEF, in support of the Ministry of Human related to environmental education. Some Resources Development, established the universities offer selective papers in Environmental Information System, a network of eleven centers that collects, envirnmenal siencs, ad th regonal collates, stores, and disseminates relevant education colleges at Bhubaneshwar, Ajmer, . ' . Mysore, and Bhopal offcr courses with information. environmental education components. But 8.29 The National Environmental almost none has integrated environmental Awareness Campaign (NEAC) is the largest concerns into the conventional subject areas. single effort to promote informal Thus the infusion method that NCERT has environmental education. Initiated by the chosen for the primary and secondary levels MOEF in 1986, is not taught to teachers in their formal teacher edcto.the Campaign involves central funding teacher education. to citizens' groups all over India, on INFORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL the basis of proposals received from EDUCATION them. Every year, November 19 to December 18 is observed as National 8.27 Environmental education efforts Environment Month, when the in informal education are much more campaign is expected to pick up complex and varied than those in formal momentum. A special theme is selected education. Informal education involves every each year though grouips take up 6n3. Environmental Education and Training X activities unrelated to this theme also. parks, and museums. The CEE also conducts The number of groups availing of this one-day, week-long, and eight-month training opportunity has steadily grown over programs in environmental education the lastfew years, from 115 in 1986 program and curriculum development. Both to 555 in 1991. The list of funded centers also serve as Regional Resource agencies comprises not just citizens' Agencies for the NEAC. Other government groups, but also schools, colleges and efforts to impart environmental education universities, research institutes, include programs of the National Museum professional bodies, women's and of Natural History, the National Literacy youth organisations, and government Mission, and elements of the National departments from various states and Wildlife Action Plan. union territories. Programs conducted as part of the NEAC include seminars, CITIZEN EFFORTS workshops, training camps, public 8.31 A vast array of citizens groups meetings, rallies, padayatras, jathas, arrd ofmcity gron audio-visuals, film shows, poster are working toward community action displays, drama, folk dances, street around environmental issues. India's theatre, tree plantation drives, diversity is represented in the variety of competitions for children including programs and methods being used, including essays, debates and painting identification and awareness-raising of local competitions, and preparation and environmental issues, distribution of distribution of resource material. The literature and other media for education about target groups covered are extremely issues, and innovative methods such as the diverse, and include students, youth, use of tradtional art and drama forms to women, tribals, administrators, spread environmental messages. Groups professionals, legislators, industrial range from the Chipko movement and the workers, voluntary agency members, Narmada Bachao Andolan to smaller urban armedforces, and the general public. groups dealing with local issues. 8.30 The MOEF has identified several 8.32 There are also citizen efforts that Centers of Excellence throughout the country. target the masses. The Popular Science The Center for Environment Education Movement and the Kerala Sastra Sahitya (CEE), Ahmedabad, and the CPR Parishad (KSSP) are examples of programs Environment Education Center, Madras, initiated by citizens groups that have used produce environmental education resource innovative methods to reach large groups material and curriculums and conduct of people. The Popular Science Movement training programs for various constituents. "aims to demystify knowledge and popularize The CEE conducts programs in schools, scientific issues" through a collection of generates environmental education materials, groups. The KSSP aims to present various organizes teacher training programs, scientific issues in as simple a form as disseminates environmental education possible using presentations followed by the through the media, and develops distribution of literature on local environment interpretation programs in zoos, national and development issues. * 237 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities T1RAINING ACTIVITIES IN activities described earlier, except that ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION general training is more structured and formal. 8.33 Training activities in environmental education are generally more Li Specialized training, which is meant organized and specialized than informal to develop the skills and capacity education activities, but they generally do needed to perform specific tasks. These not result in a degree (although many result programs are similar to the formal in a certificate of completion). Training education programs described earlier, programs range from courses lasting an hour except that specialized training does or two to programs lasting a year or more. not lead to a degree based on an These programs are the most flexible method assessment or evaluation (MOEF of providing environmental education. They 1993). can be conducted by almost any individual or group that can draw an audience of trainees GO VERNMENTAL EFFORTS to participate. They can be free of charge or can charge a market rate. They can be 8.36 The MOEF and the Department conducted by a single group or by a ofPersonnelandTraininghavebeenthemain conglomerate of organizations. They can be sponsors of courses on general aspects of targeted to a select group or available to the the environment. The Administrative Staff general public. College, Ahmedabad, and the Indian Institute of Public Administration, Delhi, pioneered 8.34 hese ariabes mae traning such programs. Soon after, the various programs one of the most effective methods of imparting environmental knowledge. The institutes of management and the Wildlife drawback is that there is also tremendous Institute of India began offering similar courses. These programs are offered variety in the quality and effectiveness of primarily to middle- and senior-level officers, programs. For example, in the area of y progras. Fo examle, inthe aea of and the courses have not been standardized. environmental impact assessment training, there are accredited institutions like the 8.37 A variety of institutes produce National Environmental Engineering specialized training courses targeting Research Institute, Nagpur, which set the professionals within and outside the standard for training quality and government. These courses develop specific effectiveness. This does not, however, stop skills in environmental monitoring, other groups that wish to offer a similar assessment, management, and planning, program, regardless of qualifications. among others. Institutions such as the 8.35 The MOEF has classified two National Environmental Engineering categories of training activities: Research Institute (Nagpur), the Tata Energy Research Institute (Delhi), the Wildlife LI General training, which aims to raise Institute of India (Dehradun), the Indian levels of understanding and sensitivity Institute of Forest Management (Bhopal), to environmental issues. Such training the Indian Council of Forestry Research and is similar to the informal educational Training (Dehradun), the Indira Gandhi 238. Environmental Education and Training I ; National Forest Academy (Dehradun), and CITIZEN EFFORTS the Center for Environment Education (Ahmedabad) provide specialized courses for 8.39 Training of trainers, particularly professionals, including government and from other NGOs, is a major method of nongovernment employees. promoting environmental education by citizen groups. The Bombay Natural History 8.38 Dspite he rane of taining Society, the Worldwide Fund for Nature, the opportunities, there is still not adequate ceter for Science and Envi re, the specialized training in terms of both the types Center for Science and Environment, the of training and the number of positions oCenter for Envronmental Law, the Socpety available. In addition, because there is not the Bharat Agro Industrial Foundations, adequate job placement in environmental professions, many people are reluctant to Action for Food Production, and invest in training programs. Institutions Development Alternatives are just a few of conducting training are therefore reluctant the organizations providing specialized to develop environmental training programs. courses for professionals. ___ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities India's Current Strategy for Environmental Educationi and Training 8.40 In addition to being identified as voluntary/activist individuals and an individual priority area in the Environment organizations. There are also Action Program, environmental educatiotn, deficiencies of high-quality human training, and human resource development resources and organizations to undertake strategies cut across every sector of India's the task of environmental protection at environmental management strategy. This the local and regional levels. This is section examines the EAP's diagnosis for caused by the lack of an environmental human resource development in environmental education network in the country. Skilled education and training, the overall priorities human resources for tackling the outlined in the EAP, the environmental problems of industrial pollution, education and training strategies identified hazardous substances management, and to develop human resources, and the prograrn for implementing technologies for areas identified as priority activities. wastelands management have to be developed and nurtured. 8.41 According to the EAP, the following issues are of greatest concern OVERALL PRIORITIES IDENTIFIED IN THE regarding India's current environmental ENVIRONMENT ACTION PROGRAM education and training activities: 8.42 The following areas have been Human resources formations for the identified as priority areas for environmental scientific management of environmental management efforts. Environmental education problems have also been constrained and training issues cut across all of these areas because of inadequate research and to varying degrees. development infrastructure, the absence Conservation and sustainable use of biodiver- of organizations, which are capable of synselected systeincludn forests, imparting technical skills orselected ecosystems cludgforests, envimparonmengtecal manage (sks fr mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs, and moun- environmental management (such as tain ecosystems environmental impact assessment) at the local and regional levels, the limitations 8.43 Priorities include: of environmental education at higher U Conserving genetic, species, and secondary, university, and non-formal ecosystem diversity for sustainable levels in generating public awareness, . . and the insufficient spread of training in environmental sciences/management O Developing biotechnology industries. for policymakers, administrators, L Low-cost indigenous systems of trainers, educators, students, local self- medicine and treatment. government authorities and grassroots 240. Environmental Education and Training s. LI Preserving the traditional lifestyles of pollution, and rapidly deteriorating urban tribal populations, infrastructure (such as transport, electricity, sanitation, health and Afforestation, wastelands development, housing). conservation of soil moisture, and ensuring that water sources are not polluted O Developing policies for citizen participation in environmental protection 8.44 Priorities include: efforts. LI Reversing trends of deforestation and LI Extending the World Bank-assisted overgrazing created by subsistence and Metropolitan Environment Improvement industrial pressures on forests, including Programmes in Madras and Bombay to sustainable agriculture and water other cities. harvesting practices by small and marginal farmers. LI Conserving wetlands, mangroves, and LI Evaluating the stress of soil and water other unique habitats in cities and towns. conservation in relation to drought LI Protecting water resources from proofing and management of natural pollution. disasters. Strengthening scientific understanding of LI Ecorestoration of wetland. environmental issues, as well as structures Controlling industrial and related pollution, for training, environmental orientation and with an emphasis on reducing and managing awareness, resources assessment, water wastes, particularly hazardous wastes management problems, and so on 8.45 Priorities include: 8.48 Priorities include: LI Extending the World Bank-assisted L Integrating environmental education into Industrial Pollution Control and all areas and levels of society, including Pollution Prevention Projects to cover schools and colleges. all the critically polluting sectors in LI Establishing a legal, administrative, India. organizational, technical, and popular Improving access to clean technologies framework by developing human resources at the scientific, technical, 8.46 Priorities include: policy- and decisionmaking, program LI Adhering to global environmental implementation, and public levels. standards with respect to products and LI Environmental education to create public processes, with an emphasis on energy- awareness. conserving technologies. LI Environmental training for policy- Tackling urban environmental issues makers, decisionmakers and adminis- 8.47 Priorities include: trators. LI Establishing broadly based strategies for L Imparting environmental management dealing with urban poverty, air and water and impact assessment skills to develop 2 4 1 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities technical personnel. include environmental research, education, and LI Establishing research and developmenit training to develop the technical, adminis- infrastructuhire for the collectonl of trative, and practical skills required for infrastructur for the collectionof environmental impact assessments. The EAP scientific and statistical data on natural states that its main objective is "strengthening and environmental resources. the environment impact assessments process Alternative energy plan by creating the base for drawing up Regional Environmental Impact Assessment profiles 8.49 Priorities include: based on studies of carrying capacity and OI Developing alternative sources of regional/local siting plans through a process energy, moving away from coal, oil, of popular participation". lignite, and other commercial fuel]s 8.51 This objective will be achieved by: (notably oil). LI Increasing scientific research and LI Developing alternatives for agriculture- development institutions and technical based, noncommercial fuels that are not institutes for studies in environmental energy efficient and that cause health sciences in order to increase the number problems for users (predominantly the of people with skills in environmental urban and rural poor). impact assessments and environmental LI Reducing the use of forest resources for management. fuel. LI Developing training programs for LI Reducing emissions from the non- administrators, policymakers, trainers, stationary transport sector arising frorn and scientists in order to strengthen the use of leaded gasoline. environmental management and decisionmaking. LI Limiting the use of high-speed diesel and electricity in irrigation operations. LI Establishing programs for environmental awareness in order to increase the LI Developing programs for alternative effectiveness of program implementation energy sources such as improved at the local level and to improve the local cooking stoves, coal washing and information base on natural resources beneficiation, and solar, windpower, and and systems of use. biogas. LI Standardizing environmental inform- LI Reduced transmission and distributio:n ation-gathering strategies, including losses in electricity supply systems. environmental impact assessments and other technical parameters. OBJECTIVE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING NEW AREAS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 8.50 Human resources should be EDUCATION AND TRAINING developed for a local and regional system of 8.52 The MOEF has identified new environmental impact assessment based on program areas that focus on the seven priority environmental statistics collection and natural issues in the EAP. Many of these new areas resource accounting. This program would will require a human resource development _2 42_ Environmental Education and Training component for environmental education and assess the capacity of various educational or training in order to be implemented. The EAP training institutions to carry out the range of identifies specific new programs to strengthen tasks outlined in the other six program areas. scientific understanding of environmental Table 8.2 therefore identifies those program issues, as well as to improve structures for areas that will require a human resource training, orientation, and environmental development component in environmental awareness at different levels, but it does not education or environmental training. Table 8.2. Priority Programs Requiring Environmental Education and Training Priorit! Area Nonrormal Education Components Formal Education ComponenLs Conservation and * Conservation education on * Extension support projects sustainable use of wetlands, for agroforestry. biodiversity in selected mangroves, and coral reefs * Strengthening of Indian ecosystems including * Capacity-building in natural Council of Forestry Research forests, mangroves, resource and Education, Dehradun wetlands, coral reefs, accounting studies for coral reefs, and mountain eco- forests mangroves, wetlands, systems protected areas, and biodiversity .Atfoieitation. 'vaste- * Afforestation and %%a'telandc. Iands de' lopnment. ieopecporii lan& e% ellpiiiiii.de% elopinenit progranls conser%ation of soil 1io0isUre. and prolec- * Promotion of ener2! fores-rr aild * Srren,2theninL, of Indian tion of %%aier sources efficient fueh% ood use Council of Forestrr from pollution * De%elopment. denionstration. anid Researchl and Education. pronmotion of Nio fertilizers. Deliradtin * Capacim-building in natural resource accounting arid enm ironmlent inipact assessmient for riker EalleN and a _ ricultural de elopnient projects Control of industrial and * Demonstration and dissemination of related pollution with an wastewater treatment recycling and emphasis on reducing reuse technologies for water and managing wastes, conservation particularly hazardous wastes linipro% 1ng access to * Establishinu centers or cleanier clean technolo2ies tech1olo02ies to gather and dissreninate information to industr% * Capacit\-building for en% iron- mienkal audit tor pollution pre% ention. * Capacit\ -building for en% ironnient impact as4essment ot clean techno- loe ies * 243 6 CJ| India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Priorito Area Nonrormal Education Components Formal Education Componenis Tackling urban e Organizational strengthening for environmental issues human resource development and capacity- building for pollution control, waste management, natural resource accounting, risk assessment, and environmental impact assessments in urba:n areas * Strategies for lowering solid waste generation in urban areas Strenntheninu 'Atenttfic * Prot ide assistance and fundin.c for . Estabhlih a net"ork of rez2ional understandinyv ot NG.its to set up disr ict and , illacie intitute s fo;r train in in eni iron- en% ironniental issues as iraininii centers menial impact assessnieii:t and v'ell as structures ftor * De[elop iraining prc t.rarns for trainers, disaster nianagenment planis irain inm. orientation, and at all le%eis e Establish a national ceniter fca enm ronniental :areness. 0 Sttenalthen en%ironrnental train inc lona-terni traininu in resources assessnent. actix ities in iinduictiml institutions ftor en' ironmiental inipact %%arer mnana-genic'lt ci% il ser'ants assessments p roblem!s. and s on * Capacit\ -buildiny for collection and I * Initiate inietzrated alid specific analk sis of en ironrilent sataistics for en% ironmiient courses, for students niatural resource acc muntin2 otf all backtirounds * En' ironnte nial d uCa3io n for * De% elop en' ironiiiental education professionals and er' memnent ntaterals includina teachina authorities ini en6iioninental inipact mIlaterials. en' ironniental kiis for assessm1ents ; students, and Judio isual * D% e lop e i' ironiineita l trainimy materials. proCrnms for studeni s and the 2eneral puiblic. especiallk in 'o"% ns.hips located in or arourd areas of ecoloE ical sianifticanLe ! * Eu' ironniental education prog rams flor ne"% Paia, an I . 