A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MALAYSIA'S INDUSTRIAL PROSPECTS AND POLICY OPTIONS 51278 Shahid Yusuf and Kaoru Nabeshima Tiger Economies Under Threat Tiger Economies Under Threat A Comparative Analysis of Malaysia's Industrial Prospects and Policy Options Shahid Yusuf Kaoru Nabeshima Washington, D.C. © 2009 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 12 11 10 09 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not neces- sarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judge- ment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruc- tion and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ISBN: 978-0-8213-7880-9 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8061-1 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-7880-9 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data has been applied for. Cover design by Drew Fasick, Serif Design Group. Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Chapter 1. Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Brief Development History of the Four Southeast Asian Tigers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The East Asian Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Malaysian Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Analyzing Industrial Change in Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Tiger in the Spotlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Chapter 2. Malaysia: The Quintessential Maturing Tiger Economy . . . . . . . . . . 17 Sources of Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Evolution of the Manufacturing Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Annex 2.A: Indicators of Competitiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Chapter 3. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change: Reading the Export Trade Tea Leaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Exports and Industrial Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 An Overview of Export Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Chapter 4. Imports and Foreign Direct Investment: Competition and Technology Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Imports and Technology Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Patterns of Foreign Direct Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Technology Infusion from FDI and Upgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Chapter 5. Leading and Faltering Industries: The Electronics, Auto Parts, and Agro-Processing Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Electronics and Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Auto Parts Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Palm Oil, Biodiesel, and Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 v vi Contents Chapter 6. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? . . . . . 119 Industrial Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Quality of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Access to Finance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Chapter 7. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability . . . . . . . . . 159 R&D Spending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Patenting Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Licensing and Technology Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Research Activities of Malaysian Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Innovation Comparative Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Chapter 8. Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Long-Run Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 How Neighboring Economies Can Affect Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Chapter 9. What Can the Tigers Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Appendix A Revealed Comparative Advantage of East Asian Economies Other than Malaysia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Appendix B Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Appendix C Research and Development Spending by Private Firms in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . 235 Appendix D Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Appendix E Financial Incentives for Research and Development, Technology Development, and Innovation in Chinese Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Appendix F Financial Incentives for Research and Development, Technology Development, and Innovation in Thai Firms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Figures 2.1 Industrial Composition by Type of Manufacture, Malaysia, 1981, 1990, and 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Value-Added Ratios in Machinery in Selected East Asian Economies . . . . 27 Contents vii 3.1 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to the World, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to the United States, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.3 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to China, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.4 Exports of Malaysia by Type of Manufacture, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5 Exports of Malaysia by Type of Manufacture, Excluding Electronics, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.6 Exports of Electronic and Electrical Manufactures, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . 43 3.7 Composition of Exports by Type of Manufactures, 1995 and 2007. . . . . . 46 3.8 Share of Overlapping Commodities, 1995, 2000, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.9 Share of Overlapping Trade Values, 1995, 2000, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.10 Imports of Electronic Components by China from East Asian Countries, 1995­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.11 Imports of Electronic Components by China from East Asian Countries, Excluding Japan and Korea, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.12 Imports of Electronic Components by China, According to Economy of Origin, 1995­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.13 Exports of Electronic Components by China According to Economy of Destination, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.14 Unit Values of Digital Monolithic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 . . . . . . 70 3.15 Unit Values of Nondigital Monolithic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 . . . 71 3.16 Unit Values of Hybrid Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.17 Unit Values of Electronic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.18 Unit Values of Parts of Electronic Integrated Circuits and Similar Items, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.19 Unit Values of Color Cathode Ray Television Picture Tubes and Similar Items, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.20 Product Space of Selected Southeast Asian Countries, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . 83 3.21 Product Space of China, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.22 Composition of Service Exports from Malaysia, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.23 Composition of Selected Service Exports from Malaysia, 1999­2007 . . . . 88 3.24 Service Exports from Southeast Asian Countries, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.1 Average Tariffs on Total Imports, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.2 Average Tariffs on Machinery and Equipment Imports, 1995­2007 . . . . . 94 4.3 Composition of Machinery and Equipment Imports by Malaysia, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.4 Net Inflows of FDI, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.5 Top 12 FDI Sectors in Malaysia, 1999­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.6 Top 12 FDI Sectors in Malaysia, 1999­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.7 Composition of Radio, Television, and Communication FDI Inflows into Malaysia by Source Economy, 1999­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 viii Contents 6.1 Secondary School Gross Enrollment Ratio, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.2 Hybritech and Its Daughter Firms in San Diego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.3 Information and Communication Technology Investment and Labor Productivity Growth, 1989­2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.4 M2 as a Percentage of GDP, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.5 Domestic Credit to Private Sector, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 6.6 Number of Deals in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, Including All Stages, 1990­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 7.1 R&D Expenditure as a Share of GDP, 1996­2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 7.2 Total R&D Personnel, 1999­2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.3 Number of Researchers per Million People, 1996­2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.4 Share of R&D Spending by Businesses, 2002­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7.5 Distribution of R&D by Sectors, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 7.6 Number of Published Papers in Professional Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 7.7 Malaysia's U.S. Patents Relative to Those of Other Countries, 1977­2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 7.8 Royalty and License Fee Receipts, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 7.9 Royalty and License Fee Payments, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 7.10 Net Royalty and Licensing Payments, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 8.1 Per Capita GDP Growth of Germany, 1860­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 8.2 Per Capita GDP Growth of the United Kingdom, 1860­2003 . . . . . . . . . 188 8.3 Per Capita GDP Growth of the United States, 1860­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 8.4 Per Capita GDP Growth of Indonesia, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.5 Per Capita GDP Growth of Japan, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.6 Per Capita GDP Growth of the Republic of Korea, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . 191 8.7 Per Capita GDP Growth of Malaysia, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 8.8 Per Capita GDP Growth of the Philippines, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.9 Per Capita GDP Growth of Taiwan, China, 1960­2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.10 Per Capita GDP Growth of Thailand, 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 8.11 Average Years of Schooling, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 8.12 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Germany, 1860­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 8.13 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Japan, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.14 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Republic of Korea, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.15 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Taiwan, China: 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.16 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: United States, 1860­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.17 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Indonesia, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Contents ix 8.18 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Malaysia, 1960­2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 8.19 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Philippines, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 8.20 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Thailand, 1960­2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Tables 1.1 Export Shares of Primary and Resource-Based Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2 Contribution of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Export Structure of Southeast Asian Countries, 1970­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1 Historical Performance of Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2 Average Sectoral Contribution to Growth: Demand Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3 Average Sectoral Contribution to Growth: Supply Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4 Contributions of Input Growth and TFP Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.5 TFP Growth for Malaysia and Other Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.6 Malaysia's Share in World Production, 1981, 1990, and 2002. . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.7 Value Added per Worker in Malaysia and Its Growth Rates, 1981, 1990, and 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.8 Average Wage in Malaysia and Its Growth Rates, 1981, 1990, and 2002 . . 26 2.9 Ratio of Value Added to Output Value, 1981, 1990, and 2002 . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.10 Rank Correlation among Selected Indexes on Technological Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.11 Macroindicators of Malaysia and Other Southeast Asian Economies, 1990­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.A.1 IMD Global Competitiveness Ranking, 2004­08. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.A.2 Subcomponents to IMD Global Competitiveness Rankings: Malaysia, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.A.3 WEF Global Competitiveness Index, 2006­07 and 2007­08 . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.A.4 WEF Global Competitiveness Rankings of Malaysia and Its Major Competitors, 2007­08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.A.5 Doing Business Indicators, 2006­09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.A.6 Individual Components of Doing Business Rankings: Malaysia, 2005­08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.1 Exports and Imports of Goods and Services as a Percentage of GDP, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2 Exports of Goods and Services, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.3 Fastest-Growing Exports from Malaysia by Level of Technology, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4 Leading Export Sectors, 1995 and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.5 Share of Overlapping Commodities, 1995, 2000, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.6 Share of Overlapping Trade Values, 1995, 2000, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 x Contents 3.7 Full Time Period, 1990­2006, with Subperiod Dummies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.8 Degree of Competition between Malaysian and Chinese Exports, 1990­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.9 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Nonoil Exports to the United States, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.10 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Nonoil Exports to Japan, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.11 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Exports to the EU15, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.12 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to the United States, 1990­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.13 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to Japan, 1990­2007. . . . . . . . . . 56 3.14 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to the EU15, 1990­2007 . . . . . . 57 3.15 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in U.S. Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.16 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in Japanese Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007 . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.17 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in EU15's Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.18 Investments in Electrical and Electronics Industry, 1996­2005 . . . . . . . . . 64 3.19 Number of Commodities That Entered or Exited Selected Asian Export Baskets, by Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.20 Percentage of Commodities That Entered or Exited Selected Asian Export Baskets, by Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.21 Fastest-Growing "New" Exports from Malaysia, 2000­07. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.22 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from Malaysia, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.23 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from Thailand, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.24 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from the Philippines, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.25 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from China, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.26 New Electronic and Electricals That Appeared from 1995 to 2006 and Their 2000­04 PRODY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.27 Destination of Malaysia's Exports, 1995, 2000, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.28 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.29 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.30 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Contents xi 3.31 Top 10 Malaysian Exports in 2007 and Their Revealed Comparative Advantages in 1995­2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.32 Costs of Selected Procedures in Selected Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.1 Contribution of the Electronics and Electrical Machinery, Automotive, and Palm Oil Industries to Manufacturing GDP, 2005 . . . . 106 6.1 City Population and Share of National Population, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 6.2 Cities' Share of National GDP, 1985­2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 6.3 Population and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.4 GDP and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.5 FDI and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 6.6 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Kuala Lumpur, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 6.7 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Johor, 1995­2006 . . . . . . . 128 6.8 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Penang, 1995­2006 . . . . . . 129 6.9 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Malacca, 1995­2006 . . . . . 130 6.10 Distribution of Labor Force by Educational Attainment, 2002 and 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.11 Share of Firms That Reported Vacancies for Various Occupations, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.12 Time It Takes to Fill the Position, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.13 Most Critical Skill in Shortage, 2002 and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.14 Most Important Causes of Vacancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.15 Eighth-Grade TIMSS Scores for Mathematics for Selected East Asian Economies, 1999, 2003, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.16 Eighth-Grade TIMSS Scores for Science for Selected East Asian Economies, 1999, 2003, and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.17 Ranking of Selected Universities in East Asia, 2007 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . 137 6.18 Number of Government Research Institutes, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.19 Location of Public and Private Universities, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.20 Malaysia's 40 Largest Firms with Spinoff Potential, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.21 Locations of Headquarters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.22 Broadband Subscribers, 2001­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.23 Information Technology and Innovation Foundation Broadband Rankings, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.24 Average Speed of Internet Connections Offered in Malaysia, 2008 . . . . . 146 6.25 International Bandwidth, 1999­2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.26 E-Readiness Scores, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.27 Volume of Venture Capital from Public and Private Sources in Malaysia, 2003­06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.28 Cumulative Deals in Malaysia, by Sector, 1990­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 6.29 Initial Public Offerings by Malaysian Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 7.1 R&D Spending as a Share of GDP, 1996­2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 xii Contents 7.2 Total R&D Personnel Nationwide, 1997­2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 7.3 Top Five Sectors with Highest R&D Spending in Malaysia, 2006. . . . . . . 164 7.4 R&D Spending by Major Automobile Firms, 2007­08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 7.5 R&D Spending by Top Four GRIs, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 7.6 Top 15 Fields of Emphasis by GRIs, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.7 Distribution of R&D Researchers in GRIs with More Than 100 Researchers, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 7.8 R&D Spending by Top Research Universities, 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.9 Top 15 Fields of Emphasis by Universities, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.10 Research Concentration by Fields, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 7.11 Top 10 R&D Spending by GRIs and Universities, 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 7.12 Patents Granted in Malaysia, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 7.13 Top Holders of Malaysian Patents: Private Firms, 1989­2006 . . . . . . . . . 173 7.14 Top 10 Patent Owners in Malaysia, 1995­2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 7.15 Distribution of Domestic Patents by Technology Class, 2000­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 7.16 Patents Granted by U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to Foreign Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 7.17 U.S. Patents Granted to Malaysian Organizations, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . . . 176 7.18 U.S. Patent Classes Granted to Malaysian Residents, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . 177 7.19 Number of U.S. Patents Granted in the Active Solid-State Devices Technology Class, by Geographic Origin, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 7.20 Number of U.S. Patents Granted in Semiconductor Device Manufacturing, Process Technology Class, by Geographic Origin, 2003­07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 7.21 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, by Technology Class: Malaysia, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 7.22 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Malaysia, 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 7.23 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Malaysia, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.24 Index of Innovation Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Singapore, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 8.1 Average Growth Rates of GDP Per Capita, 1870­2003 and 1960­2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 8.2 R&D Expenditure, 1985­2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 9.1 Malaysia's Incentive Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 9.2 List of Major Investment Incentives Available for the Manufacturing Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 9.3 Malaysia: Highest IRCA in 1995 and RCA in 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 9.4 Malaysia: Highest IRCA in 2000 and RCA in 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 9.5 Thailand: Highest IRCA in 1995 and RCA in 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9.6 Thailand: Highest IRCA in 2000 and RCA in 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Contents xiii A.1 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in China, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 A.2 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Indonesia, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 A.3 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Japan, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 A.4 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in the Republic of Korea, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 A.5 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in the Philippines, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 A.6 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Singapore, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 A.7 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Taiwan, China, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 A.8 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Thailand, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 B.1 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in China, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 B.2 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Hong Kong, China, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 B.3 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in India, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 B.4 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Indonesia, 2000­04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 B.5 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in the Republic of Korea, 2000­04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 B.6 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Malaysia, 2000­04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 B.7 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in the Philippines, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 B.8 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Singapore, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 B.9 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Thailand, 2000­04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 C.1 Breakdown of Private Research and Development Spending. . . . . . . . . . 235 D.1 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in China, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 D.2 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in India, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 D.3 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Indonesia, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 D.4 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in the Philippines, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 xiv Contents D.5 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Singapore, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 D.6 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Thailand, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 E.1 Financial Incentives for Innovation Offered in China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 F.1 Support for Investments in the Development of Skills, Technology, and Innovation in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 F.2 Expanded Support Programs for Enhancing Technology in Industry in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 F.3 Support under the Revised Policy on Intellectual Property in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Acknowledgments This volume is one of a series of publications emerging from a project on East Asia's Prospects, cosponsored by the government of Japan. It was done in close collaboration with the East Asia and Pacific Regional Office in the World Bank and the Knowledge Economy Section of the Economic Planning Unit of the Prime Minister's Department. The study benefitted from interaction with numerous firms, university personnel, and state-level authorities and institutions in Malaysia. We would like to express our deep appreciation to Tan Sri Dr. Sulaiman Mahbob, Dato' Noriyah Ahmad, and Mr. K. Yogeesvaran for their support and encouragement. We gratefully acknowledge the financial backing of the govern- ment of Japan through its Policy and Human Resources Development Fund for the research and the publication of the book. For their highly constructive comments and suggestions, we thank Milan Brahmbhatt, Mark Dutz, Bruno Laporte, Vikram Nehru, Ian Porter, Omporn Regel, Tatyana Soubbotina, Mathew Verghis, Al Watkins, and Albert Zeufack. Lopamudra Chakraborti provided excel- lent research support throughout, and the expert assistance provided by Rebecca Sugui, Paulina Sintim-Aboagye, Audrey Kitson-Walters, and Imran Hafiz enormously facilitated the production of this volume. As in the past, we relied heavily on Patricia Katayama, Cindy Fisher, and Nora Ridolfi at the World Bank Office of the Publisher to manage the operation from start to finish, and the editors at Publications Professionals once again did a fine job of editing the man- uscript. Our debt to them grows longer with each succeeding publication. xv About the Authors Shahid Yusuf is economic adviser in the World Bank Institute of the World Bank and currently manages a major project on East Asia's Prospects. He was the direc- tor for the World Development Report 1999/2000, Entering the 21st Century and has held positions in the Bank's regional and research departments. He received his B.A. in economics from Cambridge University and his Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University. He has written extensively on development issues, with a special focus on East Asia. His most recent publications include Postindustrial East Asian Cities, co- authored with Kaoru Nabeshima (2006); Dancing with Giants, co-edited with L. Alan Winters (2007); How Universities Promote Economic Growth, co-edited with Kaoru Nabeshima (2007); China Urbanizes, co-edited with Tony Saich (2008); Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia, co-edited with Kaoru Nabeshima and Shoichi Yamashita (2008); Accelerating Catch-Up: Tertiary Education and Growth in Africa, co-authored with William Saint and Kaoru Nabeshima (2008); and Development Economics through the Decades (World Bank 2009). Kaoru Nabeshima is a consultant for the World Bank Institute of the World Bank and previously served as an economist in the Bank's Development Research Group. He received his B.A. in economics from Ohio Wesleyan University. He holds a Ph.D. in economics from the University of California, Davis. His recent publications include Postindustrial East Asian Cities, co-authored with Shahid Yusuf (2006); How Universities Promote Economic Growth, co-edited with Shahid Yusuf (2007); Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia, co-edited with Shahid Yusuf and Shoichi Yamashita (2008); and Accelerating Catch-Up: Tertiary Education and Growth in Africa, co-authored with Shahid Yusuf and William Saint (2008). xvii Abbreviations AMD Advanced Micro Devices ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BIOS basic input-output system CCL Cambridge Consultants DDIT double-deduction incentive for training DRC dynamic revealed competitiveness DRCP dynamic revealed competitiveness position ETDZ Economic and Technological Development Zone (China) EU European Union FDI foreign direct investment GCC government-controlled corporation GDP gross domestic product GRI government research institute GTAP Global Trade Analysis Project HRDF Human Resource Development Fund (Malaysia) HS harmonized system HT1 electronic and electrical products HT2 other high-tech products HTIZ high-tech industrial zone ICT information and communication technology IMD International Institute for Management Development IPO initial public offering IRCA innovation revealed comparative advantage IT information technology ITA investment tax allowance JCI Joint Commission International LED light-emitting diode LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear LT2 other low-technology products xix xx Abbreviations MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute MAVCAP Malaysia Venture Capital Management MESDAQ Malaysian Exchange of Securities Dealing and Automated Trading MIDA Malaysian Industrial Development Authority MIMOS Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems MNC multinational corporation MPOB Malaysian Palm Oil Board MSC Multimedia Super Corridor (Malaysia) MT1 automotive products MT2 process industry MT3 engineering products NASDAQ National Association of Securities Dealers and Automated Quotations NCER Northern Corridor Economic Region (Malaysia) NEP New Economic Policy (Malaysia) NSTDA National Science and Technology Development Agency (Thailand) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OLS ordinary least squares OSP2 Second Outsource Partners Programme (Malaysia) PP primary products PSDC Penang Skills Development Centre (Malaysia) RA reinvestment allowance RB1 agro-based products RB2 other resource-based products R&D research and development RCA revealed comparative advantage SAIC Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation SIRIM Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia SITC2 Standard Industrial Trade Classification revision 2 SMEs small and medium-size enterprises S&T science and technology STEM science, technology, engineering, and math STEP2 Second Science and Technology Policy (Malaysia) TEFT Technology Transfer from Research Institutes to SMEs (program) (Norway) TFP total factor productivity TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Abbreviations xxi UM University of Malaya UN Comtrade United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia USM Universiti Sains Malaysia USPTO U.S. Patent and Trademark Office UTM Universiti Teknologi Malaysia WEF World Economic Forum 1 Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition Japan showed the way. Its remarkable economic recovery starting in the early 1950s, and sustained rapid growth through the early 1970s served to define the iconic East Asian industrialization cum export-led model of growth. Four economies followed in Japan's wake: Hong Kong, China; the Republic of Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China. All of these economies consciously emulated ele- ments of the Japanese approach appropriate for their size, their history, and the prevailing international circumstances.1 All hitched their future performance to in- dustrialization, as Japan had done, with light manufacturing as the initial stepping- stone; all relied largely on rising rates of domestic savings to finance development; and all came to depend on domestic investment and export demand, mainly from the United States, to buttress their growth. Unlike Japan, however, Hong Kong, China; Singapore; and, to a lesser extent, Taiwan, China, fueled their early industri- alization with the help of foreign direct investment (FDI), the bulk of it by compa- nies from the United States. FDI also helped to hook firms in these economies to buyer-driven international value chains, which germinated in the 1960s as major U.S. retailers began sourcing more labor-intensive products from overseas and di- versified away from Japanese suppliers.2 Of the four, Korea relied the least on FDI (see Chung 2007). Home-grown companies, several of which had struck root in the first half of the 20th century, spearheaded Korea's industrial development and trade as they did in Japan (see Chung 2007; Graham 2003; Lie 2000). The governments of Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, adopted the Japanese approach of targeting and grooming potential leading sectors with the 1 This concept has been captured by the flying geese model, in which Japan is depicted as the goose in the lead. 2 The literature on these chains and how they operate is now vast. See Feenstra and Hamilton (2006); Gereffi and Korzeniewicz (1993); Schmitz (2005); and Yusuf, Altaf, and Nabeshima (2004). 1 2 Tiger Economies Under Threat help of fiscal and trade incentives and by directing publicly owned financial insti- tutions to channel credit to provide the selected subsectors with patient capital on favorable terms.3 The colonial authorities governing Hong Kong created the envi- ronment conducive to industrialization but allowed the private sector to take the lead (Berger and Lester 1997; Enright, Scott, and Dodwell 1997). Governments of all four economies developed and financed--with some assistance from overseas--the supporting physical infrastructure. And governments in Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, actively promoted policies to deepen human capi- tal and to build a literate and trainable workforce that could readily master new technologies and adapt to technological change. Cultural factors ensured that industrial labor in these economies also quickly acquired the discipline that is a key to industrial productivity and to moving up the ladder of industrialization.4 Although most other developing countries stumbled in the 1970s and several frontrunners squandered the growth momentum acquired in the preceding decade--including countries that had shown considerable promise in the 1960s, such as Brazil, Kenya, and Pakistan--the four East Asian economies proved their mettle by averaging growth rates of 9 percent per year. This performance helped forge the legend of the East Asian Tigers. During the 1980s, despite some eco- nomic turbulence, the four charter members of the society of East Asian Tiger economies consolidated their reputations and staked out an enduring niche in the annals of development. Needless to say, the achievements of the Tiger economies did not go unnoticed, especially in their own East Asian neighborhood. Other countries were eager to develop and were casting around for models. With the benefit of hindsight, it is perhaps not surprising that neighborhood and knowledge spillover effects, certain cultural affinities, and the geography of FDI and of the emergent cross-Pacific production networks favored the Southeast Asian countries. Many other poten- tially well-positioned economies envied the East Asian Tigers, but only Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and to a lesser extent the Philippines were able to arrive at the fortuitous combination of relative political stability and economic circumstances that served to crystallize an export-led manufacturing sector and put them on the road to lower-middle-income affluence by the 1990s. These countries emerged as the second cohort of "Tiger" economies.5 Their natural resource­based develop- ment in the 1960s was supplemented 10 years later by industrial widening, with 3 Japan's approach was described by Chalmers Johnson (1982); that of the other Tigers is approvingly discussed by Amsden (1989) and Wade (2003). 4 These cultural predispositions have been the subject of debate ever since Max Weber (2002) singled them out and asked whether Confucian cultures had the ethical resolve needed to save and work hard in the rational pursuit of economic rewards. 5 See Dick and others (2002); Emmerson (1999); Hill (1996); and Woo, Glassburner, and Nasution (1994) on the development history of Indonesia. See Balisacan and Hill (2003) on the Philippines and Phongpaichit and Baker (2002, 2008) on Thailand. Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 3 Malaysia in the forefront and the Philippines in fourth place. By the time these countries had advanced into the mid-1980s, manufacturing was clearly the leading sector, and exports were a major--if not always dominant--source of demand. The East Asian crisis of 1997 to 1998 and the political changes that occurred in Indonesia and the Philippines around the turn of the century slowed growth throughout Southeast Asia. However, the persistence of this slowdown during 2000 to 2007--when gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates averaged be- tween 4 and 6 percent compared with past rates of between 7 and 9 percent--and the steep drop in growth during 2008 and 2009 are sources of considerable con- cern.6 They are sharpening fears of a decline in economic vigor and have focused attention in the Southeast Asian countries on the nature of industrialization to date, on the desirable direction of future industrial change, on the drivers of growth, and on policies to enhance the performance of current drivers as well as policies to facilitate the emergence of a new generation of industrial drivers. The Southeast Asian Tigers feel threatened. Even though their growth rates have remained above the average for the world and also above the average for de- veloping countries,7 their economic performance falls short of that in the first half of the 1990s. The underlying worry is that it presages the beginning of a downward trend, the harbingers of which are lower rates of investment, persistently low rates of total factor productivity, and low levels of innovativeness. The Southeast Asian Tigers' worries motivate three questions, which this book attempts to answer. First, are the Tigers rightly threatened by a creeping economic sclerosis or what some observers are calling the middle-income trap? Second, if the threat is real, what are the underlying causes? Third, are there ways of neutralizing the problems and at least maintaining if not raising the growth rates of the recent past? This book will respond to these questions by means of a comparative analysis of the Tiger economies that is centered on Malaysia. This analysis draws on a com- prehensive set of techniques and indicators to assess competitive pressures, to gauge industrial and technological capabilities, and to indicate some of the direc- tions industrial change in Southeast Asia could take. Thus, the book seeks not only to view industrial evolution in the region from a comparative perspective--taking account also of what is happening and has happened in other parts of East Asia-- but also to illuminate this ongoing and uncertain process using some of the latest empirical techniques devised for this purpose. 6 Malaysia, for instance, managed a GDP growth of 4.6 percent in 2008. However, the real GDP contracted by 3.6 percent between the third and the fourth quarters of 2008. GDP is forecast to contract by between 4 and 5 percent in 2009, and the Malaysian economy is not expected to fully recover from the slowdown until 2011 (Burton 2009a). To counter the downturn, the government introduced a stimulus package totaling RM 60 billion (US$16 billion, 9 percent of GDP) on March 10, 2009 (Burton 2009c; Netto 2009). 7 During 2000 to 2007, the global economy averaged a growth rate of 3.3 percent, and developing countries as a group averaged a growth rate of 6.3 percent. 4 Tiger Economies Under Threat The balance of this chapter provides the developmental and international con- texts with reference to which these questions will be addressed. It explains the book's preferred angles to tackling them. The chapter also outlines the contents of the volume and foreshadows the principal findings and conclusions. Brief Development History of the Four Southeast Asian Tigers Prior to the first stirrings of industrialization in the 1960s, the four Southeast Asian countries had not experienced preparatory protoindustrialization, lacked a class of entrepreneurs other than the ones engaged in commerce and petty trade, and had nothing resembling the deeply entrenched cultures of literacy to be found in China and Japan.8 The wealth of these countries resided mainly in their natural resources and the development that occurred in colonial times and in the imme- diate aftermath of independence. It was based on exploiting minerals, timber, and the exportable bounties derived from rice and tree crops grown on fertile, well- watered land. Although timber resources are approaching exhaustion in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand and the production of tin is down to a trickle in Malaysia,9 rice, tree crop, and fisheries production remains vital to the perfor- mance and exports of these countries. Indonesia and Malaysia are large producers (and net exporters) of oil and gas, and Indonesia benefits significantly from its rich deposits of gold and copper ores. Nevertheless, as a share of GDP, of exports, and of growth, the contribution of the primary sector is well below what it used to be in all four countries, having fallen most steeply in Indonesia (see tables 1.1 and 1.2). On the threshold of industrialization, the four leading Southeast Asian economies depended heavily on natural resources, unlike the four Tiger economies and unlike Japan in the 1950s (although Taiwan, China, had a highly productive agricultural economy, and exports of farm products remained impor- tant until the early 1990s).10 To varying degrees, six factors shifted Southeast Asia's development trajectory and enabled the Southeast Asian economies to begin building manufacturing activities, which first supplemented and then displaced natural resource­based industries as the engines of growth and the sources of em- ployment. Taking full account of these factors and the regional circumstances in 8 Morris-Suzuki (1994) and Rawski (1979) have estimated that by the middle of the 19th century about half of the male population in China and Japan and a lesser percentage of the female population were literate. 