1h \ °oluntar> en' irotiniental task torces) * U-irban en' ironiental education for local aLthoriiies and NGOOs * De'elop a schenme for practitioners. actk ists, protfession,ls, ci%il ser%ants and others to particip. te in regeneration acti% ities Alternative energy plan * Demonstration projects on energy- efficient lighting * Power sector * Programs to promote energy conservation in industries * Industrial sector * Capacity-building for environmental impact assessments for thermal and hydropower plants * Alternative energy * Demonstration of new and alternative sector sources of energy * Capacity-building for environmental impact assessments of energy use in rural areas 244. Environmental Education and Training The Environment Action Program 8.53 A review of the government's measures and education programs in policies and programs is needed to determine terms of ecological, political, economic, how to overcome the training gap between social, aesthetic, and educational factors. the technical elite and local inhabitants. The EAP identifies environmental education and rticipito developa enseo training as a major element in developing the roblity regar irnental human resource capacity and technical, pole toen apprO action institutional, and popular framework for environmental management. 8.56 Human resource capacity for the scientific management of environmental training a vrndhumantaresourcadevlopent a problems has been constrained by inadequate efrtsnin are coordinatedsbyuhe MlopmeF th resources and development infrastructure; efforts are coordimatedinistre Mn a iti insufficient institutional support for assistance from other ministries. In addition, evrnetlmngmn;iaeut .. ~~~environmental management; inadequate numerous institutes, universities, and NGOs environmental education at the secondary, engage in education and training activities university, and informal levels; insufficient The EAP identifies formal (ending in a training for policymakers, administrators, certificate or degree), informal (outside of formal institutional structures), and training (semiformal activities that often result in a grassroots organizations; and lack of funding certificate activities . thethfor environmental activities. To improve certificate) activities as the three types of hmnrsuc aaiy h A enviromenta eduction.human resource capacity, the EAP- environmental educahion.reomns recommends: 8.55 The EAP emphasizes the following LI Developing a strong legal. areas in environmental education program a a design: administrative, and technical framework for environmental education and OI Awareness to foster awareness of and sustainable development. sensitivity to the environment and its problems. Oi Nurturing human resources at the scientific, technical, policymaking, and LO Knowledge to develop a basic program implementation levels. understanding of the environment, its problems and humanity's role in it. n Improving public awareness of environmental education. LI Attitude to acquire values and feelings of concern for the environment and to ° Developing environmental training motivate active participation in its opportunities for policymakers and protection and improvement. administrators. LO Skills to evaluate environmental LI Introducing technical personnel to areas . 245 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities of environmental management and LI "SODAR" (Sound Detection and impact assessment. Ranging) Inversion Studies. LO Establishing research and developme:nt ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING facilities to collect data on natural and environmental resources. LI Consent management, monitoring of the effluents and emissions, use of scientific GOI PROGRAMS equipment, laboratory development, handling and interpretation of analytical 8.57 The following GOI programs are dt,evrnetladtec identified in India's Environment Action data, environmental audit etc. Program. LO Program for training of trainers at all levels. CPCB PROGRAMS UNDER ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH Li Training facilities for civil servants, especially those belonging to the Central LI Biological Monitoring and Assessment and All-India Services, through the of Pollution (BIOMAP). environmental training activities of their induction institutions, which also require Oi Development of Methodology for sinfcn stegheig Toxicity Testing. LI Studies on the Correlation of TOC and Li Environmental training programs for COD/BOD. students and the general public, especially in townships located in or i Testing of Microbial Mixed Seed Culture around areas of special ecological in B OD Determination, significance. LI Analytical Quality Control Exercise (AQC/Water) ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMS L Microbiological Assessment of River Yamuna. 8.58 Environmental education LI Bench Scale Model for Treatment of TextileWaste. Li A scheme to allow practitioners, activists, professionals, civil servants and i Treatability Studies of Drain Effluents others to participate in regeneration Under Yamuna Action Plan. activities. O Sampling and Analysis of Polynuclear Li Regular and sustained environment Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air. education programs for professionals, LI Standardization of Method for Analysis decisionmakers and local self- of Absorbable Organic Halide. government authorities in enviromnental LI Standardization of Method for Pesticide impact assessment. Analysis. LI Infusion of environment-related subjects LI Wind Profile Studies. with larger social concerns. 246 Environmental Education and Training O New environmental courses, inter- ments of state governments and local disciplinary in nature and accessible to authorities in urban environmental students of all backgrounds. issues. O Development of a wide range of 8.59 Capacity building environmental education materials for O Evolve structures to strengthen the mass distribution including modules and training, research and education workbooks for teachers, low-cost activities through existing government environmental kits for students and and nongovernment organizations and audio-visual materials. institutions at different levels. LI Environmental education programs for L Assistance and funding to NGOs to set the newly constituted Paryavaran Vahini up district and village training centers. (voluntary environmental task force). L Capacity building for collection and L Education for local policymakers, analysis of environmental statistics for voluntary agencies, technical depart- natural resource accounting. * 247 (^ India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Major Issues and Recommendations 8.60 The EAP failed to identify several their schools or the national or state Councils shortcomings and limitations in India's for Educational Research and Training, the environmental education and training strategy. bodies responsible for teacher preparation, curriculum development, and inservice POLICY ISSUES training. 8.61 Current policies prescribe the need INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES for a national policy framework for environmental education. The problem is that 8.64 The different scales of organization national policy frameworks drive programs in environmental education require that are not necessarily the most effective or significantly different approaches, including efficient when it comes to local activity. For educational methods and supporting example, the lack of flexibility in current institutional arrangements, in order to achieve policies has created a gap between government environmental objectives. Each of these policy on environmental education and the dimensions exists in different "institutional reality of grassroots activity. In addition, most envelopes." government programs focus either on highly 8.65 Megasystems have major technical and specific environmental sciences Meg atems have their or on public awareness campaigns that are environmental implications in both their highly generalized and that lack action operations and their uses (hydroelectric power components and skills education. systems, expressways, large sewerage systems, and so on). These projects depend on an 8.62 Some institutes and NGOs are institutional framework of large corporate conducting high-quality environmental efforts supported by a mix of management, education outreach and training programs, but finance, technological, production, these activities are not sufficiently integrated organization, and marketing agencies, all into government policy. The national backed by government support. The framework for environmental education should environmental issues here depend on be more flexible, and should allow for specialized technical experts who can perform experimentation and for the opportunity for environmental forecasting and assessment, and a shared learning process among the various on laws and corporate policies to mitigate individuals implementing programs. environmental damage. Critical decisions are made by the relatively few people in charge 8.63 Institutions such as the World o oprtosadpbi gniso Wide Fund for Nature and other NGOs offer of corporations and public agencies or teacher workshops and training programs to authorities. disseminate information and programs on a 8.66 Integrated technology systems local scale. Teachers are not required to attend raise environmental issues, particularly around these workshops and receive no credit from end users of such urban systems as 248. Environmental Education and Training transportation, sewerage and water, food, conservation strategies. energy, and so on. These users can play a critical role in reducing energy consumption, Raising awareness choosing less-polluting modes of trans- 8.69 Public awareness campaigns portation, recycling resources, and other conducted through mass media may be useful practices. Influencing these users may involve to communicate the need for changes in some a mix of environmental awareness, structured practices, but they must be used as an adjunct incentives, and provision of alternative to other, more direct approaches if they are technologies. Such efforts require local groups to have an impact. Unless they teach how to and associations that stimulate innovations change practices, generalized mass media and support alternative practices. approaches have minimal impact. In addition, 8.67 Small-scale, village-level techno- people such as local inhabitants, the poor, and logies are supported by communities and other disenfranchised segments of the frequently are driven by survival needs. These population are not reached by current technologies often impact directly on the environmental education and training natural environment to meet basic needs for activities. Developing programs for the range food, energy, shelter, water, air, and waste, of cultures, languages, audiences, and needs and may have disastrous consequences for the that exist in India represents a challenge for immediate environment (soil erosion) or educators, policymakers, and donor agencies. remote environments (flooding near the Top-down programs imposed without the mouths of rivers). Change requires strong involvement of local leadership often fail to community support and easily understood reach local groups. Cultural diversity requires alternative practices, as well as external education and training that is flexible in its supports that share risks, provide information funding, strategies, methods, and technology. exchanges between people who are working on similar problems, and in some cases that W allocate financial resources to create 8.70 Teacher training in environmental possibilities for innovation. education has been mandated by the courts 8.68 Majorgapsexistamongthesethree in India. The MOEF has introduced the groups. Environmental education and donor Environmental Orientation to School activities (including those of the World Bank) Education program to foster this activity. focus on megasystems. Less consideration is Nevertheless, teacher training institutions do given to environmental awareness and not incorporate environmental concepts into changing the behavior of end users. Even less teacher preparation and there is little incentive activity is focused on small-scale, village for teachers to pursue training on their own. development issues. For example, a number TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ISSUES of programs focus on human resource development in environmental impact assessment and natural resource accounting, but there is almost nothing in the way of 8.71 There is a shortage of training local activists in small-scale, end-user environmental education materials for India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs. and Priorities teachers, teacher trainers, and community or personal benefits associated with that educators, including curriculum, video, behavior. Successful environmental education computer, and demonstration technology. In efforts require that technologies, skills, and addition, the materials that are available often actions be shown to directly benefit the fail to bridge language and cultural barriers. participants. Some of the more effective uses of computer technology observed for this report included Funding shortfalls the Center for Environment Education's 8.74 Public awareness efforts have had Environmental Education Bank, where minimal support from the government and teachers and teacher trainers have access to from donor agencies. Increased funding of a computer data base of lessons and community-level organizations could both environmental education materials. Using build public awareness and tie funding to materials gathered from the data base, specific objectives. Comprehensive national participants develop training programs that campaigns also should be considered. are tailored to local needs. 8.75 Little support has been given to Standardized training inienvironmentalntegrating environmental issues into formal education. Although this has been identified 8.72 Training in environmental impact as a priority, no plan has been developed to assessment, natural resource accounting, and achieve this goal. In other countries environmental auditing is not standardized. environmental issues have been integrated into A comprehensive, standardized accreditation all levels of the educational system. In Itidia, program should be developed for the various however, environmental issues have been institutes, professional organizations, and integrated into the national learning objectives NGOs that provide training in these areas. and some curriculum material at the primary Expanding human resource development and secondary levels, but are almost activities in this area will enhance India's nonexistent at the higher secondary and ability to monitor pollution and natural university levels. resources, as well as encourage businesses to adopt cost-saving conservation practices. RECOMMENDATIONS ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ISSUES 8.76 Some of the following recom- mendations for funding and priority Improving the structure of financial programming in the environmental education incentives and training sector expand on ideas discussed 8.73 Many environmental educatioin in the EAP; others are new. programs concentrate on raising awareness Policy Recommendations of and concern for the environment in the hope that, once informed, people will make sound 8.77 The government should establish decisions. But economic forces and survival a national task force on environmental needs often dictate day-to-day lifestyle education to integrate environmental education choices. People seldom choose to live an eco - into formal education at all levels. The task friendly lifestyle if there are no cost savings force could include members of various 25 0 . Environmental Education and Training ministries involved in environmental education in conservation activities. These NGOs often (the Ministries of Environment and Forests, are in touch with local needs, languages, and Human Resource Development, Information cultures. It is essential that training be and Broadcasting, and Science and developed that adapts environmental education Technology, and the Department of Personnel) to local conditions. Training programs should and representatives from NGOs and the provide a range of options so that local citizens Centers for Environment Education. The task can select actions that are most appropriate force could oversee teacher training, program to local conditions. development and funding, and technology and curriculum~ ~ deeopet Inadton. oa Develop an environmental education extension curriculum development. In addition, local entities at the state and district levels could program assist with the development and 8.80 The environmental education implementation of programs. training activities that are being conducted Institutional Recommendations in various parts of the country are not coordinated and are not reaching the entire Establish regional centers for training in population. An environmental extension environmental management program should link local educational institutions (such as universities) with local 8.78 The government should establish NGOs. This would allow an exchange where regional centers for specialized training in research information could be applied to local environmental impact assessment, environ- problems. mental auditing, and natural resource accounting, including establishment of 8.81 The extension program could also standardized procedures and evaluation and include: assessment strategies. A comprehensive El Technology infrastructure. Training national program for training in these areas, institutions like the Center for involving the National Environmental Environment Education in Ahmedabad Engineering Research Institute, the Tata and the CPR Environmental Education Energy Research Institute, the Wildlife Center in Madras are using advanced Institute of India, the Indian Institute of Forest technology (including video and Management, the Indian Council of Forestry computer databanks) to impart Research and Training, the Indira Gandhi curriculum and training materials to National Forest Academy, and the Center for teachers, NGOs, industry professionals, Environment Education, could present a and others. A nationwide network standardized certification of training that linking these institutions could enhance would greatly enhance human resource the capacity of local organizations to use capacity for conducting environmental impact state-of-the-art training materials. assessment and natural resource accounting. LI Training capacity. Training centers such Develop tools for local awareness and ateetroEvrnetdcto adaptation of environmentally sound as the Center for Environment Education adaptate ioneofsenironment and the CPR Environmental Education technologies Center, which train primary and 8.79 Many NGOs in India have local secondary teachers, NGOs and some constituencies who could become involved industry professionals, should be *5 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities expanded. The Center for Environment LO Generate feedback regarding affore- Education already has started expanding station and survival of plants. its operations through six outreach LI Bolster monitoring efforts, including centers. These centers need to be analysis of ambient air and water quality. increased beyond the regional level to include state and district-level centers. 