9 Rising prices led to a revival of tin mining during 2007 and 2008. 10 Under Japanese occupation, the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, and vegetables in Taiwan, China, was actively promoted, and agricultural research and extension contributed to steady gains in land productivity. Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 5 Table 1.1 Export Shares of Primary and Resource-Based Products Primary products Agro-based products Other resource-based Country Year (%) (%) products (%) Indonesia 1970 28.4 37.7 33.4 2006 24.8 18.4 19.7 Malaysia 1970 25.9 59.8 10.3 2006 7.6 10.7 10.0 Philippines 1970 33.3 60.1 3.5 2006 6.5 4.8 5.1 Thailand 1970 67.0 26.7 2.7 2006 9.3 10.0 9.0 Source: United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade). Table 1.2 Contribution of Agriculture Average contribution Share of to growth of Average share of agriculture in agriculture agriculture growth Country Year GDP (%) (percentage points) to overall growth (%) Indonesia 1970s 44.9 1.7 21.4 2000s 12.9 0.4 9.5 Malaysia 1970s 26.7 1.4 3.3 2000s 8.7 0.3 3.5 Philippines 1970s 29.5 1.1 15.3 2000s 14.2 0.6 13.7 Thailand 1970s 25.9 1.1 13.0 2000s 10.7 0.3 6.6 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. the 1960s and early 1970s can shed light on past achievements and also illuminate the causes of current worries. The East Asian Model First, the economic successes notched up by the original Tiger economies in the 1970s reverberated throughout the East Asian region and exerted a profound demonstration effect. Adopting the "East Asian model" came to be viewed as the recipe for development, and each of the aspiring Tiger economies of Southeast Asia began adapting that recipe to its own political conditions and resource endowments. Second, the efforts of these economies to industrialize were aided financially and through trade policies by Japan, the United States, and other Western countries eager to support market-based economies following the culmi- nation of the Vietnam conflict. Third, export-led growth, as demonstrated by Korea and Taiwan, China, was quickly embraced by Western donors and 6 Tiger Economies Under Threat international financial institutions. Fourth, Southeast Asian governments came under pressure to accelerate development and thereby nip any nascent insurgen- cies seeking to destabilize the existing order.11 Fifth, this objective combined with the interests of U.S. and Japanese multinational corporations (MNCs) to geo- graphically diversify their labor-intensive assembly manufacturing to countries where wages were lower, thereby smoothing Southeast Asia's transition from natural resource­based activities to manufacturing. Finally, the process was expe- dited by the presence of strong, authoritarian regimes in all four countries for most of the 1970s and 1980s. Such regimes were embraced by the West and Japan because in three out of the four cases--the Philippines being the exception--they arguably quickened the transition to industrialization by acting decisively, by implementing policies (more or less effectively) to strengthen market institutions, by tying their legitimacy to achieving economic growth, and by ensuring (for the most part) law and order, which crucially underpinned rapid growth.12 Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand started out with similar aspi- rations and comparative advantages, but inevitably, given their different sizes, po- litical systems, and cultures, each trod a different path to industrialization. Of the four, Malaysia was the least populous in the early 1970s,13 and in per capita terms, its resource endowment, comprising cultivable land, mineral resources, and tim- ber, was greater than that of the other countries. This feature was also reflected in its higher per capita income, life expectancy, and literacy; its share of trade to GDP; and its lower rates of poverty. Except for a period in the latter half of the 1960s, when ethnic tensions flared, Malaysia was also the most politically stable of the four countries, and this stability extended to the macroeconomic sphere. After Suharto took over the reins of government in 1967, Indonesia settled into a long period of social and political stability, and after the early 1980s, the country enjoyed almost two decades of growth and price stability. Frequent changes of government in Thailand14 and, to a lesser extent, in the Philippines had only a limited effect on the social stability and economic performance of the former but lessened the effectiveness of policy making in the latter.15 The Philippines 11 Smallholder-based oil palm growing schemes managed by a newly created Malaysian agency, the Federal Land Development Agency, were also aimed at lessening the risk of unrest. The schemes gave peasants a larger stake in the economy and a means of improv- ing their lots, because returns from oil palm cultivation were high. 12 On Indonesia, see Hill (1996) and Woo, Glassburner, and Nasution (1994). On Thailand, see Phongpaichit and Baker (2002). 13 When it gained independence in 1957, Malaysia's population was just 7.4 million (Yusof and Bhattasali 2008). 14 Since 1932 (the year when the absolute monarchy was abolished), there have been 18 coups in Thailand, of which 11 have been successful (Pilling 2009). 15 The Philippines experienced a number of boom-bust cycles since the 1960s, unable to sustain growth of 5 percent or more for a long period of time (Bernardo and Tang 2008). Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 7 experienced fairly severe macroeconomic stresses in the first half of the 1980s as a consequence of the oil shock and lapses in policy--problems that the other three countries were able to contain. When President Fidel V. Ramos took the office in 1992, he introduced a number of reforms, mostly in line with the Washington Consensus, to put the Philippines on a more stable growth path (Bernardo and Tang 2008). What is notable over the entire period from the early 1970s to the present is the degree to which all four countries adopted variants of a common growth strategy, which was to develop export-oriented manufacturing and agri- cultural activities with the help of FDI and to support these activities with trade and other incentive regimes, infrastructure building, and investment in educa- tion. Manufacturing, agriculture, and construction emerged as the sectoral dri- vers of growth, with services playing a bigger role in the Philippines relative to manufacturing (Balisacan and Hill 2003).16 The strategies followed had enough in common for this analysis to use the experience of Malaysia as a mirror for the experience and prospects of the three other countries. The Malaysian Experience To jumpstart the growth of the manufacturing sector, Malaysia, much like Singapore, needed firms that could compete in the export market and quickly ramp up their sales to the industrial countries. Because few, if any, domestic firms had such potential, Malaysia had to provide the incentives to attract foreign man- ufacturers; it did so effectively, starting with the establishment of a free trade zone in Penang in 1971. MNCs, initially from Japan and the United States and later from Europe, were offered attractive terms, were satisfied by the quality of the labor force for low-tech assembly operations, and were provided the physical in- frastructure to meet their requirements. The government's control over political freedoms and firm grip on society17 maintained the peace, and the business cli- mate was equal to if not better than that of other Southeast Asian countries. 16 The Philippines was able to attract some back-office process outsourcing, accounting for 15 percent of the global market share in 2008 (Gott 2009). Although this outsourcing has generated employment, the links to other industries are limited and did not stimulate any production activities (Magtibay-Ramos, Estrada, and Felipe 2008). The Philippines has also developed a sizable animation industry (total revenues of US$110 million in 2008), which contracts with multimedia, moviemaking, and animation firms in Japan and the United States. Approximately 10,000 workers are directly employed in the animation in- dustry. Although this industry has faced difficulties since 2001, the government and the newly created industrial association are collaborating to facilitate its growth by establish- ing information technology zones, hosting animation festivals, encouraging international marketing, and setting up training courses. 17 The Internal Security Act, which was introduced following serious rioting in 1969, gave the government broad powers of arrest and detention. 8 Tiger Economies Under Threat Industrialization and the Changing Export Mix The Malaysian state's commitment to industrialize and to invest in the support- ing infrastructure, the buoyant performance of the primary sector, and the in- flow of FDI, boosted Malaysia toward a higher growth path. By the end of the 1970s, Malaysia was a substantial exporter of raw materials, textiles, other light manufactures, and electronic and electrical products assembled in factories es- tablished by MNCs in Penang and in the Kuala Lumpur­Port Klang area. Man- ufactures first complemented and then overshadowed resource-based exports. As the growth rate of GDP soared, the stage was set for a virtuous spiral, with rising incomes pulling up savings and helping to finance high rates of invest- ment, both public and private. FDI in manufacturing generated some vertical links, which led to the widening of industrialization, and the Malaysian govern- ment's own efforts (like those of the Indonesian government) at targeted development of the transport, engineering, metallurgical, and petrochemical in- dustries further diversified the base of manufacturing. The dramatic change in the industrial composition of the Malaysian economy can be seen from the changing export shares presented in table 1.3. In 1970, more than 95 percent of Malaysia's exports were resource based, as were the exports of the three other Southeast Asian comparators.18 Ten years later, the share had declined to 83 per- cent, and it had also fallen in the Philippines and Thailand. By 1990, only about one-half of Malaysia's exports were natural resource­based products, a smaller share than those of its comparators. By 2007, the share of such exports was less than 30 percent in Malaysia as well as in the Philippines and in Thailand (2006). Only Indonesia remains a large exporter of primary products and other resource-based commodities, with these accounting for over 60 percent of its exports (see table 1.3). Innovation Capabilities and Dynamism of Firms During the period extending from the mid-1970s through the mid-1990s, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand achieved their growth objectives assisted by FDI19 and a sustained increase in manufactured exports. Export growth slowed in the mid-1990s because of rising costs and competition from China and be- cause Southeast Asia was slow to diversify into higher-value products. The crisis in 1997 to 1998 was partly caused by weakening trade performance and damp- ened investment and growth. Although growth revived within a few years, it did not climb back to earlier trend rates. Nevertheless, the long boom experienced by 18 Yet earlier, rubber accounted for 70 percent of Malaysia's exports in 1948 to 1952 and for two-thirds of exports during 1963 to 1967 (Lim 1973). 19 Following the Plaza Accord in 1985, which resulted in the appreciation of the Japanese yen relative to the U.S. dollar, the flow of Japanese FDI to Southeast Asia increased. Table 1.3 Export Structure of Southeast Asian Countries, 1970­2007 Textile, Other Electronic garment, resource- and Other high and Other low Primary Agro-based based Country Year electrical technology footwear technology Automotive Process Engineering products products products Indonesia 1970 0.30 0.25 0.07 0.03 80.53 6.07 12.75 1980 0.47 0.07 0.61 0.18 0.02 0.40 0.03 85.31 10.51 2.41 1990 0.65 0.28 12.28 3.64 0.16 4.62 0.76 56.04 17.53 4.03 2000 12.90 0.45 15.03 8.25 0.81 5.47 4.52 31.99 14.62 5.95 2007 6.11 0.50 9.58 6.29 1.88 4.51 5.81 36.33 17.97 11.02 Malaysia 1970 0.27 0.41 0.78 0.85 0.48 0.52 0.82 64.61 27.56 3.70 1980 8.89 0.94 2.30 1.18 0.08 1.36 2.29 53.16 28.26 1.55 1990 25.70 1.85 5.95 5.46 0.42 2.13 9.96 26.05 21.11 1.38 2000 53.86 1.72 3.45 6.21 0.43 3.31 10.19 10.84 8.76 1.21 2007 40.65 2.63 2.75 8.66 0.66 5.15 9.99 15.90 11.80 1.82 Philippines 1970 0.00 0.01 0.75 1.42 0.00 0.54 0.14 14.32 60.76 22.05 1980 1.31 0.35 9.01 5.96 0.68 1.46 1.16 17.89 39.10 23.08 1990 13.12 0.22 16.30 11.41 0.52 5.03 4.74 20.59 20.12 7.95 2000 67.02 0.80 8.46 3.45 1.69 0.71 9.23 3.58 3.77 1.29 2007 48.16 0.99 5.80 4.86 5.66 1.78 8.52 10.23 9.33 4.67 Thailand 1970 0.04 0.13 1.48 0.66 0.25 0.53 0.47 80.59 12.63 3.22 1980 0.33 0.38 8.95 2.75 0.24 2.90 5.97 63.25 9.54 5.68 1990 16.15 0.37 20.45 10.55 0.57 3.36 6.44 24.03 12.79 5.29 2000 30.45 1.31 10.49 11.24 3.81 3.58 12.29 12.68 9.81 4.34 2006 25.20 1.57 12.17 9.16 6.62 6.58 15.49 10.35 8.42 4.43 Source: UN Comtrade. 9 10 Tiger Economies Under Threat these economies transformed their economies structurally, and they have all acquired considerable manufacturing capabilities, most notably in electronic and electrical engineering, textiles, and the automotive industry. No more than a handful of other developing economies have achieved as much in 35 years. But unlike the original East Asian Tiger economies, the Southeast Asian Tigers have yet to build the indigenous capacity to design, to innovate, and to diversify into new and more profitable areas with good long-run prospects, and very few of their firms have created regional--much less global--brand names. They are adept at assimilating technologies from overseas and have the production and plant management skills to match the labor productivity levels of indus- trial countries in the production of standardized commodities. However, innovation--product or process--remains mainly a preserve of the MNCs; indigenous firms do very little innovation. More disquieting is the sparseness of backward links from MNC operations, which would signify progressive indus- trial deepening, as has occurred in Korea and Taiwan, China, and as is already under way in China. This lack of backward links means that domestic value added in manufacturing remains low. Moreover, none of these countries has nurtured large and dynamic producers of tradable services, à la India in infor- mation technology and à la Hong Kong, China, and à la Singapore in finance, lo- gistics, and other business services. In Malaysia, efforts to promote domestic industrial links began in the early 1990s, and for more than a decade, the government has attempted to improve the quality of skills and to encourage research and development (R&D) so as to induce innovation and to stimulate value-adding product differentiation by Malaysian firms. The three other countries have taken smaller steps in these direc- tions. Because tangible evidence of an emerging culture of innovation has been slow to surface, governments--aware of rising competitive pressures--worry that the virtuous spiral of the recent decades might dissipate and view declining rates of investment as a sign that the business communities are finding that profitable opportunities are becoming scarce. A closer look at the Malaysian case and a contrasting of Malaysia's develop- ment with that of Korea and Taiwan, China, suggests four reasons Malaysian in- dustry, much like the industries of other Southeast Asian countries, has proven thus far to be less dynamic and innovative. First is the long-standing reliance on MNCs to provide Malaysia with export-oriented platforms and the inability to in- duce foreign companies to forge and deepen backward links and to generate knowledge spillovers by seeking out and closely involving local suppliers in the manufacture of increasingly more complex components and subassemblies. Al- though the industrial presence of MNCs is significant, their knowledge footprint has remained small. They have made Malaysia and the other Southeast Asian countries wealthier, but their contribution to development is far less. The Malaysian authorities had an opportunity to multiply links arising from the Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 11 presence of MNCs, but it was allowed to slip, in part because rules requiring local sourcing were not enforced for fear of driving the MNCs away. But other reasons--associated with the quality of skills, for example--explain Malaysia's inability to exploit the presence of MNCs. Second, Malaysia (unlike Korea and Taiwan, China) has been slow to try to construct a culture of excellence and innovation through its schools and tertiary- level institutions. Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, saw the need for such a culture and took steps to make it a reality, recognizing that doing so might take decades. They emphasized the quality of STEM (science, technology, engineer- ing, and math) and other skills, and through a combination of foreign schooling and steady improvement in the training provided by local universities and voca- tional training facilities, they raised the caliber of the workforce. The govern- ments in these economies, with the backing of the business communities, made the pursuit of innovation through research central to their strategies of sustain- ing industrial competitiveness. Both governments have urged industry to cease- lessly evolve so as to retain its competitive edge and have supported exhortations with tangible incentives. This awareness of external competition has been inter- nalized by the business sector, and to a greater degree than in other industrializ- ing countries, industry in Korea and Taiwan, China, has worked closely with the government to retain a competitive edge. In a globalized world, a duck that re- mains stationary is a sitting duck for competitors. The rules associated with the New Economic Policy (NEP) constrain Malaysia's efforts to raise the quality of its student body, teaching, and research, but the government has been less than res- olute and less than creative in easing the rules that bind the administrators of public universities and prevent universities from competing, from recruiting tal- ented faculty, and from taking the difficult steps to enhance student perfor- mance.20 However, the other three countries, although less subject to social pres- sures, have had no greater success in raising the quality of tertiary education and in promoting research. Third, in Malaysia and the three other Southeast Asian countries, the volume of entrepreneurship and its creativity are not sufficient to raise the tempo of innova- tion. The quality of education and skills is one factor, as previously noted, but in- dustrial organization, the structure of ownership, and the competitiveness of the market environment are also of relevance. Major conglomerates--either family owned or controlled by well-connected business elites--dominate the industrial landscape, and the high level of concentration raises entry barriers for new firms and inhibits the growth of existing firms that could challenge the incumbents 20 See World Bank (2007c) for an assessment of tertiary education in Malaysia and for views on what it takes to build world-class universities. 12 Tiger Economies Under Threat (Unger 1998).21 The extremely low turnover of the leading firms in Malaysia and in the other Southeast Asian countries and the few additions to the ranks of the largest business entities reflect unfavorably on the dynamism of the business environment. Fourth, the importance of government-controlled corporations (GCCs) in Indonesia, Malaysia, and to a lesser extent the two other countries further erodes dynamism and innovativeness. The incentives impinging on GCCs do not predis- pose them to strive after competitiveness by way of innovation. And it is rare to find a public corporation (anywhere in the world) whose organization, manage- ment system, and incentives place a high premium on initiative, innovativeness, and risk taking. The culture of GCCs the world over discourages risk taking and rarely rewards innovation, which can disrupt day-to-day operations, reduce the sales of existing products, and require additional effort at marketing and cus- tomization. In fact, few public entities are driven by their principal shareholder to maximize profit--satisfactory profits are usually enough.22 In Malaysia, the dynamism of the market environment is further affected by the oligopolistic structure of business. Even though formal barriers to trade, for example, are low and the business climate is considered to be moderately good, the dominance of a few large, privately owned firms and of government- controlled enterprises--all closely linked with powerful government agencies-- dampens competition from new entrants or foreign firms. Consolidation of Malaysia's domestic banking system under government guidance after the crisis of 1997 and 1998 has reduced the number of core banks to just six, of which two are government owned (Gomez 2006).23 Given the relatively underdeveloped finan- cial market--especially the lack of alternatives to loans--this consolidation also limits the entry of firms. The introduction of the New Economic Policy in 1991 led to the emergence of a Malay business elite owning large enterprises. Many Malaysian conglomerates used a holding company structure to own firms and to grow the business group through cross-shareholdings and interlocking directorships, where two or more 21 Family ownership and the dominance of family-controlled conglomerates are also found in the three other Southeast Asian countries. Family ownership can have advantages be- cause it provides firms with decision-making flexibility and increases the speed of re- sponse to opportunities, but as Studwell (2007) has pointed out, few of the heads of these conglomerates--or even the generation now succeeding them--are showing much in- dustrial entrepreneurship. 22 There is a vast literature on the woes of the public sector. Much of it argues for privatization, especially of manufacturing firms. For a survey, see Yusuf, Nabeshima, and Perkins (2005). 23 Policies announced in April 2009 promise some loosening of the entry barriers to majority foreign-owned investment in banks ("Malaysia: Najib Eases" 2009). Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 13 firms shared members of the board of directors (Gomez 2006).24,25 The NEP also introduced the Industrial Coordination Act in 1975, requiring firms to obtain li- censes once they had 25 or more employees (or paid-up capital exceeding RM 250,000); this legislation was used to control entry of firms and to ensure that firms complied with the objectives of the NEP (Lee 2007). However, despite sup- port for the development of Bumiputra firms, which continued under the New Development Policy (the policy that superseded the NEP in 1991), among the top 10 firms in 2001 in terms of domestic market capitalization, 7 were government- owned firms, while the rest were Chinese owned. In addition, none of the top 50 Malay firms listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange was successful in expand- ing its business in manufacturing. Instead, the focus of these firms is on finance, construction, property development, and telecommunications, where govern- ment patronage is much stronger (Gomez 2006). Throughout the world, the innovation driving competitiveness and profitabil- ity largely depends on the strategies and decisions of firms. Governments, research entities, and universities can facilitate and provide the institutions, the talent, and some of the resources, but firms are the ones that do the applied research and 24 Business groups exist in many different countries. Some of the notable ones are the business houses in India, keiretsu in Japan, chaebols in Korea, and grupos económicos in Latin American countries (Chang 2006a). In East Asia, business groups in one form or another are pervasive, and they account for a large share of economic activities. In Korea, the top 30 chaebols accounted for 40 percent of industrial output in 1996. Thirteen of the weaker ones subsequently went bankrupt after the Asian crisis of 1997 to 1998 (Chang 2006b). Large business groups accounted for 24.3, 24.9, and 34.6 percent of the market capitalization in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore, respectively, in 2002. Many of these business groups were supported by governments pursuing their economic and industrial development objectives. Before the crisis, the top five business groups in Thailand were all connected to main banks. In addition, those firms were mainly controlled by a founding family or families. After the crisis of 1997 to 1998, the finances of a quarter of the families were badly damaged, and some of these families lost their controlling shares in banks (Phongpaichit and Baker 2008; Polsiri and Wiwattanakantang 2006). However, even after the crisis, firms that are politically connected (and globally oriented) still outperform those that are not (Imai 2006). Similarly, many of the business groups in Indonesia owned banks as a means of mobilizing funds and gaining access to credit (Hanani 2006). However, the relationships with governments were more arm's length in Japan, Korea, and Singapore than in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand--although in Korea chaebols have actively blocked attempts by governments to enact competition policies (Kang 2005). In these latter countries, the close connections with governments were necessary for the success of businesses and, in the event of a crisis, for their survival (Chang 2006a). 25 Accounting reform in Japan--which forced firms to disclose the market value of equity holdings--compelled these firms to sell off their stockholding in other firms (cross- shareholding) and in banks (Ahmadjian 2006). 14 Tiger Economies Under Threat through trial and error actually determine whether innovation succeeds. One of the most durable findings of economic research is that markets dominated by oligopolies--and, in particular, by public corporations--will be less open to change and innovation. The Southeast Asian Tiger economies have certainly acknowledged the value of openness and competition. In fact, their performance is in no small part the out- come of their efforts to improve the business climate. Table 2.A.5 in the annex to chapter 2 presents the rankings of the four countries in 2007 and again in 2008. Openness and competition have tended to be uneven: the tradable sectors domi- nated by MNCs are undoubtedly open and competitive, but in other parts of these economies, competitive pressures are weak because of the salience of public cor- porations or private monopolies or because the goods or services are not tradable. It is difficult to delineate the gradations of competition, but casual empiricism would suggest that they are significant.26 They provide the larger companies-- which tend to be diversified--with a cushion, and by ensuring a relatively secure stream of revenue, they diminish the need to pursue more entrepreneurial strate- gies that would emphasize innovation. Analyzing Industrial Change in Southeast Asia In broad strokes, this discussion defines the strategies, the achievements, and the weaknesses of the Southeast Asian Tigers and indicates why they feel vulnerable in a world where the future trend in global trade is uncertain, where new competi- tors have emerged, and where FDI might be less abundant and might not provide a stepping-stone to the next stage of development. Under these circumstances, the Southeast Asian Tigers are having to reassess their acquired comparative advan- tages in traditional resource-based products and in newer manufactures and services and are having to search for strategies that will prove equal to the new challenges. Recent research provides a number of techniques for evaluating a country's economic capabilities and competitiveness relative to its trading partners. Guided by the availability of the needed data, this study marshals a variety of these mea- sures to assess manufacturing and technological capabilities in Malaysia. Where possible, it compares these capabilities with those of other Southeast and North- east Asian economies. These measures show how comparative advantage is evolv- ing and the likely areas of competitiveness in the future. By highlighting the strengths--and also the vulnerabilities--of the Malaysian economy in relation to other East Asian economies, the analysis defines Malaysia's options and suggests 26 Cassey Lee (2007) reviews the state of competition and competition policy in Southeast Asian countries, but hard empirical details on concentration and other attributes of competition are virtually nonexistent. Southeast Asia Faces Mounting Competition 15 how current policies might be modified and supplemented so as to achieve rates of growth that are acceptable and also sustainable. This approach also illuminates the challenges facing the other Southeast Asian countries and points to policies of relevance to them as well. The measures employed use trade data to analyze industrial change and com- petitiveness; use FDI and domestic investment to determine what the market per- ceives to be the comparative advantages of the Malaysian economy; use data on R&D and on patenting to gauge innovativeness and the focus of technological ad- vance; use information on the supply of skills and the numbers of research uni- versities and institutes to show the scale of the national innovation system; indi- cate how much benefit growth and innovation could obtain from exploiting agglomeration economies inherent in the major urban centers; use the growth in total factor productivity to capture at the macrolevel how much improvement Malaysia has derived from efficiency and technological gains over the past two decades; tap the indexes computed by the World Economic Forum, the World Bank, and other bodies to track the perceived changes in competitiveness and in innovation readiness; and then, with the help of simple models, forecast Malaysia's economic prospects on the basis of the performance of its trading part- ners, trend rates of past GDP growth, and movements in key variables. Taken to- gether, these measures comprehensively assess the capabilities and potential of the Malaysian economy and provide a sense for where future comparative advantage may lie in a changing global environment. The findings and indicators assembled in this book lead to recommendations for policies affecting the direction of industrial development, FDI, R&D spending and its composition, the geography of industrialization, and the building of human capital. Better policies in each of these areas could reinforce industrial competitiveness, stimulate innovation, and ease worries over the pace of future development. However, to derive the most mileage from sector-specific policies, Malaysia and the other Southeast Asian Tigers will also need to pursue, in parallel, sociopolitical policies and policies affecting competition and industrial organiza- tion. For example, raising the quality of human capital and creating an innovation culture require more than just increased spending on education and research. The society must offer opportunities for all; handsomely reward talent, risk taking, and innovation; and encourage bright minds to inquire, analyze, debate, and through this process arrive at solutions to current problems and to problems on the horizon. Tiger in the Spotlight Why single out Malaysia from among the four Southeast Asian countries for spe- cial attention? The reasons are straightforward. Malaysia leads the field with re- spect to per capita GDP and manufacturing capabilities in key industries such as electronics, and with reference to technological expertise in palm oil and rubber. 16 Tiger Economies Under Threat Its ethnic heterogeneity is potentially advantageous from the standpoint of entre- preneurship and idea generation. Low levels of poverty are another asset.27 Being the smallest in terms of population, Malaysia is also the most dependent on the international market. Among the Southeast Asian countries, its manufacturing activities are at the stage in their lifecycles at which the transition to higher value- adding activities is potentially feasible apart from being necessary to maintain the tempo of growth. Because it is in the lead, the Malaysian Tiger is the most exposed to threats from competitors at equivalent and higher levels of the food chain. Malaysia is also arguably the one Tiger that can show the others a way of climbing up the food chain. Malaysia feels most urgently the pressure of competition from exporters elsewhere in Asia. But it also has the base of accumulated learning and infrastructure and can mobilize the financial resources, which are among the necessary ingredients for the next stage of development. This book is organized as follows. Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the evolution of the Malaysian economy. The key to understanding the growth pro- spects of an economy is to gauge comparative advantage. Chapters 3 and 4 explore the comparative advantage of Malaysia by using extensive sets of tools based on dis- aggregated export and import data. This examination is followed by a detailed analysis of three key industrial subsectors: (a) electronic components, (b) automo- tive parts, and (c) palm oil and food products (chapter 5). Chapter 6 examines the innovation capability of Malaysia, also by using a variety of measures. Chapter 7 as- sesses the long-run growth trends in Malaysia, and chapter 8 asks whether Malaysia and other Southeast Asian economies can grow at a similar pace as in the past. The final chapter (chapter 9) offers a menu of policies to help Malaysia move toward the next stage of industrial development. 27 By the most recent count, poverty, measured at US$2 per day, affected about 0.5 percent of the population, down from 2.0 percent in 1995. 2 Malaysia The Quintessential Maturing Tiger Economy Malaysia gained independence in 1957. At that time, agriculture and mining accounted for more than 45 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and 66 per- cent of employment. More than three-quarters of Malaysia's export earnings derived from rubber and tin (Khalafalla and Webb 2001; Zakariah and Ahmad 1999). A decade later, Malaysia embarked on a strategy to enlarge the share of manufacturing in GDP and to substantially augment the contribution of manu- factured exports to growth. The new emphasis on industrialization was formal- ized by the Investment Incentives Act of 1968 and the establishment of the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA). In 1971, this legislative step was reinforced by the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP), which underscored the role of manufacturing (Zakariah and Ahmad 1999), and by the Free Trade Zone Act of 1972, which signaled the start of an effort to change the composition of exports (Rasiah 2008; Yusof and Bhattasali 2008). This effort was reinforced by the Promotion of Incentives Act of 1986. Sources of Growth Throughout the early 1980s, steadily rising exports propelled the expansion of agriculture and manufacturing; however, domestic demand remained the princi- pal source of economic growth. From about 1983 through the mid-1990s, Malaysia's growth was mainly export led, with manufactured products coming to dominate the export mix.1 By 1995, a third of GDP was sourced from the 1 The beginnings of Malaysia's electronics industry can be traced to a factory established by Matsushita Electric in Shah Alam in 1965. Later, the electronics industry took root in Penang when locally owned Penang Electronics commenced operations in 1970 (Rasiah 2007, 2008). 17 18 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 2.1 Historical Performance of Malaysia Indicator 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000­06 Average GDP growth (%) 6.6 7.7 5.9 7.3 5.2 Average per capita GDP growth (%) 3.5 5.2 3.2 4.5 3.2 Average export growth (%) 6.0 8.2 9.2 12.7 7.2 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Table 2.2 Average Sectoral Contribution to Growth: Demand Side Contribution (%) Period Consumption Government spending Investment Net exports 1991­94 39.2 11.7 72.3 23.2 1995­2000 38.3 7.5 8.4 45.8 2001­06 66.7 27.7 7.4 2.1 Source: Bank Negara Malaysia. manufacturing sector, which employed one-quarter of the labor force. Both agri- culture and mining lost ground: their combined share of GDP and employment declined to 21 percent and 18.5 percent, respectively (Economist Intelligence Unit 1996). In the space of 25 years, the structure of Malaysia's economy had been transformed, with manufacturing and urban services displacing natural resource­based products. Largely because of this transformation, GDP growth av- eraged more than 6 percent per year during the 1960s to 1990s, and per capita GDP rose to US$3,510 by the mid-1990s (see table 2.1). Since 2000, Malaysia's average rate of GDP growth has been more than 2 percentage points lower than it was during the 1990s (see table 2.1). In addition, between 1995 and 2000, the contribution of the increase in net exports to growth oscillated but was still significant (see also Haltmaier and others 2007), whereas between 2001 and 2006, the contribution of net exports to growth was negative (see table 2.2).2 A steep decline in private investment further dampened economic performance.3 Partially offsetting these two flagging drivers of growth, domestic 2 Khalafalla and Webb's (2001) tests using Granger causality support earlier findings of export-led growth during 1965 to 1980. But in 1981 to 1996, growth and imports "cause" exports. The data in table 2.2 also show that net exports were not a source of growth from 1991 to 1994. 3 DeLong and Summers (1991, 1993) showed that investment in equipment was causally re- lated to growth through the increase in production capacity, productivity, and other spillover effects. Mazumdar's (2001) research supported this finding by drawing attention to the effect of imported equipment on growth in developing countries. Her results were reinforced by Mody and Yilmaz (2002), who determined that imported equipment con- tributed to export competitiveness and growth in industrializing countries by reducing costs and spurring domestic innovation. Malaysia 19 Table 2.3 Average Sectoral Contribution to Growth: Supply Side Contribution (%) Period Primary Manufacturing Construction Services 1991­94 3.2 31.6 5.3 60.0 1995­2000 9.0 45.2 1.8 44.0 2001­06 8.8 38.0 0.5 52.7 Source: Bank Negara Malaysia. consumption and public investment have risen robustly. Much of the growth between 2000 and 2006 can be traced to those two sources of demand, and this trend continued in 2007 ("Malaysia: Domestic Demand" 2007). The Malaysian economy had been pulled by four locomotives. Now two of them--net exports and private investment--are far weaker. A sectoral decomposition of growth in table 2.3 indicates that in Malaysia the service sector, rather than industry, is pulling the economy, as it does in most middle- and high-income countries. The implications for productivity are mixed. In principle, because the gap in labor productivity between Asia and the United States is higher in services, the scope for growth--through catch-up and more effec- tive harnessing of information technology (IT) through organizational changes and training--is also greater, especially in areas such as retailing and finance (Jaumotte and Spatafora 2007). However, the record of long-term productivity growth strongly favors the manufacturing sector as the main contributor to productivity growth. From 1995 to 2000, manufacturing's share of Malaysian GDP slightly exceeded that of services, but as the share of the manufacturing sector diminishes, so will its contribution to total factor productivity (TFP) growth. Pinning down the causes of the decline in private investment in Malaysia and other East Asian economies between 1997­98 and 2007­08 has not been easy. In part, it is viewed as an adjustment to overinvestment in the 1990s, mainly in real estate and infrastructure supported by expansionary monetary policies and ambitious government-sponsored projects. Partly it is related to declining profitability of certain lines of business as export profit margins have been squeezed by softening prices--the result of intensifying competition--and by rising costs of labor and more recently of raw materials.4 In addition, the weak- ening of investment reflects Malaysia's limited success in diversifying its indus- trial activities through technological assimilation into products or services 4 Guimaraes and Unteroberdoerster (2006) show that in the four years prior to 1998, Malaysia may have been overinvesting to the tune of 10 percent of GDP. They also find that corporate profitability and market valuation indicators both fell from 1998 to 2004, which discouraged private investment. A similar decline in corporate returns explains the lower invstment rates in the Republic of Korea since 1997 to 1998 (Kinkyo 2007). 20 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 2.4 Contributions of Input Growth and TFP Growth Relative contribution to input growth (%) Gross output TFP growth Period growth Capital Labor Intermediate inputs (percentage points) 1971­79 8.3 32 41 27 0.9 1980­89 7.6 36 34 30 1.4 1990­99 9.9 33 28 39 0.9 2000­02 5.7 33 24 43 0.6 1971­02 7.1 34 29 37 1.0 Source: Mahadevan 2007b. promising higher returns. Instead, the increasing specialization of East Asian producers in overlapping product categories and the enormous expansion of production capacity in China may be affecting the perception of medium-term opportunities. The estimates of growth constructed with reference to factor inputs and gains in TFP strengthen this impression (see table 2.4). As is typical for developing economies, more than 30 percent of Malaysia's growth was the result of increments in capital and intermediate inputs during 1971 to 2002, 25 percent from increased labor inputs, and 14 percent from gains in productivity, with TFP growth accounting for no more than 1.5 percentage points per year (Mahadevan 2007b).5 Other estimates assign a higher share to TFP from 1991 to 1995--2.5 per- centage points per year, close to one-third of GDP growth (see table 2.5). Malaysia's TFP growth had diminished to 1.1 percent per year in 1996 to 2000 and rose only fractionally to 1.3 percent from 2001 to 2005, considerably lower than the rate achieved by China and lower than TFP growth in Thailand (see table 2.5). In other words, capital remains the primary determinant of growth. Furthermore, because resource transfers from the primary sector to industry and services have slowed (now that only 13 percent of the workforce is employed in agriculture), and because investment spending has slackened, the gains in TFP arising from a reallocation of labor from low- to high-productivity sectors have diminished (Jaumotte and Spatafora 2007).6 To a lesser degree, so also have the 5 The experience of Thailand also shows that 90 percent of growth between 1980 and 2002 was from factor accumulation, mainly capital investment. Investment accounted for 70 percent of the growth during this period (Warr 2007). 