8.83 Training of the Vahinis has been minimal, consisting of disseminating water LI Funding. According to many NGOs, the tetn ist wnydsrcs amount of capital investment needed to generate a local environmental action 8.84 More extensive training should be project is very small (as little as $300). organized by the district collector with the Small amounts of funding can leverage help of the regional office of the MOEF, the tremendous human capital if projects, district forest officer, the State Pollution design, and implementation are Control Board, and local NGOs. Training generated by the local community. would involve: Technical and scientific recommendations oI General information about environ- mental pollution and -methods of Develop a training program for the controlling pollution. Paryavaran Vahini LI Information about the 1986 Environment 8.82 The Paryavaran Vahini framework Act and other relevant environmental (the local, constituent-based watchdog gtoups acts. responsible for oversight and action on environmental issues) for the participation of LI Local environmental awareness local constituents in environmental decision- programs in districts, run by NGOs or making, dissemination of locally relevant district administration. environmental information, and the protection LI Procedures for reporting environmental of environmental resources was launched in violations or acts of environmental 1993. Members of the vahini are local degradation. representatives, either individuals or NGOs, who are familiar with local environmental LI Methods of gathering input from local issues. The groups meet once a month and community members. report to the local district collector, who in Provide technical trainingfor government and turn reports to the regional office of the MOEF ide managers and the State Pollution Control Boards. The Industry managers scheme is designed to: 8.85 Municipal and industrial managers play a critical role in environmental O Create envlironmental awareness an decisionmaking. Training programs that demonstrate cost-saving techniques for L Report on illegal acts pertaining to pollution prevention and methods of forests, wildlife, pollution, environ- integrating environmental planning into mental degradation, and cruelty to overall management strategies have proven animals. much more effective than end-of-the-pipe 25- Environmental Education and Training approaches to control pollution. These in having endowments for either regions or programs should be expanded. language groups. Endowments for environmental education could support a mix Economic and financial recommendations of stde ofciia. sus nldn Of studies of critical issues, including Assess the costs and benefits of end-user development of village centers for technology, conservation education sponsorship of networks for environmental education, and support for projects with 8.86 Assessing the costs and benefits potential for widespread adoption. of end-user conservation education activities in urban areas could determine the potential 8.88 Such endowments could be funded of small solutions to big problems. These jointly by the Government of India, regional activities could reduce the need for or strain governments, and private philanthropists. They on such megaprojects as hydroelectric dams, might develop techniques for making mini- power plants, and municipal landfills. loans or grants similar to the extensions of credit provided by the Grameen Bank of Establish an endowment for environmentaly Bangladesh. Grants are needed to support education and action innovative projects and to provide 8.87 There would be some advantage opportunities for others to learn from them. cw India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Category: CPCB Programs under Environmental Research Government Objectives/Programs: Biological Monitoring and Assessment of Pollution (BIOMAP); Development of Methodology for Toxicity Testing; Studies on the Correlation of TOC and COD / BOD; Testing of Microbial Mixed Seed Culture in BOD Determination; Analytical Quality Control Exercise (AQC/Water); MicrobiologicalAssessment ofRiver Yamuna; Bench Scale Modelfor Treatment of Textile Waste; Treatability Studies of Drain Effluents Under Yamuna Action Plan; Sampling and Analysis of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air; Standardization of Methodfor Analysis ofAbsorbable Organic Halide; Standardization of Method for Pesticide Analysis; Wind Profile Studies; "SODAR " (Sound Detection and Ranging) Inversion Studies. Category: Environmental Training/Management Government Objectives/Programs: Consent management, monitoring of effluents and emissions, use of scientific equipment, laboratory development, handling and interpretation of analytical data, environmental audit, etc. Program for training of trainers at all levels. Training facilities for civil servants, especially those belonging to the Central and All-India Services, through the environmental training activities of their induction institutions. Environmental training programs for students and the general public, especially in townships located in or around areas of special ecological significance. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Industrial Pollution Control with National Germany US$3.43 M equiv. Productivity Council US$5.47 M equiv. US$5.47 M equiv. Forestry Education/Training British-ODA US$ 6.25 M equiv. Center for Science and Technology Netherlands US$0.43 M equiv. Socio-Ecological Transformation - Netherlands US$0.98 M equiv. Pollution Perception Studies Netherlands US$1.11 Mequiv. UASB Training Facilities Netherlands US$2.47 M equiv. Environmental Master Plan Study Denmark US$ 4.25 M equiv. Environment Training Institutes Denmark US$1.2 M equiv. Environment Quality Management, Bihar UNIDO US$0.01 M equiv. Forestry Research Education and Extension World Bank US$47.0 M equiv. 2 4. Environmental Education and Training Category: Environmental Education and Capacity Building Programs. Government Objectives/Programs: Structures to strengthen training, research and education activities through existing government and nongovernment organizations and institutions at different levels; assistance to NGOs to set up district and village training centers; a scheme to allow practitioners, activists, professionals, civil servants and others to participate in regeneration activities; regular and sustained environment education programs for professionals, decision makers and local self-government authorities in EIA; new environmental courses, interdisciplinary in nature and accessible to students of all backgrounds; development of a wide range of environmental education materials for mass distribution including modules and workbooks for teachers, low-cost environmental kits for students and audiovisual materials; environmental education programs for the newly constituted Paryavaran Vahini (voluntary environmental task force); capacity building for collection and analysis of environmental statistics for natural resource accounting. Environmental education of localpolicy makers, voluntary agencies, technical departments of state governments and local authorities in urban environmental issues. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Capacity Building EIA & Environment Legislation ADB US$0.5 M India-Canada Environment Facility Canada US$ 97.9 M equiv. Upgradation of Environment Research Germany US$ 6.86 M equiv. Facilities, Madras Training in Env. Services and Technologies USAID US$ 25 M Center for Science and Technology Netherlands US$0.43 M equiv. Ecoemployment Netherlands US$0.98 M equiv. EIA Program Netherlands US$0.17 M equiv. US$1.7 M equiv. GIS Karnataka Netherlands US$1.14 M equiv. GIS Andhra Pradesh Netherlands US$0. 10 M equiv. Environment Action Programs UNDP US$0.39 M Forestry Research Education and Extension World Bank US$ 47.0 M equiv. Environmental Education Forestry Education / Training British-ODA US$ 6.25 M equiv. cX India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities World Bank Support Project: Forestry Research Education and Extension Fiscal Year: 1994 Loan/Credit Amount: US$47.0 M (equivalent) Description: To be implemented over five-years and cover the following: (a) Research management based on the development of the Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) to improve the management and coordination of forestry research and extension, through staff training, studies and consultancies to develop priority setting methodologies and a management information system, and provision of a headquarters, building and equipment. (b) Researchprogram support providing necessary infrastructure, equipment and operating expenses for selected research programs in ICFRE institutes, the establishment of a research grant fund to commission research by public and private sector agencies, measures to improve the quality of planting stock, human resource development through staff training, scientific review of institutes and programs, and the improvement of library and information systems and statistical services. (c) Forestry education involving the development and validation of forestry curricula in formal education through provision of funds for review and revision work, and development of the Deemed Forestry University at Dehra Dun. (d) Forestry policy and preparation to strengthen capabilities within the MOEF for the analysis of forest policies and preparation of future forestry proj ects through staff training and provision for studies and consultancies. (e) Conservation of biodiversity to support development of programs for ecodevelopment around two protected areas, by involving communities in the planning and implementation of programs for creation of alternative natural or social resources or for income generation. Concurrent improvements in the planning and management of the protected areas would also be financed. The project would support research and monitoring and evaluation programs. MMI ,...M; Environmental Education and Training ar Project: Technician Education Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: US$25.0 million / US$235.00 million (equivalent) Description: The goal of the project is to support the National Policy on Education and more specifically, the Ten-Year Technician Education Investment Program (1990-99). Three major objectives are: (a) Capacity expansion to be achieved by expanding and diversifying programs in about 50 percent of the polytechnic system or about 230 new and existing institutions, so that they can undertake courses in new and emerging technologies, conventional and advanced technician engineering, and continuing education diploma courses. (b) Quality improvement would be achieved through modernizing the equipment and facilities of polytechnics, expanding teacher training by reorganizing the Technical Teacher Training Institutes and undertaking curriculum development activities through the respective State Boards of Technical Education in each of the eight states. (c) Efficiency improvement would result from strengthening the Bureau of Technical Education, granting academic autonomy to selected polytechnics, undertaking industry-institute programs in each polytechnic, encouraging internal revenue generation in polytechnics and establishing equipment and facility maintenance systems. Project: Second Technician Education Fiscal Year: 1991 Loan/Credit Amount: US$ 307.0 million (equivalent) Description: The project goal is to support the National Policy on Education and more specifically, the Ten-Year Technician Education Investment Program (1990-99). The project is a second phase of IDA's commitment to support the national polytechnic system and the Ten-Year Investment Program which seeks its modernization and the reform of the policies which constrain the system's flexibility to respond to the changing needs of industry and society. The project would be identical to the First Technician Education Project and would have the same major objectives. . 27 @If z India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project: Seventh Population Project Fiscal Year: 1993 Loan/Credit Amount: US$10.0 M/US$86.7 M (equivalent) Description: The project would support the government's objective of improving the efficiency and effectiveness by which family welfare (family planning and maternal and child health) services are delivered in the states of Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab. The project would comprise: (a) Increasing the supply of services through upgrading and expanding the number of primary health centers and subeenters. (b) Increasing demand through the expansion of the social marketing of contraceptives, increasing the involvement of private voluntary organizations and strengthening the information, education and communication efforts of each state. (c) Improving the quality offamily welfare services by upgrading the training of all levels of family welfare workers. (d) Improving management through the strengthening of each state's Directorate of Health and Family Welfare, upgrading of management information and evaluation and personnel management systems and expanding demographic and operational research directly relevant to program management and implementation. Project: National Family Welfare Training and Systems Development Fiscal Year: 1989 Loan/Credit Amount: US$11.3 M/US$ 113.3 M (equivalent) Description: The project would support the government's goal of improving the efficiency and effectiveness by which family welfare services are delivered in the states. The project would be located in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Its specific objectives would be to improve the efficiency of the family welfare staff training system; expand existing training capacity to meet staffing requirements; improve the quality of training being imparted; and enhance the service delivery system in which the trained worker will operate. 258. Environmental Education and Training Other Donor Support Project: Environmental Impact Assessment & Environmental Legislation (National Project) Donor: Asian Development Bank Loan/Credit Amount: US$500,000 Description: The technical assistance will assist the government to strengthen its overall capability to implement national environmental planning and management by improving its environmental impact assessment program, applications of regional environmental planning, as well as environmental law research and education. The TA will support an intensive effort by the government for institutional and human resource capacity building primarily by refining of environmental planning and EIA methodologies and procedures as well as related regulations to improve efficiency and training of an adequate number of administrators and environmental specialists through out the country. Project: India-Canada Environment Facility Donor: Canada Loan/Credit Amount: C$72.0 M (US$97.9 M equivalent) Description: Generated by the sale of Canadian commodities in India, the facility seeks to strengthen the environmental research and technology capabilities of key environmental organizations. Project: Assistance for Setting Up Pollution Control Boards (CPCB) Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: Phase I - DM 6.0 M (US$8.23 M equivalent) Phase II - DM 6.0 M (US$8.23 M equivalent) Phase III - DM 5.5 M (US$7.54 M equivalent) Description: It is the responsibility of the Central Pollution Control Board, and in the states of the respective State Boards, to lay down the norms and limits of environmental pollution. The aim of the project is to promote the Central Board and the participating State Boards to a position, so as to enable them to discharge the tasks of checking and evaluating the environmental conditions and developing strategies to improve the quality of the environment. * ~ F India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project: Industrial Pollution Control with the National Productivity Council (NPC) Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: Phase I - DM 2.5 M (US$3.43 M equivalent) Phase II - DM 4.0 M (US$5.47 M equivalent) Phase III - DM 4.0 M (US$5.47 M equivalent) Description: The project aims to set up a pollution control cell across the country with the National Productivity Council, New Delhi, to advise the small and medium industries in India in the field of ecological control (purification of sewage/waste water, preventing of air pollution, waste management). A training component for environmental control engineers to develop competence in the field is also envisaged, with training imparted in Madras. Project: Upgradation of Environmental Research Facilities at the Center for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Madras Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: DM 5.0 M (US$6.86 M equivalent) Description: Broad objectives of this technical cooperation are: (a) To develop a strong base for socially relevant advance-level research in environmental sciences and technology. (b) To develop facilities and serve as a data center for storage, retrieval and dissemination of environmental information and help users in meeting their information needs. (c) To enhance the capability to do relevant applied research and consultancy by developing linkages with other educational and research institutions, industries and user agencies in this area, and to thereby increase the cost-effectiveness of investment. Project: Forestry Education and Training Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £3,864,000 (US$6.25 M equivalent) Description: To effect reform of post-entry training for the Indian Forest Service and State Forest Service through revision of curriculum at IFS and SFS colleges and implementation of a formal system of staff training and development. 26(01 Environmental Education and Training Project: Trade in Environmental Services and Technologies Donor: USAID Loan/Credit Amount: US$25 M Description: Help potential Indian business partners access information on more efficient environmental technologies and services available in the U.S., organize trade missions to the U.S. to review the range of technology/service options, provide technical collaboration to select appropriate technology/services, and provide financing to support business transactions and joint ventures with U.S. companies. Project: CSE - Center for Science and Technology Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$438 000 equivalent Description: Support NGOs to develop educational publications and general documentation on environmental issues, train journalists in reporting on environmental issues, organize seminars and coordinate South Asiatic NGO-network as a post-UNCED activity. Project: Socio-Ecological Transformation Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$260,000 equivalent Description: NGO support in actions to achieve socioecological sustainability in the region by organizing awareness dialogues between different user groups of natural resources in the rural sphere. Approach based on analysis of processes of sociocultural change affecting local ecology. Project: Eco-Employment Program (Andhra Pradesh) Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$983,000 equivalent Description: NGO support to projectwide strengthening of environmental awareness and support of the rural poor in the Anantapur district, with the aim of mitigating environmental degradation in a sustainable way. Project: Pollution Perception Studies Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$1,110,000 equivalent 261 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Description: The Dutch Institute for Envirbnmental Studies will cooperate with a number of institutes and universities in selected states in India to strengthen sociological research on pollution awareness. Project: Indo-Dutch EI[A Program Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: Phase I -US$175,000 equivalent Phase II- US$1,750,000 equivalent Description: Phase I - Organization of fifteen workshops and three high level seminars on environmental impact assessment (EIA) in water resources, land use planning and industrial sittings, ports and harbors. Phase II - Activities to institutionalize EIA training in three major Indian technical institutes in cooperation with Ministry of Environment and Forests; potential selection: IIT Bombay, NEERI, ASCI-Hyderabad. Project: GIS Karnataka Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$1,145,000 equivalent Description: Support in development of data base on natural resources to be made available via GIS on district level for planning purposes in general and EIA. studies in particular. Project: GIS Andhra Pradesh Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$106,000 equivalent Description: Institutional strengthening of the Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Applications Center in Hyderabad by the International Training Center for Remote Sensing Techniques in Enschede, Netherlands. Project: UASB Training Facilities. Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$2,470,000 equivalent Description: Creation of training facilities aimed at knowledge transfer and research on wastewater treatment, specifically UASB technology and related environmental engineering topics. 