6 A breakdown of the sources of TFP growth in Thailand shows that the reallocation of re- sources from agriculture to manufacturing was responsible for 24 percent of the increase in TFP. Increasing agricultural TFP also contributed 5 percent of the growth, but the over- all TFP growth was responsible for only 10 percent of growth because of negative TFP growth in industry ( 7 percent) and services ( 12 percent) (Warr 2007). Malaysia 21 Table 2.5 TFP Growth for Malaysia and Other Countries Country Period TFP (%) Malaysia 6th plan period (1991­95) 2.5 7th plan period (1996­2000) 1.1 8th plan period (2001­05) 1.3 9th plan period target (2006­10) 2.2 1960­80 1.2 1980­2000 0.5 Thailand 1977­2004 1.0 1997­96 1.6 1999­2004 2.1 China 1978­2004 3.8 1978­93 3.6 1993­2004 4.0 India 1978­2004 1.6 1978­93 1.1 1993­2004 2.3 Sources: Data for Malaysia are from EPU (2006) and World Bank (2005b). Data for Thailand are from Bosworth (2005). Data for China and India are from Bosworth and Collins (2007). benefits from technology embodied in the latest equipment and the "learning" associated with increased production.7 Malaysia's economy is at a critical juncture, and the worldwide downturn in economic activity that gathered momentum after the third quarter of 2008 has sharpened the need for a longer-term strategy to revive and sustain growth. As noted in chapter 1, Malaysia is in the front ranks of the industrializing and rapidly growing middle-income countries,8 but the future direction of industrial change 7 These transfers of resources among sectors have boosted productivity in East Asia and will remain important for countries with a large agricultural workforce (see Jaumotte and Spatafora 2007). The experience of the United States between 1960 and 2005 can serve as a guide to the potential sources of productivity growth for Malaysia during the catch-up phase of development. The findings of Jorgenson and others (2007) indicate that five ac- tivities with the highest contribution to the growth of TFP in the United States during 1960 to 2005 were, in the order of importance, (a) production of computers and office equipment, (b) wholesale trade, (c) real estate, (d) electronic components, and (e) retail trade. At the same time, productivity growth in the United States was dragged down by negative gains in construction, oil and gas exploration, business services, private hospitals, and insurance. However, in Malaysia, TFP growth was fastest in the chemicals and vehicles industries, and TFP growth in the electronics industry has been mediocre (Kim and Shafi'i 2009). 8 Joseph Stiglitz (2007) observes that in the 50 years since independence, Malaysia's per capita GDP adjusted for inflation increased more than sevenfold, even though the population tripled. 22 Tiger Economies Under Threat for these economies is increasingly uncertain. This uncertainty is underscored by a number of conditions that are specific to Malaysia but that in varying degrees are also being encountered by other Southeast Asian countries: · Global competition in key tradable items is intensifying. · Export value added is stagnating, while export diversification (by product or destinations) is slowing. · The technological ranking of exports has remained largely unchanged for well over a decade. · Foreign direct investment (FDI) is neither widening nor deepening the export product mix. It is also not serving to increase domestic value added through backward and forward links. And FDI is not helping to significantly enhance research capacity. Moreover, FDI fell in 2008 and again in 2009, and a shrinking of multinational corporation (MNC) operations in Malaysia is in the cards. · Domestic innovation capability is increasing little if at all despite higher spend- ing on research and development (R&D) and some widening of applied research by MNCs. Given these conditions, will the manufacturing subsector set the pace of Malaysia's growth? If so, how would the composition and technological capabil- ity of manufacturing need to evolve? Will future economic growth depend on an accelerating transition to an economic structure in which the share of ser- vices (tradable and nontradable) and service exports is considerably larger than it currently is? To address these questions, one must take stock of where the Malaysian economy is, of recent trends affecting its development, and where Malaysia ranks in competitiveness and productivity. Malaysia is at a stage of development in which the contribution of TFP to growth performance should be increasing.9 Evolution of the Manufacturing Industry in Malaysia In 1981, industrial production in Malaysia was dominated by low-tech and resource-based products such as food, textiles, wood products, petrochemicals, and rubber (see figure 2.1). Electric machinery (which includes electronics and IT-related products) accounted for close to 15 percent. With the inflow of FDI, the share of electric machinery expanded to more than 20 percent of industrial output in 1990. Gradually, the industrial output has shifted from low-tech and resource-based goods to medium- and high-tech goods. By 2002, electric and general machinery accounted for close to 40 percent of industrial output. The importance of food, rubber, and wood has diminished significantly since 1981. 9 Hulten and Isaksson (2007) ascribe much of the development gap between low- and high- income countries to differences in productivity. Malaysia 23 Figure 2.1 Industrial Composition by Type of Manufacture, Malaysia, 1981, 1990, and 2002 2002 year 1990 1981 0 20 40 60 80 100 percent food products rubber footwear, except rubber or plastic glass leather products iron and steel textiles nonferrous metals wearing apparel, except footwear fabricated metal products wood products machinery, electric paper products machinery, except electrical chemicals professional and scientific equipment petrochemicals transportation equipment plastic others Source: United Nations Industrial Development Organization Industrial Statistics Database (UNIDO INDSTAT3). The transportation subsector saw respectable growth during this period but was overshadowed by growth in electric and general machinery. The increase in Malaysia's domestic production is reflected in the increase in its world share for these products. In 1981, Malaysia was an insignificant player in electronics and machinery, but by 2002, it emerged as a main player (although smaller than China) in these products (see table 2.6).10 Most industrial subsectors experienced a healthy labor productivity growth (measured by changes in value added per worker). Average annual growth was high- est for the chemical and petrochemical industries, with 7.3 percent and 6.2 percent growth, respectively, between 1981 and 2002. The labor productivity of general 10 China increased its share of the global production of electric machinery from 1.2 percent in 1981 to a staggering 16.0 percent in 2002. 24 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 2.6 Malaysia's Share in World Production, 1981, 1990, and 2002 Share (%) Sector 1981 1990 2002 Food products 0.4 0.3 0.9 Footwear, except rubber or plastic 0.1 0.0 0.2 Leather products 0.0 0.1 0.1 Textiles 0.2 0.2 0.5 Wearing apparel, except footwear 0.1 0.3 0.7 Wood products 0.5 0.5 1.1 Paper products 0.1 0.1 0.5 Chemicals 0.1 0.2 0.6 Petrochemicals 0.3 0.3 2.1 Plastic 0.2 0.2 1.0 Rubber 1.4 1.4 2.2 Glass 0.2 0.3 0.8 Nonferrous metals 0.5 0.2 0.6 Iron and steel 0.1 0.2 0.7 Fabricated metal products 0.2 0.2 0.4 Machinery, electric 0.3 0.8 2.4 Machinery, except electrical 0.1 0.1 1.1 Professional and scientific equipment 0.1 0.1 0.4 Transportation equipment 0.1 0.1 0.4 Others 0.1 0.2 0.5 Source: UNIDO INDSTAT3. machinery increased 5.6 percent annually on average for the same period. Similarly, transportation equipment and electric machinery experienced labor productivity growth of around 5 percent (see table 2.7). Reflecting the increase in value added per worker, the average wages in Malaysia increased by 3 percent per year on average between 1981 and 2002 (see table 2.8). In most subsectors, labor productivity growth is faster than wage growth. The food, footwear, leather, apparel, rubber, and nonferrous metals sub- sectors are the exceptions. It is worrisome that the ratio of value added to output for the majority of the in- dustrial subsector stagnated or declined between 1981 and 2002 (see table 2.9). Footwear, apparel, plastics, rubber, and nonferrous metals are the only subsectors in which value added has increased. In general machinery, the value added decreased from 36 percent of the output value to only 17 percent, the largest drop among the industrial subsectors. Similarly, the value-added ratio decreased in electric Malaysia 25 Table 2.7 Value Added per Worker in Malaysia and Its Growth Rates, 1981, 1990, and 2002 Value added per worker Average annual growth of (constant 2000 US$) value added per worker (%) Sector 1981 1990 2002 1981­90 1990­2002 1981­2002 Food products 11,470 15,013 18,219 3.0 1.6 2.2 Footwear, except rubber or plastic 4,160 4,123 6,413 0.1 3.7 2.1 Leather products 4,289 3,690 6,606 1.7 5.0 2.1 Textiles 4,789 8,123 10,081 6.0 1.8 3.6 Wearing apparel, except footwear 3,115 4,488 5,828 4.1 2.2 3.0 Wood products 5,028 6,501 8,469 2.9 2.2 2.5 Paper products 7,403 12,216 16,460 5.7 2.5 3.9 Chemicals 12,516 45,766 54,788 15.5 1.5 7.3 Petrochemicals 131,786 113,745 466,388 1.6 12.5 6.2 Plastic 4,686 7,531 15,257 5.4 6.1 5.8 Rubber 8,749 9,227 11,519 0.6 1.9 1.3 Glass 9,264 15,889 24,633 6.2 3.7 4.8 Nonferrous metals 18,006 13,536 20,956 3.1 3.7 0.7 Iron and steel 8,928 21,635 24,868 10.3 1.2 5.0 Fabricated metal products 5,897 9,951 13,758 6.0 2.7 4.1 Machinery, electric 7,071 9,404 18,892 3.2 6.0 4.8 Machinery, except electrical 7,387 13,528 23,218 7.0 4.6 5.6 Professional and scientific 5,280 6,859 13,899 2.9 6.1 4.7 equipment Transportation equipment 9,726 20,320 28,608 8.5 2.9 5.3 Others 4,475 6,384 10,142 4.0 3.9 4.0 Source: UNIDO INDSTAT3. machinery and transportation equipment. Among the East Asian economies, Malaysia's value-added ratios in machinery (both electric and nonelectric) are the lowest (see figure 2.2), even though since the early 1990s the Malaysian authorities-- anticipating greater competition in the export of commoditized products--began introducing policies to induce the emergence of more knowledge-intensive activi- ties and to increase the domestic content of traded items in the interests of growth over the longer term. These policies have attempted to enlarge the supply of skills as well as their quality; to attract more FDI into technology-intensive areas; to stimulate industrial links that lead to the entry of Malaysian firms producing higher-value intermediate and final products using advanced technologies; and overall, to upgrade the average quality of exports. However, the payoff from these policies has yet to materialize. The investment climate surveys conducted by the 26 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 2.8 Average Wage in Malaysia and Its Growth Rates, 1981, 1990, and 2002 Average wage Average annual growth of (constant 2000 US$) average wage (%) Sector 1981 1990 2002 1981­90 1990­2002 1981­2002 Food products 2,301 3,267 4,261 4.0 2.2 3.0 Footwear, except rubber or plastic 1,775 2,100 3,560 1.9 4.5 3.4 Leather products 1,623 1,824 3,520 1.3 5.6 3.8 Textiles 2,125 2,749 3,710 2.9 2.5 2.7 Wearing apparel, except footwear 1,457 2,265 3,318 5.0 3.2 4.0 Wood products 2,303 2,642 3,041 1.5 1.2 1.3 Paper products 2,595 4,127 5,586 5.3 2.6 3.7 Chemicals 3,257 5,963 8,275 7.0 2.8 4.5 Petrochemicals 8,552 9,362 12,301 1.0 2.3 1.7 Plastic 1,718 2,317 4,364 3.4 5.4 4.5 Rubber 2,338 2,722 3,877 1.7 3.0 2.4 Glass 2,479 3,536 5,288 4.0 3.4 3.7 Nonferrous metals 3,493 3,945 6,105 1.4 3.7 2.7 Iron and steel 3,323 4,523 6,239 3.5 2.7 3.0 Fabricated metal products 2,317 3,357 4,855 4.2 3.1 3.6 Machinery, electric 2,234 2,915 5,168 3.0 4.9 4.1 Machinery, except electrical 2,542 3,687 5,780 4.2 3.8 4.0 Professional and scientific equipment 2,659 2,497 5,366 0.7 6.6 3.4 Transportation equipment 3,345 3,833 6,127 1.5 4.0 2.9 Others 1,754 2,030 4,339 1.6 6.5 4.4 Source: UNIDO INDSTAT3. World Bank in 2002 and 2008 indicate that real wages declined during this period, as did the average skill intensity of production, which would point to rising capital intensity and greater automation and down skilling of production activities. In ef- fect, Malaysian industry appears to be sliding down the technological slope, and the incentives for workers to improve their skills are weakening. This impression of an economy in which technological capabilities are relatively static (and may even be declining) and in which, largely as a consequence, industrial competitiveness is marking time is reaffirmed by indicators constructed by the World Economic Forum (WEF), the International Institute for Management Development (IMD), and the World Bank, among others, to benchmark performance. Malaysia is sandwiched between higher-income economies (Japan; the Republic of Korea; Sin- gapore; and Taiwan, China) and lower-income economies (China, Indonesia, and Thailand) without much change in its ranking over the past five years. International Malaysia 27 Table 2.9 Ratio of Value Added to Output Value, 1981, 1990, and 2002 Sector 1981 (%) 1990 (%) 2002 (%) Food products 35 36 22 Footwear, except rubber or plastic 29 34 39 Leather products 30 25 31 Textiles 29 28 26 Wearing apparel, except footwear 35 32 34 Wood products 35 33 31 Paper products 39 40 38 Chemicals 30 38 33 Petrochemicals 20 25 22 Plastic 32 35 36 Rubber 23 27 27 Glass 46 49 46 Nonferrous metals 6 14 20 Iron and steel 23 20 23 Fabricated metal products 30 27 30 Machinery, electric 28 22 21 Machinery, except electrical 36 32 17 Professional and scientific equipment 36 29 26 Transportation equipment 36 29 30 Others 32 40 31 Source: UNIDO INDSTAT3. Figure 2.2 Value-Added Ratios in Machinery in Selected East Asian Economies 0.50 0.45 0.40 value-added ratio 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 China Japan Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Singapore electric machinery machinery, except electrical Source: UNIDO INDSTAT3. Note: Data for China, Indonesia, and Singapore are from 2003; data for Japan, Korea, and Malaysia are from 2002. 28 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 2.10 Rank Correlation among Selected Indexes on Technological Capabilities Standard Country WEF UNDP ArCo RAND Rank mean deviation Korea, Rep. of 7 5 15 16 10.8 5.56 Singapore 15 8 17 15 13.8 3.95 Malaysia 18 29 33 38 29.5 8.50 Thailand 31 36 37 41 36.3 4.11 Philippines 32 38 39 42 37.8 4.19 China 39 39 41 33 38.0 3.46 India 44 46 47 37 43.5 4.51 Indonesia 41 44 45 46 44.0 2.16 Source: Archibugi and Coco 2005. Note: Countries are ordered by rank mean. Indexes are the WEF Technology Index, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Technology Achievement Index, the ArCo Indicator of Technological Capabilities, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Industrial Development Scoreboard, and the RAND Corporation's Science and Technology Capacity Index. ArCo (developed by Archibugi and Coco) comprises patents granted in the United States, tertiary enrollment, and telecommunication infrastructure, among others. The RAND index contains many of the variables used in ArCo, as well as variables related to industrial performance, such as manufacturing value added, technology imports, and share of exports of high-tech goods. For the exact data and coverage of years for each indicator, see Archibugi and Coco (2005). indicators of university rankings and international test scores in science and mathe- matics also indicate that Malaysia is situated in the middle of the pack and that its po- sition has been stable over the years for which data are available (see the tables in annex 2.A). When one looks at a broader set of indicators, the picture becomes mud- dier, because each indicator places Malaysia and other countries at different posi- tions, and correlations among indicators are low (Archibugi and Coco 2005). Tech- nology-specific indicators rank Malaysia much lower, especially indicators that are not based on surveys but on structural characteristics (for example, the ArCo and RAND indicators in table 2.10). Although the subcomponents of the competitive- ness indicators add detail, several fluctuate erratically from one year to the next with- out any apparent association to changes in policies. This fluctuation greatly dilutes the information content. The most that can be wrung out of these indicators is that the quality of human capital in Malaysia and its technological readiness lag the find- ings in the higher-income economies and that if demand for skills is softening, this lag could worsen. The estimates of TFP noted previously reinforce this impression. With the possible exception of electronic components, every major subsector lies well within the production and technology frontiers, with ample room for gains in productivity and the upgrading of technology. Hence, the potential for raising the contribution of TFP to GDP growth exists but is not being exploited. Malaysia's labor force is expanding by close to 2 percent per year, and the average age of workers is 36 years. The rate of savings from 2001 to 2007 was equal to 33 percent of GDP (see table 2.11), far in excess of levels of domestic investment Table 2.11 Macroindicators of Malaysia and Other Southeast Asian Economies, 1990­2007 Indicator Japan Singapore China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Taiwan, China Thailand GDP growth (%) 1990­95 2.1 8.9 10.9 8.1 8.0 9.4 2.3 7.0 9.1 1996­2000 1.0 6.4 8.6 1.0 4.6 5.0 4.0 5.8 0.6 2001­07 1.5 5.3 10.2 5.1 4.7 4.8 5.0 3.8 5.1 Exports growth (%) 1990­95 3.8 -- 12.4 9.9 13.4 16.4 8.4 7.8 14.2 1996­2000 5.8 -- 15.0 4.2 16.0 8.9 6.4 9.9 7.3 2001­07 6.1 -- 23.5 7.6 11.2 5.7 6.0 7.8 6.3 Gross capital formation (% of GDP) 1990­95 30.5 35.8 39.9 30.9 37.5 38.3 22.7 24.6 41.1 1996­2000 26.8 34.1 37.5 22.6 32.0 32.2 21.8 23.8 27.9 2001­07 23.4 20.9 41.1 24.1 29.7 22.4 16.3 20.2 27.0 Gross savings (% of GDP) 1990­95 32.3 46.8 41.6 26.1 36.5 32.5 19.7 26.0 34.3 1996­2000 28.1 49.9 39.8 24.8 35.2 37.1 25.6 23.0 32.2 2001­07 26.5 44.9 45.6 27.0 31.5 32.5 31.3 25.6 28.7 Manufacturing (% of GDP) 1990­95 -- 27.0 33.3 22.3 27.2 25.8 24.1 28.6 28.7 1996­2000 22.7 25.1 32.5 26.2 27.6 29.7 22.2 24.7 31.4 2001­07 21.0 26.2 32.3 28.9 27.7 30.3 22.9 23.4 34.4 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Note: -- not available. 29 30 Tiger Economies Under Threat during the same period. The physical infrastructure is modern and well maintained, and Malaysia is not hamstrung by the power shortages besetting Indonesia, for example. The scope for raising TFP, the elasticity of factor supplies, the adequacy of the infrastructure, and a business environment appreciably superior to that of competitors such as China and India all suggest that Malaysia can move to a higher growth path commensurate with its level of income.11 Malaysia's mainte- nance of growth rates of 6 percent per year or less, which was the average for Sub- Saharan Africa during 2006 and 2007, suggests that Malaysia was operating below potential from 2007 through 2008, as were several neighboring Southeast Asian economies. Virtually all of the Southeast Asian economies have witnessed a marked slow- down from the growth rates achieved during 1990 to 1995. The exception is the Philippines, which has averaged growth rates from 2000 to 2007 that are double those from 1990 to 1995. Average annual export growth in all four countries has slowed, most strikingly in Malaysia but also in Thailand. Since the latter half of 2008, exports of all Southeast Asian economies have been dragged down by the global recession. Savings as a share of GDP remained reasonably stable in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, while they have risen in the Philippines to levels compa- rable with the others. Whether this stability will persist over the medium term is an open question. Quite remarkably, the share of manufacturing has climbed in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand and has remained broadly the same in the Philippines. Once again, the dramatic weakening of export demand starting in 2008 raises questions about future trends in manufacturing and its role as a lead- ing sector. Growth rates of 5 percent to 6 percent from 2000 to 2008 were respectable, and these rates--or even higher levels--might well be achievable over the medium term once the global economy recovers. However, if Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries are to climb back to a high-growth path, they will need to craft a fresh strategy that draws residual momentum from a first phase of industrializa- tion now coming to a close. Now is the time for a new strategy that recognizes the harsher international trading environment, that firmly embraces the necessity for institutional changes and supports vigorous entrepreneurial initiatives, and that emphasizes innovation to take the economy into more promising industrial waters. 11 However, the railway system needs an infusion of capital. Malaysia 31 Annex 2.A Indicators of Competitiveness Competitiveness IMD's ranking of Malaysia's global competitiveness changed little between 2004 and 2008 (see table 2.A.1), although it fluctuated in 2004 and 2005. China's rank- ing, however, has improved from 22 in 2004 to 17 in 2008, surpassing all the economies in East Asia except for Singapore and Taiwan, China. When one looks at the subcomponents of Malaysia's aggregate competitiveness indicator, two factors stand out. First, between 2004 and 2008, there was virtually no change to the infrastructure component, which consistently ranked lowest among the four subcomponents used by IMD and which was a drag on competi- tiveness (see table 2.A.2). Second, government efficiency deteriorated from 2004. Drilling down into the performance of components of infrastructure in the past five years, one finds that total health expenditure, energy intensity, dependency Table 2.A.1 IMD Global Competitiveness Ranking, 2004­08 Economy 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Singapore 2 3 3 2 2 Taiwan, China 12 11 17 18 13 China 22 29 18 15 17 Malaysia 16 26 22 23 19 Thailand 26 25 29 33 27 Korea, Rep. of 31 27 32 29 31 Philippines 43 40 42 45 40 Indonesia 49 50 52 54 51 Japan 21 19 16 24 22 Source: IMD 2008. Note: Economies are ordered by rank in 2008. Table 2.A.2 Subcomponents to IMD Global Competitiveness Rankings: Malaysia, 2003­07 Subcomponent 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Overall performance 21 16 26 22 23 Economic performance 23 15 8 10 12 Government efficiency 14 16 23 19 21 Business efficiency 18 12 22 19 15 Infrastructure 27 25 28 27 26 Source: IMD 2008. 32 Tiger Economies Under Threat ratio, total R&D spending, and R&D personnel per capita appear as the weakest components (IMD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007). In 2007, the indexes of R&D are replaced by two educational measures: total public expenditure on education and secondary school enrollment (IMD 2007). In the government efficiency subcate- gory, IMD identifies government subsidies to private and public companies, government budget surplus and deficit, foreign investors, exchange rate stability, price control, and discrimination as recurring weaknesses. The indicator for foreign investor refers to the freedom--or lack thereof--of foreign investors to acquire controlling stakes in local firms (IMD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007). In Indonesia, economic performance and infrastructure declined between 2003 and 2007, the former more than the latter. Government efficiency remained more or less stable, while business efficiency improved a little. In the infrastructure sector, medical assistance and total public expenditure continued to be the weakest per- forming areas. In Thailand, rankings of government and business efficiency, as well as infrastructure, deteriorated between 2003 and 2007. Within government efficiency, the foreign investors component was consistently one of the weakest until 2006. Within infrastructure, the poorest-performing segments were medical assistance, total health expenditure, and total expenditure on R&D. Malaysia's ranking in the global competitiveness index computed by the World Economic Forum declined from 2006 to 2007, but by only 2 points (see table 2.A.3). However, the WEF's index shows that Malaysia ranks in the middle among Asian economies. A closer look at the subcategories reveals which factors fall below Malaysia's overall ranking. These subcategories are macroeconomy, technological readiness, market size, higher education and training, and health and primary education (see table 2.A.4). A juxtaposition of the lowest-rated components from the two Table 2.A.3 WEF Global Competitiveness Index, 2006­07 and 2007­08 Economy 2006­07 2007­08 Singapore 8 7 Japan 5 8 Korea, Rep. of 23 11 Taiwan, China 13 14 Malaysia 19 21 Thailand 28 28 China 35 34 Indonesia 54 51 Philippines 75 67 Sources: Lopez-Claros and others 2006; Porter, Schwab, and Sala-i-Martin 2007. Note: Economies are ordered by rank in 2007­08. Table 2.A.4 WEF Global Competitiveness Rankings of Malaysia and Its Major Competitors, 2007­08 Index components Malaysia Thailand Korea, Rep. of China Indonesia Singapore Philippines Japan Taiwan, China Global competitiveness index 21 28 11 34 54 7 71 8 14 Basic requirements subindex 21 40 14 44 82 3 93 22 19 Institutions 20 47 26 77 63 3 95 24 37 Infrastructure 23 27 16 52 91 3 94 9 20 Macroeconomy 45 30 8 7 89 24 77 97 26 Health and primary education 26 63 27 61 78 19 86 23 6 Efficiency enhancers subindex 24 29 12 45 37 6 60 13 17 Higher education and training 27 44 6 78 65 16 62 22 4 Goods market efficiency 20 34 16 58 23 2 64 19 17 Labor market efficiency 16 11 24 55 31 2 100 10 22 Financial market sophistication 19 52 27 118 50 3 77 36 58 Technological readiness 30 45 7 73 75 12 69 20 15 Market size 29 17 11 2 15 50 24 4 16 Innovation factors subindex 19 39 7 50 34 13 65 2 10 Business sophistication 18 40 9 57 33 16 55 3 14 Innovation 21 36 8 38 41 11 79 4 9 Sources: Lopez-Claros and others 2006; Porter, Schwab, and Sala-i-Martin 2007. 33 34 Tiger Economies Under Threat competitiveness indexes suggests that education at all levels and associated tech- nological readiness are compromising Malaysia's competitiveness with Korea and Singapore. For Thailand, health and primary education ranked the lowest, fol- lowed by financial market sophistication, institutions, and technological readi- ness, in that order. Infrastructure, macroeconomy, health and primary education, and technological readiness were the weakest areas for Indonesia. These weak- nesses are not too dissimilar to those of Malaysia. Business Environment Complementing the indicators of competitiveness is a number of indexes de- vised to assess the general business environment. One is the Doing Business in- dicator constructed by the World Bank. Among East Asian economies, the busi- ness environment facing Malaysian firms is relatively favorable (see table 2.A.5). Between 2005 and 2008, there were few changes. Korea dropped below Malaysia. China, India, and Indonesia greatly improved their scores. However, private businesses in those countries still face more adverse conditions than do busi- nesses elsewhere. Among the 10 components from which the aggregate Doing Business indica- tor is constructed, only 2 components rank higher than the overall indicator for Malaysia (see table 2.A.6). Malaysia does well in providing credit to new firms and in protecting investors. However, starting a business is cumbersome, despite ready access to credit for established firms with adequate collateral. The lowest- rated component is dealing with licenses. Although the cost of compliance to license in Malaysia is marginally larger than that for member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the cost in Table 2.A.5 Doing Business Indicators, 2006­09 Economy 2006 2007 2008 2009 Singapore 2 1 1 1 Japan 10 11 12 12 Thailand 20 18 15 13 Malaysia 21 25 24 20 Korea, Rep. of 27 23 30 23 Taiwan, China 35 47 50 61 China 91 93 83 83 Indonesia 115 135 123 129 Philippines 113 126 133 140 Sources: World Bank 2005a, 2006b, 2007b, 2008b. Note: Economies are ordered by rank in 2009. Malaysia 35 Table 2.A.6 Individual Components of Doing Business Rankings: Malaysia, 2005­08 Ease of ... 2005 rank 2006 rank 2007 rank 2008 rank Doing business 25 25 24 20 Starting a business 66 71 74 75 Dealing with licenses 134 137 105 104 Employing workers 37 38 43 48 Registering property 68 66 67 81 Getting credit 3 3 3 1 Protecting investors 3 4 4 4 Paying taxes 49 49 56 21 Trading across borders 41 46 21 29 Enforcing contracts 78 81 63 59 Closing a business 47 51 54 54 Sources: World Bank 2005a, 2006b, 2007b, 2008b. Note: The 2005 rankings have been recalculated to reflect changes to the 2006 methodology and the addition of 20 new countries. terms of number of procedures (25 in Malaysia versus 15 in OECD countries) and the number of days (261 days versus 154 days) are close to double OECD averages. Nonetheless, in terms of its ranking for dealing with licenses, Malaysia improved its position in 2008. Other areas in which Malaysia saw improvement were trad- ing across borders and enforcing contracts. 3 Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change Reading the Export Trade Tea Leaves Malaysia's future economic performance will be strongly influenced by several factors. Among them, the growth and composition of exports supported by investments that increase the domestic value added by firms will continue to play a leading role. Malaysia is an unusually open economy.1 Total trade (exports plus imports of goods and services) amounted to 210 percent of gross domestic prod- uct (GDP), which is higher than the ratio for other East Asian economies, with the exception of Singapore (see table 3.1).2 Export volume and domestic value added strongly affect the tempo of eco- nomic activity and per capita income. Although export earnings came under great pressure during the second half of 2008 and declined in 2009, a revival will be a function of increased market share for existing products, product diversification, higher unit values of exports, and penetration into new markets. Such a revival will be easier if the expansion of international trade quickly returns to earlier trend rates. It could be far more challenging if global recovery is slow and import demand from the United States and the European Union (EU) remains weak. Generally, those firms that are larger and more skill intensive and that have achieved above-average productivity levels venture beyond the national market and 1 On the research relating productivity and growth to openness, see Edwards (1998). Open- ness also promotes innovation, according to a study of Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development countries (Hulten and Isaksson 2007). Malaysia's high ratio of trade to gross domestic product reflects the importance of processing, assembly, and testing activities in the electronics subsector and low domestic value added. 2 A part of the explanation for Malaysia's high ratio of trade to GDP is the level of foreign direct investment in the tradable sector (Sjöholm 1999). 37 38 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.1 Exports and Imports of Goods and Services as a Percentage of GDP, 2007 Economy Percentage of GDP Singapore 463.0 Malaysia 210.0 Taiwan, China 140.0 Thailand 132.5 Philippines 83.3 Korea, Rep. of 90.4 Chinaa 72.0 Indonesia 54.7 Japanb 27.3 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. a. Data are for 2006. b. Data are for 2005. are likely to spearhead recovery and future growth. And the intention to expand by exporting frequently motivates investment (in equipment, training, and research and development, for example); organizational changes; and innovation by firms (see Alvarez 2007; Aw, Roberts, and Winston 2005; Bernard and Jensen 1999; Bernard and others 2007; Clerides, Lach, and Tybout 1998; De Loecker 2007; Hallward-Driemeier, Iarossi, and Sokoloff 2002; Levinsohn and Petrin 1999).3 Investment in both equipment and technology development plays a big part in enhancing efficiency and upgrading products and production processes. In turn, exporting stimulates growth. In large economies, domestic market demand can serve as a buffer against external shocks. It can also be a source of competitive pres- sures, which induce firms to be efficient and to innovate. In smaller economies, however, the odds against that happening are great because the domestic market is a very partial substitute for exports (and can constrain firms' ability to achieve scale economies). For this reason, growth in the more trade-dependent economies plummeted rapidly during the final quarter of 2008. In today's integrating global economy, dynamic firms must be prepared to test the waters of the export market. Their success under a broadly favorable trading environment can set the stage for a virtuous spiral. Exports and Industrial Change In 2007, Malaysia exported US$202.4 billion worth of goods and services--well over twice the value of exports in 1995. During the last half of the 1990s, Malaysia's export 3 Roberts and Tybout (1997) describe a process of turnover whereby less productive and less skill-intensive firms exit, thus raising average productivity. More productive firms are more skill and capital intensive and are more likely to be in industries where trade costs are falling (Bernard and Jensen 2001; Bernard and others 2007; Bernard, Jensen, and Schott 2003). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 39 Table 3.2 Exports of Goods and Services, 2000­07 Value (US$ billion) Annual growth rate Annual growth rate Economy 1995 2000 2007 (%), 1995­2000 (%), 2000­07 Chinaa 168.0 279.6 1,061.7 8.9 21.0 Indonesia 53.2 67.6 127.1 4.1 8.2 Korea, Rep. of 149.1 208.9 442.2 5.8 9.8 Malaysia 83.6 112.4 202.4 5.1 7.6 Philippines 26.9 42.1 56.7 7.7 3.8 Taiwan, China 129.3 172.6 282.7 4.9 6.4 Thailand 70.3 82.0 167.3 2.6 9.3 Japanb 480.9 512.7 652.4 1.1 4.1 Singapore -- 164.0 372.6 -- 12.4 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Note: -- not available. a. Data are for 2006. b. Data are for 2005. growth was 5.1 percent per year and was exceeded only by China, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines (see table 3.2). Between 2000 and 2007, Malaysia's export growth rose to 7.6 percent per year, somewhat higher than that of Taiwan, China, and the Philippines. Meanwhile, the annual increase in exports from Thailand rose to 9.3 percent and those from China accelerated to 21.0 percent per year. The share of Malaysia's exports in the world market declined steadily from 1995 to 2007, falling below 1.4 percent in 2007 (see figure 3.1). Furthermore, the share of Malaysia's exports to the United States is trending downward (see figure 3.2). Although Malaysia's exports to China declined between 2002 and 2005, this trend reversed between 2005 and mid-2008 (see figure 3.3).4 Similar trends can be seen in exports by other Southeast Asian countries. Exports of the three other Southeast Asian countries to the United States are also on a downward trend, but their exports to China have been rising. All of the Southeast Asian countries saw their exports plummet starting in the last quarter of 2008. A glance at figures 3.4 and 3.5 shows that from 1995 to 2007, in value terms, Malaysia's fastest-growing exports by broad category were electrical and elec- tronic products and engineering products, followed by primary products (mainly palm oil and derivatives). Processed exports and other low-technology manufac- tures increased more gradually in the aggregate, although individual items in these categories grew much faster. Automotive and other high-technology exports remained flat over the entire 12-year period. With domestic value added in the 4 An examination of the top 20 fastest-growing (by value) export commodities worldwide between 2000 and 2007 reveals that Malaysia did not export any. Many of them were metallic and chemical compounds or food products. 40 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.1 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to the World, 1995­2007 1.8 share of total exports to the world (%) 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Source: United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade). Figure 3.2 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to the United States, 1995­2007 share of total exports to the United States (%) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 41 Figure 3.3 Share of Malaysia's and Selected Southeast Asian Countries' Exports to China, 1995­2007 2.0 1.8 share of total exports to China 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Figure 3.4 Exports of Malaysia by Type of Manufacture, 1995­2007 80 60 value (US$ billion) 40 20 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year primary products agro-based products other resource-based products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products electronic and electrical products other high-technology products Source: UN Comtrade. 42 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.5 Exports of Malaysia by Type of Manufacture, Excluding Electronics, 1995­2007 30 25 value (US$ billion) 20 15 10 5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year primary products agro-based products other resource-based products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products other high-technology products Source: UN Comtrade. merchandise export sector remaining constant at approximately 30 percent, the picture that emerges is of a widening of processing and assembly activities in the electronics subsector,5 no increase in the export shares of other medium- or higher-technology industries such as auto parts, and expanding exports of palm oil and derivatives of the palm oil industry.6 Figure 3.6 shows that Malaysia's elec- tronic and electrical exports were higher than four other neighboring countries-- namely, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. 5 By 1980, integrated circuits represented 8.4 percent of exports from Malaysia. The share increased to 16.3 percent by 1993. Electronic and electrical equipment accounted for 58 percent of exports in 2005 (Reinhardt 2000). 6 Although there is scope for adding value to the exports of natural resource­intensive prod- ucts, it is not happening with such exports from Malaysia and Thailand. For instance, the material costs of soap exported by Malaysia alone account for 75 percent of production costs. Similarly, for petrochemicals, materials account for as much as 90 percent of the costs. Even in rubber products, Malaysia's exports tend to be from the lower end of the spectrum, such as latex gloves and swimming caps, for which raw material is the most significant com- ponent. Both Malaysia and Thailand have found it hard to move up to higher value-added items that are based on domestic natural resources (Reinhardt 2000). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 43 Figure 3.6 Exports of Electronic and Electrical Manufactures, 1995­2007 400 300 value (US$ billion) 200 100 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. The notable feature of Malaysia's fastest-growing exports during 2000 to 2007, at a six-digit level of disaggregation, was their diversity (see table 3.3) and the low prevalence of high-technology electronic products (only 1 item in the top 20) vis-à- vis resource-based and processed commodities, especially petrochemical products. In table 3.4 and figure 3.7, four trends stand out. First, from 1995 to 2007, the shares of electronics in total merchandise exports changed little among middle- income East Asian economies. The declines in the cases of Japan; Korea; and Taiwan, China, are largely explained by the shift in production from those economies to China mediated by foreign direct investment. Rising production costs also induced multinational corporations (MNCs) to shift their labor- intensive activities from Singapore to China. This shift explains the massive jump in China's exports of electronics. In 1995, they represented less than 10 percent of total exports. Twelve years later, the share of electronics had climbed to 30.1 per- cent, whereas the total value of China's exports rose from about US$148 billion to US$1.2 trillion in 2007. By 2005, China had become the largest exporter of electronics in the world, edging out the United States. A second trend is the drop in the shares of textiles and low-tech manufactures in the exports from East Asian economies (see table 3.4). In contrast, combined exports of primary, agro-based, and resource-based products have increased in Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Curiously, the share of primary product exports from Thailand declined during this period. A fourth and poten- tially important trend is the increasing share of engineering and automotive products in the exports from China, Korea, and Thailand. By contrast, engineering products as a share of Malaysia's exports fell from 15.4 percent to 9.6 percent. 44 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.3 Fastest-Growing Exports from Malaysia by Level of Technology, 2000­07 Annual growth Technology Product Product name rate (2000­07) class 900921 Photocopying equipment with an optical system, not 322.6 HT1 elsewhere specified 290124 Buta-1, 3-diene, and isoprene 267.2 RB2 560420 High-tenacity manmade yarn, rubber, plastic coated or 202.2 LT1 impregnated 720712 Semifinished bars, iron or nonalloy steel, 0.25% carbon, 198.7 MT2 rectangular, not elsewhere specified 721912 Hot-rolled stainless steel coil, width of 600 mm, thickness 198.5 MT2 of 4.75­10 mm 720720 Semifinished product, iron or nonalloy steel, 0.25% carbon 195.9 MT2 240391 Homogenized or reconstituted tobacco 194.2 RB1 100640 Rice, broken 188.4 PP 230890 Vegetable wastes and residues, not elsewhere specified, 186.4 PP for animal feed 842382 Weighing machinery having a capacity of 30­5,000 kg 164.2 MT3 470693 Semichemical pulps of other fibrous material 163.9 RB1 271312 Petroleum coke, calcined 163.8 RB2 570291 Carpets of wool or fine hair, woven, made up, not 160.1 LT1 elsewhere specified 848250 Bearings, cylindrical roller, not elsewhere specified 155 MT3 890190 Cargo vessels other than tanker or refrigerated 154.8 MT3 2 480451 Paper, kraft, 225 g/m , unbleached, uncoated, not 150.1 RB1 elsewhere specified 681250 Asbestos clothing, accessories, footwear, and headwear 149 RB2 871494 Bicycle brakes, parts thereof 147.1 MT1 722692 Cold-rolled alloy-steel not elsewhere specified, not further 146.4 LT2 worked, 600 mm wide 480210 Paper, handmade, uncoated 146.3 RB1 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). Export Overlap How the changing composition of Malaysia's exports has affected the degree of competitive pressure on its exporters is brought into a sharper focus by tables 3.5 and 3.6 and figures 3.8 and 3.9, which present the percentage of overlap between Malaysia's exports and those of the comparator countries with reference to items at Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 45 Table 3.4 Leading Export Sectors, 1995 and 2007 Percentage of total exports Economy 1995 2007 China Electronic and electrical products 10.8 30.1 Textiles, garments, and footwear 30.9 16.5 Engineering 10.6 15.3 Other low-technology products 15.8 14.8 Indonesia Primary products 36.0 35.4 Agro-based products 18.6 17.6 Other resource-based products 8.3 12.5 Textiles, garments, and footwear 15.9 9.4 Japan Engineering products 26.5 25.7 Automotive products 18.0 23.3 Electronic and electrical products 28.1 17.6 Process industry 7.1 9.0 Korea, Rep. of Electronic and electrical products 29.5 26.9 Engineering products 15.1 18.3 Automotive products 7.4 13.2 Other resource-based products 4.4 10.5 Malaysia Electronic and electrical products 38.7 39.3 Primary products 10.9 15.3 Agro-based products 15.2 11.4 Engineering products 15.4 9.6 Philippinesa Electronic and electrical products 49.0 47.9 Primary products 7.3 9.9 Agro-based products 7.3 9.0 Other resource-based products 3.0 7.3 Taiwan, Chinab Electronic and electrical products 36.0 35.5 Other low-technology products 16.1 13.5 Process industry 8.6 12.0 Engineering products 13.7 11.3 Thailand Electronic and electrical products 23.0 23.2 Engineering products 10.1 13.6 Primary products 16.9 11.4 Other low-technology products 11.1 10.2 Source: UN Comtrade. a. Data for initial year are from 1996. b. Data for initial year are from 1997. 