262_ Environmental Education and Training Project: Environmental Master Plan Study Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 27.66 M (US$4.25 M equivalent) Description: The project aims at: (a) Development of methodologies for integrated environmental management in Dakshina Kannada District and preparation of environmental management systems and procedures for implementation. (b) An environment management plan up to year 2002 for the district, including action plans for involved agencies and institutions at the district and state level to be ready for implementation. (c) Increased economic, political and institutional capacities of agencies and other involved institutes at the district and state level for integrated environmental management planning and implementation. Project: Environmental Training Institutes Donor: Denmark Loan/Credit Amount: DK 7.87 M (US$1.2 M equivalent) Description: Establish two training institutes, in Kamataka State Pollution Control Board and Tamil Nadu State Pollution Control Board, with a view to impart need based pollution control and prevention-related training to staff of the two pollution control boards and also to officers and staff of the municipalities, industries and NGO organizations. The project also has components on training of trainers and actual training based on the developed packages/modules. Project: Environmental Action Programs Donor: UNDP Loan/Credit Amount: US$390,000 Description: The project profiles technical assistance and investment proposals in the identified areas such as forestry, energy, institutional strengthening, human resources development, clean technologies, improved management of water quality, wetlands and environmental impact assessment as vital inputs for the country's preparation for seeking assistance from IDA and other donors. . 263 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Project: Master Plan for Environmental Quality Management for Dhanbad-Bokaro (Bihar) Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$10,000 Description: To devise an integrated areawide environmental quality management master plan for the region, adaptable by other states. 264. Chapter 9 Alternative Energy Plan g & JIndia's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities All@:EI7 1g Z egy I2llSIS Alternative Energy 9.01 For the past decade, develop- relative to conventional forms and the short ment of alternate energy sources has been part gestation period for developing small-scale, of the Government of India's strategy for cost-effective renewable schemes have helped expanding the country's energy supply and attract investor interest in renewables. meeting the decentralized energy needs of the Recognizing the opportunities afforded by rural sector. Its renewable energy program private sector participation, the MNES revised continues to be one of the largest among its Eighth Plan priorities in July 1993 by giving developing countries and is administered through the Ministry of Nonconventional energy technologies for power generation. Energy Sources (MNES). In addition, the Accordingly, the MNES raised plan targets Indian Renewable Energy Development for power generation from 600 MW to 2-000 Agency Limited was established to promote M t and inace rivte ecto inestent inthe MW; this involved raising wind power targets and fisnance prvate sector Investments in the from 100 MW to 500 MW, and small hydro sector. from 200 MW to 600 MW, among others. 9.02 The government estimates that Evidence of the initial success enjoyed by this 50,000 MW of power capacity can be revised plan is observed in the wind generation harnessed from wind, small hydro, co-gen and program. As of the end of March 1993, bio-energy sources alone. This is equivalent installed capacity in wind generation was 54 to power capacity additions required by the MW. By October 1994 it reached 160 MW, country for the coming five years. However, of which around 120 MW was being operated it was only recently that the government on a commercial basis by the private sector. revised its development strategy for the sector in order to accelerate the development of this 9.03 More extensive resource mapping sizable energy potential and assist in mitigating and surveys are likely to lead to identification the acute shortfall in power supply. The of greater potential for alternate sources of opening up in 1991 of India's power sector power including solar-based energy. But the to private investors together with the incentives sector's contribution to energy supply, while offered to developers of renewable energy growing, is expected to remain a small -fraction systems have led to a surge of interest in the of the total requirements of India until cost sector. Moreover, heightened awareness of recovery of investments in the sector becomes the environmental benefits of renewable energy more widespread and sustainable. 266. Alternative Energy Plan The Environment Action Program 9.04 The EAP cites a significant EAP. These include: potential for renewable energy utilization and energy conservation as alternative strategies mo Improved demonstration, research, for sustainable development of the energy monitoring anddisseminationprograms sector. The major constraints identified in of renewable energy programs. the EAP for implementing policies in these 1 Facilitating windpower generation areas are: through formulation of policy and OI Availability of technology. incentives, organizational strengthening, and indigenization of wind generation OI Availability of capital. systems. OJ Institutional constraints. Ol Design and management of decentralized energy schemes. Ol Pricing constraints. Pn Promoting biogas utilization by 9.05 The EAP views an alternate energy developing new strategies for program strategy against a backdrop of specific implementation and system delivery. concerns currently facing India's energy C Resource accounting for noncommercial sector-namely, unsustainable financial losses among the State Electricity Boards; irrational energy sources i rural areas. electricity prices; scarcity of capital resources OI Product design and market research for in the public sector, and continued dominance improved cook stoves and solar hot water of the public sector in energy development, systems. which prevents the sector from benefiting from financing and innovative managerial skills ° Developing power capacity from small offered by the private sector. hydroelectric projects. 9.06 The EAP recommends an GOI PROGRAMS examination of the lifestyles and resource needs of India's large population as the basis for the development of a long-term energy in India's Envirolnent Action Program focus policy and framework for evaluating policy ondsEning t irogram ffus instruments. The EAP also recommends an on strengthening programs for rapid diffusion, assessment of the impact of energy pricing demonstration research and monitoring of new on energy efficiency, energy supply, and and alternative sources of energy as well as energy mix. A host of other studies and enhancement of conventional energy sources institution-building activities to promote by improving efficiency of energy production, renewable energy are also suggested in the conversion and use, managing energy demand, .267 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities and encouraging technology/process changes. hydel power plants. Part I: Conventional Energy LO Building natural resources accounting system for commercial fuels. 9.08 Coal sector Part II: Renewable/Nonconventional Oi Projects for coal benefication. Eeg ore Energy Sources LO Projects for coal bed methane. Rural Energy Group I O Projects for coal gasification. 9.12 National Project on Biogas LI Project to tackle coal mine fires. Development (NPBD) 9.09 Power sector LI Research and development on biogas to LI Reduction of transmission and improve the efficiency of methane pro- distribution losses in power sector. duction, enhance biodegradability of cattle dung, reduce the cost of biogas LI Demonstration projects on energy- plants and diversify utilization of efficient lighting. digested slurry. Li Evaluation studies on performance of L Formulation of an alternative strategy pollution control measures in thermal for biogas implementation. power stations. Li Designing effective biogas technology O Assessment studies of ongoing R&M, delivery systems. uprating and life extension schemes. LI Community, institutional and night soil 9.10 Transport sector based biogas plants program. LI Programs for shifting from road to rail 9.13 National Program on Improved in freight movement. Chulha (NPIC) LI Promotion of mass rapid transport L Evolving design criteria for improved systems. cookstoves, capacity building for Li Conversion of two-stroke to four-stroke environment impact assessments of engines in two-wheeler and three- energy use in rural areas. wheeler vehicles. 9.14 Biomass Program LI Introduction of compressed natural gas. Li Biomass production and improvement program includes R&D activities to produce improved quality planting L Programs for promotion of energy materials, both seed and seedling, on conservation in industries. a mass scale, with a potential of LI Capacity building for environmental producing 40 tons per hectare per year. impact assessments and for thermal and L Programn of converting agriculture waste 268. Alternative Energy Plan to fertilizer. through thermochemical process. 9.15 Energy Plantation Program 9.21 Solar Thermal Energy for Rural LO To test the performance of fast-growing Applications fuelwood species and to screen the most O Using solar energy to supplement the potential species for plantation under a energy requirements for agricultural given set of agroclimatic conditions. activities, household activities and health 9.16 National Program on Briquetting care requirements. Technology O Product development and market O To ensure proper and efficient utilization research for solar hot water systems. of agroresidues and agroindustrial Q Resource accounting systems for non- byproducts/wastes. commercial energy sources in rural areas. 9.17 Urjagram Program 9.22 Human and Animal Energy LO To create model villages where most of Program the energy needs can be met using LI To develop, demonstrate and popularize renewable energy systems. improved carts, cycle rickshaws, trailers Rural Energy Group II and efficient irrigation devices, agricultural tools, and so on. 9.18 Solar Photovoltaic Program LI To convert sunlight directly into Power Group electricity in an environmentally clean 9.23 Wind Power Program and reliable manner. and reliableOmanner.El Catalyzing commercialization of wind Oi Solar photovoltaic water pumping for power generation on a large scale. agriculture and related uses. LI Collection of wind data, wind mapping 9.19 Program on Wind Energy and wind monitoring. Conversion Systems for Rural and Remote Q Research for indigenization of wind Areas electric generation system. O To promote the development of O Formulating policy measures and technologies for harnessing the vast wind incentives to facilitate wind power energy potential for water pumping, generation. wind battery charging and stand alone wind power generation. 9.24 Small Hydro Program 9.20 Biomass Gasification Program O Catalyzing development of micro, mini and small hydro schemes of up to 3 MW 0 Promote devices to convert bionmass such capacity for power generation from the as wood wastes, agricultural and agro- otherwise dissipating energy in flowing industrial residues to combustible gas waters at canal falls, irrigation dams, . 269 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities runoff river and natural falls in the hilly organizations. areas. 9.28 Solar Thermal Technologies and O Development of power capacity from Applications small hydel projects. O Solar cookers, solar distillation (to 9.25 Solar Thermal Power Generation purify brackish/dirty water into distilled water by thermal evaporation O p Setting up MW-scale thermal power process), solar refrigeration, solar plants including 35 MW facility in thermal pumps, solar passive Raj asthan. architecture. 9.26 Biomass-Based Cogeneration 9.29 Energy Conservation and Effi- LI Initial focus on bagasse-based cogener- ciency ation in sugar mills. LI Formulation of effective strategies to 9.27 Grid Interactive Solar Photo- mitigate short supply of commercial voltaic Power Program energy and oil, and to minimize wasteful use of energy and in all sectors of LI Setting up of a MW-scale electricity economy. power generation program through grid interactive solar photovoltaic projects. New Technology Group Urban/lIndustrial Group 9.30 Geothermal Energy Alternative Fuels for Surface Transportation 9.28 Urban/Municipal and Industrial Wastes Program LI Technology development; demonstration and field evaluation; conservation of OI Utilization of urban/municipal and petroleum products by the large-scale industrial wastes for production of energy and power through appropriate use of battery-, alcohol-, and compressed conversion technologies (for example natural gas-operated vehicles. biomethanation, densification) in an 9.31 Ocean Energy Program economical and environment-friendly manner. LI Develop technologies on ocean thermal energy conversion, tidal energy and O Development of institutional frame- wave energy for use as alternate sources work at national level and R&D of energy. 270. Alternative Energy Plan Major Issues and Recommendations 9.32 A number of recommendations in opportunities for private sector participation the EAP, including the call for further studies in power, including renewable energy-based on various technologies, have been overtaken systems. by recent developments in the renewable energy sector. As mentioned before, the government 9.34 However, other barriers to com- reoriented its renewable energy program in July mercialization of renewable energy systems 1993,settingasideatechnology-drivenprogram remain. These include factors that are involving myriad R&Dactivitiesanddeploying generally intrinsic to these systems, such as: numerous small-scale rural energy systems that gave little attention to consumer preference and ment sig tal feedback on quality and service. The current thrust is now towards commercialization of O1 Lack of access of renewable energy proven technologies, and priority is being given users to appropriate and affordable to demand-driven programs that will pave entry financing mechanisms. of renewables into the economic mainstream. Specifically, greater emphasis is now placed on O Systems tend to be small-scale in size, commercializing larger-scale alternate energy project sites dispersed and operations systems for power generation, promoting highly dependent on local conditions. private initiatives and investment, reducing subsidy support, and fostering competition in O Systems require greater end-user parti- supply of systems. cipation and, at early stages, greater organizational and technical promotions 9.33 The unavailability and slow effort than conventional energy systems. adoption of state-of-the-art technology is no longer a major barrier to the development of 9.35 Within India, specific institutional renewable energy systems in India. The GOI's and policy constraints continue to impede announcement of a revised industrial policy commercialization of renewables, namely: in September 1991 led to a progressive rl Subsidized energy prices for kerosene lowering of import tariffs and the lifting of and electricity make it difficult for cumbersome licensing procedures for renewable energy schemes to compete technology transfer. This allowed the entry financially, especially in rural and agri- of the latest proven technologies and opened cultural areas where renewable energy the sector to participation of private suppliers options are most often targeted. and manufacturers. The increased competition in supply is expected to result in higher O There is no commercial market base due performance specifications and lower costs. to the traditional focus of suppliers' The lifting of regulatory disincentives to marketing efforts toward government- private investment in the energy sector created administered programs rather than to *271 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities - consumers. build-up. These investors are able to demand suitable arrangements for equipment warranty O The absence of after-sales service results adsse efrac urnes prto in aprolfertionof nn-prforing and system perfSormance guarantees, operation in a proliferation of non-performing and maintenance, and after-sales service. Such systems. delivery and service arrangements help move 9.36 A number of states have issued the technologies into the economic mainstream policies to attract private development of in a significant way. The resulting improved renewable energy schemes, including systems designs and establishment of a service "wheeling and banking" arrangements for infrastructure have enhanced the overall power generated from these schemes. credibility of the sector. However, the growing interest in private development of larger grid-connected 9.39 Reduced subsidy support. In renewable systems requires that basic issues consonance with commercialization of power sales and delivery arrangements to objectives, subsidy support to mature the state grids must now be addressed. technologies should be eliminated. Subsidy Moreover, the impact of tax and other fiscal programs cause producers and investors to incentives would have to be assessed to ensure focus their efforts on serving the requirements that technical quality and performance of the government-administered programs reliability are not overlooked in the rush by rather than establishing their own commercial private investors to take advantage of potential market base. Such subsidies stymie rather financial windfalls from the tax incentives. than promote growth of the sector. 9.40 Establishment of local consult- RECOMMENDATIONS ancy base. The GOI's thrust to commercialize 9.37 To accelerate the development renewable energy systems has led to of the renewable energy sector in India and unprecedented investor interest in the sector. thus increase its contribution to the country's However, the development of investment energy mix and help mitigate, albeit in modest prospects is slowed by the lack of technical terms, carbon and greenhouse gas emissions know-how in the country and limited in the medium term, several areas of policy consultancy base in the sector. Serious and program focus are recommended investors normally engage the services of consultants to prepare the requisite 9.38 Commercialize. The current preinvestment studies; however in India, there policy of the MNES to promote com- is a dearth of expertise in the fields of wind, mercialization of mature technologies should solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy, be continued. The radical departure from past among others. Training and technical efforts to administer through government assistance support is needed for the agencies the deployment of atargeted number development of a wider and stronger of government-specified systems has started consultancy base on alternate energy to yield positive results, particularly in power technologies in India. generation. Allowing the private sector and some state-owned corporations to set up the 9.41 Resource mapping and survey. systems based on their own needs and Investments on renewable energy schemes are specifications has resulted in more capacity generally situated in areas where good wind, 272 Alternative Energy Plan small hydro and solar resources have been established a testing facility for solar indicated through resource surveys or equipment, it is not currently being operated meteorological data tracking performed by the as a service facility. A program should be government or government-supported entities. established to support the creation on a Except for larger-scale investments, the commercial basis, of testing facilities and entrepreneurs do not commission micro-siting promotion of entities qualified to issue studies but instead rely heavily on earlier certifications on design performance, resource surveys. These surveys are normally compliance with reliability standards, and an insufficient basis for system optimization other performance norms that are associated studies. It is therefore important that a program with energy and electronic equipment sales for more extensive and intensive resource and supply. mapping be put in place which will incorporate the use of the latest available technology (e.g., 9.44 R&D activities and improved GIS, satellite data) and tap the services of manufacturing base. It is recommended that international experts (of which there are only R&D activities be limited to moving the a few). These data can then be made available, technologies closer to requirements of the eventually on a commercial basis, to potential market and users, adapting them to local investors. operating conditions and improving manufacturing capabilities. The past tendency 9.42ects.Dhebemonstrciation ao commecialo to reinvent technologies developed to higher projects. The beneficial impact of pilot performance levels abroad should be avoided. projects which demonstrate the commercial Policy and program support can instead application of mature technologies cannot be be given to promoting transfer of understated. In India, operation of renewable- technology and increasing local capacity based generating facilities in suitable resource- to manufacture equipment and rich sites, usually set up by the state as components of alternate energy systems. demonstration projects, has attracted private investments initially to the adjacent sites and 9.45 Export thrust. The projected rise eventually to greenfield sites within the state. in energy demand offers opportunities for GOI and state support for such demonstration economies of scale in the production of projects is considered vital to the development alternate energy systems in India. of the sector, provided they are pursued with Successful demonstration by India of the objective of attracting commercial commercial operation of these systems operation and based on cost-recovery can lead to their adoption by other principles. countries as well. The prospects of exporting these systems from India to 9.43 Establishment oftestingfacilities. other countries are promising. The The development and operation of testing multiplier effect resulting from deployment facilities for the various alternate energy of alternate energy systems in other parts of systems is necessary to meet the demands of Asia and the world can significantly contribute the private sector for reliable and guaranteed to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions performance. Although the MNES has in the longer term. *273 India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Conventional Energy 9.46 India's Environment Action the financial standpoint, lending for retrofitting and maintenance projects should be facilitated. Program (EAP) covers the relevant issues in r' J the energy sector and proposes many solutions MAJOR ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS for alleviating the deleterious effect of energy use on the environment: conservation of 9.48 An alternative energy plan is one natural resources, use of clean coal of the seven priorities noted in the EAP. The technologies, reduction of transmission and main issues facing the energy sector are: distribution losses, promotion of energy efficiency in supply and demand, development LI Absence of an integrated long-term and promotion of renewable energy energy policy. technologies, and retrofitting and moderni- LI Lack of rational pricing for energy. zation of existing power plants. But the EAP does not differentiate among these activities a resing foig ecneufwa in terms of their short-term and long-term impacts, nor does it prioritize the solutions LI Low levels of available energy. in terms of their environmental impacts. LO Increasing energy demand. 9.47 The immediate priority for solving LI Inefficient use. short-term environmental problems is targeted 9.49 The EAP describes two strategies action in coal-based power generation. The to tackle these issues. First, the efficiency of most important technologies for environmental energy production, conversion, and use should protection are coal washeries, retrofitting and be improved; energy demand should be maintenance of existing power plants, managed; and technology and process changes demand-side management, reduced losses in should be encouraged. Second, India should transmission and distribution, and advanced- move toward more environmentally benign technology power generation projects. These energy forms, that is, renewable energy measures must be accompanied by a resources. The priority programs under the strengthening of the environment divisions alternative energy plan were discussed earlier. within the state electricity boards to ensure sustained environmental improvement. In DOMINANCE OF COAL addition, fiscal policies that encourage the efficient use and conservation of natural 9.50 The government has decided to resources are required. Measures to raise the use coal as the main source of fuel for the standard of indigenous coal also are needed; power sector for the foreseeable future, based these could take the form of reduced tariffs on the large quantity of coal reserves in India. on imported coal and the improvement of coal Thus coal will continue to be the main source transportation infrastructure to enable the of pollution in the power sector, and short- supply of imported, good-quality coal. From term efforts to alleviate environmental 274. Alternative Energy Plan pollution should focus on this source. The levy on water consumption is confined mainly development rate of renewable energy will to thermal power plants and other large-scale have little effect on the magnitude of pollution process industries. The water levy is the main and related environmental impacts imposed source of revenue for the State Pollution by the use of coal. The suggested mitigation Control Boards in India; the amount collected measures-fiscal, administrative, or physical- during 1991-92 inthirty-one states was Rs.76.3 will not altogether prevent these impacts, but million (about $2.5 million). It seems, they will moderate them to some extent. however, that the costs of collection exceeded the amount collected. No further changes in 9.51 Generation capacity by the end Of fiscal measures are suggested by the EAP. the Seventh Five-Year Plan was 69,100 megawatts (MW), of which coal-fired thermal 9.54 The current fiscal measures have power plants accounted for about 46,000 MW. little effect on the power sector. The fact is Power generation capacity is expected to that coal-fired thermal power plants are increase by 30,500 MW during the Eighth responsible for a massive abuse of natural Five-Year Plan, with coal accounting for resources (land, water, and air). The main 17,000 MW of this jump. Coal-fired thermal reason is that the use of these resources is power plant capacity is expected to increase not charged at real value, and no incentives by 81,000 MW by 2010, to a total of 144,000 are offered for their conservation. While the MW. power sector is not in a position to pay the actual costs of natural resources, it can be 9.52 By comparison, renewable power encouraged to conserve them. generation capacity is estimated at 180 MW (mainly hydropower and wind), and the total 9 plWater. Water is used by thermal installed capacity by 2010 is expected to be power plants in two forms - as makeup water no more than 2,000 to 3,000 MW. and in openucooling systems. While arlevyiis Furthermore, the ultimate potential of paidfor makeup water, noachargesare imposed renewable energy for India is estimated at on the use of marine coastal water or inland 50,000 MW-well below the coal-fired watermas sourcesmof coolinglwater. Asaresult capacity in 2010. Thus renewable energy will thermal and chemical pollution are degrading not replace coal-based power generation in water quality in these areas. The water levy the foreseeable future. does not deter coal-fired thermal power plants from using large volumes of makeup water USING FISCAL INCENTIVES TO IMPROVE for ash disposal. Few efforts have been made RESOURCE USE to recycle ash disposal water, and it contaminates surface and underground water 9.53 Fiscal incentives and tax-based resources that are used for drinking and environmental protection measures are irrigation. The volume of makeup water and outlined as part of the strategy in the LAP. open-cycle cooling water required for efficient Current fiscal incentives are in the form of operation can be accurately determined for corporatetaxexemptionsfornaturalresource each thermal power plant. Thus fiscal conservation and accelerated depreciation for incentives can be applied if conservation is energy-conserving devices. The tax-based practiced, and higher levies or other charges measures emphasize water conservation. A can be imposed if these limits are exceeded. .275 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities . 9.56 Land. Land for the power sector for improving fuel efficiency, but it may be is heavily subsidized. Vast areas are used for a bit premature. Using the same logic applied ash disposal in most of the coal-fired thermal to water and land, tax incentives and penalties power plants, creating a major source of air can be imposed to encourage fuel efficiency. and underground water pollution. Resettlement The success of using a carbon tax for coal- issues are usually associated with land fired thermal power plants will depend on the acquisition for these ash ponds. In addition, availability of coal of consistently high quality. land reclamation efforts are insufficient and Hopefully this will be the outcome of the coal delayed. As with water, land allocations for sector rehabilitation project. ash disposal and a timely land reclamation program can be predetermined for each thermal ENVIRONMENTAL MITIGATION power plant. Real land prices can be charged for excessive land use and incentives paid for 9.58 The EAP describes several reclaimed land, returned over time, to public programs to address the short-term environmental problems arising from conventional energy. This section prioritizes 9.57 Air. A carbon tax is the best tool these solutions based on their environmental Table 9.1. Carbon Dioxide Emission Reduction Potential for Conventional Pulverized Coal Plants (Millions of tons a year) 1997 2010 Technology No Change Reduction Reduction Net No Change Reduction Reduction Net in Techno- due to as percent Emissions in Techno- due to as percent Emissions logy change in logy change in Techno- Techno- logy logy Coal washeries 19 6.3 37 5.4 Restructuring 15 4.9 and moderni- zation Demand-side 85 12.4 management Reduction of 14 4.6 25.5 3.7 transmission and distribution losses Advanced 12.5 1.8 technology Improved 30 4.4 pulverized coal plants . Total 303 48 15.8 255 684 190 27.8 494 Source: Environment Duration, Asia Technical Department (ASTEN), World Bank, Washington D.C. 1995 276 Alternative Energy Plan impact. It also projects what can be achieved could double. The equivalent annual by 1997 and 2010 using these solutions. generation from washed coal will be 320 Assuming, for simplicity, that the level of million megawatts, which represents an annual greenhouse gas emissions is associated with carbon dioxide savings of 37 million tons by other forms of pollution, environmental 2010. activities can be prioritized by their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Table 9.61 Modernization. The Eighth Five- 9.1). Reduced emissions are associated with Year Plan estimated that restructuring and more efficient operation, which eventually modernization of thermal power plants during leads to a reduction in investment. The World the plan period would improve plant efficiency Bank estimates that improvements in the and capacity. The programs also included efficiency of system operation could lower retrofitting of the plants to upgrade their sector investment requirements by about 10 environmental performance. These efforts percent through the Eighth and Ninth Five- would have realized a savings of 3,150 Year Plans. megawatts equivalent generation capacity, or about 5 percent of total generation capacity, 9.59 The specific measures that should by the end of the plan period. These efficiency be undertaken to reduce pollution from coal- plans, however, never fully materialized. based power generation are listed below. 9.62 Discussions with the Power 9.60 Coal quality. Higher and more Fiac Corporaion o ia tevealed consistent coal quality will increase generation plans forrerutin and m ernizat efiiec adpatailbiy. Enry plans for restructuring and modernization of efficiency and plant availablity. Energy conservation resulting from reduced twenty-one plants were not moving ahead because of the financial difficulties facing the transportatio load will bean additiona state electricity boards. The electricity boards benefit. Today, about 70 percent of India's cside .th powrd coprtrion' raesv steam coal is transported 500 kilometers or high- sne reructrinnd ration more. The action plan found that coal . . plan may range between $ 10 millilon and $50 washeries should be located nearer to thermal planm rne betw en $ ontan $50 millilon. The investment potential for power plants, which often receive large restructuring and modernization is estimated quantities of extraneous material as a result at more than $500 million. of poor mining methods. State electricity boards are willing to pay a premium for washed 9.63 The carbon dioxide savings coal, or even for coal of consistent quality. potential is estimated as 5 percent of the 63,000 Washed coal reduces carbon dioxide emissions megawatt coal-based generation capacity. It from 0.983 to 0.866 kilograms per kilowatt- could have been 15 million tons (assuming hour. Even a 1 percent improvement in plant 55 percent plant load factor and 0.983 capacity as a result of coal washeries will kilograms of carbon dioxide emissions per improve generation capacity by 600 megawatts kilowatt -hour). The potential investment by the end of the Eighth Five-Year Plan-a savings would have been $3.8 billion. savings of $720 million. Assuming 80 million tons a year of coal-washing capacity, the 9.64 Reduction in transmission and investment potential for coal washeries by distribution losses. Transmission and 2000 is $256 million. By 2010 this potential distribution losses are estimated between 12 .277 >k India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities and 15 percent of net generation. A 3 percent hour; if 16,000 megawatts (20 percent) are savings is a conservative, and achievable, goal. produced in this way, carbon dioxide emissions By the end of the Eighth Five-Year Plan total will fall by 12.5 million tons (assuming a 55 generation capacity was planned to be 100,000 percent plant load factor). The 5 percent megawatts. A 3 percent savings would be efficiency improvement for conventional equivalent to a carbon dioxide reduction of power plants will reduce emissions by 30 14 million tons a year. The potential million tons a year. investment savings would have been $3.6 billion. By 2010, with total generation capacity RECOMMENDATIONS estimated at 180,000 megawatts, a 3 percent savings would be equivalent to a greenhouse 9.67 An assistance program based on gas reduction potential of 25.5 million tons a the Environment Action Program should be year and a potential investment savings of $6.5 developed to help the government implement billion. its energy improvement priorities. As mentioned earlier, the emphasis must be on 9.65 Demand-Side management. The improving the efficiency of conventional World Bank identified twenty-six end-use energy production and use while developing technologies that, if implemented, could have renewable energy resources to achieve long- saved about 20 percent of total demand and term objectives. Emphasis should be placed 30 percent of peak demand. One can assume on policy reforms, institutional strengthening, that these measures will not be applied during technical adaptation, and financial develop- the Eighth Five-Year Plan and that, through ment to create a general framework that 2010, only 10 percent savings will materialize. supports renewable energy efforts. Accordingly, the generation capacity savings potential is 18,000 megawatts and the 9.68 Conventional energy policies equivalent greenhouse gas savings is 85 should encourage efficient use and million tons a year. The investment savings conservation of natural resources, reduce potential is $21 billion. tariffs on imported coal, and provide 9.66 Advanced Technology. Following infrastructure to facilitate inland coal improvements in coal quality and transportation. modernization of all coal-fired thermal power 9.69 To strengthen institutions, the plants, the next logical step would be to government should create environmental introduce advanced power generation management divisions in the state electricity technologies. An additional 81,000 megawatts boards to focus on environment-related of coal-based production is envisaged by 2010. activities and to provide training in India is contemplating the installation of a environmental management and regulatory 30-megawatt pilot project using integrated coal compliance. gasification/combined cycle technology. Assuming that 20 percent of the additional 9.70 Technology improvements must be capacity is using this technology by 2010, adopted by conventional producers, both to overall efficiency will improve by 5 percent. increase efficiency and to decrease Carbon dioxide emissions for this technology environmental impacts (see Table 9.1). In are estimated at 0.82 kilograms per kilowatt- addition, all promising renewable technologies 278. Alternative Energy Plan should be promoted from an early stage of should support lending policies of the Power development. Finance Corporation to facilitate lending for restructuring and modernization projects in 9.71 Finally, to improve the financial the conventional energy-using state electricity capacity of sector institutions the government boards. *279 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities GOI Program Objectives Part I: Conventional Energy Sources Category: Coal Sector Government Objectives/Programs:' Coal beneficiation; coal bed methane; projectsfor coal gasification; projects to tackle coal mine fires. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Coal beneficiation Coal Beneficiation ADB US$100.0 M Greenhouse Gas Pollution Prevention USAID US$19.0 M Coal Mining and Coal Quality Improvement World Bank US$340.0 M Category: Power Sector Government Objectives/Programs: Reduction of transmission and distribution losses in power sector; demonstra- tion projects on energy-efficient lighting; evaluation studies on performance of pollution control measures in thermal power stations; assessment studies of ongoing R&M, uprating and life extension schemes Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding KSEB Systems Enhancement Canada US$46.23 M equiv. Andhra Pradesh Energy Efficiency British-ODA US$69.0 M equiv. HVDC Chandrapur British-ODA US$101.84M equiv. National Capital Power Supply World Bank US$485.0 M Power Utilities Efficiency World Bank US$265.0 M Private Power Utilities (TEC) World Bank US$98.0 M NTPC Power Generation World Bank US$400.0 M Second Maharashtra Power World Bank US$350.0 M Programs identified in India's Environmental Action Plan and the 1993-94 annual report of the Ministry of Nonconventional Energy Sources. 280. Alternative Energy Plan Category: Transport Sector Government Objectives/Programs: Programs for shifting from road to rail in freight movement; promotion of mass rapid transport systems; conversion of two-stroke to four-stroke engines in two- wheeler and three-wheeler vehicles; introduction of compressed natural gas in the transport sector. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Waste Minimization in Automotive Components UNIDO US$43,000 Category: Industrial Sector Government Objectives/Programs: Programs for promotion of energy conservation in industries; capacity build- ing for environmental impact assessment for thermal and hydel power plants. Building natural resources accounting system for commercial fuels. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Industrial Energy Conservation and ADB US$38.0 M Environmental Improvement Industrial Energy Conservation and ADB US$150. 