46 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.7 Composition of Exports by Type of Manufactures, 1995 and 2007 China 1995 China 2007 Indonesia 1995 Indonesia 2007 Japan 1995 Japan 2007 Korea, Rep. of 1995 Korea, Rep. of 2007 Malaysia 1995 Malaysia 2007 Philippines 1995 Philippines 2007 Singapore 1995 Singapore 2007 Taiwan, China 1995 Taiwan, China 2007 Thailand 1995 Thailand 2007 0 20 40 60 80 100 composition (%) electronic and electrical products textiles, garments, and footwear other high-technology products other low-technology products automotive products agro-based products process industry other resource-based products engineering products primary products Source: UN Comtrade. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 47 Table 3.5 Share of Overlapping Commodities, 1995, 2000, and 2007 Share (%) Economy 1995 2000 2007 China 95.7 98.1 93.8 Indonesia 76.6 90.1 88.1 Japan 94.4 95.3 91.5 Korea, Rep. of 92.2 92.3 89.1 Philippines 54.5a 57.6 58.3 Singapore 98.0 97.7 91.7 Taiwan, China 93.6b 92.1 94.4 Thailand 89.7 91.6 91.8 Source: UN Comtrade. a. Data are from 1996. b. Data are from 1997. Table 3.6 Share of Overlapping Trade Values, 1995, 2000, and 2007 Share (%) Economy 1995 2000 2007 China 39.2 52.2 65.0 Indonesia 22.5 27.4 29.7 Japan 51.6 67.6 46.3 Korea, Rep. of 37.0 49.8 44.9 a Philippines 16.0 18.2 10.9 Singapore 56.2 58.9 38.6 Taiwan, China 46.5b 52.8 46.1 Thailand 28.2 34.4 35.9 Source: UN Comtrade. a. Data are from 1996. b. Data are from 1997. a six-digit level of disaggregation.7 Malaysia's exports overlap the most with Taiwan, China (94.4%), and China (93.8 percent), followed by Thailand, Singapore, and Japan, with Philippine exports overlapping the least. When the overlap is viewed 7 The pairwise share of overlapping commodities is calculated as the number of products exported by Malaysia and each one of its competitors (for example, Indonesia) in a certain year, expressed as a proportion of the total number of commodities exported by Malaysia in that same year. 48 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.8 Share of Overlapping Commodities, 1995, 2000, and 2007 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 share (%) 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Note: Data for the Philippines begin in 1996, and data for Taiwan, China, begin in 1997. Figure 3.9 Share of Overlapping Trade Values, 1995, 2000, and 2007 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 share (%) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Note: Data for the Philippines begin in 1996, and data for Taiwan, China, begin in 1997. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 49 after adjusting for the value of the common exports,8 Malaysia's closest competitor is China, followed by Japan; Taiwan, China; and Korea, in that order, mainly because all have large exports of electronic equipment and components (see table 3.6). The extent of overlap in value terms following this adjustment ranges from 65.0 percent for China to 10.9 percent for the Philippines. By this measure, Malaysia's export mix overlaps the least with the Philippines' even though both export a variety of electronic components and assembled products. From this information, it appears that Malaysia's export growth in dollar terms during 2000 to 2007 was restrained because of an increasing concentration on electronics and rapidly intensifying competition from China, whose own produc- tion and trade in electronics have risen dramatically.9 To assess the implications of China's exports for the Southeast Asian exports more directly, one may use the methodology of Greenaway, Mahabir, and Milner (2008) and estimate a modified gravity model that explains trade flows with reference to the size of an economy and the distance among trading nations. The dependent variable is the log of the imports of country i from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) country j from 1990 to 2007, the latest year for which we have data. In addition to the standard set of variables for gravity models,10 the specification adds the log of China's exports and two period dummies, one for 1990 to 1996 and one for 2001 to 2007.11 These periods can be classified as the pre- crisis period (1990­96), the postcrisis period (1997­2000), and the period after China's accession to the World Trade Organization (2001­07). The results are shown in table 3.7. In all specifications, the standard variables for the gravity model have the expected signs, and they are all significant, except for the coefficient 8 The overlapping trade value for a commodity X exported by Malaysia and Indonesia, for example, is calculated by identifying the minimum of the export values of X for Malaysia and Indonesia. The pairwise share of trade values for the overlapping commodities is then calculated by summing all the overlapping products and expressing it as a propor- tion of the total trade value of Malaysia's exports. 9 Although competition from China stiffened between 1996 and 2003, China's rising exports slowed those of Southeast Asian economies to a limited extent only (Hanson and Robertson 2007). 10 These variables are the GDPs of the importing and exporting countries, per capita GDPs of importing and exporting countries, distance between two countries, land areas, dummies for landlocked countries, dummies for island countries, dummy for sharing the border, dummy for having a common language, dummy for having a colonization relationship, dummy for having common colonizers, and indicator for country risk and corruption. The GDP data come from the World Bank World Development Indicators database. The trade statistics are from the Direction of Trade data maintained by the International Mon- etary Fund. Distance and other country characteristics are compiled by Andrew Rose and are available at http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/arose/datastataspiegel.zip. 11 The same specifications were run for each period separately. The results are similar to those reported in table 3.7. 50 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.7 Full Time Period, 1990­2006, with Subperiod Dummies ln imports of country i from Asian country j OLS IV IV, GMM ln China's exports to country i 0.673 ­0.914 ­0.932 (33.10)** (6.34)** (7.25)** Log of GDP of importing country 0.421 1.737 1.743 (18.74)** (14.32)** (15.79)** Log of per capita GDP of importing country 0.024 ­0.148 ­0.123 (1.08) (4.39)** (3.38)** Log of GDP of exporting country 2.816 2.156 2.185 (40.97)** (19.64)** (20.67)** Log of per capita GDP of exporting country 1.126 0.624 0.634 (28.65)** (8.99)** (9.49)** Log of distance ­0.794 ­1.930 ­1.946 (20.07)** (16.85)** (19.45)** Log of product of land areas ­0.102 ­0.172 ­0.173 (8.61)** (10.03)** (9.83)** Number landlocked 0/1/2 ­0.815 ­1.982 ­1.973 (16.73)** (16.10)** (16.42)** Number islands 0/1/2 ­0.362 ­0.954 ­0.903 (7.27)** (11.17)** (11.47)** Land border dummy 1.536 ­0.738 ­0.761 (4.71)** (1.52) (3.51)** 1 for common language 0.075 0.259 0.247 (1.66)+ (4.13)** (3.86)** Dummy for common colonizer post 1945 0.538 0.803 0.872 (7.58)** (8.15)** (8.60)** Dummy for pairs ever in colonial relationship 1.117 2.387 2.431 (5.93)** (8.58)** (13.51)** International Country Risk Guide 0.008 0.011 0.008 (3.38)** (3.33)** (1.98)* Subperiod 1990­96 0.390 0.664 0.633 (8.51)** (9.98)** (9.77)** Subperiod 2001­07 ­0.315 ­0.557 ­0.574 (7.15)** (8.82)** (9.37)** Constant ­79.250 ­54.242 ­54.699 (38.36)** (15.20)** (16.16)** Observations 7,456 7,456 7,456 R-squared 0.79 0.62 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: GMM general method of moments; IV instrumental variables; OLS ordinary least squares; signifi- cant at the 10 percent level; * significant at the 5 percent level; ** significant at the 1 percent level. Absolute value of t-statistics is in parentheses. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 51 estimate on the per capita GDP of the importing country. The key variable is the coefficient estimate on China's exports. The estimate in ordinary least squares (OLS) is positive and significant. However, because endogeneity is a concern, OLS is not an appropriate specification. It is provided as a benchmark only. The preferred method is to use instrumental variables. The coefficient estimates on China's exports using instrumental variables are negative and significant. This finding implies that an increase in China's exports leads to a reduction in exports from ASEAN countries. The period dummies also show the dynamics of this change. The coefficient esti- mate for the period from 1990 to 1996 is positive. Hence, the effect of China's exports on other countries was smaller relative to the 1997 to 2000 period. The coef- ficient estimate on the 2001 to 2007 period is negative, thus implying that the effect of China's exports on other countries has increased. These results confirm the gen- eral observation that the rise of China's exports is intensifying the competitive pres- sures in the global market on Southeast Asian economies in particular. The analysis examines only the overall bilateral trade flow between two coun- tries. To gauge the changing competitiveness of Malaysian exports relative to those of China, one needs to examine trends in bilateral trades at the commodity level. Dynamic revealed competitiveness (DRC) is one such measure (Gallagher, Moreno-Brid, and Porzecanski 2008). It is based on the changing market (import) shares of a commodity i between two time periods. Here, the main interest is the changing import share of Malaysian products in three important markets: the EU15,12 Japan, and the United States. They represent the major markets for Malaysian exports. A positive DRC means that the share of Malaysian products has increased in the importing country or region. Furthermore, by combining the DRC measures for China and Malaysia, it is possible to determine which products from two different countries are in direct competition. For instance, if the DRC is negative for a commodity exported by Malaysia but is positive for China, then the commodity is said to be in "direct threat." However, if the DRC is positive for both countries, then it is in "partial threat." Table 3.8 lists the proportion of Malaysian exports that are under direct threat and partial threat from China according to six-digit commodity-level trade data. Close to one-third of the products exported by Malaysia to those three important markets are directly threatened by products from China. When those products are combined with those under partial threat, 50 to 60 percent of Malaysian exports are in direct competition with those from China. The intensifying competition is most visible in the European market, even though overall competition is increasing in all three markets. Table 3.9 lists Malaysia's top 10 exports to the U.S. market by trade value, excluding petroleum. Except for the nonsurgical rubber gloves, all other products are electrical and electronic components, reflecting the overall structure of 12 The EU15 are the 15 members of the EU prior to its expansion on May 1, 2004: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. 52 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.8 Degree of Competition between Malaysian and Chinese Exports, 1990­2007 Degree of competition (%) Country or region 1990­91 2000­01 2006­07 EU15 Direct threat 14.4 26.6 30.0 Partial threat 16.5 21.0 28.5 Total 30.8 47.5 58.5 Japan Direct threat 20.4 33.4 28.2 Partial threat 25.6 18.7 20.9 Total 46.0 52.1 49.2 United States Direct threat 25.6a 28.4 28.9 Partial threat 23.5a 22.4 26.0 Total 49.1a 50.8 54.9 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. a. Data are from 1991­92. Table 3.9 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Nonoil Exports to the United States, 2007 Share of U.S. imports DRCP Product Product name 1991 2007 Malaysia China 847120 Digital computers with central processing 0.0 28.4 28.4 61.6 and input-output units 847330 Parts and accessories of data-processing 1.1 14.4 13.3 44.8 equipment, not elsewhere specified 851730 Telephonic or telegraphic switching 0.0 15.6 15.5 32.5 apparatus 852520 Transmit-receive apparatus for radio, 8.8 4.7 ­4.0 31.1 television, and so forth 854219 Monolithic integrated circuits, except digital 12.8 15.3 2.5 3.4 854211 Monolithic integrated circuits, digital 11.8 9.0 ­2.8 9.2 851790 Parts of line telephone or telegraph equipment, 1.8 12.8 11.0 19.3 not elsewhere specified 847193 Computer data storage units 2.7 6.5 3.8 29.4 401519 Rubber gloves, other than surgical 45.1 48.0 2.9 8.2 852530 Television cameras 0.0 5.0 4.9 41.8 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Malaysian exports. Among these top 10 products, Malaysia increased its market share in 8 of them, in some cases quite markedly, such as computers. For those where Malaysia lost market share, China increased its market share. Therefore, those products are under direct threat from China. Even for the eight products where Malaysia increased its market share, however, the products are under partial threat, because China's increase in market share was larger. Among the Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 53 Table 3.10 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Nonoil Exports to Japan, 2007 Share of Japanese imports DRCP Product Product name 1990 2007 Malaysia China 441211 Plywood 1 or 2 outer ply tropical hardwood, 0.7 56.6 55.9 0.9 ply 6 mm 854211 Monolithic integrated circuits, digital 3.6 4.0 0.4 8.3 851790 Parts of line telephone or telegraph 0.8 7.6 6.9 46.8 equipment, not elsewhere specified 854219 Monolithic integrated circuits, except digital 0.4 3.3 2.8 5.7 852520 Transmit-receive apparatus for radio, 0.3 15.8 15.6 44.3 television, and so forth 852990 Parts for radio or television transmit-receive 7.2 6.0 ­1.2 33.7 equipment, not elsewhere specified 847330 Parts and accessories of data processing 1.9 5.1 3.2 48.2 equipment, not elsewhere specified 441212 Plywood, 1 or 2 outer ply nonconifer, not 0.6 45.4 44.8 21.8 elsewhere specified, ply 6 mm 850910 Domestic vacuum cleaners 0.0 41.4 41.4 47.2 854140 Photosensitive, photovoltaic, or light-emitting 0.7 13.9 13.3 28.6 diode semiconductor devices Source: Author's calculations using data from UN Comtrade. 10 products, Malaysia is not in a comfortable position in any products, because in no case does Malaysia have a commanding lead over China. The situation with respect to Japan is broadly similar (see table 3.10). Again, almost all the products are electronic components, except for plywood products.13 Only the plywood products are not under any threat from Chinese exports. The remaining eight products are either directly or partially threatened by China's exports. The story in the EU15 is much the same, although the market shares of Malaysian products in the EU15 are quite small compared with those in the United States and Japan (see table 3.11). Apart from nonsurgical rubber gloves and sacks, most other exports from Malaysia to the EU are electronics and elec- tronic components. In the EU15 market, all products, even nonsurgical rubber gloves, are under significant competitive pressure from China, except for a slight edge in monolithic integrated circuits. Looking at Malaysia's top 10 exports to its three most important markets indi- cates that Malaysia is subject to competitive pressure from China virtually across the entire spectrum of key exports. Only in resource-based products (plywood products and rubber products) are Malaysian exporters relatively secure. Also, in comparative terms, Malaysia does not have a strong presence in the EU market for electronic components, its main export products. 13 Most likely plywood is among the top 10 because of the value-to-weight (bulk) ratio. 54 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.11 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position for Malaysia's Top 10 Exports to the EU15, 2007 Share of EU15's imports DRCP Product Product name 1990 2007 Malaysia China 847330 Parts and accessories of data processing 0.2 9.2 9.0 18.7 equipment, not elsewhere specified 854211 Monolithic integrated circuits, digital 1.7 6.1 4.5 4.2 852520 Transmit-receive apparatus for radio, 0.7 2.0 1.3 24.8 television, and so forth 847193 Computer data storage units 0.0 3.2 3.2 12.7 851790 Parts of line telephone or telegraph 0.0 4.3 4.3 24.8 equipment, not elsewhere specified 852530 Television cameras 0.0 3.4 3.4 29.3 854140 Photosensitive, photovoltaic, or light-emitting 8.3 3.0 5.3 29.9 diode semiconductor devices 852990 Parts for radio or television transmit-receive 0.1 2.8 2.7 15.5 equipment, not elsewhere specified 401519 Rubber gloves, other than surgical 35.2 43.7 8.5 9.1 392321 Sacks and bags (including cones) of polymers 0.0 10.2 10.2 10.6 of ethylene Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. The analysis is static in the sense that it focuses on the top 10 exported products to three markets in 2007. To gauge the changing competitiveness of Malaysian exports to these markets, one must examine the shifts in market shares. Tables 3.12 to 3.14 list the fastest-growing exports from Malaysia (measured by the increase in market share in the three markets). In the U.S. market, a mix of products spanning many technology levels are gaining market share, such as glycerine, fatty acids, lum- ber, telecommunication equipment, and electronic components (see table 3.12). Many of these products have a commanding market share in the United States, although they represent a rather small fraction of Malaysia's exports, except for computers. Among them, five are partially threatened by China's exports, including computers, which represent 5 percent of Malaysia's exports. The situation in Japan is quite different. Rather than electronics, the mix of Malaysian exports favors chemical- and resource-based products, such as palm oil, vegetable oils, and soaps (see table 3.13). These products have a large market share in Japan, and only one product is partially threatened by China's exports: vacuum cleaners. Malaysia's dynamic exports to the EU15 are similar--and are also mainly chemical- and resource-based products, along with electronic compo- nents (see table 3.14). In contrast to the Japanese market, Malaysian exports to the EU15 do not have dominant market shares, except for lumber. Those products that are partially threatened by China's exports are mainly electronic components. Malaysia still remains competitive in oscilloscopes. Table 3.12 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to the United States, 1990­2007 Share of U.S. imports DRCP Trade balance Share of Technology Product Product name 1991 2007 China Malaysia (US$ million) exports (%) classification 152090 Glycerol (glycerine), not elsewhere specified, 1.0 52.9 n.a. 51.8 42.5 0.1 MT2 including synthetic glycerol 151919 Industrial monocarboxylic fatty acids, not elsewhere 10.4 60.7 n.a. 50.3 n.a. n.a. RB1 specified, acid oils 903020 Cathode ray oscilloscopes, oscillographs 2.5 41.9 48.1 39.3 37.4 0.0 HT2 903040 Gain or distortion and cross-talk meters and so forth 0.1 35.6 n.a. 35.5 248.0 0.3 HT2 851939 Turntables, without record changers 1.4 33.2 31.6 31.8 n.a. 0.0 MT3 847120 Digital computers with central processing and 0.0 28.4 61.6 28.4 7,930.0 4.1 HT1 input-output units 401692 Erasers (vulcanized rubber) 0.0 25.5 51.1 25.5 5.4 0.0 RB1 440721 Lumber, meranti red, meranti bakau, white lauan, 38.4 61.8 n.a. 23.4 9.1 0.2 RB1 and so forth 902490 Parts and accessories of material testing equipment 0.0 20.7 8.3 20.6 6.6 0.0 HT2 152010 Glycerol (glycerine), crude and glycerol waters 26.9 45.7 n.a. 18.8 1.6 0.0 MT2 and lye 730793 Butt weld fittings, iron or steel except stainless 0.3 18.6 17.9 18.3 25.4 0.0 MT2 or cast 903090 Parts and accessories, electrical measuring 1.2 19.0 14.8 17.8 133.0 0.2 HT2 instruments 291570 Palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters 41.5 58.7 0.1 17.2 38.1 0.1 MT2 851730 Telephonic or telegraphic switching apparatus 0.0 15.6 32.5 15.5 2,120.0 0.0 HT1 441211 Plywood 1 or 2 outer ply tropical hardwood, ply < 6 mm 11.5 26.7 32.0 15.2 n.a. 0.3 RB1 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: n.a. not applicable; HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; RB1 agro-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). 55 56 Table 3.13 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to Japan, 1990­2007 Share of Japanese imports DRCP Trade balance Share of Technology Product Product name 1990 2007 Malaysia China (US$ million) exports (%) classification 151110 Palm oil, crude 0.4 99.9 99.5 n.a. n.a. 0.7 RB1 180200 Cocoa shells, husks, skins, and waste 3.8 100.0 96.2 n.a. 0.04 0.0 PP 151620 Vegetable fats, oils, or fractions hydrogenated, 0.7 59.6 58.9 1.7 14.30 0.8 RB1 esterified 903081 Electrical measurement recording instruments 0.3 56.7 56.4 n.a. 44.40 0.2 HT2 441211 Plywood 1 or 2 outer ply tropical hardwood, ply 6 mm 0.7 56.6 55.9 0.9 n.a. 0.3 RB1 854290 Parts of electronic integrated circuits and so forth 4.0 58.8 54.8 n.a. 1,290.00 0.9 HT1 854190 Parts of semiconductor devices and similar devices 6.1 57.6 51.5 12.6 59.00 0.3 HT1 852731 Radio-telephony receiver, with sound reproduce 11.3 56.8 45.6 28.2 153.00 0.2 MT3 or record 720430 Waste or scrap tinned iron or steel 19.0 64.0 45.0 n.a. n.a. 0.0 RB2 441212 Plywood, 1 or 2 outer ply nonconifer, not elsewhere 0.6 45.4 44.8 21.8 171.00 0.7 RB1 specified, ply 6 mm 852711 Radio receivers, portable, with sound reproduce 12.8 57.6 44.8 17.7 56.30 0.1 MT3 or record 340111 Soaps, for toilet use, solid 2.8 47.1 44.3 1.6 23.10 0.0 MT2 850910 Domestic vacuum cleaners 0.0 41.4 41.4 47.2 148.00 0.3 MT3 262030 Ash or residues containing mainly copper 0.1 40.9 40.8 n.a. n.a. 0.0 RB2 180400 Cocoa butter, fat, oil 3.7 44.4 40.7 3.2 n.a. 0.3 PP Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: n.a. not applicable; HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). Table 3.14 Malaysia's Most Dynamic Export Goods to the EU15, 1990­2007 Share of EU15 imports (%) DRCP Trade balance Share of Technology Product Product name 1990 2007 Malaysia China (US$ million) exports (%) classification 440721 Lumber, meranti red, meranti bakau, white lauan, 39.7 78.8 39.1 0.1 303.0 0.2 RB1 and so forth 230660 Palm nut or kernel oil cake and other solid 15.6 46.2 30.5 n.a. n.a. 0.1 PP residues 847021 Electronic calculators, printing, external power 1.2 27.2 26.0 20.9 14.0 0.0 HT1 151110 Palm oil, crude 16.1 38.5 22.4 n.a. n.a. 0.7 RB1 852739 Radio-broadcast receivers, not elsewhere specified 4.1 26.2 22.2 29.3 121.0 0.3 MT3 151911 Stearic acid 3.8 25.7 21.9 n.a. 48.7 0.2 RB1 401511 Rubber surgical gloves 24.5 44.8 20.2 6.0 238.0 0.1 LT1 151919 Industrial monocarboxylic fatty acids, not elsewhere 1.4 18.8 17.4 n.a. n.a. n.a. RB1 specified, acid oils 400129 Natural rubber in other forms 14.0 29.8 15.8 0.0 n.a. 0.0 PP 903020 Cathode ray oscilloscopes, oscillographs 0.7 13.3 12.6 3.4 23.2 0.0 HT2 392321 Sacks and bags (including cones) of polymers 0.0 10.2 10.2 10.6 303.0 0.2 LT2 of ethylene 847330 Parts and accessories of data processing equipment, 0.2 9.2 9.0 18.7 3,720.0 5.9 HT1 not elsewhere specified 401519 Rubber gloves, other than surgical 35.2 43.7 8.5 9.1 311.0 0.8 LT1 140120 Rattan used primarily for braiding 3.3 11.3 8.1 44.0 573.6 0.0 PP 291570 Palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters 0.3 8.0 7.7 18.3 0.1 MT2 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: n.a. not applicable; HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology 57 products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). 58 Tiger Economies Under Threat What are the products in which Malaysia is losing market share the most? Surprisingly, in the U.S. market, crude palm oil is the one that has lost the most market share between 1990 and 2006. Very likely this loss is because of the rise of Indonesia as an exporter of palm oil. However, crude palm oil gained the most mar- ket share in the Japanese and EU15 markets, offsetting the lost market share in the United States. Many products that lost market share in the United States are resource-based and low-tech items, such as textile products and low-end electronics. In some of these products (including some resource-based ones), Chinese products are displacing Malaysian products in the United States. Similarly, in the Japanese market, Malaysia's resource-based and low-tech products lost market shares. How- ever, unlike the case in the U.S. market, this loss was not solely because of the rise of China. China gained market share in only four products, and China does not have any presence in the other products in the Japanese market. In the EU15 market, resource-based products represent the majority of products that lost market share, in addition to low-tech items such as textiles. Again, the presence of China is not sig- nificant in the EU15 for those products in which Malaysia lost market shares. The movement in Malaysia's dynamic revealed competitiveness position (DRCP) by technology level indicates that its exports are losing ground (see tables 3.15 to 3.17). The DRCP is negative in all technology classes except for other resource-based products (RB2) and other high-tech products (HT2). Meanwhile, China substantially improved its DRCP in all technology levels (see table 3.15), although less so in primary products (PP), other high-tech products (HT2), and Table 3.15 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in U.S. Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007 Malaysia China Technology classification 1991­96 1997­2000 2001­07 1991­96 1997­2000 2001­07 HT1 3.34 0.73 0.51 3.54 3.04 23.75 HT2 0.36 0.16 0.30 2.29 0.16 0.55 LT1 0.23 0.27 0.28 4.80 1.11 18.31 LT2 0.61 0.37 0.09 9.46 4.58 12.97 MT1 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.32 1.76 MT2 0.52 0.00 0.18 0.32 2.45 6.62 MT3 0.67 0.24 0.27 3.46 2.97 8.28 PP 0.17 0.04 0.03 0.36 0.21 0.26 RB1 0.03 0.01 0.71 0.83 1.04 6.66 RB2 0.19 0.00 0.19 17.31 8.74 36.90 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 59 Table 3.16 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in Japanese Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007 Malaysia China Technology classification 1990­96 1997­2000 2001­07 1990­96 1997­2000 2001­07 HT1 4.03 2.35 3.55 6.32 1.79 19.92 HT2 0.78 0.46 0.22 2.64 1.35 3.93 LT1 0.23 0.29 0.05 28.92 11.76 6.43 LT2 1.66 0.42 0.63 12.87 5.52 16.49 MT1 0.11 0.02 0.14 1.49 2.38 8.13 MT2 0.96 0.99 0.26 1.99 0.47 8.85 MT3 4.00 0.19 1.85 9.37 4.89 15.60 PP 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.21 0.60 2.39 RB1 2.26 1.66 1.23 6.16 3.17 5.26 RB2 0.40 0.30 0.12 9.45 8.84 1.66 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). Table 3.17 Dynamic Revealed Competitiveness Position by Technology Level in EU15's Market: Malaysia versus China, 1991­2007 Malaysia China Technology classification 1990­96 1997­2000 2001­07 1990­96 1997­2000 2001­07 HT1 2.37 0.27 0.14 1.71 2.27 13.12 HT2 0.14 0.01 0.05 0.76 0.04 0.05 LT1 0.27 0.06 0.12 2.87 3.08 11.54 LT2 0.17 0.13 0.01 2.37 2.70 5.79 MT1 0.09 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.10 0.48 MT2 0.18 0.07 0.07 0.32 0.56 1.59 MT3 0.52 0.05 0.12 1.54 1.46 4.23 PP 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.16 0.05 0.07 RB1 0.10 0.00 0.12 0.29 0.30 1.32 RB2 0.10 0.03 0.02 10.42 9.36 13.90 Source: Authors' calculations using data from UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). 60 Tiger Economies Under Threat automotive products (MT1). In the Japanese market, Malaysia lost market shares in many technology categories, except for automotive products (MT1) and agro-based products (RB1) (see table 3.16). Changes in the EU15 market are small (see table 3.17). Again, China is increasing its market shares in all technology levels, except for those in primary products and resource-based products in the Japanese market and other high-tech products (HT2) in the EU15. Clearly, China is expand- ing the fastest in high-tech products, followed by low-tech products. In the Japan- ese market, China is also rapidly expanding its share in medium-tech products. Export Diversification or Specialization One strand of research maintains that export diversification and an increase in the unit value of exports are the principal avenues for a country trying to raise export earnings.14 Empirical research on the composition of exports (with an increasing emphasis on China) has brought to light a number of interesting patterns. First, lower-income countries can stimulate export growth by diversifying their exports and exporting to markets where demand is growing more rapidly. Low- and medium-tech exports of primary and processed commodities are the rule at this stage of development. With rising incomes, export growth through diversification is less marked but may remain significant, to be followed by greater specialization in specific export categories (Hummels and Klenow 2005). Middle- and high- income countries in East Asia are either specializing or beginning to specialize; even China is specializing (Amiti and Freund 2007). A sizable percentage of exports of middle-income East Asian economies (electronic products, for exam- ple) falls in the high-tech categories and overlaps with exports from the United States or other industrial countries (Schott 2001). The only difference is that, as with China, the products are likely to be of lower technological sophistication and quality that are reflected in the unit costs (Schott 2006; Xu 2007). Presumably, if the middle-income countries continue to specialize, the way forward will be to raise the quality of their products and move toward the upper end of the product spectrum. This process could intensify competition and erode profitability unless producers also diversify into ever-narrower subspecializations. Absent a new technological epoch comparable to the information technology and electronics revolution, the trend toward specialization will subject all producers to greater pressure, which will only be eased by faster technological change in current areas of export concentration. The emergence of China as the world's second-largest exporter in 2007 and a major importer is beginning to affect the opportunities available to other coun- tries, with notable consequences (Dimaranan, Ianchovichina, and Martin 2007). Increasingly, China is beginning to dominate the export markets for finished consumer and electronic products, including, for example, a wide range of consumer electronics. Lower labor costs aided by scale economies have given 14 What policies or market forces can trigger and promote diversification remain uncertain, and these lacunae hamper policy making (Klinger and Lederman 2006). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 61 Figure 3.10 Imports of Electronic Components by China from East Asian Countries, 1995­2007 15,000 value (US$ million) 10,000 5,000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Source: UN Comtrade. Chinese firms a comparative advantage in product assembly. This advantage has increased China's imports of parts and components from other East Asian economies and is the basis for a mutually beneficial division of labor between China and its neighbors thus far. However, this relationship is evolving as Chinese producers and MNCs producing in China integrate backward into the production of parts and components, starting with the simpler ones, and MNCs increasingly try to source parts for their worldwide operations from fewer and larger suppliers. This trend raises the barriers to new entrants. It will likely be exacerbated by the global recession of 2008 and 2009, which will affect the weaker producers apart from encouraging greater clustering of suppliers and assemblers. This change could be detrimental for countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand over the medium run if major compo- nent suppliers and subsidiaries of MNCs relocate to China and local firms are hampered from entering by their smallness and the time-consuming certification procedures enforced by MNCs. Although China continues to import a large volume of intermediate inputs, more of them are now complex and higher- technology items (see Cui and Syed 2007),15 which tend to be sourced from Japan, Korea, and Thailand, as can be seen from figure 3.10. This is also the 15 Gaulier, Lemoine, and Ünal-Kesenci (2007) did not find evidence that Chinese exports were displacing those from Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand, and at least through 2003, the Southeast Asian countries were gaining export shares in the upper-tier product categories. 62 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.11 Imports of Electronic Components by China from East Asian Countries, Excluding Japan and Korea, 1995­2007 2,500 2,000 value (US$ million) 1,500 1,000 500 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. reason the exports from these economies fell so sharply starting in the final quar- ter of 2008. The other Southeast Asian countries are experiencing a slower pace of increase in their exports of electronic products to China and could, in fact, face stiffer competition from Chinese producers in third-country markets unless they upgrade their exports. From figures 3.10 and 3.11, one can see that Malaysia's exports of electronics and engineering products to China are expand- ing, but less so than those of Japan, Korea, and Thailand, and that the accelera- tion of lower-tech commodity components exports most favors the Philippines. Figure 3.12 indicates that the share of China's imports of electronics from Malaysia first expanded between 1995 and 2000 and then contracted between 2000 and 2007. Meanwhile, the share of China's exports of electronic compo- nents to Malaysia has grown since 1995 (see figure 3.13). This finding is consis- tent with trends in investment within the electronics industry (see table 3.18). During 1996 to 2000, the components subsector dominated the investment in electronics, accounting for three-quarters of investment. By 2001 to 2005, the share of investment in components had declined to 55 percent. Meanwhile, investment in industrial electronics tripled and came to account for one-third of investment in electronics (Yusof and Bhattasali 2008). New Exports How do Malaysia's efforts at diversifying exports compare with those of other countries? Is Malaysia exporting higher-value and technologically sophisticated products? And are these exports mainly by MNCs or by Malaysian firms also? Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 63 Figure 3.12 Imports of Electronic Components by China, According to Economy of Origin, 1995­2007 2007 year 2000 1995 0 20 40 60 80 100 share (%) Germany Hong Kong, China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Taiwan, China United States other economies Source: UN Comtrade. Figure 3.13 Exports of Electronic Components by China According to Economy of Destination, 1995­2007 2007 year 2000 1995 0 20 40 60 80 100 share (%) Germany Hong Kong, China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Taiwan, China United States other economies Source: UN Comtrade. 64 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.18 Investments in Electrical and Electronics Industry, 1996­2005 1996­2000 2001­05 1996­2005 Value Value Value Product category (RM billion) Share (%) (RM billion) Share (%) (RM billion) Share (%) Total 41.0 100.0 43.3 100.0 84.3 100.0 Electronics products 36.5 89.0 40.7 93.9 77.2 91.6 Components 30.5 74.4 24.0 55.3 54.5 64.7 Industrial 4.6 11.2 14.0 32.3 18.6 22.0 Consumer 1.4 3.4 2.7 6.3 4.1 4.9 Electrical products 4.5 11.0 2.6 6.1 7.1 8.4 Source: Yusof and Bhattasali 2008. The numbers of new commodities entering the export baskets of selected Asian countries during 1996 to 2007 are shown in table 3.19. Indonesia led the field with 299 commodities. Malaysia occupied the middle ground with 137. Singapore had the fewest--just 17. Some commodities cease to be exported, and a number of commodities enter and exit the export mix in a cyclical fashion. Table 3.20 pro- vides a clearer picture of the overall situation. Surprisingly, the composition of China's exports varied the least, and just 8.2 percent of exported products were subject to cyclical ins and outs. China, along with the more advanced economies Table 3.19 Number of Commodities That Entered or Exited Selected Asian Export Baskets, by Category Appeared Economy Steady New Disappeared and vanished Cyclical Period China 4,142 87 301 22 407 1995­2007 Indonesia 2,387 299 158 90 2,005 1995­2007 Japan 3,978 44 315 48 538 1995­2007 Korea, Rep. of 3,495 68 260 77 1,013 1995­2007 Malaysia 3,244 137 129 101 1,325 1995­2007 Philippines 1,388 232 181 466 1,909 1996­2007 Singapore 3,947 17 396 27 590 1995­2007 Taiwan, China 3,887 60 88 69 718 1997­2007 Thailand 3,222 154 211 101 1,262 1995­2007 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: "Steady" means that a commodity has positive export values for all years; "new" means that a country did not export a commodity at the beginning of the period, but it started to export in later years; "disappeared" means a country stopped exporting a commodity; "appeared and vanished" means a country started to export a commodity sometime after 1995 but stopped exporting before the end of the period; and "cyclical" means that a commodity was exported irregularly during the period. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 65 Table 3.20 Percentage of Commodities That Entered or Exited Selected Asian Export Baskets, by Category Appeared and Economy Steady (%) New (%) Disappeared (%) vanished (%) Cyclical (%) Period China 83.5 1.8 6.1 0.4 8.2 1995­2007 Indonesia 48.3 6.1 3.2 1.8 40.6 1995­2007 Japan 80.8 0.9 6.4 1.0 10.9 1995­2007 Korea, Rep. of 71.1 1.4 5.3 1.6 20.6 1995­2007 Malaysia 65.7 2.8 2.6 2.0 26.8 1995­2007 Philippines 33.2 5.6 4.3 11.2 45.7 1996­2007 Singapore 79.3 0.3 8.0 0.5 11.9 1995­2007 Taiwan, China 80.6 1.2 1.8 1.4 14.9 1997­2007 Thailand 65.1 3.1 4.3 2.0 25.5 1995­2007 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: As a proportion of the total number of exported commodities by the country, over the period indicated. "Steady" means that a commodity has positive export values for all years; "new" means that a country did not export a commodity at the beginning of the period, but it started to export in later years; "disappeared" means a country stopped exporting a commodity; "appeared and vanished" means a country started to export a commodity sometime after 1995 but stopped exporting before the end of the period; and "cyclical" means that a commodity was exported irregularly during the period. of Japan; Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, had fewer new entries than exits and relatively low percentages of cyclical exports.16 As noted by Imbs and Wacziarg (2003), it is the high-income countries that are becoming more specialized. At the other extreme are lower-middle-income countries, such as India and Indonesia, that are diversifying rapidly. Malaysia appears to be on the cusp. New commodities just outnumber products disappear- ing from the export basket. However, the cyclical component is fairly large, suggesting that the export sector is still quite fluid and at an intermediate stage of specialization. The surprise is China. Its export dynamics are beginning to resem- ble those of a high-income country. What are some of the fastest-growing "new" exports (as distinct from the fastest-increasing exports reported in table 3.3) from Malaysia? Table 3.21 lists the 20 items that registered the highest growth in value. They are a mixed bag: mostly chemicals and processed products. Whether they are the outcome of process 16 The growth of exports from a country comes mainly from intensive margin (increase in exports to the same markets) rather than from expansion of the export market. Develop- ing countries seem to have difficulty sustaining a trade flow with a country (high exit rate), although the entry rate is high. This finding suggests that firms--especially small ones--in developing countries export small quantities first to test the export market and subsequently decide to exit. These firms may need better market information if they are to survive in the export market (Brenton, Newfarmer, and Walkenhorst 2008). 66 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.21 Fastest-Growing "New" Exports from Malaysia, 2000­07 Trade value, Annual growth 2007 rate, Year Product Product name (US$ million) 2000­07 (%) entered 722692 Cold-rolled alloy-steel, not elsewhere specified, 2.24 146.4 1996 not further worded, 600 mm wide 290241 O-xylene 1.88 146.2 1998 290941 2,2'-oxydiethanol(diethylene glycol) 4.53 145.3 1997 960891 Pen nibs, nib points, not elsewhere specified 6.28 131.2 1996 741410 Endless bands of copper wire for machinery 1.16 127.6 1997 271600 Electrical energy 120.96 87.9 2000 370710 Sensitizing emulsions 0.32 68.5 1996 284990 Carbides, except calcium and silicon 0.88 66.0 1996 400239 Halo-isobutene-isoprene rubber (CIIR/BIIR) 0.09 66.0 1997 650300 Felt hats and other felt headgear 0.28 65.4 1996 270119 Coal, except anthracite or bituminous, 6.57 62.8 1996 not agglomerated 293339 Heterocyclic compounds with unfused pyridine 0.53 62.2 1996 ring, not elsewhere specified 711220 Waste or scrap containing platinum as the sole 12.50 57.7 1997 precious metal 291241 Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) 0.06 57.2 1998 290260 Ethylbenzene 4.26 55.1 1998 284020 Borates of metals, except refined borax 4.71 52.0 1996 580123 Woven weft pile cotton fabric, not elsewhere 10.17 46.5 1997 specified, width 30 cm 282619 Fluorides of metals, except ammonium, 0.07 46.2 1996 sodium, aluminum 481131 Paper, 150 g/m2, bleached, plastic-coated or 4.33 42.6 1996 plastic-impregnated 230220 Rice bran, sharps, other residues 0.18 40.3 1997 Source: UN Comtrade. innovations that have raised the productivity of exporting firms is difficult to tell. However, they are of the low-tech variety and mirror the feedback from firms on the declining skill and technology intensity of production. The fastest-growing electronics exports from Malaysia with regard to value are listed in table 3.22. Virtually all the products are being produced by MNCs rather than by Malaysian-owned firms. Most can be classified as high-tech commodities rather than as innovative products incorporating advances in knowledge. Malaysian firms specialize in precision machining, in manufacturing the simpler components, in making plastic and metal parts, and in making automation equipment. By comparison, Thailand's fastest-growing electronics exports cover many products for Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 67 Table 3.22 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from Malaysia, 2000­07 Trade value, Trade value, Annual growth Product Product name 2000 (US$) 2007 (US$) rate, 2000­07 (%) 900921 Photocopying equipment with an optical 1,400 141,000,000 519.3 system, not elsewhere specified 850530 Electromagnetic lifting heads 22,700 10,000,000 238.7 902229 Nonmedical apparatus using alpha, beta, 121,600 21,600,000 209.7 or gamma radiation 854320 Signal generators 2,915,700 230,000,000 186.6 846921 Typewriters, electric, 12 kg, 109,800 8,146,500 185.0 nonautomatic 841239 Pneumatic power engines or motors, 208,900 11,700,000 177.8 except linear acting 853120 Indicator panels incorporating 5,068,900 211,000,000 170.3 electronic displays 850163 Air-conditioning generators, output 21,000 852,100 169.7 375­750 kVA 850422 Liquid dielectric transformers, 183,700 5,256,200 161.5 650­10,000 kVA 902230 X-ray tubes 122,500 3,397,100 160.7 Source: UN Comtrade. the hard disk drive industry (see table 3.23). The Philippines' fastest-growing elec- tronic exports include semiconductor products and batteries (see table 3.24). China's 10 fastest-growing exports in electronics and electrical products include a number of key components for communications equipment and other machinery (see table 3.25). None of these fastest-growing commodities shows much overlap among countries, except for radio navigational aid apparatus between China and Thailand. The rapidly growing exports from China, Korea, and Malaysia reflect the strength of current market demand, but whether they can help identify the future leading sectors for Malaysian firms is open to conjecture because they spring from technologies introduced by MNCs and do not represent indigenous technological capacity.17 With rising incomes, not only is there a trend toward 17 For example, the growth of manufactured exports, especially of electronic products, may not have been the result of improved technological capabilities nor of the accumulation of human capital. Rather, it appears simply to reflect external changes, especially the sharp appreciation of the Japanese yen after the Plaza Accord in 1985, which prompted large inflows of foreign direct investment into Malaysia (and Thailand) to take advantage of lower costs. By 1996, heavy investment in real estate resulted in an overheating economy with rising wage costs and transport bottlenecks in Malaysia and Thailand. In turn, this development resulted in a rising real effective exchange rate, a loss of competitiveness, and slower export growth, which contributed to the Asian crisis (Corden 2007; Reinhardt 2000). 