0 M Environmental Improvement II Industrial Energy Efficiency Germany US$10.9 M equiv. Industrial Energy Efficiency British-ODA US$2.42 M equiv. Acceleration of Commercial Energy Research UNIDO US$20.0 M Part II : Renewable/Nonconventional Energy Sources Category: Rural Energy Group I Government Objectives/Programs: Research and development on biogas formulation of alternative strategy for biogas implementation. Designing effective biogas technology delivery sys- tems. Community, institutional and night soil based biogas plants program. Evolving design criteria for improved cookstoves, capacity building for EIA of energy use in rural areas. Biomass production and improvement program in- cludes R&D activities initiated to produce improved quality planting materials both seed and seedling on mass scale with a potential of producing 40 tons per hectare per year. Program of converting agriculture waste to fertilizer. To test the performance offast-growingfuelwood species and to screen the most potential species for plantation under a given set of agroclimatic conditions. *281 India's Environment - Taking StockofPlans, Programs, and Priorities To ensure proper and efficient utilization of agroresidues and agroindustrial by products/wastes. To create model villages where most of the energy needs can be met using renewable energy systems. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) AFPRO / Biogas II Canada US$6.7 M equiv. Biomass Program Biomass Densification Netherlands US$360,000 equiv. National Program on Briquetting Technology Biomass Densification Netherlands US$360,000 equiv. Smokeless Coal Briquettes UNIDO US$49,000 Category: Rural Energy Group II Government Objectives/Programs: Convert sunlight directly into electricity in an environmentally clean and reli- able manner. Solar photovoltaic water pumping for agriculture and related uses. To promote the development of technologies for harnessing the vast wind energy potentialfor water pumping, wind battery charging and standalone wind power generation. Promote devices to convert biomass such as wood wastes, agricultural and agro-industrial residues to combustible gas through thermo- chemical process. Using solar energy to supplement the energy requirements for agricultural activities, household activities and health care requirements. Product development and market research for solar hot water systems. Re- source accounting systems for noncommercial energy sources in rural areas. To develop, demonstrate andpopularize improved carts, cycle rickshaws, trail- ers and efficient irrigation devices, agricultural tools, etc. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Solar Photovoltaic Renewable Resources Development Switzerland US$6.8 M equiv. Renewable Resources Development World Bank US$75 M US$13 M equiv. Category: Power Group Government Objectives/Programs: Catalyzing commercialization of windpower generation on a large scale; wind resource assessment program - collection of wind data, wind mapping and wind 282. Alternative Energy Plan monitoring. Research for indigenization of wind electric generation system. Formulating policy measures and incentives to facilitate wind power genera- tion. Catalyzing development of micro, mini and small hydro schemes of up to 3 MW capacity for power generation from the otherwise dissipating energy in flowing waters at canalfalls, irrigation dams, run-off river and naturalfalls in the hilly areas. Development of power capacity from small hydel projects. Initial focus on bagasse-based cogeneration in sugar mills. Setting up of a MW-scale electricity power generation program through grid interactive so- lar photovoltaic projects. Donor Agency Support Project Donor Amount Wind Power Program Renewable Resources Development Global Environment US$13 M equiv. Facility (GEF) World Bank US$70 M US$15 M equiv. Denmark US$50.0 M equiv. Wind Renewable Energy Development ADB US$60.0 M equiv. Small Hydro Program __ _ ____ Rene%%able Resources Development WNorld Bank UlS$70.0 NI $1 5 N1 equiv. Biomass Based Cogeneration (bagasse) Renewable Energy Development ADB US$50.0 M Greenhouse Gas Pollution Prevention USAID US$19.0 M Category: Urban /Industrial Group Government Objectives/Programs: Utilization of urban/municipal and industrial wastes for production of energy and power through appropriate conversion technologies (for example biomethanation, densification) in an economical and environmentfriendly man- ner. Involves development of institutionalframework at national level; R&D organizations; solar cookers, solar distillation, solar refrigeration, solar thermal pumps, solar passive architecture. Formulation of effective strategies to miti- gate short supply of commercial energy and oil and to minimize wasteful use of energy in all sectors of economy. *283 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Donor Agency Support Project Donor Funding Urban /Municipal and Industrial Wastes Program Renewable Energy Development ADB US$20.0 M Solar Thermal Technologies and Applications Renewable Energy Development ADB US$5.0 M Category: New Technology Group Government Objectives/Programs: Technology development; demonstration andfield evaluation; conservation of petroleum products by the large-scale use of battery-, alcohol-, and compressed natural gas-operated vehicles. Develop technologies on ocean thermal energy conversion, tidal energy and wave energy for use as alternate sources of en- ergy. 284- Alternative Energy Plan World Bank Support Project: Renewable Resources Development Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$75 M/US$115 M (equivalent) GEF Grant: US$26 M Description: The project comprises: (a) Financing through Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) of private sector investments in renewable energy subprojects, namely, irrigation-based small hydros, wind farms and solar photovoltaic systems. (b) Expansion of Tamil Nadu Paper Limited's bagasse-based paper mill. (c) Technical assistance for institutional development of IREDA and promotion of renewable energy technologies. The main benefits of the project are: O Demonstration on a commercial scale of renewable resource systems that could lead to their replication in other parts of India and the world. O Mobilization of private investments into the energy sector and newsprint industry. 0 Reduced reliance on fossil fuels and forest resources and thus less environmental degradation. O Increased availability and improved reliability of power -supply to help meet the industrial and decentralized rural energy needs. 0 Increased domestic newsprint supply in India. Project: National Capital Power Supply Fiscal Year: 1987 Loan/Credit Amount: US$485.0 M Description: The main objective of the project is to assist in meeting electricity demand in the capital area through the addition of 840 MW of thermal capacity. The project comprises the installation of four * 285 India's lEnvironment- Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities coal fired 210 MW units at Dadri (Uttar Pradesh), as well as the construction of about 110 km of 400-KV transmission lines and four associated 400-KV and 220-KV sub-stations to complete the 400 KV transmission around Delhi. Project also provides for the rehabilitation of an existing 710 MW thermal power station at Badarpur, near Delhi. In addition the project will provide for institutional strengthening of Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking (DESU) through studies for reorganization and the development of a distribution master plan, and through the execution of a financial recovery plan. Consultancy support will be provided for these studies as well as for studies for the improvement of the quality of coal used in power generation, for rehabilitation of existing plant at Indraprastha, and for design and engineering of the main plant. The project will introduce dry ash disposal as a new technology in India. There are no unusual risks as the dual firing feature of the power plant minimizes the risk of plant unavailability that could result from the transportation of coal over a long distance. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) is experienced in the design and construction of generation and transmission facilities, but will receive assistance from consultants on the design of the dry ash disposal system. Project: Power Utilities Efficiency Improvement Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$265 M Description: The project objectives are to (a) Support GOI efforts to make Power Finance Corporation (PFC) a viable and effective instrument for improving the power sector. (b) Strengthen the operations of the beneficiary utilities by lending only to those willing to undertake acceptable reform programs. (c) Foster better use of existing power facilities by reducing constraints in the transmission and distribution systems. (d) Mitigate the adverse environmental impact of thermal plants in operation by providing adequate antipollution and monitoring facilities. (e) Improve the preparation of power projects and promote the development of the local consulting industry by funding pre- investment studies and engineering for power projects. The project comprises a program to strengthen PFC's capabilities 286. Alternative Energy Plan to discharge its responsibilities, the creation of a pre-investment fund in PFC and five components to be financed by PFC: (a) Implementation of a pre-identified segment of the lending program of PFC. (b) Environmental upgrading of power plants. (c) Engineering studies for system renovation. (d) Institutional strengthening of power utilities. (e) Improvements in State Electricity Board's billing and collection. Project: Private Power Utilities (TEC) Fiscal Year: 1990 Loan/Credit Amount: IBRD US$98 M (equivalent) Description: The project's objectives are to increase Tata Electric Companies' peak generating capacity, reduce their dependence on the Maharashtra State Electricity Board, reduce the average cost of generation and improve system reliability and quality of supply to consumers in the Bombay area. The project has four components (a) A pumped storage unit at the existing Bhira hydroelectric station to generate 150 MW additional peak power by consuming off- peak power. (b) A 220 KV transmission line to carry this power to the license area. (c) A gas-based combined cycle unit of 180 MW at the Trombay thermal power plant. (d) A second flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) unit to control the sulfur dioxide emissions from the coal and oil burning unit no. 5 at Trombay. (e) Review of design and technical specifications and supervision of construction of the Bhira pumped storage scheme and acquisition of know-how for the extension of the FGD facility at Trombay. Project: Coal Mining and Coal Quality Improvement Fiscal Year: 1987 Loan/Credit Amount: US$340 M * 287 India's Environment - Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Description: The main objectives of the project are to increase the supply of thermal coal and coking coal and to improve the quality of coal available to consumers. The project is also designed to support Coal India Limited in its efforts to develop and implement efficiency improvements and improve financial performance. The project consists of the development of: (a) The second phase of Gevra mining complex to reach a 10 million tons per year output of low-grade thermal coal to feed the Korba power plant. (b) Construction of the Sonepur-Bazari mining complex to produce 3 million tons per year of intermediate and superior grade thermal coal. (c) Importation of about 3 million tons of coking coal. By developing large-scale open pit mines, India is pursuing a strategy of increasing coal supplies at least-cost while promoting diversification of mining technologies and improvements in productivity in the coal sector. By importing coking coal, India is making up for a shortfall in domestic supplies as well as improving the average quality of coking coal by blending low-ash imports with higher-ash domestic coals. Project: NTPC Power Generation Fiscal Year: 1993 Loan/Credit Amount: US$400 M Description: The project comprises: (a) Generation of capacity additions: a five-year time slice of NTPC's least-cost investment program of new coal- and gas- based power stations for which full funding has not yet been arranged. (b) Private Sector Component: support to NTPC to undertake several joint venture operations. (c) Environmental strengthening and resettlement and rehabilitation: implementation of an environment action plan (EAP) which includes environmental upgrading projects, training and technical assistance for the strengthening of NTPC's environmental and resettlement and rehabilitation management capability and the implementation of the EAP. 288. Alternative Energy Plan Project: Second Maharashtra Power Fiscal Year: 1992 Loan/Credit Amount: US$350 M Description: The proposed project comprises: (a) Construction of the last stage of Chandrapur thermal power station by the addition of a 500 MW coal-fired unit. (b) Construction of a 500 KV, 1,500 MW HVDC line from Chandrapur to Padghe, near Bombay, and the related terminal stations. (c) Implementation of an accelerated distribution reinforcement program aimed at reducing losses in selected areas. (d) Consulting services to be provided in the following four areas: (i) Load research and preparation of electricity demand management measures. (ii) Development of MSEB's environmental management capabilities at the corporate level. (iii) Preparation of private power projects in Maharashtra. (iv) Institutional review of the power sector in Maharashtra. *289 \I, India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Prograns, and Priorities Other Donor Support Project: Biomass Densification Donor: Netherlands Loan/Credit Amount: US$360,000 equivalent Description: Provide improved densification / briquetting technology to local producers to transform agricultural and forestry refuse into efficient fuel, in combination with related socioeconomical research. Project: Industrial Energy Conservation & Environmental Improvement (Maharashtra) Donor: Asian Development Bank Loan/Credit Amount: US$38 M Description: The sector project includes adoption of energy-efficient production technologies, retrofitting of energy-saving equipment and improvement of energy management system in selected energy- intensive industries (BPCL and HPCL). The main objectives of the project are to: (a) Increase refinery efficiency through a reduction in energy consumption. (b) Improve the quality of the environment in the vicinity of the refineries through appropriate in-plant pollution control measures. (c) Contribute to improving air quality through a gradual reduction of lead and sulfur concentration in petroleum products by enabling the targeted refineries to produce low-lead gasoline and low-sulfur diesel fuel. Project: Renewable Energy Development Donor: Asian Development Bank Loan/Credit Amount: US$150 M Description: The main objectives are to reduce the current energy shortages by promoting commercialization of renewable resources technology, mainly cogeneration based on sugar bagasse, industrial methane gas generation wind and solar thermal systems. The project will involve a line of credit with Indian Renewable Energy Development 290. Alternative Energy Plan (IREDA) to finance private sector development of energy-using renewable sources. Project: Industrial Energy Conservation & Environmental Improvement-1l (India-wide) Donor: Asian Development Bank Loan/Credit Amount: US$150 M Description: The project will support the government's strategy to foster sustainable industrial development in several ways: (a) Carry forward energy sector reforms into demand-side management of energy-intensive industries. (b) Assist the government's efforts to reduce energy shortages by increasing energy efficiency. (c) Improve the overall efficiency of the assisted enterprises. (d) Promote international competitiveness of the industrial sector. (e) Serve to integrate environmental considerations in project design and implementation. The objective of the project is to promote energy efficiency in the industrial sector consistent with the ongoing market-oriented economic reforms in India. This objective is to be realized through supporting investments in the industrial sector that focus on energy - efficient and related environmental improvements that concurrently show return. These investments seek to improve the efficiency of India's energy-intensive industries through technological restructuring and improving productivity. Project: Coal Beneficiation (National Project) Donor: Asian Development Bank Loan/Credit Amount: US$100 M. Description: As the beneficiation of non-coking coal will result in significant economic and environmental benefits by improving coal qualitv for power generation, the scope of the project is installation of coal preparation plants at selected coal fields. Project: Canadian Hunger Foundation/AFPRO Biogas II Donor: Canada Loan/Credit Amount: C$4,929,600 (US$6.7 M equivalent) *291 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Description: To support and strengthen the NGO network in its efforts to introduce and extend biogas technology and to develop sustainable partnerships between the government and NGO agencies involved in biogas programs. Project: KSEB Systems Enhancement Donor: Canada Loan/Credit Amount: C$34 M (US$46.23M.) Description: To assist Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) in reducing voltage losses in transmission and distribution, and improve operating efficiency through the enhancement of water management, fire protection and dam instrumentation systems. Project: Industrial Energy Conservation Donor: Germany Loan/Credit Amount: DM8.0 M (US$10.97 M equivalent) Description: This technical cooperation project has the aim of establishing an information and advisory service in Bangalore for the implementation of measures for rational energy utilization in the state of Karnataka to improve industrial energy efficiency. Project: Andhra Pradesh Energy Efficiency Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £42.7 M (US$69.0 M equivalent) Description: The Project aims to upgrade and strengthen electricity distribution systems. Project: Industrial Energy Efficiency Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £1.5 M (US$2.42 M equivalent) Description: This project aims to help develop a portfolio of projects which will achieve high industrial energy efficiency benefits. Project: HVDC Chandrapur Back to Back. - Maharashtra/ Andhra Pradesh. Donor: British-ODA Loan/Credit Amount: £63.OM (US$101.84 M equivalent). 292 Alternative Energy Plan Description: Interconnection of western and southern grids to allow electricity to be shared between the two regions. Project: Greenhouse Gas Pollution Prevention Donor: USAID Loan/Credit Amount: US$19 M Description: The project will demonstrate various power generation strategies which will result in reducing or eliminating emissions of greenhouse gases (principally carbon dioxide and methane). The project consists of two components. (a) Alternative/bagasse cogeneration will demonstrate and promote the commercialization of new technologies and the use of alternative biomass fuels at sugar mill cogeneration facilities. (b) Efficient coal conversion will set up a research and development center in conjunction with India's leading power generation utility to study ways to burn coal more efficiently and cleanly. Both components contain funding for demonstration projects. Project: Renewable Resources Development: Solar Photovoltaic Donor: Switzerland Loan/Credit Amount: S Fr 6 M (US$6.8 M) overall budget of S Fr6O M for the photovoltaic component cofinanced with GEF and IDA - Denmark US$50 M for wind component. Description: Environmentally sound investments to reduce energy sector dependence on fossil fuels. Project: ECOFRIG Donor: Switzerland Loan/Credit Amount: S Fr 1.8 M (US$2.04 M equivalent) Description: To assist phase out of CFC in the Indian refrigerator industry and test for HC technology under Indian conditions. Project: Technology for Producing Smokeless Coal Briquettes Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$49,000 . 293 India's Environment- Taking Stock ofPlans, Programs, and Priorities Description: Assist Indian authorities to assess the suitability of a particular briquetting process and facilitate investment decision in the process. Project: Study on Waste Minimization in the Automotive Components Sector Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$43,000 Description: Demonstrate financial and environmental benefits of cleaner production approach to industrial environmental management; demonstrate that pollution prevention is possible in the short term and that it has financial and environmental advantages; devise and test the usefulness and efficiency of a systematic approach to pollution prevention; identify obstacles to the introduction of pollution prevention options and formulate strategies to overcome these; disseminate results of the case studies by written reports and by industry seminars. Project: Program for the Acceleration of Commercial Energy Research (PACER) Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$20 M Description: To help overcome the energy constraints on India's economic development by promoting the development of new or innovative products or processes relevant to the Indian energy sector. Priority areas include: (a) Technologies to tap renewable energy. (b) Coal conversion technologies. (c) Technologies to improve energy efficiency. Project: Indian Private Power Initiative (IPPI) Donor: UNIDO Loan/Credit Amount: US$3 million Description: To encourage private investment in the power sector by providing technical assistance to State Electricity Board's and the GOI to evaluate pending project proposals and assist in project formulation and documentation necessary for international financing. 