68 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.23 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from Thailand, 2000­07 Trade value, Trade value, Annual growth Product Product name 2000 (US$) 2007 (US$) rate, 2000­07 (%) 840110 Nuclear reactors 3,800 31,500,000 363.3 847193 Computer data storage units 1,508,900 9,490,000,000 348.8 852691 Radio navigational aid apparatus 32,200 82,400,000 306.8 853080 Electric signal, safety and traffic controls, 18,800 45,900,000 304.8 not elsewhere specified 847310 Parts and accessories of typewriters, 37,300 46,100,000 276.6 word processors 850230 Electric generating sets, not elsewhere 1,036,800 407,000,000 234.7 specified 902229 Nonmedical apparatus using alpha, 700 218,300 227.4 beta, or gamma radiation 854012 Monochrome cathode ray picture 400 99,900 220.2 tubes, monitors 841239 Pneumatic power engines or motors, 28,700 5,116,700 209.7 except linear acting 854310 Particle accelerators 28,300 4,007,500 202.9 Source: UN Comtrade. Table 3.24 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from the Philippines, 2000­07 Trade value, Trade value, Annual growth Product Product name 2000 (US$) 2007 (US$) rate, 2000­07 (%) 854590 Battery carbons and carbon electrical 600 541,200 266.8 items, not elsewhere specified 847193 Computer data storage units 3,234,200 2,080,000,000 251.9 854129 Transistors, except photosensitive, 180,700 106,000,000 248.6 1 watt 853090 Electric signal, safety and traffic 11,500 2,080,800 210.1 controller parts 854390 Parts of electrical machines and 10,600 1,635,400 205.4 apparatus, not elsewhere specified 853190 Parts of electric sound and visual 89,500 13,600,000 204.9 signaling apparatus 902290 Parts and accessories for radiation 81,300 10,000,000 199.0 apparatus 854219 Monolithic integrated circuits, 632,800 57,600,000 190.5 except digital 851290 Parts of cycle and vehicle light, signal, 69,900 4,678,700 182.3 and similar equipment 850133 DC motors, DC generators, output 100 3,000 179.5 75­375 kW Source: UN Comtrade. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 69 Table 3.25 Top 10 Fastest-Growing Electronics and Electrical Exports from China, 2000­07 Trade value, Trade value, Annual growth Product Product name 2000 (US$) 2007 (US$) rate, 2000­07 (%) 852691 Radio navigational aid apparatus 879,600 2,060,000,000 303.0 854042 Klystron tubes 800 836,200 269.8 852530 Television cameras 25,800,000 10,600,000,000 236.4 902221 Medical apparatus using alpha, beta, 9,000 2,679,800 225.8 or gamma radiation 847230 Machinery for processing mail 20,900 6,173,500 225.3 of all kinds 850164 Air-conditioning generators, output 405,600 100,000,000 219.7 > 750 kVA 851730 Telephonic or telegraphic switching 101,000,000 15,200,000,000 204.7 apparatus 902219 Nonmedical x-ray equipment 2,011,000 262,000,000 200.5 850220 Generating sets, with spark ignition engines 11,500,000 919,000,000 187.1 847120 Digital computers with central processing and input-output units 906,000,000 66,700,000,000 184.8 Source: UN Comtrade. greater specialization in exports, but also countries tend to move toward the high-priced ends of their existing product categories by improving quality, design, and technology. Quality and Technological Level of Tradable Products Unit values of commodities--that is, price per unit of output of a commodity-- are used to assess the "quality" of a product. The underlying assumption is that higher-priced items are superior, in their technological content or sophistication. However, meaningful comparisons of unit values can be made only at a disaggre- gated level--that is, by comparing unit values of a commodity across countries, or within the same country but over time. This limitation arises primarily from dif- ferences in the metrics used to measure the quantity of each commodity's output. For this study, annual data on the value and quantity of export of commodities at the six-digit harmonized system (HS) 1988­92 level were extracted from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade).18 18 Further refinement of the product description at the 10-digit level is available from the HS 2002 classification. The constraint to using such a level of disaggregation is that time- series data on exports and imports are available only from 2002. The data used here cover the period from 1995 to 2006. 70 Tiger Economies Under Threat Given the heterogeneity of exported products and the range of metrics used to measure export volumes, deriving a unit value index is extremely problematic (Kaplinsky and Paulino 2005). Moreover, even when apparently homogeneous commodities are compared, the data are "noisier" from some countries than from others. Unit values were generated by dividing the export values by the quantity for each product exported in a selected year and for each country. At the six-digit commodity level, the data were subject to substantial variation with regard to the unit in which the quantity of output was measured, both across countries and within a country, over time. About 35 percent of the commodities in the electron- ics and electrical category had discrepancies in the units in which a product was measured across the eight countries sampled. Even after restricting the compari- son to the products that were recorded to have been measured in the same units, across countries, variability in the unit values remained, both within a commodity category and across countries (and years), and within a country (across years) for a commodity. The median value of the range of these unit values within a com- modity was around US$530 and was US$70 even within a country for the same commodity. Figures 3.14 through 3.19 display the trends in unit values for a number of widely traded electronic components: digital monolithic integrated circuits, monolithic integrated circuits (except digital), hybrid integrated circuits, electronic integrated circuits, parts of integrated circuits, and cathode ray tubes and valves. These prod- ucts were chosen because their production technology is fairly standardized; hence, one can expect that their unit values across countries will be similar. But the figures Figure 3.14 Unit Values of Digital Monolithic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 1.5 1.0 unit value (US$) 0.5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 71 Figure 3.15 Unit Values of Nondigital Monolithic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 2.5 2.0 unit value (US$) 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Japan Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Figure 3.16 Unit Values of Hybrid Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 6 5 4 unit value (US$) 3 2 1 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Japan Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. show that there is even variation in countries that are outliers with regard to having unit values that differed significantly from the remaining countries in the sample. Indonesia and Korea had higher unit values for four out of the five integrated cir- cuit commodities considered, with Thailand (as well as Japan, to some extent) being the outlier in the fifth product considered. As for color cathode ray television 72 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.17 Unit Values of Electronic Integrated Circuits, 1995­2007 10 8 unit value (US$) 6 4 2 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Japan Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Figure 3.18 Unit Values of Parts of Electronic Integrated Circuits and Similar Items, 1995­2007 600 400 unit value (US$) 200 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. pictures and monitors, the unit values prevailing in Indonesia, Japan, and Korea were significantly smaller than in the other countries sampled. Hence, data for unit values of Indonesian and Korean exports were dropped for some of these products. In one instance, Thai data also had to be excluded for the same reason. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 73 Figure 3.19 Unit Values of Color Cathode Ray Television Picture Tubes and Similar Items, 1995­2007 100 80 unit value (US$) 60 40 20 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: UN Comtrade. Keeping in mind the concerns regarding the "quality" of the data that have been extracted from UN Comtrade, one can infer (see figure 3.14) that unit values for digital monolithic integrated circuits improved somewhat for Malaysia from 1995 to 2007, in contrast to the levels prevailing in China and Thailand. Similarly, figure 3.15 shows that unit values (even though declining after 2000) for nondigi- tal monolithic integrated circuits from Malaysia were higher than in most of the other countries (except India), over the entire period from 1995 to 2007. As for hybrid integrated circuits, unit values from Malaysia were comparable to those of most other East Asian countries in the sample, as seen in figure 3.16. Figure 3.17 shows that although the unit values for electronic integrated circuits were declin- ing in Malaysia, they were comparable to those of most other Asian economies in the sample. From figure 3.18, it is apparent that for parts of electronic integrated circuits, unit values in Malaysia were much lower than those in Japan, but were comparable to other Asian countries in the sample, albeit with significant fluctua- tion. Finally, for color cathode ray television tubes, figure 3.19 indicates that unit values in Malaysia were on a slightly declining trend like some of the other coun- tries in the sample. A few countries (Indonesia and Korea) show an improvement from 2003 to 2005; however, the reasons are difficult to pin down. Overall, at least for this small set of products, one can conclude (with all the due qualifications) that Malaysian firms were technologically competitive with firms in other East Asian economies at similar stages of development. One can also conclude that, although they oscillate a fair amount, the trends in unit 74 Tiger Economies Under Threat value are either flat, as with monolithic integrated circuits (except digital), or downward, as with hybrid integrated circuits. In many cases, Malaysia's unit value for a product is decreasing, except for digital monolithic integrated cir- cuits. Consequently, from this sample of electronic products, there is no con- sistent evidence that the technological sophistication of Malaysia's exports or their quality has improved sufficiently to raise its unit export values over the period from 1995 to 2007.19 Because the calculated unit values exhibited considerable variability in all pos- sible dimensions, another measure of technological sophistication was con- structed following Hausmann, Hwang, and Rodrik (2007). These measurements map to the current HS 1988­92 product classification. For each product, a weighted average of the GDP per capita of countries exporting that product is calculated to assign a value (PRODY) that is a proxy for quality. The weights denote the revealed comparative advantage of each country exporting the prod- uct. Chandra, Boccardo, and Osorio (2007) calculated this measure of the pro- ductivity level (based on the countries that dominate exports) associated with a product at the Standard Industrial Trade Classification revision 2 (SITC2) four-digit level for approximately 1,006 products. Within the electronic and elec- trical group of commodities, the HS 1988­92 six-digit level was matched with the SITC2 four-digit level using a concordance table available in UN Comtrade. A total of 205 products within the electronic and electrical category at the six-digit level could be mapped to their corresponding product values. From 1995 to 2006, on average, Taiwan, China, exported electronics and electrical commodities with a product value of US$14,515, the highest for the group. Indonesia, Korea, and Malaysia followed with values of US$14,511, US$14,485, and US$14,482, respec- tively. Japan, Singapore, and Thailand were next with an average productivity value of approximately US$14,482. Finally, China's exports averaged a productiv- ity value of US$14,479. The basket of electronic and electrical commodities exported by the countries sampled was further differentiated by their frequency of appearance and sus- tained presence on the export market from 1995 to 2006. The implicit assumption behind this categorization is that more profitable commodities stay on the export market longer than those with lesser value added. Three specific subcategories are of particular interest for assessing the relative technological competitiveness of Malaysia's exports. At the HS 1988­92 six-digit level, products are identified as "steady" if a positive export value was recorded for all 12 years. A product was categorized as "new" if the beginning year of a positive export value of the 19 South Asian countries are in a similar situation, with unit values of exports increasing only minimally during 1991 to 2002. Much of the growth in exports was the result of a decline in relative unit costs rather than because of an increase in quality (Brunner and Cali 2006). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 75 commodity was later than 1995, but the commodity stayed on the export market continuously through 2006. The third category of relevance was of products iden- tified as "cyclical," meaning that their frequency of "appearance" (with a positive export value) was irregular. The sum of the productivity values of the steady commodities in this sector made it possible to gauge the technological achievements of the exporting country before 1995. This statistic captures the level of technological sophistication of the products that were "discovered" previously and that have been exported since. The arithmetic sum rather than the mean of the productivity values is examined, because the number of commodities in each of these categories matters, not just their productivity values. Consider the following hypothetical example: Malaysia has three electronics and electrical commodities in the steady category for the period from 1995 to 2006. Indonesia, on the other hand, has two electronics and electrical commodities in the steady category for the same period. The corre- sponding productivity value for each of these steady commodities is 100. Hence, the sum of the productivity values of the steady commodities for Malaysia is 300, whereas it is 200 for Indonesia. To put it differently, all other things being equal, if Malaysia exports a larger number of electronics and electrical products in the steady category than Indonesia, one may infer that Malaysia has greater techno- logical capacity than Indonesia. Japan and Singapore ranked highest for this set of steady electronic and electrical items, at US$2.84 million and US$2.73 million, respectively. China, Korea, and Malaysia were next at US$2.66 million, US$2.58 million, and US$2.57 million, respectively. Taiwan, China; India; and Thailand followed, with total productivity values of US$2.56 million, US$2.55 million, and US$2.54 million, respectively. Last, exports of stable electronic and electrical items by Indonesia had the lowest produc- tivity levels of US$1.74 million. These numbers imply that Malaysia has made rea- sonable progress toward the technological frontier for electronic and electrical products that were already discovered and exported by the sampled countries before 1995, indicating that MNCs operating in Malaysia have been progressively upgrad- ing their product mix as manufacturing capability and local costs have advanced. Comparing the sum of the productivity values for the "new" electronic and electrical products, Indonesia took the lead with the highest value of US$317,426. Indonesia had the largest number of electronics and electrical products catego- rized as new (21 compared with 11 for China, 2 for Thailand, and 1 each for Korea and Singapore). The sum of the productivity values of the new commodities for China was US$161,354. Indonesia's low level of technological progress before 1995 meant that it could discover and bring more electronics and electrical goods into the export market. Table 3.26 provides a detailed listing of these new elec- tronics and electrical commodities at the six-digit level. Malaysia did not discover any new commodity during this time. Finally, the sum of the productivity values for the cyclical group was highest for Indonesia again, at US$831,985. Malaysia was second at US$323,609. Thailand, 76 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.26 New Electronic and Electricals That Appeared from 1995 to 2006 and Their 2000­04 PRODY Country Product Product name PRODY China 902211 Medical x-ray apparatus 20109.1 China 854041 Magnetron tubes 17667.2 China 854049 Microwave tubes, except magnetron and klystron 17667.2 China 851782 Telegraphic apparatus, not elsewhere specified 17355.0 China 854219 Monolithic integrated circuits, except digital 16473.8 China 854220 Hybrid integrated circuits 16473.8 China 850611 Manganese dioxide primary cells or batteries, volume 300 cc 12889.2 China 850612 Mercuric oxide primary cells or batteries, volume 300 cc 12889.2 China 850613 Silver oxide primary cells or batteries, volume 300 cc 12889.2 China 846921 Typewriters, electric, 12 kg, nonautomatic 8470.0 China 846931 Typewriters, nonelectric, 12 kg 8470.0 Indonesia 902221 Medical apparatus using alpha, beta, or gamma radiation 20109.1 Indonesia 902229 Nonmedical apparatus using alpha, beta, or gamma radiation 20109.1 Indonesia 902290 Parts and accessories for radiation apparatus 20109.1 Indonesia 854020 Television camera tubes and other photocathode tubes 17667.2 Indonesia 854042 Klystron tubes 17667.2 Indonesia 854081 Receiver or amplifier valves and tubes 17667.2 Indonesia 900911 Electrostatic photocopiers, direct process 17269.1 Indonesia 850133 DC motors, DC generators, output 75­375 kW 17025.1 Indonesia 850520 Electromagnetic couplings, clutches, and brakes 14631.8 Indonesia 853090 Electric signal, safety, and traffic controller parts 14631.8 Indonesia 854310 Particle accelerators 14631.8 Indonesia 851120 Ignition magnetos, magneto-generators, and flywheels 14572.4 Indonesia 841012 Hydraulic turbines, waterwheels, power 1,000­10,000 kW 13834.9 Indonesia 841231 Pneumatic power engines or motors, linear acting 13834.9 Indonesia 841280 Engines and motors, not elsewhere specified 13834.9 Indonesia 850612 Mercuric oxide primary cell, battery, volume < 300 cc 12889.2 Indonesia 850740 Nickel-iron electric accumulators 12889.2 Indonesia 850212 Generating sets, diesel, output 75­375 kVA 11781.9 Indonesia 850220 Generating sets, with spark ignition engines 11781.9 Indonesia 853940 Ultraviolet or infrared lamps, arc lamps 9511.6 Korea, 841012 Hydraulic turbines, waterwheels, power 1,000­10,000 kW 13834.9 Rep. of Philippines 847210 Office duplicating machines 17269.1 (continued ) Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 77 Table 3.26 (continued) Country Product Product name PRODY Philippines 853080 Electric signal, safety, and traffic controls, not elsewhere 14631.8 specified Philippines 853210 Fixed power capacitors (50/60 hertz circuits) 14631.8 Philippines 854520 Carbon and graphite brushes 14631.8 Philippines 854590 Battery carbons and carbon electrical items, not 14631.8 elsewhere specified Philippines 851290 Parts of cycle and vehicle light, signal, and similar equipment 14572.4 Philippines 850152 Air-conditioning motors, multiphase, output 0.75­75 kW 11781.9 Philippines 853921 Filament lamps, tungsten halogen 9511.6 Singapore 841012 Hydraulic turbines, waterwheels, power 1,000­10,000 kW 13834.9 Thailand 854020 Television camera tubes and other photocathode tubes 17667.2 Thailand 852210 Pickup cartridges 15707.7 Source: UN Comtrade. India, and Korea followed at US$302,020, US$279,325, and US$278,081, respec- tively. Taiwan, China; China; Singapore; and Japan were at the lower end of this distribution with values of US$222,909, US$142,398, US$109,115, and US$64,329, respectively. Again, the number of cyclical electronics and electricals was highest in Indonesia at 54 compared with 20 in Malaysia and Thailand; 19 in Korea; 18 in India; and 13 in Taiwan, China. Hence, using the productivity values established in earlier studies, Malaysia's technological achievements can be ranked relatively high, although most products are manufactured by MNCs, and sophis- ticated components are mostly imported. Export growth can also correlate with trends in the diversification of a coun- try's exports toward faster-growing markets that exploit the potential of the exten- sive margin (Brenton and Newfarmer 2007). Compared with 1995, Malaysia exported more to China in 2007, which is a positive development (see table 3.27). However, the top three destinations--the United States, Singapore, and Japan-- remained unchanged, although in 2007 they absorbed 39 percent of exports as against nearly 54 percent in 1995. Intraindustry and intraregional trade has been on the rise in East Asia for the past decade, and quite possibly this trend might continue. However, as noted previously, greater geographic concentration of manufacturing encouraged by increasing transport costs and the MNCs' prefer- ence for fewer suppliers might slow or reverse the increase, unless Malaysian firms diversify and upgrade their product offerings, thereby inducing MNCs to source more of their inputs from Malaysia. The Evolution of Revealed Comparative Advantage To help pull things together with a broad indication of industrial strengths based on exports, the study computed the revealed comparative advantage (RCA) using 78 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.27 Destination of Malaysia's Exports, 1995, 2000, and 2007 Share of exports received (%) Hong United Kong, United Taiwan, Korea, Year States Singapore Japan China Kingdom Thailand Germany China Rep. of China 1995 20.7 20.3 12.7 5.4 4.1 3.9 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.7 2000 20.5 18.4 13.1 4.5 3.1 3.6 2.5 3.8 3.3 3.1 2007 15.6 14.6 9.1 4.6 1.6 5.0 2.5 2.7 3.8 8.8 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: Order of economies reflects share of exports received in 1995. Malaysia's export baskets for 1995, 2000, and 2007.20 In 1995, more than half of the top 10 exports with the highest ratings were resource-based products, and none were in the high-tech category (see table 3.28). The remaining three were medium-tech products, including audio equipment and turntables. The two lead- ing items were both wood products; the third was palm kernel oil. Seven years later, wood products had retained the two top spots, followed by thorium ores and palm oil. In all, there were five resource-based products and three high-tech items led by cinematographic cameras (see table 3.29). In 2007, 20 The RCA is often used to measure the export competitiveness of a commodity (or an indus- try) of a country. It is a ratio of two shares: (a) the share of a commodity's export in the overall exports of a country and (b) the share of the same commodity in global exports: Exportij Exportij i RCA , Exportij Exportij j i j where i denotes the commodity and j denotes countries (over the set of commodities, i 1 ... I, and over the set of countries, j 1 ... J). An RCA greater than 1 means that the country has a revealed comparative advantage in that commodity, assuming that the numerator and the denominator are increasing. If that is not the case, greater care is needed in interpreting the results. Rearranging the equation, one can obtain Exportij Exportij j RCA . Exportij Exportij i i j The numerator is now country j's market share of commodity i in the world export market, and the denominator is country j's share of exports in overall world exports. Thus, even if country j is losing market share, if overall exports from country j relative to world exports are shrinking faster, the RCA will be greater than 1 (Lall, Weiss, and Zhang 2006). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 79 Table 3.28 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 1995 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 440332 Logs, white lauan, meranti, seraya, yellow 57.03 2,287 RB1 meranti, alan 440331 Logs, meranti (light or dark red), bakau 56.07 2,287 RB1 151329 Palm kernel and babassu oil, fractions, 52.65 4,661 RB1 simply refined 851931 Turntables with automatic record-changing 50.91 15,997 MT3 mechanism 440333 Logs, keruing, ramin, kapur, teak, jongkong, merbau, 50.27 2,287 RB1 and so forth 151190 Palm oil or fractions, simply refined 48.68 4,635 RB1 440721 Lumber, meranti red, meranti bakau, white lauan, 45.86 3,667 RB1 and so forth 851921 Record players without built-in loudspeaker, not 44.03 15,997 MT3 elsewhere specified 261220 Thorium ores and concentrates 40.78 13,865 RB2 851939 Turntables, without record changers 38.43 15,997 MT3 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: MT3 engineering products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Tech- nology classification is based on Lall (2000). Table 3.29 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 2000 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 440331 Logs, meranti (light or dark red), bakau 57.36 2,287 RB1 440721 Lumber, meranti red, meranti bakau, white lauan, 44.31 3,667 RB1 and so forth 261220 Thorium ores and concentrates 40.85 13,865 RB2 151190 Palm oil or fractions, simply refined 40.53 4,635 RB1 851931 Turntables with automatic record-changing 39.74 15,997 MT3 mechanism 151329 Palm kernel and babassu oil, fractions, simply refined 39.04 4,661 RB1 900711 Cinematographic cameras for film 16 mm 38.55 12,554 HT2 900719 Cinematographic cameras for film 16 mm 34.71 12,554 HT2 903130 Profile projectors, not elsewhere specified 32.89 21,451 HT2 230660 Palm nut or kernel oil cake and other solid residues 32.83 5,718 PP Source: UN Comtrade. Note: HT2 other high-technology products; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro- based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). 80 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.30 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Malaysia, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 900921 Other photocopying apparatus, incorporating an 71.32 17,269 HT1 optical system 551432 Yarns of different colors, 3-thread or 4-thread twill, 71.19 12,873 MT2 including cross-twill, of polyester staple fibers 851929 Other record players 70.27 15,330 MT3 851991 Cassette players, nonrecording 69.27 15,330 MT3 851910 Coin- or disk-operated record players 68.97 15,330 MT3 440331 Logs, meranti (light or dark red), bakau 68.80 5,595 RB1 330126 Essential oils other than those of citrus fruit, of vetiver 68.63 13,858 RB2 261220 Thorium ores and concentrates 68.49 13,865 RB2 851921 Other record players, without loudspeaker 68.19 15,997 MT3 3 441121 Fiberboard, a density exceeding 0.5 g/cm but not 63.30 11,754 RB1 exceeding 0.8 g/cm3, not mechanically worked or surface covered Source: UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). photocopying apparatus was at the top, followed by medium-tech products, displacing resource-based items, although these products still remain in the top 10 (see table 3.30). Overall, the impression conveyed by the diverse mix of products is that Malaysia's apparent comparative advantage continues to lie in resource-based products, mainly in wood and palm oil. By comparison, the RCA for Singapore is more solidly in high-tech electronic and engineering products and in chemical compounds (see appendix table A.6). The RCA for Korea in 2007 mainly points to medium-tech products, including ships, chemicals, electronic products, and yarn (see appendix table A.4). Thailand's RCA for 2007 is heavily slanted toward resource-based and agricultural products (see appendix table A.8). Table 3.31 lists the changes in RCA from 1995 to 2007 for Malaysia's 10 largest export commodities. Six commodities are classified as high-tech. RCAs for these commodities are mostly increasing, although slowly. Clearly, Malaysia enjoys a comparative advantage in palm oil, and the export value is significant. For now, Malaysia is also maintaining its comparative advantages in the other commodities. In sum, the RCA measure helps make future choices somewhat clearer, showing in line with the other indicators that the manufacturing capabilities of Malaysian firms are strongest in medium-tech resource-based products. The country is a competitive producer of some electronic products, but they are mainly items Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 81 Table 3.31 Top 10 Malaysian Exports in 2007 and Their Revealed Comparative Advantages in 1995­2007 Trade value, RCA, RCA, RCA, 2007 Technology Product Product name 1995 2000 2007 (US$ million) classification 854211 Monolithic integrated circuits, digital 0.24 2.64 4.13 11,000 HT1 847330 Parts and accessories for machines 3.62 5.38 5.36 10,400 HT1 of heading 84.71 270900 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from 1.47 0.79 1.11 9,760 PP bituminous minerals, crude 271111 Liquefied natural gas 10.53 10.11 10.87 7,620 PP 847120 Digital computers with central 0.25 1.65 4.93 7,170 HT1 processing and input-output units 151190 Palm oil or fractions, simply refined 50.28 41.43 38.12 6,980 RB1 854220 Hybrid integrated circuits 12.92 4.14 21.09 6,210 HT1 271000 Petroleum oils and oils obtained 0.85 5,770 RB2 from bituminous minerals, other than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or included, containing by weight 70% or more of petroleum oils or of oils obtained from bituminous minerals 854219 Monolithic digital integrated circuits, 5.36 4.94 2.44 4,420 HT1 other, including circuits obtained by a combination of bipolar and metal oxide semiconductor technologies 847199 Automatic data processing machines 1.08 3.42 7.64 4,140 HT1 and units, not specified elsewhere Source: UN Comtrade. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). assembled by MNCs and do not reflect the technological expertise of Malaysian firms.21 Opportunities Defined by Mapping Product Spaces The burning question for Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries is all about the next generation of products. Given current comparative advantage, how can one identify the options for diversifying the industrial mix of tradable products? This question takes us into the realm of speculation, guided by a useful technique for mapping "product spaces," pioneered by Hausmann and Klinger (2006). Their 21 An index of the sophistication of exports by country constructed by Lall, Weiss, and Zhang (2006) on the basis of the classification derived by Lall (2000) shows that in 1990 Malaysia ranked 14th with a score of 68 (the United States ranked first with a score of 84). In 2000, Malaysia's score was 63, behind the Philippines (64) but ahead of Thailand (62). 82 Tiger Economies Under Threat approach assumes that each commodity produced gives rise to different opportu- nities for future diversification. That is, some products offer easier and multiple diversification paths to other related products, whereas others do not. In general, primary and resource-based products do not lead to many opportunities for diver- sification. By contrast, manufacturing goods, such as electronics, generate skills and assets that are similar to those required for the production of other manufac- turing commodities and hence are classified as high-value products. The product space mapping technique helps a country identify the potential diversification opportunities arising from each of its exports. The density of each commodity gives the probability that a country will export a pair of goods condi- tional on its already exporting at least one of the goods. The more a country specializes in high-value goods (with regard to highest densities), the greater is its potential for diversification into other high-value products. Graphical representations of the product spaces for Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand are presented in figure 3.20 and for China in figure 3.21. They show clear differences in the pattern of exports and the potential for diversification in each of these countries relative to Malaysia. The period for this analysis is 2000 to 2004. The x axis is the inverse of the density (that is, closer to the origin indicates higher density); the y axis measures the difference between PRODY and EXPY22 (that is, a positive number means "upgrading" in a sense of exporting more sophisticated commodities relative to the overall export basket). In the case of China (see figure 3.21), the commodities that are in the area of high density are mostly higher-valued commodities, such as engineering and high- technology goods.23 Appendix table B.1 shows that the "upscale" commodities with the highest densities are mostly in the engineering, electronic and electrical, light manufacture, and processed products. In contrast, for Malaysia, fewer commodities are in the denser part of the product space, mainly those in electronics and electricals, most of which are assembled by MNCs with some inputs from local firms (see figure 3.20). The highest densities for upscale products in Malaysia ranged from 0.27 to 0.21 (see appendix table B.6), whereas for China they ranged from 0.54 to 0.46. Clearly, firms in Malaysia have the opportunity to diversify into new products, especially in electronics (and some automotive, processed, and engineering products), but diversi- fication would entail investment in product design and development and in research and development so as to strengthen absorptive capacity. In view of the large role of MNCs in Malaysia and the absence of significant local original design manufacturers and contract manufacturers, the likelihood that firms in Malaysia can readily diversify into new and more sophisticated products is smaller relative to China. 22 EXPY is calculated as a weighted sum of PRODY, signifying the sophistication of the export basket of a country. 23 The discussion in this section focuses on the "upscale" goods--that is, PRODY and EXPY are both positive. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 83 Figure 3.20 Product Space of Selected Southeast Asian Countries, 2000­04 a. Indonesia 30,000 difference between PRODY and EXPY 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 0 5 10 inverse of density electronic and electrical products other high-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products agro-based products other resource-based products primary products b. Malaysia 30,000 difference between PRODY and EXPY 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 0 5 10 15 inverse of density electronic and electrical products other high-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products agro-based products other resource-based products primary products 84 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.20 (continued ) c. Philippines 30,000 difference between PRODY and EXPY 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 0 5 10 15 20 inverse of density electronic and electrical products other high-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products agro-based products other resource-based products primary products d. Thailand 30,000 difference between PRODY and EXPY 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 0 5 10 inverse of density electronic and electrical products other high-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products agro-based products other resource-based products primary products Source: Authors' calculations. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 85 Figure 3.21 Product Space of China, 2000­04 30,000 difference between PRODY and EXPY 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 0 5 inverse of density electronic and electrical products other high-technology products automotive products process industry engineering products textiles, garments, and footwear other low-technology products agro-based products other resource-based products primary products Source: Authors' calculations. Appendix table B.6 also identifies the SITC2 four-digit-level products into which Malaysia can most easily diversify. In particular, consumer electronics con- sisting of products such as televisions, dictating machines, and other sound recorders and reproducers comprise the low-hanging fruit for Malaysian manu- facturers; however, given rising labor costs and saturated world markets, these are less attractive. Three products from the electronics and electrical industry follow next: (a) electronic microcircuits; (b) peripheral units, including control and adapting units; and (c) diodes, transistors, and similar semiconductor devices. The other promising commodities for the engineering industry are radios, printed circuits and parts, and radios for motor vehicles--product groups also subject to strong competitive pressures. In the electronics and electrical industry, the most promising product categories are complete digital data processing machines; off-line data processing equipment; parts of and accessories suitable for electronic calculating and accounting and other automatic data processes; other electrical valves and tubes; parts of electrical apparatus for line telephones, micro- phones, loudspeakers, amplifiers, and aerial reflectors of all kinds; television picture tubes, cathode ray tubes; calculating machines and other accounting machines; and other electrical machinery and equipment. Two commodities at the SITC2 four-digit level in medium-technology processes with high densities are (a) polycarboxylic acids and their anhydrides and (b) polystyrene and its 86 Tiger Economies Under Threat copolymers. The only subsectors in the automotive industry that have relatively high densities (0.21) are (a) wheelchairs, both motorized and nonmotorized, and (b) parts and accessories for motorcycles, autocycles, and bicycles. Thailand concentrates on higher-value products relative to Malaysia. The commodities with the highest densities range from 0.40 to 0.35 (see appendix table B.9), well above the range computed for Malaysia (see figure 3.20), with an emphasis on electronics and electricals, engineering, processed products, and some low-tech manufactures. Indonesia lags Malaysia in technological capabilities. Figure 3.20 and appendix table B.4 show that Indonesia's highest-density upscale products were primarily in the resource-based and primary products sectors, with some in light manufactur- ing (and a couple in engineering).24 Figure 3.20 shows that the Philippines also has a lower "open forest" (that is, upscale product space) than Malaysia. Its highest-density products are in the 0.23 to 0.16 range (see appendix table B.7). The prominence of resource-based indus- tries (with some specialization in engineering and electronics and electrical goods) is also notable. Similar estimates for Hong Kong, China; Korea; and Singapore (not shown here) reveal that the open forest of Hong Kong, China, is denser than that of Malaysia. Its highest-density products ranged from 0.40 to 0.31 (appendix table B.2), much higher than Malaysia's. The focus of Hong Kong, China, was on high-value commodities--namely, engineering, electronics and electricals, other high-technology goods, processed and automotive products, and light manufactures. Korea's densest forest contains mainly high-value products. However, its top 20 densest commodities fall in the 0.41 to 0.32 range, which is much higher than the score for Malaysia (see appendix table B.5). Singapore specializes in commodities such as electronics and electricals, engineering, and processed materials (and very few resource-based goods; see appendix table B.8), similar in many respects to Malaysia. Surprisingly, its open forest is also less dense, ranging from 0.30 to 0.23. An Overview of Export Capabilities What we learn about Malaysia's capacity, potential, and future options from an analysis of export trends, pattern, and composition; from revealed comparative advantage; and from the mapping of product space is all fairly consistent. 24 Coxhead and Li (2008) attribute this finding to the lower level of human capital invest- ment in Indonesia relative to Malaysia. If Indonesia had a level of foreign direct invest- ment and human capital similar to Malaysia's during the period from 1995 to 2005, the share of skill-intensive exports would account for 22 percent of the total (the actual was 13 percent during this period). Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 87 Malaysia's current strength is in resource-based manufacturing, processing, and assembly activities in line with its resource endowment, the past industrial allo- cation of foreign direct investment by MNCs, and weak domestic technological capability. Technological catch-up is proceeding slowly. The significance of the electronics sector, although well grounded in production and exports, does not reflect the true technological capacity of local firms. Malaysia's domestic inputs to the electronics sector are still relatively low tech. Its two great advantages lie in the depth of manufacturing expertise and the relatively low productivity- adjusted cost of labor. Improving the technical and communication skills of workers and strengthening the innovation capabilities of firms are needed to speed up the technological catch-up process. Consolidating comparative advan- tage in those activities that are within reach would seem to be the wisest strategy. This effort could be combined with steady investment in selected high-tech areas commensurate with the country's capacity to effectively absorb and evolve the relevant technologies. The Scope for Expanding Tradable Services Much has been made of the growth and export potential of tradable services. India's success in capturing the markets for outsourced information and commu- nication technology, design, engineering, and some medical services has fueled the ambitions of Southeast Asian countries, several of which are now looking beyond tourism and finance to a wider range of possibilities, including medical services to travelers. In Malaysia, as in Thailand, travel-related services are still growing faster than others (see figure 3.22). Transport services increased much more mod- estly. The available data for "other services" are from 1999 to 2007. Construction and computer and information exports are on the rising trend. The export perfor- mance of other services has been relatively weak, most conspicuously financial services, which, while fluctuating from year to year, remained virtually flat between 1999 and 2007 (see figure 3.23). Relative to other East Asian compara- tors, Malaysia's service exports are performing comparably to those of Thailand and ahead of those of Indonesia and the Philippines (see figure 3.24). Nevertheless, policy makers and suppliers of services are hopeful that Malaysia will be able to expand the exports of five kinds of services. First is tourism, by attracting more tourists from China, Europe, and the Middle East. Attempts to achieve this goal are ongoing and include international marketing efforts; invest- ment to restore cultural heritage sites (in Penang, for example); and improvement of the tourist infrastructure in coastal centers (such as Langkawi). However, to raise the daily expenditure by visitors and induce them to extend their stay will require the development of ecotourism, other recreational activities, more sites for tourists to visit, and a periodic refreshing of the recreational options. The Malaysia My Second Home program is also being actively promoted to attract long-staying visitors. 88 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 3.22 Composition of Service Exports from Malaysia, 1995­2007 14,000 12,000 10,000 US$ million 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year travel other business transportation personal, cultural, and recreational services construction communication computer and information insurance financial services royalties and license fees Source: International Monetary Fund balance of payments statistics. Figure 3.23 Composition of Selected Service Exports from Malaysia, 1999­2007 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,400 US$ million 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year royalties and license fees communication insurance computer and information construction financial services personal, cultural, and recreational services Source: International Monetary Fund balance of payments statistics. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 89 Figure 3.24 Service Exports from Southeast Asian Countries, 1995­2007 100,000 90,000 80,000 70,000 US$ million 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: International Monetary Fund balance of payments statistics. Second, provision of medical services is an expanding industry in Penang, catering mainly to visitors from Sumatra, Indonesia, the vast majority from the Chinese community in Medan and its environs, because that area has strong ethnic and linguistic ties with the ethnic Chinese community in Penang (Hokkien). Almost 200,000 visitors used Penang's seven international hospitals in 2006 for everything from routine physical exams to heart-related procedures and hip and knee replacements.25 Each visitor spent approximately two and one-half days in a hospital (not including any additional time spent in Penang or other resorts to convalesce) and was accompanied by at least one additional person who generated revenues for local merchants, hotels, and owners of long-term rental accommodations. Should this industry continue to expand and generate spillovers for local providers of inputs, it could become an important source of growth. But projecting future flows of medical tourists and localized linkage effects is difficult because Malaysia is facing strong competition from India, Singapore, and Thailand (with countries such as Mauritius also attempting to obtain some of the business) for medical tourists sourced from the region and 25 Two of these hospitals now have Joint Commission International (JCI) certification. There are three JCI-accredited hospitals in Thailand. Those in Thailand account for more than half of the foreign patients, estimated to be more than 1 million a year. By 2015, it is projected that more than 7 million patients will visit Thailand for various medical treat- ments, assuming that the country remains on a stable development path (Smith, Chanda, and Tangcharoensathien 2009). 90 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 3.32 Costs of Selected Procedures in Selected Countries Cost (US$) United United Procedure India Singapore Thailand States Kingdom Heart bypass graft surgery 6,000 10,417 7,894 23,938 19,700 Heart-valve replacement 8,000 12,500 10,000 200,000 90,000 Angioplasty 11,000 13,000 13,000 31,000­70,000 -- Hip replacement 9,000 12,000 12,000 22,000­53,000 -- Hysterectomy -- 13,000 10,000 -- -- Bone marrow transplant 300,000 -- -- 250,000­400,000 150,000 Liver transplant 40,000­69,000 -- -- 300,000­500,000 200,000 Neurosurgery 800 -- -- 29,000 -- Knee surgery 2,000­4,500 -- 8,000 16,000­20,000 12,000 Cosmetic surgery 2,000 -- 3,500 20,000 10,000 Source: Smith, Chanda, and Tangcharoensathien 2009. Note: -- not available. from the Middle East.26 These countries offer some of the procedures at much lower costs than the United Kingdom and the United States (see table 3.32). Improving medical services in Indonesia could also dampen tourist arrivals in Malaysia, as will slower growth in the region. Currently, the hospital industry in Penang has few links with suppliers of medical equipment and suppliers in the immediate vicinity.27 Cultivating such links will call for proactive efforts by hospi- tals and public agencies, as well as entrepreneurial initiative on the part of manu- facturers, suppliers of information technology services, and others to maximize the domestic value added. The supply of nurses and specialists will remain a con- straint because of continuing emigration, particularly of nurses whose profes- sional and English-language skills are much in demand in the Middle East. Emi- gration also would be moderated by weaker external demand for emigrants during 2009 to 2011. A third tradable service, Islamic finance, has the potential to generate substan- tial turnover, and it has weathered the 2008 financial crisis better than other 26 Relative to other service sectors, fewer World Trade Organization member countries are committed to opening health and education-related sectors compared with finance and telecommunications. The Indian medical transnational firm Wockhardt is a major com- petitor, as are Apollo Hospitals and Fortis Healthcare. Singaporean firms, such as Raffles Hospital and Parkway Group Healthcare, have established marketing offices in China, the Russian Federation, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and South Asia to attract customers in these areas (Smith, Chanda, and Tangcharoensathien 2009). 27 The hospital industry in Thailand also has forged few links with local suppliers of inputs. Analyzing Comparative Advantage and Industrial Change 91 segments of the financial sector. Malaysia's financial sector is reasonably well developed relative to that of Indonesia, for example, but there is mounting com- petition from Singapore, the Middle East, and Western providers, all of which are tailoring products to attract investors by offering special preferences. A plan to create an offshore banking enclave in Penang is in the air but is far from fruition. The slow growth of financial services since 2000 and the uncertainty generated by the financial crisis of 2008 and 2009 and what the crisis has revealed about the financial sector's contribution to growth argue against an overly optimistic assess- ment of the prospects. Halal certification, which indicates that products are permissible under Islamic law, is the fourth expanding industry, with Malaysia vying to become a center for certifying foodstuffs, cosmetics, and medical products, among others. Again, the net earnings from this activity are uncertain, as is the scope for expanding the scale of certification activities internationally and generating substantial revenues. Malaysian entities are aggressively attempting to make the country a hub of the Halal certification business by hosting exhibitions and sensitizing Muslim con- sumers to the desirability of obtaining such an assurance. Logistics services are a fifth source of export revenue. Malaysia is investing heavily in both surface and air transport-related infrastructure, thus far with limited results. Malaysia has three main multilayered logistics hubs: (a) the Penang Logistics Platform for the Northern Corridor Economic Region, (b) the Greater Klang Valley Logistics Platform for the Central Economic Corridor, and (c) the Iskandar Logistics Platform for the Southern Development Region. Port Klang, with its free trade zone, is the focus of the government's efforts to develop a regional distribu- tion center. The Iskandar Logistics Platform, encompassing three ports (including Tanjung Pelepas), and Senai International Airport also have considerable poten- tial. Penang Port competes with ports in Singapore, Tanjung Pelepas, and the Klang Valley. Penang Port is also handicapped by its inability to handle large ves- sels, the low frequency of shipping services to the EU and United States, its reliance on coastal shipping, and its smaller industrial hinterland. In contrast, Penang's airport is a busy regional center serving the local electronics and semi- conductor firms. Frost & Sullivan's (2005) study of hub potential, which ranked countries by their attractiveness for logistics companies with reference to wage costs, quality of physical infrastructure, political stability, and business environment, put Malaysia in fourth place after China and Hong Kong, China; the Philippines; and Singapore. However, Kuala Lumpur's Port Klang, Malaysia's principal logistics center, still trails others in the region in the transport and communications rank- ings. In the Asia-Pacific region, only two full-fledged logistics platforms are included in the world's top 25 ports: Tokyo-Yokohama and Hong Kong, China. Other aspirants are Taipei-Keelung, Seoul-Incheon, Beijing-Tianjin, Shanghai- Ningbo, and Singapore. Kuala Lumpur still has much ground to cover before it 92 Tiger Economies Under Threat can equal Singapore in terms of port and airport capabilities and international connectivity.28 MNCs looking for a centralized distribution center outside North- east Asia prefer Singapore to other locations. Malaysia's logistics capacity is improving, and its global network connectivity position has risen from 28th in 2000 to 18th in 2004. However, its three principal logistics platforms remain suboptimal with regard to the integration of physical and information technology infrastructure, quality software services, and the presence of numerous world-class logistics suppliers. Furthermore, none of the Malaysian hubs is on a path to becoming a supply-chain nerve center that is a source of innovative sourcing and procurement solutions, data hosting, and reverse logistics. Malaysian hubs have access to land, which Singapore does not. Hence, the potential for growth is greater, but it will call for a carefully articulated strategy. Development of the Kuala Lumpur­Port Klang hub in the near term might have the highest payoff. There would also seem to be advantages to devel- oping the Iskandar Platform in close coordination with Singapore. An approach that spreads resources widely and thinly may be less effective, especially in the face of strong competitive pressure from other logistics platforms in southern China, the Philippines, and Thailand. 28 Where Port Klang outscores other ports in the region is in its low door-to-door total logistics costs to Europe, the Middle East, North America, and South Asia. 4 Imports and Foreign Direct Investment Competition and Technology Transfer Imports can contribute to growth through at least two channels.1 They can force domestic producers either (a) to improve their production efficiency and the quality of their products and be innovative or (b) to exit from the business, a process that can reallocate resources to more productive uses. Imports also are helpful in identifying domestic opportunities for local firms willing to compete (Lawrence and Weinstein 1999). Technological advances embodied in imports of machinery and equipment provide a second channel. The Malaysian economy is relatively open to imports if measured by tariff levels. Except for a few product categories, Malaysia's tariffs are low and compara- ble to those of its neighbors.2 Figure 4.1 shows that from 1995 to 2007, nominal tariffs on total imports of Malaysia were below those of other comparators except Japan and Singapore. On imports of machinery and equipment, Malaysia's tariffs were in the 3 percent range and only those of Japan and Singapore were apprecia- bly lower (see figure 4.2). Although nominal tariffs may no longer be an issue, nontariff barriers and other restrictions have reduced competition in the domestic market. This situa- tion is apparent from the low productivity, the lack of innovativeness, and the small size of most firms in the auto parts subsector, for example. These firms have been able to survive because of a variety of controls and contracts from public 1 Mahadevan (2007a), using Granger causality tests, shows that imports lead gross domestic product growth in Malaysia and notes that imports are a source of embodied technical change. Marwah and Tavakoli (2004) find that net foreign direct investment inflow and imports contributed 0.53 percentage point to growth. 2 This is not to say that trading partners do not have any complaints about the tariff struc- ture of Malaysia. The most frequently voiced concern is the number of unbound tariff items (Ramasamy and Yeung 2007). 93 94 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 4.1 Average Tariffs on Total Imports, 1995­2007 20 15 rate (%) 10 5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 tariff year China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Trade Analysis and Information System (UNCTAD-TRAINS). Figure 4.2 Average Tariffs on Machinery and Equipment Imports, 1995­2007 20 15 rate (%) 10 5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 tariff year China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: UNCTAD-TRAINS. Imports and Foreign Direct Investment 95 entities, whereas under competitive conditions, mergers and exits would have resulted in a leaner and more robust industry.3 One factor to be noted here is the absence of a competition law in Malaysia (Lee 2007). In addition, strategic indus- trial policies to assist local suppliers are also negating some of the apparent market openness suggested by the tariff regime. Imports and Technology Transfer A more tangible and immediate source of gains in productivity is the imports of machinery and equipment embodying new technologies that permit Malaysian producers to raise process efficiency and quality (see footnote 3 of chapter 2). None of this is news. Malaysian producers are generally experienced and knowl- edgeable about technologies available from overseas, helped by the presence of multinational corporations (MNCs), which are a valuable conduit for informa- tion. What is not happening in Malaysia is product and process development, which would give local producers an edge over the competition. Although the returns from investment in research and development (R&D) are frequently emphasized, a country can arguably, in the early or mid catch-up phase, derive more benefit from R&D conducted in advanced countries. By making greater efforts to assimilate the findings from international R&D, a country can com- plement and magnify the gains from domestic R&D. It can also partially cir- cumvent the large costs of development and testing. Acharya and Keller (2007: 3) find that the "contribution of international technology transfer often exceeds the effect of domestic R&D on productivity. On average, the combined impact of R&D investments in six countries close to the technology frontier, the U.S., Japan, Germany, France, the UK, and Canada, is about three times as large as that of domestic R&D. Moreover, the global patterns of technology transfer are highly asymmetric ... some countries benefit more from foreign technology than others."4 They benefit more from R&D in some countries than in others because of differences in absorptive capacity. Technology transfer from some countries, such as the United Kingdom and the United States, is more through trade, whereas that from Germany and Japan is through nontrade channels. Furthermore, the importance of technology transfer has risen since the 1990s. Three indicators of embodied technology are (a) the volume of investment in 3 Several studies conducted by the McKinsey Global Institute and summarized by Palmade (2005) indicate that in countries that follow sound macroeconomic policies, the growth of productivity is frequently being restrained by microeconomic distortions associated, for instance, with land use, labor laws, rent restrictions, price controls, measures limiting the exit of small firms, and other discriminatory practices. 4 See Aghion and Howitt (2005), who observe that returns from R&D spending are greater the closer a country is to the technology frontier. 96 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 4.3 Composition of Machinery and Equipment Imports by Malaysia, 1995­2007 2007 year 2000 1995 0 20 40 60 80 100 composition (%) China EU15 Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Singapore Thailand United States others Source: United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade). Note: Machinery and equipment imports are from category 84 (excluding parts), and soldering and welding machines are from category 85. The EU15 are the 15 members of the European Union prior to its expansion on May 1, 2004: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. fixed productive assets, (b) the import of capital equipment, and (c) the coun- tries from which plant and equipment are purchased. Gross domestic invest- ment in Malaysia dropped from 43.6 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1995 to 20.7 percent of GDP in 2006;5 however, imports of finished capital goods (not including transport equipment), which had reached US$6.4 billion in 2000, were valued at US$9.4 billion (in nominal terms) in 2006, a respectable increase. But the sources of imports of plant and equipment have changed, with less being imported from Japan and an increasing share coming from China and Thailand, whereas imports from the European Union, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, and the United States fluctuate (see figure 4.3). It is difficult to infer from the data on imports whether they are more or less technology intensive.6 For instance, some of the imports might be from Japanese transplants in China, but to determine whether they are would require an item-by-item scrutiny of 5 It diminished further in 2008­09 (Tan and Ahya 2009). 6 Although the assumption is that capital equipment exports from advanced countries are of higher quality, some research has yielded findings to the contrary. A study has shown that developing countries tend to import lower-quality equipment than advanced coun- tries (Navaretti and Soloaga 2001). For a review of capital good imports as a source of technology transfer, see Hoekman and Javorcik (2006) and Nabeshima (2004). Imports and Foreign Direct Investment 97 customs invoices for the equipment imported. The aggregate data available sug- gest that technology transfer embodied in capital imports has probably dimin- ished. Very likely, producers in Malaysia are switching their orders to cheaper sources in China. Korean and Chinese equipment could embody less sophisti- cated technology, which affects the upgrading of production processes and product quality. This tendency argues for greater attention toward building domestic innovation capacity. Malaysia may now be on the threshold of the stage where the entry, compet- itiveness, and growth of domestic firms hinge on the firms' own R&D efforts supplemented by more basic research in universities and specialized institu- tions. Technology transfer from imports of mature products and processes is likely to be smaller than from items that are at an early stage of their lifecycle. As noted earlier, Malaysian producers need to transition from commodities to product categories that are at an early stage of their lifecycle, when the room for innovation is greatest and there is scope for earning large rents. Adaptation and incremental improvement of imported technologies and the domestic produc- tion of import-substituting products, which add value locally, depend more on domestic R&D capital and on innovation capability. Foreign R&D is a partial substitute for domestic R&D. As a country moves closer to the technology fron- tier, the role of domestic R&D increases, as do the returns from research. How readily local suppliers are able to substitute for imports is related to their design and engineering skills, but that is not all. Domestic importers generally prefer local suppliers, and how actively such importers help potential local suppliers to find and acquire technologies that enable them to compete against foreign pro- ducers enhances domestic absorptivity, as noted by Blalock and Veloso (2007).7 Their research on Indonesian firms also shows that the productivity effect of technology transfer is "greater in supply industries with high firm concentra- tion. Firms in these concentrated industries are typically subject to less local competitive pressures and, therefore, exposure to international competition from imports will likely [lead to] greater marginal productivity gains" (Blalock and Veloso (2007: 1137­38).8 7 Typically, the subsidiaries of MNCs have local vendor development programs to identify and train local suppliers for bulky or simple products that can be locally sourced. In some cases, such a program can evolve into a regional vendor development program that evalu- ates suppliers from surrounding countries. This scenario is one avenue of (vertical) tech- nology transfer from MNCs. MNCs in Malaysia have engaged in such programs (Ariffin and Figueiredo 2004). 8 Research on Mexico has yielded similar findings (Jordaan 2005). Technology transfer among narrowly defined industrial sectors (four-digit level) does not seem to be affected by distance. However, at the three-digit level, distance has a negative effect on technology transfer (Orlando 2004). 98 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 4.4 Net Inflows of FDI, 1995­2006 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 US$ million 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 10,000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 year China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: International Monetary Fund balance of payments statistics. Patterns of Foreign Direct Investment Trends in exports and the pattern of export diversification suggest opportuni- ties for future growth. However, these opportunities need to be validated by the distribution of investment across industries, which shows concretely how investors view the emerging prospects. Investment is arguably a more sensitive indicator of subsectoral opportunities as perceived by the foreign and local business communities, whose reading of the market possibilities marshals the highest level of expertise and draws on the largest fund of experience. Approved foreign direct investment (FDI) in Malaysia was US$5.51 billion in 2006. It rose to US$9.72 billion in 2007, a year when global FDI climbed to record levels, and diminished in 2008 and 2009, reflecting the massive down- turn in international capital flows starting in the second half of 2008.9 China receives the lion's share of FDI inflow to East Asia, followed by Singapore (see figure 4.4). Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand are in much the same situation as Malaysia, with FDI levels fluctuating modestly around a stable trend. 9 Global FDI flow in 2008 declined by 15 percent from the record high of US$1.9 trillion in 2007. FDI flows are expected to decline in 2009 and 2010, and the recovery of FDI is not expected to start until 2011 (UNCTAD 2009). Imports and Foreign Direct Investment 99 Figure 4.5 Top 12 FDI Sectors in Malaysia, 1999­2003 50 40 share of total FDI (%) 30 20 10 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 year basic metals chemicals and chemical products coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear products electric machinery and apparatus fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment food products and beverages radio, television, and communications equipment, and other other transport equipment electronic apparatus other nonmetallic mineral products paper and paper products others rubber and plastic products Source: Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) FDI Database, 2004. The data available on FDI by industrial subsectors are for projects approved between 1999 and 2003. A high percentage--up to 75 percent--of these proj- ects were actually implemented, so the information is a reliable guide to market expectations of returns on investment over the medium term.10 From figures 4.5 and 4.6, it is apparent that electronics products and telecommunica- tions equipment have traditionally attracted the most FDI in terms of value, 10 The rate of implementation has been especially high since 1998, when FDI in the manu- facturing sector was liberalized to allow 100 percent foreign ownership without any export requirement. This development was welcome because foreign equity participation can improve the performance of firms (for the case of China, see Ran, Voon, and Li 2007). However, seven subsectors were exempted from this guideline (Tham 2004). Such restric- tions still apply to many services sectors, which require either a Malaysian resident natural person or a joint venture with local firms (Ramasamy and Yeung 2007). Malaysia does not have any laws regarding FDI. All the regulations are implemented through the "Foreign Equity Guidelines," which permit the government to customize conditionality by individual project (Tham 2004). Korea also restricts FDI in services, except with some qualifications in financial services ("South Korea: FDI Key" 2004). 100 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 4.6 Top 12 FDI Sectors in Malaysia, 1999­2003 3,000 value (US$ million) 2,000 1,000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 year basic metals chemicals and chemical products coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear products electric machinery and apparatus fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment food products and beverages radio, television, and communications equipment, and other other transport equipment electronic apparatus other nonmetallic mineral products paper and paper products others rubber and plastic products Source: ASEAN FDI Database, 2004. but also that total investment peaked in 2000 and has since been declining. Investment in other subsectors is mostly stable and fairly low. There are a couple of spikes, one being a surge of investment in the petroleum products industry in 2002, which then subsided. The second was a sudden increase in the investment in basic metals in 2003; this surge is also likely to have been tempo- rary and needs to be verified from more recent data. Disaggregated data on the four major industrial regions in Malaysia largely reinforce these findings. Elec- tronics and electrical products lead the field. The picture is blurred by large year-to-year swings in Johor, Kuala Lumpur, and Malacca, but overall, there is no upward trend. Apart from the electronics and petroleum sectors, nonmetal- lic minerals have also received some investment from overseas; however, for- eign investors are not enlarging their stakes in Malaysia. They are not pulling out either, but the high levels of FDI that prevailed in the 1990s could be a fea- ture of the past.11 Only a very detailed examination of the project-level data 11 This possibility may be a source of concern because the contribution of foreign establish- ments to the total value added of the manufacturing sectors increased from 33.4 percent to 44.2 percent between 1986 and 1999. During the same period, the employment share of foreign subsidiaries also increased from 30.3 percent to 38.1 percent (Tham 2004). Imports and Foreign Direct Investment 101 Figure 4.7 Composition of Radio, Television, and Communication FDI Inflows into Malaysia by Source Economy, 1999­2003 2003 2002 year 2001 2000 1999 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 composition (%) China European Union Hong Kong, China Japan Korea, Rep. of Singapore Taiwan, China United States Others Source: ASEAN FDI Database, 2004. would show if some niche activities in the major manufacturing subsectors are receiving a disproportionate amount of attention, but such information is not available at present.12 Can the sources of FDI yield further insights into the direction in which FDI is nudging Malaysia's industrial evolution? Between 1999 and 2003, investors from the United States, already the biggest source, increased their share, as did investors from Japan and Taiwan, China. The share of Singapore and that of "others" shrank (see figure 4.7). It appears that MNCs from Japan; Taiwan, China; and the United States selectively increased the scale of their operations in Malaysia or at least maintained the level of operations, mainly in electronics. This trend acknowledges the excellence of the manufacturing capabilities that have been created in Malaysia; the relative stability of the workforce; the trustworthiness of local sup- pliers; and of course, the interests of MNCs, which need multiple sources of supply. Neither the pattern of FDI nor the statements by industry leaders shed more light on which industries might hold the most promise for Malaysia, although there is much talk--but less action--of moving toward a "high-mix, low-volume" production regime. MNCs may still view Malaysia's electronics and telecommunications industries as competitive in terms of prices, quality, and delivery, but the investment data offer few clues as to future deepening of these 12 See Schot and Geels (2007) on the conceptualization of niche development and niche widening. 102 Tiger Economies Under Threat industries and profitable areas for diversification. Moreover, the geographic redistribution of industry in the region, which is likely as the global economic slowdown of 2008 to 2010 runs its course, increases the uncertainty regarding the future intentions of the MNCs. Technology Infusion from FDI and Upgrading A large share of Malaysia's exports of high-technology products (mainly in the electronics and electrical engineering categories) are produced by MNCs or their affiliates (Rasiah 2004). MNCs are also the sources of such exports from China, Thailand, and Singapore (Whalley and Xin 2006). In China, the situation is appar- ently changing, with more home-grown firms located in the Economic and Tech- nological Development Zones (ETDZs) entering the export market.13 This change is not happening in Malaysia. Domestic subcontractors producing parts and com- ponents for MNCs are not multiplying in Malaysia,14 and the sparseness of such backward links from MNC operations points to the persistent weakness of domestic entrepreneurship, innovation, and design. This situation reflects the policy of the MNCs to reduce the number of suppliers and to ensure that the ones they contract with can service their needs globally. It also underlines the increas- ing unwillingness on the part of MNCs to share technology, except in China, where the lure of a large domestic market has forced them to bow to pressure from the authorities to introduce and transfer some cutting-edge technologies and groom local suppliers. The evidence supporting technology spillovers from FDI is also equivocal.15 Horizontal spillovers from FDI in manufacturing are weak at best, and Malaysian experience over the past two decades confirms this negative finding 13 There is conflicting evidence on whether Chinese firms are catching up with MNCs. Blonigen and Ma (2007) find that the share of MNC exports from China and their unit values are not rising, suggesting that catch-up is not yet occurring. Wang and Wei (2007) find, however, that the sophistication of exports by Chinese firms, especially those in ETDZs, is on the rise. 14 Henderson and Phillips (2007) maintain that only Penang developed the institutional capacity (centered on the Penang Development Corporation) to encourage links between MNC production units and local suppliers and to develop a unique program for building skills through the Penang Skills Development Centre. Other states lagged and missed the opportunity. The government's focus on social policies to improve the economic standing of the Bumiputra community may have diluted industrial entrepreneurship, and govern- ment efforts to develop state-sponsored heavy and transport industries may have deflected attention from the deepening of the electronics subsector. 15 There is a large literature on this issue, but the results are mixed. For example, some find overall positive effects (Haskel, Pereira, and Slaughter 2007; Kohpaiboon 2006; Montobbio and Rampa 2005; Yao and Wei 2007), whereas others find no or a negative impact from FDI (Bwalya 2006; Haddad and Harrison 1993; Ng 2006). Imports and Foreign Direct Investment 103 (Rasiah 2003).16 Vertical diffusion of technology to subcontractors of MNCs is more common (Kugler 2006; Noor, Clarke, and Driffield 2002), and such technol- ogy transfer is most frequent between MNCs and their joint ventures, affiliates, and subsidiaries. Although a small number of Malaysian firms, such as Pentamas- ter and Eng Teknologi, have become major suppliers of plant automation equip- ment and parts by working closely with MNCs such as Dell, Intel, Agilent, and Sea- gate (all of which have factories in Penang), instances of vertical transfers are few. Technology diffusion associated with research conducted by MNCs appears to be related to the scale and nature of such research. For example, MNCs such as Intel, IBM, Cisco, and Hewlett Packard have invested in major research facilities in China, Israel, and India.17 In some cases, such as in India, they have set up special- ized research centers in local universities.18 Episodic evidence suggests that a sub- stantial concentration of research effort, which can extend from some basic research to applied research to technology development, can become the precur- sor for local start-ups. Gordon Moore, the founder of Intel, writes, "Large firms in high technologies are repositories of unexploited ideas. Restated another way, big firms have natural diseconomies of scope that a cluster of start-ups does not. Therefore, start-ups will prosper in areas where there are also large active high- tech firms" (Moore and Davis 2004: 33). Successful start-ups almost always begin with an idea that has ripened in the research organization of a large company or a university. The experience of Cambridge, United Kingdom; Silicon Valley; and San Diego, California, suggests that in each of these areas, a few axial firms initi- ated cluster formation assisted by the inputs from world-class universities.19 Wong (2008) also observes that Singapore has relied on an MNC leveraging strategy that uses a leading global firm to anchor a cluster, expand its role, upgrade its opera- tions, and develop or work with suppliers. MNCs such as Motorola, Intel, Seagate, Agilent, Altera, and Advanced Micro Devices all employ hundreds of engineers in product development, customization, and testing in conjunction with their R&D units in other countries. Firms such as Intel, Altera, and Seagate are also using their Penang-based labs for the development of their latest 28 nanometer chips 16 This finding is also supported by a study of manufacturing enterprises in Indonesia by Blalock and Gertler (2003). Interviews conducted by the authors in the summer of 2008 in Penang also indicated that horizontal spillovers were minimal, and very few individu- als left MNCs to start their own firms. 17 Intel, for example, has an R&D center in Haifa, the first R&D facility for microprocessors outside the United States (Petersburg 2006). Intel's R&D centers in Beijing and Shanghai focus on other research areas, such as replacement BIOS (basic input-output system) and parallel computing, but not processors, mainly because of a lack of qualified personnel in China (Krazit 2007). 18 A survey of MNCs by Thursby and Thursby (2007) finds that decisions about where to locate R&D activities depend on the size and growth prospects of the market, the quality of local R&D skills, and the protection of intellectual property. 19 Figure 6.2 in chapter 6 illustrates this concept. 104 Tiger Economies Under Threat and new read-write heads for hard drives (Tan 2009). However, the nature of the research that is feasible is hampered by the qualifications of the R&D researchers in Malaysia, very few of whom hold postgraduate or doctoral degrees. The small number of patents registered, the limited output of technical papers, and the absence of spinoffs are all indicative of the level of R&D being conducted. FDI in major R&D activities is determined by the local availability of abundant and high-quality technical workers and of the physical and human infrastructure that supports research. Governments can magnify the attractions of a location by means of fiscal and other incentives. Where skills are sparse, the domestic market is small, and competing locations exist in nearby countries, MNCs are unlikely to expand R&D activities beyond what is needed to promote the effectiveness of local operations. As Rasiah (2007: 24) has pointed out, "In Penang, the supply of R&D engineers and technicians is too small for the [MNCs] to upgrade further into R&D activities."20 This situation is even truer for Johor. It "looks to remain a platform for the assembly of tail-end activities to support a regional high-tech hub in Singapore" (Rasiah 2007: 18), which has augmented local supplies of technical skills through a liberal immigration policy.21 Rasiah's (2007: 17) scoring of R&D capital--human and physical--in Malaysia yielded very low means, irrespective of location or own- ership exacerbated by "the limits imposed on the import of foreign human capital." The narrow base of skills, the smallness of the domestic market for high-tech products and services, and the dispersion of the limited R&D capital of the coun- try among three urban centers, none of which enjoys significant agglomeration economies, may explain why Malaysians are unwilling to leave relatively secure jobs in MNCs to start their own firms.22 These factors may also be the reason industrial clusters in Johor, Kuala Lumpur, and Penang have been slow to expand and to diversify through innovation into new product categories. Given the cur- rent stock of technical skills in Malaysia and the modest annual addition of work- ers with postgraduate- and postdoctoral-level qualifications to this stock, the scope for developing innovative and diversified clusters around a core of electron- ics industries may exist in Penang and possibly in the Kuala Lumpur area, a point discussed further in chapters 5 and 6. 20 In 2000, there were more than 5,000 scientists and engineers in R&D per 1 million people in Japan. The comparable number for China was 545. In 1998, there were just 160 in Malaysia (Fan and Watanabe 2006). 21 Starting in the early 1970s with the assembly of consumer electronic products, Singapore moved into computers and peripherals and, more recently, the design and manufacturing of electronic components and wafer fabrication (Wong 2008). 22 Another possible reason may be that those with working experience at an MNC may leave Malaysia to seek employment abroad. Subsidiaries of U.S. MNCs in Malaysia have a high pro- portion of local staff in senior management positions. Some of these local senior managers are sent to other subsidiaries worldwide to manage operations there. For instance, when Intel and Motorola established a new factory in China, personnel from Malaysia were sent to manage it. Through their role in managing subsidiaries, some of the Malaysian managers have been absorbed into the senior management of the parent firms (Ariffin and Figueiredo 2004). 5 Leading and Faltering Industries The Electronics, Auto Parts, and Agro-Processing Sectors A closer look at three of Malaysia's major manufacturing subsectors can increase our understanding of their innovative capabilities and the degree to which these industries can serve as future leading sectors, not only in Malaysia but also in other Southeast Asian countries at comparable levels of development. These three industries are (a) electronics, (b) auto parts, and (c) palm oil and its byproducts. Together, they generated almost 47 percent of Malaysia's industrial gross domestic product (GDP) in 2005 (table 5.1). Electronics and Electrical Engineering Electronics (including electrical engineering) is Malaysia's leading industrial sub- sector. It was the source of more than two-thirds of exports between 1996 and 2006 (and 37 percent of all jobs in the manufacturing sector). Analysis of product diversification options (see "Opportunities Defined by Mapping Product Spaces" in chapter 3) indicates that most of the top 20 high-density commodities within reach are in the electronics and electrical engineering industry.1 The effort to 1 For example, new opportunities have opened up at the intersection of the electronics, medical, and information technology­based sectors that could leverage Malaysia's engi- neering and electronics production and design skills. They could also derive impetus from the demand generated by medical tourism, in particular, for hip and knee replacement and for diagnostic tests, as well as from research and development on aspects of biotechnology in Universiti Sains Malaysia and in some of the government research institutes. There is plenty of scope for advancing lab-on-a-chip technologies (Merkerk and Robinson 2006) and other types of diagnostic devices, as well as body implants. The recent entry of Sym- metry Medical, a manufacturer of orthopedic devices from Warsaw, Indiana, (continued on next page) 105 106 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 5.1 Contribution of the Electronics and Electrical Machinery, Automotive, and Palm Oil Industries to Manufacturing GDP, 2005 Share of total Industry RM million in 1987 prices manufacturing GDP (%) Electronics 3,639 28.0 Electrical machinery 23,043 1.2 Transport equipment 952 12.9 Vegetable, animal oils, and fats 10,667 4.4 Source: Economic Planning Unit. upgrade the industry by moving up the value chain and creating an innovative cluster has been ongoing for at least a decade and is strongly supported by incen- tives introduced under the Second and Third Industrial Master Plans.2 A report by the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan in 2003 (cited in PSDC 2007) identified five new technologies suitable for indigenous development: (a) microelectromechani- cal systems, (b) photonics, (c) advanced electronic displays, (d) high-density stor- age, and (e) conductive polymers. Thus far, the expectations voiced in the mid-1990s have yet to be realized.3 In 1990, 74 percent of all manufacturing employment was still based on production work, decreasing only slightly to 68 percent by 1998 (Henderson and Phillips 2007). Growth of value added by the electrical machinery subsector that had risen by 46 percent per year during 1971 to 1990 had fallen to just 2 percent (Rasiah 2008) and was paralleled by a steady increase in the share of imports of electronic components and semiconductors (Ernst 2003). The industry's trade balance, which improved through the 1990s, turned negative after 2000 (Rasiah 2008). The economywide growth of total factor productivity (TFP) in electronics and electri- cal engineering slowed from 14.1 percent per year during 1990 to 1995 to 2 per- cent per year from 1995 to 1999 (Ernst 2003). In Penang, the growth of TFP in electronics and electrical engineering declined from 8.9 percent per year during 1990 to 1995 to 0.5 percent per year between 1995 and 1999 (State Government of Penang 2001). (continued from previous page) into Penang's embryonic biomedical sector is a welcome development. The firm was attracted by the low cost of wages and other expenses, the local precision-machining skills vital for making cobalt-chromium steel hip joints, and the ease of marketing to and serv- ing regional hospitals conducting joint replacement surgeries. 2 On cluster development and innovation in clusters, see Yusuf, Nabeshima, and Yamashita (2008). 