294- Chapter 10 Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation - -S. -'. w India's Environment-Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ X, , , ~~~. . ,I, il,CF P1, , __1 K,~~~~~~~ __ _ _ ,: A_ O _ _ _ 10.01 Comprehensive cost-benefit METHODOLOGY analysis of environmental problems and possible interventions is difficult in any 10.03 The two types of environmental country, but it is nearly impossible in costs estimated here are public health impacts developing countries. Optimal levels of due to air and water pollution, and productivity intervention could be determined if all the impacts due to higher water costs, soil social costs and benefits associated with each degradation, deforestation, and reduced incidence of environmental degradation could tourism. India's priority environmental be calculated, but neither available data nor problems and the valuation methodology used current methodologies allow this determi- to estimate the costs of these problems are nation and developing countries cannot afford shown in Table 10.1. In all cases, conservative an in -depth study of every environmental approaches are used so as not to overstate the issue. Instead, policymakers must be provided costs of degradation. with informed estimates of the economic costs 10.04 Environmental degradation and of environmental problems so they can public health are most clearly linked in terms prioritize the issues. Governments must then of air pollution and respiratory diseases, and decide what level of environmental quality water pollution and such waterborne diseases is politically and financially feasible, and as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and typhoid. which instruments should be used to achieve The results are divided into sickness environmental objectives. Finally, such factors (morbidity) and premature death (mortality). as the feasibility of enforcement and the The value of premature death is based on the intensity of public concern must be considered. value of a statistical life, as determined using 10.02 This chapter estimates the a human capital approach that values an magnitude of the economic costs associated individual's life according to the net present with environmental degradation, measured by value of his or her productivity. (This approach impacts on health and productivity. requires substantially less data than Quantifying these costs helps to improve willingness-to-pay or willingness-to-be- understanding of various environmental compensated approaches.) The costs of problems-both in terms of each other and sickness are based on individual disutility relative to other issues of economic (discomfort, suffering, and the opportunity cost management. of time), medical expenses, and lost wages 296 Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation (Margulis 1992). Only medical expenses and soil degradation reduces agriculture and lost wages are estimated here, since they are rangeland output (or increases input costs); more easily monetized than individual deforestation turns forests into land with little disutility. economic value; surface and groundwater pollution leads to local and regional scarcities, 10.05 Environmental degradation and with commensurate increases in costs; and high economic output are most clearly linked where ambient pollution levels inhibit tourism. 2 297 4, India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plants, Programs, and Priorities Table 10.1. Major Environmental Impacts in India Problem Impacts on health Method of valuation used Comments and production in ithe slud) Urban air Urban health impacts, Incidence of death x value of Sources of urban air Pollution especially from particulates, life + incidence of sickness x pollution include transport, lead, and ozone (cost of treatment + lost industry, energy, and refuse wages) burning. No attempt was made to differentiate impact by source of pollution. Surface w'ater Urban and rural health Incidence of death x *.alue of Sources of surface %%ater pollution inipacts. especialk liif + incidence ol sickness x pollution include municipal diarihoeal diseases (cost of treatment + lost %%aste and indusir, . No "a2est atienmpr %as made to differentiale impact by source of pollution. Surface and Higher incremental costs Projected incremental water Difficult to differentiate groundwater for clean water supply supply requirements due to without more detailed pollution surface and groundwater city-specific study (to better pollution x higher incremental determine what share of supply costs supply shortages are pollution-based). Industrial Long-tenn health impacts. Not estimated Although significant, these hazardous especiallh cancer health impacts not likely to waste be as large as the other air and %% ater impacts. Soil and Loss of agricultural output Agricultural output x marginal Soil degradation includes rangeland and livestock carrying productivity loss du,e to erosion, salinization, water- degradation capacity degradation. Same logging, and loss of nutrients. methodology applied to rangelaads and livestock Deforestation L. ;s of timher and Forest replacemenli .ost Cost estimates are quite nonrimber ecolocical only conservative since several ser% ices nontimber values are not included. Loss of Unsustainable harvesting Nolt estimated Insufficient data. costal and of marine resources marine resources Loss of *Loss of use, option. and Not estimated Insufficient data. biodiversity existence values Decline in Loss of international Ma-rginal negative impact Estimates kept conservative tourism tourism revenues due to environmental in the absence of survey degradation and health work. impacts 298. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation Air Pollution 10.06 India has twenty-three cities with to ambient pollution levels. For example, a population of more than 1 million people, and recent study for Bombay estimated the relative ambient air pollution levels exceed World contributors to particulate matter pollution Health Organization (WHO) health standards (particles less than 10 microns in diameter, in many of them. Many smaller cities have which more easily penetrate the lungs and are ambient air pollution levels that exceed WHO therefore more relevant than total particulate guidelines as well. Urban air pollution is matter for human health) as refuse burning, worsening due to increasing power 28 percent; vehicle exhaust, 25 percent; consumption, industrialization, vehicle resuspended road dust, 17 percent; fuel burned ownership and use, and refuse burning. Six by residences, 15 percent; fuel burned by of the ten largest cities-Bombay, Calcutta, industry and power, 12 percent; and other Delhi, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, and Nagpur- (including marine), 3 percent. Comparable have severe air pollution problems, with annual emission inventories and dispersion studies average levels of total suspended particulates for other Indian cities would assist in the at least three times the WHO standard (see formulation of pollution mitigation strategies. Table 7.5). In Delhi, Calcutta, and Kanpur, ANALYSIS annual average values of total suspended particulates are more than five times the 10.8 The primary air pollution-related standard. Nationwide, more than 90 percent health impacts estimated here are those relating of the monitoring stations for which annual to particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mean concentrations are reported by the and lead. Air monitoring data collected by Central Pollution Control Board exceed 75 the National Environmental Engineering micrograms per cubic meter of particulates, Research Institute (NEERI) for ten of India's the midpoint of the WHO recommended largest cities and Central Pollution Control standard. Annual average concentrations of Board data for twenty-six other cities are used. sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, however, The lack of ozone monitoring prevents are low in relation to typical ambient standards. estimates of its health impacts. Similarly, the impact of indoor air pollution is not considered 10.07 There does not appear to be a clear here due to the absence of data. correlation between city size and air pollution in terms of either population or geographic 10.9 The health impacts of air pollutants area. The relative contributions of motor are most easily estimated using dose-response vehicles, industry, and domestic sources to functions drawn from various epidemiological air pollution, especially to particulate studies. A recent World Bank review of such pollution, have not been well studied in India. studies is used here to estimate the health While there are often estimates of total impacts in India (Ostro 1994). By using dose- emissions from each source by city, it is harder response functions estimated in cities in to determine the contribution of each source industrial countries, the estimates derived here India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities are likely to be conservative: since developing RESULTS countries have lower standards of living, n-utrition, and health, a higher percentage of 10.11 Table 10.2 summarizes the the population is in marginal health-making estimated reductions in sickness and premature them more susceptible to the negative health death that would occur in thirty-six cities if impacts of air pollution. pollutant levels in these cities were reduced to the WHO standard. The number of 10.10 In terms of specific pollutants, total preventable deaths exceeds 40,000, with 7,500 suspended particulates and particulate matter in Delhi, 5,700 in Calcutta, and 4,500 in measuring less than 10 microns in diameter Bombay. As a percentage of total annual are both associated with premature mortality deaths, the reduced mortality would represent (from respiratory illness and cardiovascular at least a 15 percent reduction in these cities. disease) and increased morbidity (increased An economic valuation of these premature incidence of chronic obstructive lung disease, deaths suggests a potential savings of between especially bronchitis, and increased incidence $170 million and $1,615 million. of upper and lower respiratory tract infections). Ozone increases respiratory hospital 10.12 In addition, reducing particulate admissions, restricts activity, and raises the levels would likely reduce new cases of chronic incidences of asthma, eye irritation, and heart lung disease and reduce respiratory tract disease (Ostro 1994). Carbon monoxide infections, especially in children. Asthma reduces the amount of oxygen carried by the attacks also would be reduced. Preliminary blood, but it dissipates rapidly in the estimates of the physical impact of lowering environment and its effects are reversible. High air pollution to WHO standards in the same levels of atmospheric lead contribute to thirty-six cities suggests almost 20 million hypertension and neurological damage in fewer respiratory hospital admissions, children. emergency room visits, and sicknesses Table 10.2. Annual Costs of Ambient Air Pollution Levels Exceeding WHO Guidelines in Thirty-six Indian Cities, 1991-92 Health Impacis Number f Cost valuation ______ i____ ______ _ (millions of UI.S. dollars) Premature deaths 40,351 170-1,615 Hospital admissions and sickness requiring medical 9,800,000 25-50 treatment Minor sicknesses (including restricted activity days 1,201,300,000 322-437 and respjratory symptom days) Total 5 17- '2. I 01' Source: Author's estimate based on NEERI 1994 and Central Pollution Control Board 1992. 300. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation requiring medical treatment; and 1.2 billion 200,000 cases of hospitalization a year and fewer restricted activity days, respiratory 2.5 million lost intelligence quotient (IQ) symptom days, cases of lower respiratory points in children. The monetary valuation illnesses in children, and other minor of these impacts is $7 million to $18 million sicknesses. a year in lost potential earnings. These estimates, however, may be very low due to 10.13 A low estimate of the social value icmlt aao min edlvl of these impacts, using a cost-of-treatment incomplete data on ambient lead levels. approach (which includes medical costs and 10.15 Carbon monoxide and ozone, two the value of productive time lost but does not pollutants with potentially significant health include suffering) is $350 million to $490 impacts, are not routinely monitored at the million a year. Of total impact costs, premature stations where the other pollutants are death represents 68 percent of the total value, measured. Carbon monoxide readings taken and sickness represents 32 percent. at traffic intersections often exceed 5,000 10.14 Particulate matter measuring less micrograms per cubic meter; the one-hour than 10 microns in diameter and sulfur dioxide WHO standard is 100 micrograms per cubic are responsible for more than 95 percent of meter. While carbon monoxide pollution is the health impact damages. The rest is of concern, it is probably of less concern than contributed by the high levels of lead in large the high total suspended particulate levels to cities such as Calcutta, Bombay, and Delhi. which people are exposed. Still, carbon High lead levels increase the incidence of heart monoxide, ozone, lead, and hydrocarbons are attacks, hypertension, and brain damage in all closely related to vehicle use, and ambient children. Estimates of the impact of the levels may accelerate quickly with the rapid currently low average ambient lead levels are growth and use of urban vehicle populations. .301 4,c;=, India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Water Pollution 10.16 Contamination of water supplies ANALYSIS in rural and urban areas poses significant problems, with almost all surface water (except 10.18 About 30.5 million disability- in mountainous areas) unfit for human adjusted life-years (DALYs) are lost each year consumption. Water pollution has three major due to poor water quality, sanitation, and sources: domestic wastewater, industrial hygiene (Table 10.3). (DALYs are a wastewater, and agricultural runoff. Water combination of discounted and weighted years pollution from domestic and human of life lost as a result of death at a given age wastewater is the most problematic, and the and disability as a result of morbidity, adjusted cause of many waterborne diseases. Recent by severity; see World Bank 1993.) The World Bank and WHO studies found that about specific diseases included in this number are 21 percent of communicable diseases (1 1.5 diarrhea, trachoma, intestinal worms, hepatitis, percent of all diseases) are water-related and the "tropical cluster" of diseases. (World Bank 1993). A much higher percentage 10.19 A WHO review of 144 studies of infant mortality is associated with these found that improved water supply and diseases. Major cities often dispose of largely sanitation reduced sickness by an average of untreated sewage tito the rrogatson stremo h 25 percent, and premature death by an average of 65 percent (Esrey and others 1991). These are eaten raw. Sewage and wastewater iS also averages are used here to estimate the reduction channeled into rivers and streams without in the incidence of waterborne diseases consideration of the rivers' assimilative achievable through feasible interventions in capacity. water, sanitation, and hygiene. Using a 10.17 The other sources of water weighted average of the overall mortality and pollution are industry and agriculture. The morbidity components of DALYs for major water-polluting industries are chemicals, communicable diseases (World Bank 1993), textiles, pharmaceuticals, cement, electrical it is estimated that an overall reduction of 52.4 and electronic equipment, glass and ceramics, Table 10.3 Burden of Waterborne Diseases, 1990 pulp and paper board, leather tanning, food (hundreds of thousands DALYs) processing, and petroleum refining. Dise3se Female Niale |otal Indiscriminate use of agricultural chemicals Diarrhoeal Diseases 143.9 136.4 280.3 also has contaminated surface and ground- Intestinal Helminths 10.0 10.6 20.6 water. The health impacts of industrial and Trachoma 0.7 0.4 1.1 agricultural pollutants cannot easily be Hepatitis 1.7 1.4 3.1 separated from overall health impacts, and no Total 156.3 148.8 305.1 attempt is made to do so here. Source: World Bank 1993. !02. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation percent in DALYs is possible with the income growth (which leads to higher per provision of safe water and sanitation. The capita demand), excess demand (due to causes of DALYs lost are complex and the underpricing or low collection rates), and interactions of water quality and quantity, pollution (which constrains existing supplies). sanitation, and hygiene in improving health Municipalities often incur higher supply costs are inadequately understood due to the in order to compensate for local pollution; empirical problems of observing actual typically, either local surface water supplies practices and conditions. In addition, the have become too polluted or groundwater incidence of waterborne diseases among aquifers have become contaminated or population groups very much depends on the brackish. income level of the group: high-income groups are more likely to have access to clean water 10.22 A recent World Bank study found supplies or the ability to purify water or that in many urban water supply projects a purchase bottled water. unit of water from the "next project" is often two to three times the cost of a unit from the RESULTS current project (Bhatia and Falkenmark 1993). This is-due to the need to pump water longer 10.20 Between 10.6 million and 17.9 distances, use additional treatment, and invest million DALYs a year could be saved if water in water transfer schemes. Since pollution and and sanitation services were improved for all environmental degradation contribute to the portions of the population now underserved. need for more expansive and expensive water If safe water and sanitation were accompanied supply systems, this incremental cost can be by broadly based hygiene and health education directly attributed to the cost of environmental improvements, the reductions would be even degradation. greater. Assuming an average reduction of 14.3 million DALYs, the value of these inter- 1023 Itis beyondtheiscope of this study ventions is between $3.1 billion and $8.3 toestimatetheincrementalcostofrisingwater billion a year, depending on the assumed value supply costs in India, and to allocate some of one DALY (between $215 and $583). share of that cost to pollution. But given that public investments in municipal and industrial water supplies in developing countries average HIGHER INCREMENTAL COSTS OF 5 to 6 percent of total public investment, even WATER SUPPLY a small cost factor associated with 1 0.21 Urban water supply systems environmental degradation is likely to be significant. And with the high rate of require periodic expansion in response to urbanization taking place in India, these costs supply shortfalls. There are several reasons are rising very rapidly. for supply shortages, including urban growth, India's Environment- Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities Industrial Pollution and Hazardous Waste 10.24 No comprehensive data exist on particulates), and toxic wastes (heavy metals either total industrial pollution loads orpollu- and a composite index of various toxins ion intensities (pollution emitted per unit of emitted into the air and water or found in solid output) in India-a constraint to fully wastes). With the exception of toxic pollutants, understanding the extent and cost of the pollution intensities were roughly stable for industrial pollution problem. Partly in response most major forms of pollution between 1963 to this constraint, the World Bank developed and 1988. This implies that the increase in the Industrial Pollution Projection System total output of industrial pollution over these (IPPS) to provide a means of estimating trends years is due more to a scale effect (industrial in industrial pollution. The IPPS uses pollution growth) than to a shift effect (strong growth coefficients from U.S. manufacturing concerns in the more-polluting industries). for 1988 and applies them to industrial output in developing countries. The system captures 10.26 It is not possible, using current shifts in subsectoral output, but not shifts in data, to estimate the adverse health impacts technology, over time. caused by industrial pollution separately from those caused by municipal and transport- 10.25 The resulting trends for industrial related pollution. But the absolute growth in pollution in India are shown in Figure 5.1. industrial pollutant emissions is proceeding The six pollutants shown are two indicators as rapidly as the economy-and probably far each of water pollution (BODs and suspended exceeding the assimilative capacity of the solids), air pollution (sulfur oxides and environment. 