3 The four pioneering East Asian Tigers also started out with the simple assembly of elec- tronic products and, over time, assimilated the technology to move up the value chain and raise domestic content. The Republic of Korea relied less on foreign direct investment than did the other three (Hobday 1994). Leading and Faltering Industries 107 Few Malaysian firms have entered the product niches identified by Frost & Sullivan, as is apparent from five developments. First, in microelectromechanical systems, AKN Technology is the only Malaysian company now operating, and nei- ther its entry into the subsector nor its modest success in the export market is linked to any specific government incentives (PSDC 2007). The government research institute MIMOS (Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems) and a couple of the leading local universities have made some progress in initiating microelectromechanical systems research and grid computing, but specific chan- nels through which links with the industry can be consummated have not materi- alized. Thus far, MIMOS has not fulfilled the catalytic role envisaged by the government somewhat akin to that of the Industrial Technology Research Institute in Taiwan, China. Second, Finisar, in Ipoh, is the only prominent player in the fiber- optic components industry. Most photonics companies in Penang are LED (light- emitting diode) based, with a few local companies, such as Optometrix, beginning to go beyond components manufacturing and acquiring competencies in design- ing, fabricating, and building test systems. Spinoff benefits of LED applications have accrued mainly to multinational corporations (MNCs), with little by way of participation by Malaysian companies. Third, no progress has been made in the areas of technology related to advanced electronic displays.4 Fourth, high-density storage (both magnetic and optical)--that is, the disk drive industry--is probably the only industry that has demonstrated "technologi- cal advancement" in Malaysia. A leading Malaysian firm, Eng Teknologi, produces actuators, stators, baseplates, and spindle motor components for hard disk drives plus other items. Penang-based Eng Teknologi has emerged as one of the top five component suppliers for hard disk drives, among other components ("Corporate: EngTek" 2007). Actuators account for 25 percent of the firm's sales. Other services include precision engineering and tooling and components machining (Tan 2007). Eng Teknologi has also become an MNC, with facilities established in Dongguan, China (in 1996); the Philippines (in 1997); and Thailand (in 1998) (Hiratsuka 2006). Actuators produced at the Dongguan facility are mainly for 3.5-inch disks for desktop, external hard drives, video game consoles, and digital video recorders (Tan 2007). Its facility in Thailand produces actuators for 2.5-inch disks, mainly for mobile devices, whereas the facility in the Philippines produces actuators for 3.5-inch hard disks, mainly for servers (Tan 2007). All of Eng Teknologi's expansion seems to be occurring outside of Penang. The Dongguan facility increased its output from 1 million actuators per month to 2 million in the first quarter of 2008, and to 3 million by the end of 2008 through an investment of RM 15 million (Tan 2007). In addition, the development of local suppliers in China is threatening the traditional suppliers based in Penang. Although about 80 percent of the inputs used in actuator production in the past came from other 4 Taiwan, China, is the global leader in advanced electronic display technology (PSDC 2007). 108 Tiger Economies Under Threat Penang-based firms, Eng Teknologi currently sources about 50 percent from Chinese suppliers. With the rapid development of suppliers in China, Eng Teknologi may source the majority of its inputs from China, and the share of domestic components (mainly from Penang) may become as small as 20 percent (Dwyer 2007). Furthermore, Eng Teknologi is establishing two research and devel- opment (R&D) centers: one in Senai, Malaysia, and the other in Dongguan, China. The center in Senai will concentrate on technology development for baseplates. The center in Dongguan will concentrate on product development, especially that of actuators. Although wage costs in Malaysia and Thailand are higher, firms continue to concentrate on labor-intensive operations. Moreover, these operations are now threatened by lower-cost producers in the Pearl River Delta and Vietnam, whereas at the other end of the spectrum, high-value-added developmental and testing activities are increasingly concentrating in Beijing and Shanghai and in Singapore. The fifth and final development, that of conductive polymers, did not take off either (PSDC 2007). The conductive polymer sector has remained a relatively unsupported, low-profile industry, with the local companies engaging in "blend- ing" services, while the advanced plastics (epoxies and adhesives) are imported from Japan and the United States. If the trends in productivity and value added are to be improved and techno- logical capacity enhanced, Malaysian firms will need stronger support from local tertiary research institutions and overseas providers of technological support to upgrade research, development, and design capabilities. This collaboration would focus on specific niches in line with Malaysia's technology development objectives (for example, chip design, embedded software, and photonics). Malaysian universities need to introduce courses and postdoctoral programs that are customized to the specific needs of Malaysia's electronics firms. More than 60 percent of the 167 electric-electronics firms surveyed in Penang and Johor in 2005 reported that university curricula and lab equipment in Malaysia do not prepare students for the kinds of jobs available, and firms must invest in longer training periods of six months or more for new recruits (Rasiah 2008). Nine flag- ship electronics firms considered the private Multimedia University in Kuala Lumpur as the most active in soliciting suggestions from companies and tailor- ing its engineering degree curriculum to meet the needs of industry. For exam- ple, Multimedia University and also Universiti Teknologi Malaysia have worked hand in hand with Altera, located in Penang, to customize programs and a cur- riculum to improve the practical skills of graduates (Rasiah 2008). Altera has been especially generous in sharing its training practices with the two universities and in transferring some equipment to them. One outstanding success story associated with the development of the electron- ics industry is the Penang Skills Development Centre (PSDC), which has become a world-class training center. But similar organizations have been slow to emerge in other parts of the country (Henderson and Phillips 2007). PSDC's partnership with the firms in Penang to design and conduct training enhanced the relevance of Leading and Faltering Industries 109 PSDC's programs. The Selangor Human Resource Development Centre, modeled after PSDC, has made significant strides recently, but others, such as the Johor Skills Development Centre, still lack sufficient capabilities (Rasiah 2008). Improvements in the overall quality of training and development and the cre- ation of shared research laboratories are among the developments that are needed to ensure the longer-term growth of Malaysia's industries, according to a new report by the Industry Research Task Force of Penang (PSDC 2007). The report emphasized the importance of industry clusters composed of innovative small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) as essential for moving up the electronics and electrical engineering value chain. SMEs need to adopt productivity- and technology-enhancing tools introduced by the information and communication technology (ICT) industry to connect their business processes to global customers and become part of the value chain. Although finance cannot initiate innovation, easier access to grants by simplifying application and approval processes under the guidance of the Small and Medium Industry Development Corporation would surely ease one widely cited constraint. Finally, better access to market research and intelligence on new products and technologies would be facilitated by a repository of information on technological advances or a resource center to assist firms in locating relevant solutions for their needs.5 Auto Parts Industry The Malaysian auto industry can be categorized as a case of failed upgrading despite generous incentive policies.6 Hopes ran high after Proton Holdings Berhad, the first national auto company, began assembling cars in July 1985 using technology and parts sourced from Mitsubishi. But despite years of infant industry protection,7 5 PSDC (2007) identifies the types of firms in Penang that need to further strengthen their competencies as manufacturers of (a) semiconductor and printed circuit board assembly process equipment, (b) semiconductor test systems and manufacturing consumables, (c) wafer fabrication equipment, (d) advanced substrate technologies, (e) advanced poly- mers, (f) sensor and sensing devices, (g) disk drive platters, (h) LED applications and solar cell technologies, and (i) wireless devices, as well as firms involved in (j) industrial, mechanical, and electronic outsourcing with rapid prototyping; (k) development of tech- nical and engineering software and ICT; and (l) design and manufacture of radio fre- quency­microwave, portable medical electronics and medical mechanics. 6 Malaysia seems to have fared poorly on all of the following dimensions of upgrading: (a) production at levels of price, quality, and delivery that permit significant growth of exports; (b) manufacturing of products that embody increasing value added; and (c) growing levels of local (indigenous) inputs or links. 7 Import duties ranged from 40 to 300 percent to protect the domestic market ("Proton Bomb" 2004). Further technology transfers from Mitsubishi and engine, transaxle tech- nology, and design capacity acquired through the takeover of Lotus in 1996 have also not enabled Proton to overcome the hurdles it faces. 110 Tiger Economies Under Threat Proton has struggled to achieve viability. Its share of the domestic market for sedans, which rose to 57 percent in 1993, had fallen to 32 percent in 2006. In 2007, this share dropped to 24 percent, with the carmaker reporting a net loss of US$169 million and looking for a strategic partner to provide it with the capital, technology, and global market reach it urgently needed. The domestic market share for sedans rose to 26 percent with the introduction of new models in 2008 (by which time Proton had produced a total of 3 million vehicles), but the underlying weaknesses remain ("Malaysian Carmaker" 2008). Proton's travails resemble those of other smaller car- makers, such as Rover, Jaguar, Volvo, Land Rover, and Saab; all of these carmakers ended up as subsidiaries of global giants, but despite considerable efforts by their parent companies, they have struggled to achieve profitability. The Chinese manu- facturer SAIC (Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation) took over the Rover brand. Ford sold the Land Rover and Jaguar brands to Tata Motors in 2008, and both Saab and Volvo were up for sale in 2009 as the American auto giants attempted to cut mounting losses. The inability of Proton to evolve into a major multinational firm such as Hyundai after two decades of trying has affected the fortunes of the auto components industry and has hampered parts suppliers from participating in the rapid growth of the trade in global automotive components. The backdrop to the weak performance of Malaysia's automobile industry is the contrasting relatively favorable global and regional (Southeast Asian) environment throughout the period until the middle of 2008. Growth of trade in automotive products was 50 percent higher than that of office and telecommunications equip- ment (the largest component of global manufacturing trade in 2006), during 2000 to 2006. Moreover, exports of auto products from Asia were averaging a 12 percent annual growth from 2000 to 2006 (World Trade Organization 2007). In 2006, automotive products constituted only 0.6 percent of Malaysia's mer- chandise exports, in contrast to 1.7 percent in Indonesia; 1.8 percent in Taiwan, China; 3.2 percent in the Philippines; and 7.6 percent in Thailand (Ravenhill and Doner 2007). In value terms, Malaysia's automotive exports in 2006 were less than one-tenth of Thailand's and only slightly over half of the exports of Indonesia and the Philippines, countries with substantially weaker national technological capabilities. Malaysia's imports of automotive products, on the other hand, constituted 2.5 percent of total merchandise imports in 2006, with a value that was three times that of exports. A fourfold increase in the imports of components during 1996 to 2006 was not matched by the twofold rise in domestic production. By 2005, imports constituted 47 percent of the domestic consumption of automotive components. This surge of imports points to Malaysia's lack of a competitive advantage in this industry. As trade regimes have changed (both through the World Trade Organiza- tion and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations), this lack has resulted in mas- sive inflows of automotive imports from neighboring countries, such as Thailand, which displaced the European Union (EU). Overall, export growth of the automo- tive sector during 1996 to 2005 averaged 12.0 percent annually, slightly faster than the 11.2 percent annual growth rate for all manufactured exports. Leading and Faltering Industries 111 The share of unsophisticated parts in Malaysia's auto exports was almost unchanged from 1988 to 2006. Exports of high-tech and higher-value parts, albeit exhibiting a positive annual growth rate, still constituted less than 10 percent of overall auto components exports in 2006. In 1988, Malaysia started out with the lowest share of low-tech products in its auto components exports, but by 2006, these products constituted a higher share in total components exports than was the case for either Indonesia or Thailand. Relatively unsophisticated activities, such as stamped-metal parts and molded-plastic parts, dominated Malaysia's auto parts exports, among which the most notable items were lighting equipment, bat- teries and battery parts, safety glass, springs, oil and gas filters, wire harnesses, brake parts, and bumpers. Productivity growth during 1996 to 2005 of sales value per employee increased at an annual average rate of 2.3 percent, which was the lowest for all the sectors listed in the Third Industrial Master Plan. The average annual growth rate in productivity of the manufacturing sector as a whole was 8.5 percent for the same period. More than 90 percent of the total 769 firms in the transport equipment sector were SMEs (Ravenhill and Doner 2007). Their small size and sparse links with the auto assemblers and with other suppliers limited their capacity for R&D, implying that they depended on the design technology provided by the automobile manu- facturers. Moreover, most of the first-tier suppliers in the country, which had the potential for R&D, were foreign owned, but the small size of the Malaysian market (for example, until June 2003, foreign investors were limited at best to a 51 percent share of projects in the auto industry) discouraged even those firms from con- ducting product development locally. Component producers received more favorable treatment than did lower-tier suppliers serving foreign assemblers in other Southeast Asian economies. In partic- ular, high levels of protection and restrictions on the share of imported completely built-up units to no more than 10 percent of the domestic market have helped to promote the local auto parts industry but have failed to create competitive auto parts suppliers. Companies undertaking design, R&D, and production of qualify- ing automotive component modules or systems were eligible for pioneer status. This designation allowed firms to claim a tax exemption of 70 percent of the statu- tory income for five years8 and an investment tax allowance of 60 to 100 percent on qualifying capital expenditure. The problem with the development of an automotive industry in Malaysia is similar to that in Indonesia, where the government tried to develop the assem- bly operation without first nurturing the necessary supply base domestically (Aswicahyono, Basri, and Hill 2000).9 The Malaysian government tried to 8 The tax exemption is 100 percent for high-tech activities, for SMEs, and for firms in the Eastern Economic Corridor. 9 The development of the aircraft industry in Indonesia shared the same problem (Aswic- ahyono, Basri, and Hill 2000). 112 Tiger Economies Under Threat correct this deficiency. However, the very policies that seek to promote the local automotive parts industry have proved to be its nemesis. By limiting the access of foreign assemblers to the domestic market and by imposing restrictions on for- eign investment,10 the government largely ruled out the possibility of Malaysia becoming a regional hub for foreign auto assemblers and for foreign first-tier components suppliers, who largely turned to Thailand. The transport equipment sector attracted only 6.2 percent of all approved investments in manufacturing during 1996 to 2005, of which foreign investors contributed 41 percent, compared with their 56 percent share in total investment (Ravenhill and Doner 2007). A guar- anteed domestic market reduced incentives for auto component firms to become more efficient, to upgrade their skills, and to consolidate their operations into larger, more viable operations that could realize economies of scale.11 Proton inter- fered with the process of consolidation by decentralizing the procurement of com- ponents, with the intention of involving vendors more closely in platform design. Unfortunately, this policy resulted in a proliferation of vendors when different companies were appointed to supply the same component for different models, an outcome that Proton is trying to reverse. The lack of opportunities to produce in volume for the domestic market, along with second-round repercussions caused by the lack of investment funds (some government SME banks were reluctant to lend because of the perceived problems and lack of profitability in the industry), has created a vicious cycle.12 The acquisition of Lotus was supposed to reduce or elimi- nate the dependence on foreign engine technology. Unfortunately, Lotus lacked the expertise in camshaft design to produce the needed engines; consequently, Proton continues to rely on Japanese auto companies for the requisite technology. The future of the auto components industry does not look promising, given its inability to upgrade and to increase export penetration, despite the prevailing government incentives. Furthermore, the product space analysis in chapter 3 sug- gests that the opportunities for Malaysia to specialize and diversify into new auto- motive products and components are low, compared with those related to other 10 The restrictions were loosened in 2003 to allow majority foreign ownership but not 100 percent foreign ownership. 11 Proton has been exporting a small number of cars to Australia, South Africa, and the United Kingdom and is now aggressively seeking to expand export markets in Thailand through collaboration with the PNA Group of Indonesia that is aimed at the taxi busi- ness. It is also seeking to expand in China, through collaboration with Young Man Auto- mobile Group, and in other emerging markets. The United Kingdom has been the most successful destination, with the sale of 1,518 cars in 2008. 12 Consequently, the companies that were excluded from the Vendor Development Pro- gram, along with those that made an early decision not to rely primarily on Proton for their sales, prospered. They sought joint ventures or technological tie-ups with foreign-- especially Japanese--partners. Most of these firms' operations were export oriented: the Malaysian Automotive Component Parts Manufacturers estimated that between 50 and 60 of its 103 members engaged in exports (Ravenhill and Doner 2007). Leading and Faltering Industries 113 high-value commodities, such as electronics and electricals and engineering goods. Figure 3.20 (in chapter 3) shows that electronics and electrical products are mostly in the densest region of Malaysia's "open forest," whereas appendix table B.6 shows that only one commodity at the four-digit Standard Industrial Trade Classification (revision 2) level exhibits a high probability of potential diversification opportunities. The other automobile industry products are ranked 183, 220, 256, 323, and 363 in the highest-density upscale products.13 Palm Oil, Biodiesel, and Food Products During the 1950s, Malaysia relied on rubber as a main agro-based industrial out- put. The government invested in R&D on rubber technology to improve the yield, and Malaysian firms such as Top Glove and Supermax have become the leading global exporters of latex gloves, thread, and catheters, as well as of conveyor belts, floor coverings, and rubber footwear. At the same time, the government actively sought diversification from rubber and decided to expand the palm oil sector starting in the 1960s. The oil palm tree is native to West Africa, and that region was the source of the world's palm oil for lubricating purposes and for soap throughout the 19th century.14 The oil palm was first introduced into Malaysia as an ornamental plant in the 1879s. Later, in 1917, William Sime and Henry Darby established a 500-acre plantation at Tennamaran in Selangor.15 To reduce rural poverty and with the help of a newly created agency, the Federal Land Develop- ment Authority, Malaysia rapidly expanded the acreage devoted to palm oil in the late 1960s and 1970s. By 1970, the output of palm oil more than quadrupled to 400,000 tons, compared with 90,000 tons in 1960 (Yusof and Bhattasali 2008). Further development of upstream and processing operations promoted through the first and second industrial master plans (of 1986 and 1996, respectively) enabled Malaysia to emerge as the largest exporter of palm oil in the world and the second-largest producer of palm oil in the world.16 In 2008, Malaysian production of palm oil had reached 17.3 million tons, and it accounted for 52 percent of the global oils and fats exports (Sumathi, Chai, and Mohamed 2008).17 13 These products are, respectively, passenger cars, chassis fitted with engines for cars, other car parts and accessories, road tractors and semitrailers, and bodies for motor vehicles. 14 Archaeological evidence from the Arab Republic of Egypt shows that palm oil was in use 5,000 years ago (bin Abdul Hamid 2009). 15 Sime Darby grew into one of the largest agro-producing companies in Malaysia until it was acquired by Malaysian interests in the late 1970s through a famous "dawn raid" on the London Stock Exchange. 16 Indonesia is the leading producer of palm oil ("Indonesia/Malaysia: Palm Oil" 2008). 17 In 2007, 3.9 million hectares were devoted to oil palm production. Output consists of crude palm oil, palm kernel, crude palm kernel oil, and palm kernel cake (MPOB 2007). Residues are used to fertilize the soil and for biogas production. Total exports of oil palm products in 2006 were 20.2 million tons. 114 Tiger Economies Under Threat In recent years, Malaysia has begun diversifying into biofuels.18 By 2007, Malaysia had an installed capacity of 1 million metric tons, almost double that of the next country, Indonesia, with 7.6 billion liters (Malaysian Palm Oil Council 2008; Sharma and Singh 2009).19 The oil palm is a better alternative than other crops for producing biodiesel for three reasons (Sumathi, Chai, and Mohamed 2008). First, in terms of produc- tivity (and hence profitability), it is the highest-yielding crop, with an average of 3.7 metric tons per hectare, about five times higher than rapeseed and seven times higher than soy. The oil palm is also the most productive oilseed in the world. "A single hectare of oil palm may yield . . . 6,000 liters of crude oil according to data from Journey to Forever. For comparison, soybeans and corn--crops often her- alded as top biofuel sources--generate only 446 and 172 liters per hectare, respec- tively" (Butler 2006). "By Curran's calculations,20 some firms in West Kalimantan are seeing a 26 percent annual internal rate of return over a 25-year period, an astounding number" (Butler 2007). Because of this high yield, the cost of produc- ing 1 ton of oil from palm is cheaper at US$228 than that of producing oil from other crops such as soybean (US$400) and rapeseed (US$648) (Lam and others 2009).21 Second, the more immediate environmental benefit is that of energy effi- ciency. In particular, the ratio of energy output to input (energy used to produce 1 ton of oil) is almost three times higher for palm oil than for soybean and rape- seed oil. Jaafar, Kheng, and Kamaruddin (2003) estimated the renewable energy potential for oil palm biomass at more than RM 6 billion (annually), second only to forest residues, which had an energy value of almost RM 12 billion. Third, biodiesel is relatively benign with regard to its implications for the environment and for global warming. It reduces greenhouse gas emissions to the tune of 50 to 60 percent relative to gasoline, but the aggregate environmental costs depend on whether carbon-rich ecosystems are destroyed to make room for oil palm planta- tions (Scharlemann and Laurance 2008; World Bank 2008e).22 Global prospects for biodiesel as a source of renewable energy would be promising if fossil fuel prices return to the levels of the first half of 2008. Accord- ing to estimates made before the global recession that took hold in the latter half 18 The first biofuel was developed by Rudolf Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine, in 1900. His biofuel was based on peanut oil (Sharma and Singh 2009). 19 In 2007, however, Malaysia produced only 80,000 tons because of the high price of palm oil ("Bugs in the Tank" 2008). 20 Dr. Lisa Curran is a biologist who has spent more than 20 years in Borneo. In a series of papers, she has documented the emergence of oil-palm plantations on the island. 21 The palm oil industry also does not depend on government subsidies, as may be the case in other countries for producing crops for biodiesel (Lam and others 2009). 22 However, any biodiesel created from food crops faces the criticism that its diversion of food results in higher food prices and increases undernourishment and malnourishment. Moreover, there are concerns for biodiversity, such as protecting the habitat of orang- utans on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra (Lam and others 2009). Leading and Faltering Industries 115 of 2008, "Total world consumption of marketed energy is projected to increase from 447 quadrillion Btu in 2004 to 559 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and then to 702 quadrillion Btu in 2030--a 57 percent increase over the projection period" (EIA 2007: 5). Transportation is expected to account for about half of the total pro- jected increase in global oil use between 2003 and 2030. Transportation consumed 30 percent of this global energy production (compared with close to 40 percent for power generation), 99 percent of which was supplied by petroleum (EIA 2007). In 2006, liquid biofuels (mainly ethanol and biodiesel) accounted for just over 1 percent of global renewable energy (16 million tons of oil equivalent out of 1,430 million tons of oil equivalent) and less than 1 percent of global crude oil supply of 4,800 billion liters (IEA 2006). However, if the plans to increase the pro- duction of biofuels come to fruition, there could be a fivefold increase in the share of biofuels in global transport--from just over 1 percent today to around 6 per- cent by 2020 (IEA 2004; Rothkopf 2007). Forecasts from "Clean Energy Trends 2007" reveal that global markets for biofuels (manufacturing and wholesale pric- ing of ethanol and biodiesel) reached US$20.5 billion in 2006 and are projected to grow to US$80.9 billion by 2016, assuming that global growth rates return to past trends by 2010 to 2011 and petroleum prices continue trending upward from lev- els reached in mid-2009 (Mankower, Pernick, and Wilder 2007).23 Malaysia's own interest in exploiting biodiesel as an alternative source of energy has strengthened since the beginning of this millennium. Malaysia's remaining oil reserves are expected to last for another 20 years and its natural gas reserves are expected to last 50 to 60 years (Basiron, Balu, and Chandramohan 2004).24 Palm oil emerged as a diesel substitute in Malaysia during the mid-1990s (Choo and others 2005). In March 2006, the Malaysian prime minister launched Envodiesel, which blends 5 percent processed palm oil (vegetable oil) with 95 percent petrodiesel (MIDA 2006). This program is designed to enhance the economic welfare of the country's small-scale plantation holders (Mathews 2007). By July 2006, licenses had been issued for 52 plants capable of producing 5 million tons of biodiesel annually.25 According to Najib Razak, then deputy prime minister (he succeeded Abdullah Badawi as prime minister on April 3, 2009), 23 Biofuel development across the world is being driven as much by politics as it is by eco- nomics. Its future will hang on the policies of hydrocarbon fuel; on the total costs of pro- ducing and distributing biofuels; on technologies for producing biofuels from a variety of feedstocks that have a small carbon footprint (for example, switchgrass and algae) and do not compete for land with other valuable food crops; and on automotive technologies. The biofuel boom of 2006 to 2008, now in 2009 seems to be heading to at least a tempo- rary biofuel bust following the decline of petroleum prices in 2008 and the near-term prognosis of slow growth (Carey 2009). 24 In 2008, petroleum production in Malaysia averaged 600,000 barrels per day, and Malaysia should remain a net exporter of oil very likely through 2011. 25 However, as of the end of 2007, only seven to eight projects had actually been initiated. 116 Tiger Economies Under Threat "It would be a mistake if Malaysia, as a major palm oil producer, did not tap the huge potential in the biodiesel market particularly in meeting the demand in Europe and the United States" (Mathews 2007).26 Malaysian researchers are focusing on palm oil methyl ester to satisfy the EU's blends (diesel engine modes of transporta- tion in the EU have been geared to run on 5 percent methyl ester blend) and the European Norm 14214 standard. To eventually produce 5.2 million tons of biodiesel per year, Malaysia would need to set aside 6 million tons per year of the oil palm as feedstock, nearly 40 percent of its crude palm oil production (Basiron 2005).27 There is a downside to increasing the acreage under oil palms. Beyond the loss of forest ecosystems and associated biodiversity, the release of greenhouse gases from the exposure of or removal of deep peat soil, and adverse social effects on the local communities dependent on services and products provided by these forest ecosystems, the production of palm oil, as currently practiced, can be quite damag- ing to the environment. Production of crude palm oil generates tons of solid oil wastes, palm fiber, and shells, not to mention palm oil mill effluents, which are a polluted mix of crushed shells, water, and fat residues that have been shown to severely degrade aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, the liberal use of petroleum- based pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers ensures that most palm oil cultivation not only pollutes on a local level but also contributes to nitrogen oxide greenhouse gas emissions. Considering that Malaysia is held to be one of the most efficient pro- ducers, production in other parts of the world may be even more environmentally destructive. Indonesian oil palm plantations are so damaging that after a 25-year harvest, oil palm lands are often abandoned for scrubland. Major Malaysian pro- ducers such as Sime Darby have cut down on pollution by adopting a closed loop production regime, which recycles or uses all byproducts. Moreover, these produc- ers use only shallow category 1 peat soils. There is currently a cap on the acreage allocated to oil palm in Malaysia (bin Abdul Hamid 2009). Biofuels production is being promoted in most developed nations using pro- tective tariffs and direct production (and consumption) subsidies to this industry (developing countries such as Brazil also fall in this category). From the perspec- tive of future industrial development in Malaysia, the question that needs to be addressed is whether the expansion of the biofuel industry will be economically viable using current technologies, after discounting the environmental costs. Hence, the challenge for Malaysia is to avoid "costly" incentives such as subsidies, to implement well-defined regulations, and to realistically account for the actual 26 The European Union has proposed that 5.75 percent of all fuel used in transport should come from biofuels by the end of 2008, rising to 10 percent by 2020. The United States aims to replace 15 percent of fuels for transport with biofuels by 2022, rising to 30 percent by 2030 ("International: Land Conversion" 2008). 27 Research on the oil palm and on palm oil derivatives is conducted by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board and major companies. Leading and Faltering Industries 117 benefits (environmental and economic, as well as social) from increased biodiesel production. There may well be a need to invest substantial private as well as public resources in R&D; to develop small-scale biodiesel production; and to improve the existing technology for using biomass to produce biofuels. Although palm oil accounted for over one-third of agricultural value added in 2005, the potential of other food crops should not be neglected. Recent trends suggest that the international demand--and prices--of many food products will likely remain high, offering opportunities for Malaysian exports of fresh and processed farm products. Among the most promising are cocoa, pepper, vegeta- bles, fruits, flowers, and herbs. Together they make up about one-fifth of the agri- cultural GDP and about 10 percent of exports (in 2005). Agriculture has the mak- ings of a growth industry; however, exploiting the possibilities for increased value added through processing and packaging and for diversification calls for invest- ment in research (in genetically modified technology and cultivation techniques, for example) and advances in food processing technologies. The food processing industry is a major subsector--the largest single industry in the EU, for example-- and it is often neglected because it lacks glamour.28 However, given Malaysia's comparative advantage in resource-based products, the improving market prospects for foodstuffs, and the environmental constraints affecting many coun- tries, food processing is an industry to develop alongside oil palm and fisheries. 28 It is also low on the scale of research intensity and is environmentally unfriendly on at least two counts: the release of pollutants and the heavy use of water. 6 Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? Industrial Location The trends in the composition of trade and distribution of investment among industries provide a perspective on an economy's evolution and potential. These two factors indicate where production and technological capabilities are accumulating, how much deepening and diversification are occurring, and what the scope is for gains in productivity through embodied technological change and learning by doing. Another equally vital perspective is derived from the distribution of the production activities and investment among the main urban centers. Research on urban economies indicates that productivity and in- novation are linked to the size and other characteristics of urban centers. In other words, factor productivity and the likelihood of business innovation, whether in electronics or in finance, are affected by location. Building innova- tion capability starts with location. There are four findings of relevance for Malaysia as its business community explores new industrial directions.1 First is the evidence of substantial agglomera- tion economies as city size grows.2 These agglomeration economies derive from a number of sources including (a) the rising scale of the local product market; (b) the size and density of the local market for factors (especially labor skills); 1 This section is based on Yusuf (2007). 2 See Duranton (2008) for a framework analyzing urbanization and the growth of cities in developing countries. See Au and Henderson (2006a); Coulibaly, Deichmann, and Lall (2007); and Overman, Rice, and Venables (2007) for various ways by which to measure urbanization and localization economies. See Rosenthal and Strange (forthcoming) for the link between agglomeration and entrepreneurship and Kahn (forthcoming) on the cost of agglomeration. See Spence, Annez, and Buckley (2009) for a recent survey on the relationship between urbanization and economic growth. 119 120 Tiger Economies Under Threat (c) the concentration of many different industries, business services, and research and development (R&D)­related services, which can promote fruitful trading and subcontracting (such economies are usually denoted as urbanization economies as distinct from localization economies, which arise from industrial specialization);3 and (d) the heterogeneity of talents that can help to spark fresh ideas and innova- tion. Although it is difficult on the basis of the available econometric evidence to determine the optimal economic size of a city,4 there are grounds for claiming that a metropolis that has fewer than 5 million or 6 million people is unlikely to realize the full benefits of scale and agglomeration economies.5 In fact, as Overman and Venables (2005: 27) observe, "the available evidence suggests that, at least from an economic perspective, being oversized is much less costly than being undersized."6 The mega-urban region presents broader market opportunities--and "a long tail" of promising niches7--and is more hospitable to the emergence of new clusters.8 3 See Yusuf and others (2003). Although competition is generally viewed as having a positive effect on productivity, firms may choose to avoid agglomeration and clusters of similar producers to minimize competitive pressures (Belleflamme, Picard, and Thisse 2000). 4 The optimal economic size is the point at which the marginal social benefits are maximized. 5 Reviewing the evidence on agglomeration economies, Rosenthal and Strange (2004) find that with each doubling of city size, the urban gross domestic product can increase by between 3 and 14 percent. Venables and Rice (2005) estimate that a doubling of the population of a city can raise productivity by 3.5 percent. J. Vernon Henderson concludes, from his assessment of the size and productivity of cities in China, that most are suboptimal in size--that is, below 5 million (Au and Henderson 2006b)--and that productivity gains from an expansion would be about 4.1 percent if the city were 20 percent below optimal, but as much as 35 percent if the city were half the optimal size (Henderson 2004; Rosenthal and Strange 2004). Although evidence on urbanization economies (arising from industrial diversity) is mixed (and greater for some industries than others), that for diversity of high-tech industries is much clearer. Overman and Venables (2005: 18) find that a 1 standard deviation increase in the diversity index raises productivity by 60 percent. See also Deichmann and others (2005). A review of the theoretical literature on city size and growth can be found in Henderson (2005). 6 A summary of the literature on localization economies is contained in Overman and Venables (2005). A study for Korea suggests that "a 1 percent increase in own industry employment increases productivity by 0.08 percent; i.e., moving from a city with employment of 1,000 to a city with 10,000 would raise productivity by over 70 percent" (Overman and Venables 2005: 18). 7 See Anderson (2006) on the opportunities presented by the "long tail." 8 Co-location of component and module suppliers and assemblers, which permits just-in- time delivery, reduces time costs, and allows the advantages that accrue from collaboration, research, and design of products, favors proximity among producers and suppliers--factors that further strengthen agglomeration effects (Harrigan and Venables 2006; Hillberry and Hummels 2005). Knowledge-intensive industries are becoming more (continued on next page) Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 121 Younger industries that are buoyed by emerging technologies and are dependent on knowledge spillovers from research centers, for example, are most likely to locate in large urban agglomerations (Desmet and Rossi-Hansberg 2007). Second, urban scale is correlated with greater innovation, as proxied by patent- ing and by the publication of scientific papers. It is also conducive to the cocre- ation of new products or services by firms in conjunction with consumers, other firms, and research entities.9 Such cocreation is plausible because strategically located, large urban centers are also the centers of higher education and of research by corporate as well as public entities. Where such urban centers are able to create an open learning environment that is conducive to ideas trafficked through interpersonal exchanges and to experimentation, innovation is more likely to be "superlinear" and can be thought of as arising from the economies of openness and heterogeneity. The presence of research universities and research institutes, either public or affiliated with major local firms or multinational corporations (MNCs), is a third factor supporting innovation in cities and aiding the cumulative growth of knowl- edge that underpins scientific advance (see Furman and Stern 2006).10 These research facilities not only are a source of much-needed technical skills and knowl- edge spillovers, but are also emerging as essential sources of consulting services, patents, tacit knowledge, and entrepreneurship, which are critical to the success of basic science­ and information technology­based industries (Yusuf and Nabeshima 2007).11 The presence of universities also makes it easier for firms to recruit staff members. This factor encourages firms to establish production facili- ties and offices in cities that are home to reputable tertiary institutions. The better universities that promote research are most often located in the major European and North American cities; in East and South Asia, they are overwhelmingly found in the capital cities or the very largest urban centers. The ability of these regions to retain talent by providing attractive jobs, amenities, social services, and housing is, as Richard Florida (2002, 2005a, 2005b) has noted, a necessary (continued from previous page) concentrated in areas where there is an abundance of skilled and technical workers (Midelfart-Knarvik and others 2000). Moretti (2002) finds that most of the spillovers are from firms that are higher on the scale of technology. On the necessary conditions for growing industrial clusters, see Yusuf (2008). 9 The scope and potential for cocreation are discussed by Prahalad and Krishnan (2008). 10 In the United States, the major federal laboratories are better able to conduct interdisciplinary research and can afford expensive equipment and facilities. Universities have the advantage of a steady flow of students, which affects the nature and culture of research (Bozeman 2000). 11 A rich literature is accumulating on this topic. Bettencourt, Lobo, and Strumsky (2007) find evidence of superlinearity in patenting among metro regions in the United States; that is, larger regions generate more patents. See also Bettencourt and others (2007) and Carlino, Chatterjee, and Hunt (2007). 122 Tiger Economies Under Threat condition for their economic success.12 In fact, by contributing to the cultural life of cities and creating a special ambience, universities can help to make cities "stickier" both for talent and for industry. A fourth factor favoring bigger cities is that they are likely to house larger stocks of entrepreneurial capital and to encourage a more active exchange of ideas and trading of intellectual property. Moreover, entrepreneurs in large cities are often plugged into constellations of supporting networks that can assist with new starts (Gans and Stern 2003; Glaeser 2007, 2009; Nijkamp 2003). In the case of Australia, for example, the existence of a number of medium-size, widely separated cities has constrained urbanization economies, networking, and innovation. The bane of the megacity is congestion and the associated higher land and transport costs, increased environmental pollution, and higher living expenses. Other problems can arise (a) from the lack of interjurisdictional coordination to develop, maintain, and regulate infrastructure as well as other services; (b) from weaknesses of governance; (c) from difficulties in attaining the desired level of fiscal effort and in supplementing this effort through funds from capital markets; and (d) from the often daunting challenges of managing the finances of a metrop- olis.13 These last three are not only related to the size of cities. Furthermore, research has uncovered no clear relationships between size and environmental pollution.14 However, rental costs do tend to be higher in the mega city, which affects wages and, hence, induces some low value-adding and land-intensive activi- ties to migrate to the suburbs or to smaller cities (see Overman and Venables 2005). 