304 Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation Land Degradation 10.27 Land degradation, whether mismanaged irrigated lands. Waterlogging caused by water erosion, wind erosion, (defined as watertables that have risen to salinization, waterlogging, nutrient loss, within 1.5 meters of the surface) also occurs compaction, or overgrazing, is extensive. in long-irrigated areas. Although data are About 163 million hectares -half of India's lacking -largely-due to the overlap between total area-has some degree of degradation. fallow agricultural lands, rangelands, A United Nations Development Programme degraded forests, and wastelands-much of (UNDP) survey of agricultural land found the rangeland in India is threatened by that 83.4 million hectares of agricultural land overgrazing and overharvesting of natural are degraded, with 35 percent being slightly vegetation. degraded, 31 percent moderately degraded, and 34 percent severely degraded (Table 10.4). 10.29 This analysis draws on two land degradation data sets. The first is Food and 10.28 These data include several kinds Agricultural Organization (FAO) data, which of land degradation. Water erosion is divide India into humid and dry regions. The accelerating because of human activity, such second is a set of tables on Indian land as destruction of natural vegetation by removal degradation, disaggregated mostly at the state for fuel, timber, and forage, and cultivation level but for some categories (salinity and on steep slopes. Similarly, while wind erosion waterlogging) presented only at the national occurs naturally due to dry conditions and high level (Bansil 1990). The two data sets are winds, human activities such as overgrazing, quite different in their estimates of total burning, and felling of plants exacerbate the degraded land, partly because the FAO data problem. Soil salinity and sodicity are serious look only at agricultural land, while the Indian problems on agricultural land, particularly on data also look at other nonwasteland and Table 10A. Soil Erosion in India (millions of hectares) Dr\ Reiion IlLimiid Reeion AlI India Total erosion 13.7 - 70.2 29.9 - 50.9 43.6 - 121.1 Waterlogging 3.1 - 3.9 0.0 - 4.6 3.1 - 8.5 Salinization 3.3 - 7.0 03. - 3.9 7.2 - 7.3 Nutrients depletion 2.2 - 16.4 9.7 - 27.2 26.1 - 29.4 Tolal 26.0 - 93.8 57.4 - 69.1 83.4 - 162.9 Source: United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agricultural Organization, and United Nations Environment Programme 1993 and Techno-Economic Research Institute, New Delhi (1990).. . '0' India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities nonforest areas (such as fallow land, rangeland, 10.31 Experience from other parts of the and potentially arable land not cropped within world shows that yield impacts from soil the past five years). Both data sets are used erosion become severe in marginal lands and here to estimate the impact of degradation on rainfed areas, reaching as high as 70 percent agricultural output (Table 10.5). over several years (Wolman 1985). But it is difficult to generalize about the impact of soil ANALYSIS degradation on agricultural yields, since the contribution of soil fertility to yields is mingled 10.30 The primary on-site costs with-and masked by-other production associated with soil degradation are reduced variables such as inputs (including labor), and yields and the downgrading of land to crops climatic conditions. Farmer responses to soil of lesser value. Off-site costs include siltation degradation vary widely: one farmer might of drainage canals, irrigation canals, and use additional inputs to compensate for lower reservoirs, and changes in the hydrology of soil fertility, whereas another might use fewer watersheds, which can increase flood inputs, shift to a different crop, or leave the frequency and severity, or reduce availability land fallow. For valuation purposes, this study in the dry seasons. The estimates made here uses approximations of negative yield impacts of the cost of degradation are based on reduced attributable to land degradation as a basis for on-site yields, and thus are underestimates. impact analysis. Table 10.5. Yield-reducing Factors by Crop and by Extent of Degradation (percent) Paddy Wheal Barlev Ground Grani: Rapeseed :Jo%%ar Bajra Cotton Maize Sugar -nut and cane mustard Erosion Light 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Moderate 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Severe 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Salinilt Light 20 16 10 10 20 5 20 20 20 20 20 Moderate 46 30 30 30 40 25 40 40 40 40 40 Severe 60 42 50 50 60 45 60 60 60 60 60 Water- logging Light I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 5 1 1 Moderate 26 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 38 29 42 Severe 60 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 98 79 91 Nutrient depletion LiAhi I 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 Nloderate 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Se%ere 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 306. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation S 10.32 The analysis started with data on foregone, by crop and region. The impact of twelve categories of land degradation: water degradation on all other crops was estimated and wind erosion (light, moderate, and severe); by applying the average yield loss factor salinity (light, moderate, and severe); resulting from the more detailed analysis. waterlogging (light, moderate, and severe); and nutrient loss (light, moderate, and severe). 10.33 For losses attributable to degraded Then yield reduction factors were estimated rangeland, the share of India's total livestock for India's eleven main crops using estimates population that could live on the country's drawn from land degradation impact studies natural rangeland was estimated based on from India and Pakistan covering erosion, livestock nutrient requirements, average salinity, and waterlogging, and World Bank rangeland nutrient yields, and average surveys of the national costs of land rangeland utilization rates. This carrying degradation in Africa (Bojo, 1994) and the capacity was subject to reduction factors due U.S.A. (Crosson and Stout 1983, cited in to rangeland degradation. The estimated Margulis 1992). (No comparable survey of amount forgone represents the value of yield impacts was found for Asia.) Each type rangeland degradation. of degraded land was then prorated across the RESULTS cropping pattern for India's dry and humid regions, and the corresponding yield reduction 10.34 Productivity losses due to land factor was applied to the product of the eroded degradation are between 4.0 percent and 6.3 area for that region and average crop yields percent of production per year, which for that region (Table 10.6). The results were represents total annual lost production of $1.5 estimates of the amount of production billion to $2.4 billion (Table 10.6). (This Table 10.6. Estimated Impact of Soil Degradation on Eleven Main Crops, 1991-92 Crop Loss V'alue or loss (percent) (millions of US dollars) Paddy 2.7-4.8 190 Wheat 3.9-6.4 248 Barley 4.5-7.1 8 Groundnut 2.8-4.4 110 Gram 5.7-7.9 60 Rapeseed and mustard 5.8-8.6 155 Jowar 5.7-7.7 40 Bajra 6.8-8.5 25 Cotton 5.3-7.0 140 Maize 3.2-4.9 25 Sugarcane 4.5-7.9 200 All other crops 4.0-6.3 750 Total, main crops 4.0-6.3 1,950 * 307 India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities amount represents yields that would have because erosion-induced productivity losses occurred, with no change in inputs, had the are not confined to a specific year, but land not been degraded.) The estimated losses accumulate over a period of time (Crosson are fairly evenly divided between the dry and and Stout 1983, cited in Margulis 1992). humid regions. For rangelands, the annual losses fall in the range of $238 million to $417 10.36 Assuming a 5 percent discount million per year, based on a 20 percent to 35 rate, the present value of India's agricultural percent decline over time in the carrying losses due to degradation totals $30 billion capacity of natural rangelands. to $50 billion. These losses should be considered when contemplating land conser- 10.35 These are estimates of the current vation investments. If the present value of annual loss in agricultural output caused by mitigation investments is less than this range, soil degradation that may have taken many the cost-benefit ratio would be greater than years to develop. Current (one-year) one, andfurther feasibility analysis would be assessments of soil degradation undervalue warranted. the total loss resulting from that degradation 308. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation Deforestation 10.37 The FAO estimates India's rate of ANALYSIS deforestation at 0.6 percent a year between 1981 and 1990, implying a loss of 3,369,000 10.39 Forests provide a wide range of hectares. This deforested area consists of 15 economic and environmental services. In percent tropical rain forest, 11 percent moist addition to timber, they provide firewood and deciduous forest, 64 percent dry deciduous plant and animal nontimber products; forest, and 11 percent hill and mountain areas. recreation and ecotourism opportunities; In 1990 the forested area in India totaled 70.6 watershed protection, waterflow regulation, million hectares, of which 27 percent was flood protection, and soil retention; carbon under commercial plantations consisting sequestration; and habitat for biodiversity. By mainly of eucalyptus but also of teak and pine using the "user cost" approach to forestry trees. The area allotted to forestry plantations valuation, this study values only the has increased by an average of 15.5 percent commercial timber that is depleted by a year since 1981 (FAO 1993). deforestation and does not assign value to the other economic losses resulting from 10.38 As a result of this rapid deforestation. reforestation, the total area of Indian forests is increasing even while areas of natural forest 10.40 The user cost represents forgone cover are decreasing. This is confirmed in future income-in this case, from the assessments made by the Indian government: exploitation of a renewable resource. The user between 1991 and 1993 most states showed cost approach uses the present value of the a net increase in actual forest cover when discounted stream of production costs required plantations are included, even while the to generate an area of forest equal to the area degradation of valuable and unique natural deforested (adapted from Sadoff 1992). The forests in the northeastern region (Arunachal, replacement forest is a plantation forest with Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, a maximum of two or three tree species, not Nagaland, and Tripura) has continued a natural forest with a more complex (Government of India 1993). Only about half ecosystem. Since, this approach captures only of India's forests have a crown density of 40 the economic value of the timber lost through percent or more; the rest consists of degraded deforestation, total costs of deforestation are and unproductive forests (World Bank 1992). underestimated. Thus forest resources that are rich in flora and fauna are decreasing. Short, shifting 10.41 Two methods are used to cultivation cycles and encroachment for approximate the user cost: replacement cost agricultural production and population and market value of the sustainable yield of settlement are the main contributors to this the reforested land. The first approach uses development. plantation production cost data taken from * 09 :. "' I India's Environment - Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities : - :, - recent World Bank appraisals of plantation 10.43 As with soil degradation, forestry in India. These costs, estimated to deforestation-related losses are largely be indicative of reforestation costs in India, irreversible over a ten-year period. Using a 5 do not take into account risk or profit, and percernt discount rate, the full discounted value thus are a low estimate of the full replacement of the ten-year losses range from $1.4 billion cost. The second approach, multiplying the to $1.9 billion. These costs will grow higher average price for wood products by average over time, with continued deforestation and forest yields by the type of forest area the absence of adequate maintenance of deforested, gives a higher estimate. This existing forest areas. estimate is the annual value of a sustainable forest yield. TOURISM RESULTS 10.44 Tourism and travel is a small but measurable source of foreign exchange 10.42 The range of estimates for the earnings in India: tourism receipts from annualized replacement cost of India's international travelers totaled $1.42 billion deforestation over 1980-90 is $183 million in 1992, or 7.1 percent of total exports (World to $244 million (Table 10.7). The user cost Tourism Organization 1993). As with all of and market value estimates are comparable South Asia, India's international tourism because the lower values consider only the receipts have fallen slightly in real terms since direct cost of reforestation efforts and do not 1988. Poor environmental quality threatens consider profit or the risk of forest destruction. future growth in tourism through the perceived negative health impacts of ambient air and Table 10.7. Annual Cost of Deforestation Replacement Cost Approach Forest Type Area DeforesTed iRangeland j Average Annual Annual 1981-90 Cun%ersiun Rerorestation Reforestation (thousands 1iactor Cost per hectare Cost (millions of of hectares) | (Ui.S. dollars) Tropical Rain Forest 495.0 _0. 75 37.1 Moist Deciduous Forest 378.0 0.0 75 28.4 Dry Deciduous Forest 2,141.0 0.4 75 96.3 Hill and Montane 355.0 0.2 75 21.3 Market V'alue Approach Forest T) pe Area I Rangeland Net Value A %erage Annual ;Annual Deforested, Con% ersion (Ui.S. doillars Sustainablel ield ! Reforestation 1981-90 iFactor i per cubuc (cubic meters per Cost (millions (thousands nieter) hectares) or LUS dollars) of hectares) Tropical Rain Fores[ 49'i 0 . 7 7.1 Moist Deciduous Forest 378.0 0.0 75 2 28.4 Dry Deciduous-Forest 2,141.0 0.4 75 1 96.3 Hill and Montane 355.0 0.2 75 1.5 21.3 Total 3,369.0 183.1 31 0. Estimating the Costs of Environmental Degradation Summary of Results and Policy Implications 10.46 Although the total costs of 10.47 The policy and investment environmental degradation and pollution are implications of these findings are fairly clear. unknown, the estimates calculated here total Surface water degradation takes the highest $9.7 billion a year, or 4.5 percent of India's health toll across the country and requires 1992 gross domestic product (GDP) (Table immediate attention. No one sector dominates 10.8). As mentioned earlier, there are the environmental agenda; many sectors need limitations to the methods and data used here attention, and the setting of priorities and to value environmental costs. Still, this figure sequencing of mitigation measures requires provides an idea of the magnitude of the careful analysis of the costs and benefits of environmental challenges facing India and a. various mitigation strategies. Environmental departure point for remedial policies and investments, like those for any other sector, programs. should be approached with the goal of Table 10.8. Annual Costs of Environmental Degradation in India Problem Impacts on health Lo% Estimate High Estimate and/or production (millions IJSS) (million USS) Urban air pollution Urban health impacts 735 2,102 Surface water pollution Urban and rural health impacts, esp. 3,311 8,344 diarrheal diseases Surface and groundwater Higher incremental costs for clean Not estimated Not estimated pollution water supply. Industrial hazardous waste Long-term health impacts, esp. can- Not estimated Not estimated cer. Soil degradation Loss of agricultural output. 1,516 2,368 Rangeland degradation Loss of livestock carrying capacity. 238 417 Deforestation Loss of sustainable timber supply 183 244 Coastal and marine resources Unsustainable harvesting of marine Not estimated Not estimated resources. Loss of biodiversity Loss of use, option, and existence Not estimated Not estimated values. Tourism Decline in tourism revenues. 142 283 Total Costs of Environmental 5,672 13,758 Degration Total cost, as percentage of GDP 2.64% 6.4% Average cost- US$ 9,715 percentage of GDP 4.53% 311 India's Environment -Taking Stock of Plans, Programs, and Priorities achieving the highest possible rate of return. management. 10.48 This exercise completes only half LO Urban air pollution, including urban of the cost-benefit framework. A similar transport, solid waste management, fuel approach should be used to estimate mitigation reformulation, and industrial regulation. costs. The following areas, in particular, require careful cost-benefit analysis: 10.49 In addition to measurable savings in economic well-being to the sum of 5 percent LI Water resource management, including of GDP per year, the economic and social urban water supplies, industrial savings gained through improved environ- regulation, and reforms in agricultural g' regulation and reformsinagricultmental management are highly progressive, input pricing policies, in that the beneficiaries are primarily the urban O Soil conservation and irrigation poor and small, rural farmers. 312. Bibliograpahy Bibliography Bansil, P.C. Agricultural Statistical Compendium, Volume 1, Foodgrains, Part 1; Techno- Economic Research Institute, New Delhi, 1990. Bentley, William R. The Uncultivated Half of India: Problems and Possible Solutions, DP # 12 Ford Foundation, New Delhi, 1994. Bhatia, R. and M. Falkenmark. 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World Bank, Investing in Health, World Development Report, Washington D.C. 1993. .317 INDIA Environmental Legislation, Acts, Rules, Notifications and Amendments General * The Environment (Protection) Act and Rules, 1986 * The Environmental Audit Notification, 1992 * The Environmental Standards Notification, 1993 * The Environmental Clearance Notification, 1994 * The Public Liability Insurance Act, Rules, and Amendments, 1991, 1992 * The National Environment Tribunal Bill, 1992 * The Ancient Monuments and Archeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 Forest and Wildlife * The Indian Forest Act and Amendment, 1927, 1984 * The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1980, 1981 * The Wildlife (Protection) Act, Rules and Amendments, 1972, 1973, 1991 * The Insecticide Act, 1968 Land Use * The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976 * The Mode Regional and Town Planning and Development Law, 1985 * Provision in State Acts on Town and Country Planning * The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act and Amendment, 1951, 1987 * The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act and Amendment, 1957, 1984 * The Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Amendment Act, 1985 Water * The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, Rules, and Amendments, 1974, 1975, 1988, 1991 * The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, RuLes and Amendment, 1977, 1978, 1992 Air * The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, Rules and Amendment, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1987 * The Factories Act and Amendment, 1948, 1987 * The Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 1986 * The Atomic Energy Act, 1982 * The Indian Boiler Act, 1923 Printed at Kumar Printers Private Ltd, F-30/3, Okhla Industrial Area, New Delhi - 110020, India