12 The authors' own recent research (Yusuf and Nabeshima 2007) and that of Florida and his collaborators (Florida and others 2006) have made clearer the seminal role that universities are likely to play in the knowledge economy of the future (Etzkowitz 2002; O'Mara 2005). The university is becoming the axis of a creative hub, not only in generating the knowledge that underpins innovation but also in mobilizing talent, testing ideas, and creating a tolerant social climate. Florida's study of Sweden's regions shows that regional development was keyed to the contribution of universities first and also to the provision of amenities and services (Mellander and Florida 2006). Ireland's economic success, which is closely related to the flow of foreign direct investment, was primarily the consequence of a ratcheting upward of the supply of technical graduates. Ireland spent little on research and innovation but has the highest number of students in the European Union enrolled in scientific subjects (Crafts 2005). 13 It is important not to forget the qualifications. Large cities need not be more productive or competitive unless they can muster the industrial, innovative, management, and other capabilities and can create an environment conducive to growth. As a recent study (OECD 2006) indicates, of 44 metro regions, fewer than half exceeded the national average growth rates. On the experience of Latin American cities and the problems they have encountered, see World Bank (2008a). 14 There is relatively little evidence on city size and air pollution. Overman and Venables (2005) report that in developing countries, both sulfur dioxide and particulates trace an inverted U shape, first rising with size and then falling. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 123 Transport and commuting costs are a separate matter, and for these there are so- lutions. First, urban intensity can be a plus in that it increases the cost-effectiveness of bus- and rail-based public transport systems, which are also energy efficient--a nontrivial consideration in a world faced with a tightening of energy supplies and a dire need to reduce carbon emissions. Second, an adequate investment in road in- frastructure side by side with road-user and parking charges can reduce congestion costs. Third, a polycentric urban system15 with zoning for mixed use can minimize commuting, distribute traffic more evenly, and prevent peak-time gridlock. Mixed use of buildings increases the efficiency with which urban physical assets are used, while also contributing to the security and social life of neighborhoods. For middle- and high-income economies that are shifting toward skill-intensive activities, the weight of empirical evidence, especially in the East Asian context, fa- vors the polycentric, large urban regions with a mix of cities (World Bank 2009). They appear to have the edge in terms of competitiveness, knowledge generation, new starts, and productivity. Evidence from Asia also points to the advantages en- joyed by large cities. For instance, a doubling of workers in any one sector leads to a 3 percent increase in gross output per worker, and value added per worker in- creases by 8 percent (Lee and Zang 1998; see also Becker, Williamson, and Mills 1992; Lall, Shalizi, and Deichmann 2004; Mills and Becker 1986). Indeed, the main drivers of East Asian economies are the large cities, typically dominating in terms of both population and economic size relative to other cities (see tables 6.1 and 6.2). Because of China's size with respect to population and the land mass, the shares of Beijing and Shanghai are much smaller when compared with other East Asian economies, but individually each of these cities is enormous and is the bene- ficiary of agglomeration economies.16 If one takes the urban region approach, the Table 6.1 City Population and Share of National Population, 2005 Beijing, Shanghai, Tokyo, Seoul, Bangkok, Attribute China China Japan Rep. of Korea Singapore Thailand Size (thousands of people) 15,380 13,603 12,568 10,297 4,266 5,659 Share of national population (%) 1.18 1.04 9.84 21.32 100.00 8.98 Sources: Beijing: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and Beijing General Team of Investigation under the National Bureau of Statistics 2005; Shanghai: Shanghai Municipal Statistical Bureau 2005; Tokyo: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Statistics Bureau (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/); Seoul: Seoul Metropolitan Government 2005; Singapore: Singapore Department of Statistics (http://www.singstat.gov.sg/); Bangkok: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration 2005. 15 Polycentric regions can benefit from synergies and external economies; however, these benefits are a function of the degree of complementarity between the different parts and the closeness of interjurisdictional cooperation. The degree to which the benefits from polycentricity have been realized in the Randstad region of the Netherlands is discussed by Meijers (2005). See also Bertaud and others (2007) on land use and polycentricity in Chinese cities. 16 So also are large metropolitan regions in the United States. 124 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.2 Cities' Share of National GDP, 1985­2005 City 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Beijing, China 2.1 2.7 2.4 2.8 3.7 Shanghai, China 5.2 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.0 Tokyo, Japan -- 17.6 16.1 16.6 18.3 Seoul, Rep. of Korea 24.9 25.3 24.9 24.0 22.8 Singapore 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Bangkok, Thailand 35.9 40.5 39.1 36.3 44.0 Sources: Beijing: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and Beijing General Team of Investigation under the National Bureau of Statistics 2005; Shanghai: Shanghai Municipal Statistical Bureau 2005; Tokyo: Tokyo Metropoli- tan Government, Bureau of General Affairs (http://www.toukei.metro.tokyo.jp); Seoul: Korea National Statistical Office (http://www.nso.go.kr/eng/ and http://global.seoul.go.kr/global/view/business/bus01_02.jsp); Singapore: Singapore Department of Statistics (http://www.singstat.gov.sg/); Bangkok: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration various years and Wikipedia. Note: -- not available. Bohai Basin (areas surrounding Beijing), the Pearl River Delta, and the Yangtze River Delta (centered around Shanghai) generate close to half of China's gross do- mestic product (GDP) even though those areas account for less than 20 percent of the land mass (World Bank 2009). In the smaller countries, the major cities ac- count for a substantial share of the national population and economic activities. In the future, this advantage is likely to widen as the greater relative scarcity of en- ergy and water encourages urban scale and densities rather than a more dispersed pattern of urbanization and the connecting transport, water, and sanitation infra- structure such a pattern necessitates. Experience--which highlights the role of small and medium-size cities and of "localization economies" arising from urban specialization in single manufacturing industries scattered around the country as in the Russian Federation and the United States--might be increasingly less relevant. Instead, large core cities that benefit from urbanization economies and spawn specialized satellite edge cities enjoying localization economies might be the more efficient model. The closer the satellite cities are to the core city, the larger the mutual gains will be (Rice, Venables, and Patacchini 2006; World Bank 2009; Zheng 2007). Third, the growth and size of urban agglomerations can also influence the ma- turing of firms. According to Degroof and Roberts (2004: 4), "academic spin-off ventures in regions outside established high tech clusters tend to stay small `bou- tiques.' They fail to grow to become global leaders in their market, in contrast to some of the spin-off firms that have emerged in established USA high tech clusters such as Boston and Silicon Valley. This is a problem that has been observed among European new technology-based firms in general." Because Malaysia's future industrial competitiveness will be buttressed by both productivity and innovativeness, the urban factor will loom large. Industrial up- grading will depend on dynamic urban centers of a certain scale with the charac- teristics that enhance agglomeration effects and innovation. Tables 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 indicate the population, economic size, and foreign direct investment (FDI) Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 125 Table 6.3 Population and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia City 1996 2001 2006 Number of people Johor 2,503,903 2,826,548 3,170,516 Kuala Lumpur 1,342,525 1,445,989 1,579,985 Malacca 597,338 660,577 725,323 Penang 1,237,522 1,362,614 1,492,429 Share of national population (%) Johor 12.0 12.0 12.3 Kuala Lumpur 6.4 6.2 6.1 Malacca 2.9 2.8 2.8 Penang 5.9 5.8 5.8 Annual population growth (%) Johor n.a. 2.3 2.2 Kuala Lumpur n.a. 2.1 1.5 Malacca n.a. 2.2 1.7 Penang n.a. 2.2 1.6 Sources: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia; World Bank World Development Indicators database. Note: n.a. not applicable. Table 6.4 GDP and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia City 1995 2000 2005 GDP (RM million in 1987 prices) Johor 18,153.0 23,798.0 29,801.0 Kuala Lumpur 21,157.0 25,963.0 30,412.0 Malacca 5,080.0 6,040.0 7,302.0 Penang 13,293.0 17,064.0 21,277.0 GDP (as a % of national GDP) Johor 10.9 11.3 11.6 Kuala Lumpur 12.7 12.4 11.8 Malacca 3.1 2.9 2.8 Penang 8.0 8.1 8.3 Annualized growth rate (%) Johor n.a. 4.6 3.8 Kuala Lumpur n.a. 3.5 2.7 Malacca n.a. 2.9 3.2 Penang n.a. 4.3 3.8 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: n.a. not applicable. growth of Malaysia's four largest centers. In terms of the sheer size, the state of Johor leads the pack, with a population of nearly 3.2 million people (12.3 percent of the national share), followed by Kuala Lumpur with 1.6 million and Penang with 1.5 million. FDI is highest in Johor because of its proximity to Singapore, followed by Penang.17 For the purpose of a knowledge economy, Kuala Lumpur 17 The analysis by Rasiah (2007) indicates that Penang has achieved a higher level of development of the semiconductor and components industries than has Johor because of its integration with the global economy and the presence of many firms in the value chain. However, neither of the urban centers yet has sufficient technological capability to engage in knowledge-intensive activities. 126 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.5 FDI and Its Growth Rates in Four Cities in Malaysia City 2000 2003 2006 FDI (RM million) Johor 1,861.7 1,108.7 5,488.8 Kuala Lumpur 66.1 38.2 380.3 Malacca 894.6 3,941.4 1,047.6 Penang 3,564.5 1,455.8 3,918.2 FDI (as a % of national FDI) Johor 9.4 5.6 27.1 Kuala Lumpur 0.3 0.2 1.9 Malacca 4.5 19.8 5.2 Penang 18.0 7.3 19.4 Annual FDI growth (%) Johor n.a. 26.7 4.0 Kuala Lumpur n.a. 2.5 2,191.2 Malacca n.a. 660.8 61.1 Penang n.a. 26.7 0.3 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: n.a. not applicable. has the edge in terms of size, the diversity of services it offers, the presence of research institutions, the headquarters of firms, and the quality of the information technology (IT) infrastructure.18 The data on entry of firms among these four cities show that Kuala Lumpur is the leader, followed by Johor, and then very closely by Penang, with Malacca trail- ing the others in fourth place. Three points emerge from tables 6.6 to 6.9. First, in the Kuala Lumpur­Klang Valley region, the number of net entrants into manu- facturing over the most recent three-year period was 1,123, almost four times that in Johor. Second, the number of net entrants has remained relatively stable between 1995 and 2006 in Kuala Lumpur but has declined in the three other urban areas, most steeply in Johor. Third, the industries attracting the new entrants in Kuala Lumpur­Klang Valley are in low- and medium-tech categories--mainly printing, food processing, apparel, plastic, and metal working. Johor is much the same, with greater entry into wood products and furniture, food, textiles, and apparel, which are the industries attracting new firms in Malacca also. Only Penang differs somewhat, with machinery and electronics firms in second and third place, after food, followed by apparel, footwear, plastic products, and printing. 18 The development of biotechnology, defense, and IT-related industries around the Washington, D.C., area can be attributed to the existence of key national research institutes (such as the National Institutes of Health), the federal government, and other regulatory agencies (Feldman 2001; Feldman and Francis 2003). Table 6.6 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Kuala Lumpur, 1995­2006 1995­98 1999­2002 2003­06 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry 30000 NC 286 30000 NC 265 30000 NC 202 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, 120 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, 145 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, 195 publishing, and allied industries) publishing, and allied industries) publishing, and allied industries) 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 110 31100 NC (3-digit-level food 87 31100 NC (3-digit-level food 169 classified manufacturing) manufacturing) 37100 NC (4-digit-level iron and steel, 85 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 82 34220 NC (3-digit-level printing, 131 basic industries) classified publishing, and allied industries) 38299 Machinery and equipment, 76 34220 NC (3-digit-level printing, 79 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing 113 not elsewhere classified publishing, and allied industries) apparel, except footwear) 34220 NC (3-digit-level printing, 74 37100 NC (4-digit-level iron and steel, 63 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 79 publishing, and allied industries) basic industries) classified 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing 72 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing 58 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal 70 apparel, except footwear) apparel, except footwear) industries) 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 65 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal 45 37100 NC (4-digit-level iron and steel, 62 products, machinery, and equipment) industries) basic industries) 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal 63 38299 Machinery and equipment, 44 38439 Motor vehicles parts and 53 industries) not elsewhere classified accessories 34200 Printing, publishing, and allied 60 34200 Printing, publishing, and allied 40 31000 NC (2-digit-level food, 49 industries industries beverages, and tobacco) 1,011 908 1,123 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: IC industrial classification; NC not classified. 127 128 Table 6.7 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Johor, 1995­2006 1995­98 1999­2002 2003­06 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 96 33000 NC (2-digit-level wood and wood 72 30000 NC 74 classified products, including furniture) 30000 NC 72 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 68 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 73 classified 33200 Furniture and fixtures, except 71 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 52 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 38 primarily metal products, machinery, and equipment) classified 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing apparel, 57 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 32 33000 NC (2-digit-level wood and wood 22 except footwear) components and communication products, including furniture) equipment and apparatus 33000 NC (2-digit-level wood and wood 41 31100 NC (3-digit-level food 32 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, publishing, 21 products, including furniture) manufacturing) and allied industries) 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 40 31000 NC (2-digit-level food, 30 33200 Furniture and fixtures, except 19 products, machinery, and equipment) beverages, and tobacco) primarily metal 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 35 30000 NC 29 39090 NC (4-digit-level manufacturing 19 components and communication industries, not elsewhere classified) equipment and apparatus 39000 NC (3-digit-level other manufacturing 35 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal 25 38410 Shipbuilding and repairing 15 industries) industries) 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal industries) 35 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, publishing, 25 39000 NC (3-digit-level other manufacturing 13 and allied industries) industries) 31000 NC (2-digit-level food, beverages, 31 39000 NC (3-digit-level other 17 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing 13 and tobacco) manufacturing industries) apparel, except footwear) 513 382 307 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: IC industrial classification; NC not classified. Table 6.8 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Penang, 1995­2006 1995­98 1999­2002 2003­06 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry 30000 NC 81 30000 NC 68 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 48 39000 NC (3-digit-level other 62 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 67 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 39 manufacturing industries) products, machinery, and equipment) products, machinery, and equipment) 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 52 39000 NC (3-digit-level other manufacturing 61 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 38 classified industries) components and communication equipment and apparatus 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 36 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 37 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing apparel, 31 components and communication classified except footwear) equipment and apparatus 38299 Machinery and equipment, not 29 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 25 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 26 elsewhere classified components and communication classified equipment and apparatus 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 27 34200 Printing, publishing, and allied industries 21 30000 NC 26 products, machinery, and equipment) 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing apparel, 25 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal 20 39000 NC (3-digit-level other 25 except footwear) industries) manufacturing industries) 37100 NC (4-digit-level iron and steel, 25 38299 Machinery and equipment, 19 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, publishing, 15 basic industries) not elsewhere classified and allied industries) 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal industries) 19 34100 NC (3-digit-level paper and paper 18 34200 Printing, publishing, and allied 13 products) industries 38330 Electrical appliances and housewares 17 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 18 37000 NC (2-digit-level basic metal industries) 13 373 354 274 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. 129 Note: IC industrial classification; NC not classified. 130 Table 6.9 Top 10 Net New Entrants in Manufacturing: Malacca, 1995­2006 1995­98 1999­2002 2003­06 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate 5-digit Aggregate IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry IC IC description net entry 30000 NC 15 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 11 30000 NC 14 classified 34120 Containers and boxes of paper 12 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 9 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 13 and paperboard 33200 Furniture and fixtures, except 11 34120 Containers and boxes of paper 6 32210 NC (3-digit-level wearing apparel, 6 primarily metal and paperboard except footwear) 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 9 38329 Semiconductors and other electronic 6 32100 NC (3-digit-level textiles) 6 components and communication components and communication equipment and apparatus equipment and apparatus 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, publishing, 9 30000 NC 6 32000 NC (2-digit-level textile, wearing 4 and allied industries) apparel, and leather industries) 31211 Ice factories 9 33200 Furniture and fixtures, except 6 34220 NC (3-digit-level printing, 3 primarily metal publishing, and allied industries) 31100 NC (3-digit-level food manufacturing) 7 38391 Cables and wires 5 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 2 classified 35600 Plastic products, not elsewhere 6 36991 Cement and concrete products 4 36900 NC (3-digit-level nonmetallic 2 classified mineral products) 38000 NC (2-digit-level fabricated metal 5 31000 NC (2-digit-level food, beverages, 3 38330 Electrical appliances and housewares 2 products, machinery, and equipment) and tobacco) 39000 NC (3-digit-level other 4 33000 NC (2-digit-level wood and wood 3 34210 NC (3-digit-level printing, 2 manufacturing industries) products, including furniture) publishing, and allied industries) 87 59 54 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: IC industrial classification; NC not classified. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 131 Table 6.10 Distribution of Labor Force by Educational Attainment, 2002 and 2006 Percentage of labor force Level of education 2002 2006 No formal education 5.3 3.8 Primary 23.5 20.7 Secondary 54.5 56.2 Tertiary 16.7 19.2 Sources: Department of Statistics 2003, 2007. Table 6.11 Share of Firms That Reported Vacancies for Various Occupations, 2007 Occupation Share (%) Professional 27.7 Skilled production worker 44.6 Unskilled production worker 51.7 Source: Authors' calculations based on investment climate data. Quality of Labor The quality of the labor force is a critical input toward moving to a knowledge econ- omy. The quality of the labor force measured by educational attainment in Malaysia has steadily improved between 2002 and 2006, reflecting the increase in enrollments in all levels of education (see table 6.10). Despite the gradual increase in educational attainment, a majority of firms in Malaysia have identified shortages of particular skills as a major constraint. This shortage is reflected in the wage premium paid to tertiary-level graduates.19 Across the skill range, many firms until recently reported unfilled vacancies (see table 6.11).20 Filling professional positions could take on average 5.4 weeks (table 6.12). In Penang, the shortage was more acute, and it could take more than seven weeks to fill certain professional positions. Table 6.13 lists the types of skills that firms feel are critical to keep up with rapid technological change but that the current crop of workers do not possess. In 2002, English-language proficiency was by far the most critical skill shortage 19 The return on tertiary education is 17.7 percent, much higher than that on primary (4.5 percent) or secondary education (9.5 percent) (World Bank 2005b), although recent preliminary estimates suggest that the wage premium associated with tertiary education is narrowing. 20 The proportion of firms reporting unfilled vacancies for professionals changed little from the previous round of the investment climate survey for Malaysia. 132 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.12 Time It Takes to Fill the Position, 2007 Number of Occupation weeks Professional 5.4 Skilled production worker 5.3 Unskilled production worker 3.9 Source: Authors' calculations based on investment climate data. Table 6.13 Most Critical Skill in Shortage, 2002 and 2007 Percentage of respondents Skill 2002 2007 English-language proficiency 47.5 16.5 Professional communication skills 14.0 6.4 Social skills 8.0 2.5 Team-working skills 6.6 5.9 Leadership skills 4.4 5.5 Time management skills 3.8 5.0 Adaptability skills 1.9 4.2 Creativity and innovation skills 4.1 10.0 Numerical skills 1.1 1.6 Problem-solving skills 1.4 4.0 IT skills 4.1 20.4 Technical or professional skills 3.2 18.0 Sources: For 2002, World Bank 2005b. For 2007, authors' calculations based on investment climate data. identified.21 By 2007, the concern had shifted toward IT skills and technical or professional skills, followed by English-language proficiency and creativity. It is difficult to relate these needs to developments in the economy during the five intervening years. The problem is not a shortage of graduates--in fact Malaysia suffers from a graduate unemployment problem, with 12 to 13 percent of tertiary-level degree holders unemployed.22 Instead, a lack of desired skills (both basic and technical 21 In many countries, the prospects of finding a job can hinge on English-language proficiency (Lim, Rich, and Harris 2008)--particularly when the economy is well integrated into the global market with a substantial presence of MNCs. 22 In 2005, 60,000 tertiary graduates were unemployed (Lim, Rich, and Harris 2008). In 2002, among the the unemployed, 18.3 percent finished tertiary education. By 2006, the share of tertiary graduates among unemployed had increased to 24.5 percent (Department of Statistics 2003, 2007). About 40 percent of the unemployed graduates majored in the arts, religious studies, and other subjects not directly related to manufacturing activities (World Bank 2005b). Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 133 Table 6.14 Most Important Causes of Vacancy Percentage of respondents Cause Most important Least important Demand for high wages 31.7 13.4 18.3 14.9 13.7 7.5 0.6 Not enough graduates 2.5 6.4 7.3 15.1 22.4 43.0 3.4 Lack of basic skills 19.1 30.3 21.9 16.8 9.9 1.9 0.1 Lack of technical skills 17.2 24.2 25.8 17.9 11.3 3.6 0.0 No applicant (unskilled) 9.5 10.7 16.2 18.2 22.6 21.4 1.5 High turnover 18.8 14.4 11.1 15.7 19.3 19.3 1.3 Source: Authors' calculations based on investment climate data. skills) is identified as the most important constraint (see table 6.14). This finding suggests that quality of education and possibly skill mismatch are the areas that warrant closer attention. Almost every country bemoans the persistence of skill mis- matches and struggles to minimize them. Whether they can be eased in Malaysia will depend on what teaching institutions can do, but also on the wages employers are willing to pay to obtain the quality and skills they claim to be seeking. The reluc- tance of firms to offer higher wages suggests that although firms complain about skill shortages, their strategies are still based on a low-skill, low-cost model. This ten- dency may be changing as the pressure to upgrade mounts. From the policy makers' point of view, two broad approaches can better match the skills of workers to the jobs being advertised. One focuses on providing training once students finish for- mal schooling, and the other on improving the quality of formal education. Skills Development Recognizing the need for improving workers' skills and decreasing the high turnover rate, which supports the case for public provision, Malaysia introduced the Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF) in 1992 (Tan and Gill 2000). The HRDF is funded through a payroll levy (1 percent),23 and firms that have con- tributed to HRDF for at least six months are eligible to claim a portion of the levy for employee training. The claimable portion varies by skills and by the size of firms. Firms can claim a larger portion of the levy for training for higher skills (technical, supervisory, and so forth), and smaller firms are typically allowed to claim more for the same kind of training relative to large firms (Tan and Gill 2000). An analysis of the HRDF finds that large firms use it more than small firms. When small firms take advantage of this opportunity, their focus is on technical training, especially in subsectors such as textiles, apparel, and footwear. Large firms, in con- trast, tend to use HRDF more for retraining existing production workers to keep up with changing production processes. The introduction of HRDF has increased 23 Many countries also adopt similar levies ranging from 1 to 2 percent of the payroll (Ziderman 2003). 134 Tiger Economies Under Threat training by firms. However, four issues remain. First, a sizable portion of firms-- especially smaller firms--still do not contribute to the fund. Second, even if firms are registered and eligible to claim HRDF, one-third of firms do not do so. These nonclaiming firms also provide less training than those that claim the benefit regu- larly (Tan and Gill 2000; World Bank 2005b). Third, as in many other countries, the responsibilities for vocational and skill training in Malaysia are divided among sev- eral different ministries. More coordination among these different entities is essen- tial if skill training is to become more effective (Nexus Associates 2005; Tan and Gill 2000). Fourth, improving the quality of training institutes requires that they be more autonomous and be exposed to greater competition. Moreover, close links with industry (as seen in the Penang Skills Development Centre) are desirable to improve the curriculum and the relevance of these institutes.24 However, the empirical literature suggests that training is most effective for those who have a strong primary and secondary education prior to receiving the training (Heckman and LaFontaine 2008). This finding calls for strengthening formal secondary education in parallel with the active labor market policies. Secondary Education Relative to other economies in East Asia, the gross enrollment ratios in Southeast Asia are somewhere lower, ranging from 64 percent in Indonesia to 83 percent in the Philippines (see figure 6.1). Among the Southeast Asian economies, the qual- ity of secondary education in Malaysia, as measured by the international test scores, is still the highest. And according to international standardized tests, the capabilities of Malaysian secondary-level students are close to the international average. However, the latest Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) results indicate that Malaysia is slipping below the international average and still trailing behind the frontrunners (Hong Kong, China; the Repub- lic of Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China) (see tables 6.15 and 6.16). International experience with reforming secondary and primary education of- fers several pointers, such as improving the qualifications of teachers, recruiting high-caliber students to teach, making the teaching profession more attractive, and introducing more competition among schools, which also requires that greater autonomy be given to schools (Brock, Marshall, and Tucker 2009). Firms often voice dissatisfaction with the technical and soft (noncognitive) skills-- communication and teamwork among others--of new hires. The foundations of these skills need to be developed by primary and secondary schools. Raising the standard of English-language skills and training in the sciences would be highly beneficial for students. A study by Lim, Rich, and Harris (2008) found that English proficiency before entering a university has a large bearing on labor 24 The approach adopted by the providers of technical and vocational education offers a telling example. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 135 Figure 6.1 Secondary School Gross Enrollment Ratio, 2006 120 100 gross enrollment ratio (%) 80 60 40 20 0 China Hong Kong, Indonesia Japan Korea, Malaysia Philippines Thailand China Rep. of Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Note: Data for the Republic of Korea are from 2007; data for Malaysia are from 2005. Table 6.15 Eighth-Grade TIMSS Scores for Mathematics for Selected East Asian Economies, 1999, 2003, and 2007 Economy 1999 2003 2007 Taiwan, China 585 585 598 Korea, Rep. of 587 589 597 Singapore 604 605 593 Hong Kong, China 582 586 572 Japan 579 570 570 United States 502 504 508 International average 487 466 500 Malaysia 519 508 474 Thailand 467 n.a. 441 Indonesia 403 411 397 Philippines 345 378 n.a. Sources: Gonzales and others 2004, 2008; Mullis and others 2000. Note: n.a. not applicable. Economies are ranked by their score in 2007. market outcomes after graduation, but efforts to improve English-language skills during university years are inconsequential. This finding suggests that students should be exposed to instruction in English at the secondary level, if not earlier. Pedagogy can also be modified to include more team-working activities, and in addition to drilling students in techniques and stressing fact memorization, schools should encourage efforts to nurture creativity. 136 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.16 Eighth-Grade TIMSS Scores for Science for Selected East Asian Economies, 1999, 2003, and 2007 Economy 1999 2003 2007 Singapore 568 578 567 Taiwan, China 569 571 561 Japan 550 552 554 Korea, Rep. of 549 558 553 Hong Kong, China 530 556 530 United States 515 527 520 International average 488 473 500 Malaysia 492 510 471 Thailand 482 n.a. 471 Indonesia 435 420 427 Philippines 345 377 n.a. Sources: Gonzales and others 2004, 2008; Mullis and others 2000. Note: n.a. not applicable. Economies are ranked by their score in 2007. Quality of Tertiary Education Malaysian universities have begun emphasizing the quality of teaching and re- search, and this effort is reflected in modest gains in their international rankings in 2007 and 2008 (see table 6.17).25 Top universities in the region are mainly con- centrated in Northeast Asia. Overall, Malaysian universities now rank among the top 200 to 300 universities worldwide and among the top 30 to 50 in East Asia. Clearly, plenty of scope for further progress remains. The evaluation of the tertiary education system in Malaysia has identified four principal shortcomings. These shortcomings are in the areas of governance (auton- omy, financing, and accountability); quality (especially that of faculty and also the quality assurance system); relevance of skills and knowledge instilled in students; and links with firms and integration in the nascent national innovation system (World Bank 2007c). Much like other Southeast Asian countries, Malaysia is facing both quality issues and a rising demand for tertiary education. Attaining both goals will require additional public funding for research. In addition, the government will need to encourage the establishment of private institutions to supplement the public university sector. Increasing cost sharing would facilitate the expansion of the tertiary education sector and improve the quality of schooling.26 25 There was no Malaysian university listed in the ranking published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 26 Such cost sharing will invariably include student fees. The government needs to assess whether tuition fees and other expenditures associated with tertiary education have an adverse effect on equity in access and which types of financial aid and grants can be used to address the equity concern (World Bank 2007c). Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 137 Table 6.17 Ranking of Selected Universities in East Asia, 2007 and 2008 International rank Regional rank 2008 2007 2008 School Economy 19 17 1 University of Tokyo Japan 25 25 2 Kyoto University Japan 26 18 3 University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China 30 33 4 National University of Singapore Singapore 39 53 5 Hong Kong University of Science Hong Kong, China and Technology 42 38 6 Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China 44 46 7 Osaka University Japan 50 36 8 Peking University China 50 51 9 Seoul National University Korea 56 40 10 Tsinghua University China 166 223 23 Chulalongkorn University Thailand 230 246 33 Universiti Malaya Malaysia 250 309 35 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Malaysia 251 284 36 Mahidol University Thailand 276 398 39 University of the Philippines Philippines 287 395 41 University of Indonesia Indonesia 313 307 43 Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia 315 369 44 Bandung Institute of Technology Indonesia 316 360 45 Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia 320 364 46 Universiti Putra Malaysia Malaysia 356 401­500 51 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Malaysia Source: Times Higher Education Supplement (http://www.topuniversities.com/university_rankings/results/2008/overall_rankings/fullrankings/). The key is to recognize that not all universities can or should be research oriented. The tertiary education system needs to be differentiated. In this regard, the Malaysian government has taken the right steps and has identified four universities that would do the lion's share of research. However, raising the quality of research goes hand in hand with competition for R&D funding and requires that efforts be made to promote the establishment of centers of excellence that respond to the national, regional, and societal needs. The experience of aligning the demand and supply of skills in other countries can offer a few concrete suggestions. Actively soliciting firms' inputs for curriculum development can yield positive results. Other possible approaches toward enhancing the relevance of skills and knowledge taught at universities include internships to gain up-to-date practical knowledge, faculty involvement in technical assistance to firms, and continuing tracer studies to track the careers of graduates. 138 Tiger Economies Under Threat Furthermore, the quality of tertiary education in Malaysia would benefit from a number of initiatives such as · Simplifying the review of academic standards · Ensuring the independence of quality assurance bodies by applying quality assurance schemes impartially to public and private universities · Offering more courses in English, which is in high demand by students and by firms These measures will need to be complemented by steps to raise the quality of fac- ulty by · Seeking a better balance among the teaching, research, and administrative functions performed by the faculty · Using student evaluations of teachers in making tenure and promotion decisions · Involving senior researchers and faculty members in instructing undergraduate classes so as to link advanced research to teaching · Relaxing the retirement age of faculty members (currently 56) so as to counter the faculty shortage, assuming of course that those on the verge of retirement remain qualified to teach Tertiary Institutes and Research Activities The number and scale of tertiary institutions in an urban area are important determinants of the supply of technical skills, and the degree to which these bodies offer graduate education and engage in research contributes to the knowledge capital of a city. In this regard, Kuala Lumpur leads other cities in Malaysia. The majority of Malaysia's government research institutes are located in Kuala Lumpur--20 in all, including the leading ones: MIMOS (Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems), SIRIM (Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia), and the Palm Oil Board (see table 6.18). Including the 10 research centers located within Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur has 30 research institutes. In contrast, there are only two in Penang (the Fisheries Research Institute and the fledgling Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals at Universiti Sains Malaysia, which is tasked with conducting research on traditional herbal medicines); two in Johor (the Malaysia Pineapple Industry Board and Pusat Penyelidikan Ternakan Air Payau); and one in Malacca (Jabatan Perikanan). Table 6.18 Number of Government Research Institutes, 2008 City Johor Kuala Lumpur Malacca Penang Putrajaya Number of government research institutes 2 20 1 2 10 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 139 Table 6.19 Location of Public and Private Universities, 2008 City Type of university Cyberjaya Johor Kuala Lumpur Malacca Penang Public 0 2 3 1 1 Private 2 0 8 0 0 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: Only the main campuses are included in this table. Most of the universities, especially the private universities, are located in Kuala Lumpur, a factor that strengthens that region's knowledge capacity (see table 6.19). Other cities rely on a public university or two for tertiary education, such as Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in Penang, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia in Johor, and Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka in Malacca. The leading universities are making an effort to expand their postgraduate and postdoctoral programs and to promote faculty research. The scale of the R&D con- ducted is greatest in Kuala Lumpur, but universities in other cities are also entering the fray. UTM was granted eight patents between 1995 and 2005 and ranks at the top, as measured by R&D spending by universities. In addition, UTM leads in R&D spending, mainly in engineering fields. USM was granted 10 patents between 1995 and 2005 (see table 7.14 in chapter 7). It ranks second among universities in R&D spending (see table 7.11 in chapter 7). USM's R&D emphasizes biochemistry, energy technology, and process technology and engineering (see table 7.10 in chapter 7). Universiti Teknologi MARA ranked seventh among universities in terms of R&D spending. The bulk of its research effort is oriented toward manufac- turing and production engineering. However, the total R&D spending of RM 20 mil- lion is only one-fifth of the spending done by the other major research universities. Notwithstanding the scale of ongoing activities, recent efforts to spur research are thin and scattered in Malaysia, as in the other Southeast Asian countries, in large part because postgraduate and postdoctoral programs in Southeast Asia, where they exist at all, are exceedingly small and diffuse. Few incentives exist for local or foreign researchers to engage in research in Malaysian universities, and few do. There are ambitious plans to dramatically increase postgraduate studies; whether they succeed will be the function of a sustained injection of resources and a rising, well-compensated demand for higher-level skills and academic research. Role of Large Firms East Asian experience indicates that the acceleration of technological upgrading and the strengthening of innovation capabilities have been associated with the emergence of a few large and dynamic multinational firms. Whether in Japan; India; Korea; or Taiwan, China, the strategies pursued by these firms have been broadly similar. They have involved early technological borrowing from abroad 140 Tiger Economies Under Threat and consolidation of production capabilities (for manufactures or services), followed by determined efforts to acquire design and innovation capabilities (through licensing and takeover of foreign firms). Such efforts have been backed by heavy investment in R&D, which combined the advantage of cost-efficiency with innovativeness.27 Now Chinese firms such as China International Marine Containers, Huawei, Chery, BYD Auto, and Wanxiang are proceeding down this very same path (Zeng and Williamson 2006). No Malaysian manufacturing firm has established itself as a major contract (original equipment manufacturer) supplier of a product or a service with an expanding international market. Firms such as Eng Teknologi and Pentamaster have acquired original design manufac- turer status, but there are few of these firms, and they remain relatively small re- gional suppliers. This situation might be related not just to firm-level strategies, choice of products, and determination to emerge as world-class players, but also to the size of the local economy and how it affects productivity and relevant ca- pabilities. Firms in both Kuala Lumpur and Penang remain small in scale, as are even the largest Malaysian nonfinancial firms, with the exception of Petronas. Large firms play a significant role in the development of local industries, be- cause they can become a fertile source of new spinoff firms. Their applied re- search, worldwide brand names, and marketing strengths can support a strategy in which innovation is a major strand, and they are frequently critical to the future of new products and services introduced by start-ups. In Silicon Valley, Fairchild Semiconductor, a prototypical axial firm, served as the launching pad for scores of start-ups.28 In San Diego, Hybritech (see figure 6.2) and Linkabit were responsible for a number of start-up firms in the biotechnology­pharmaceutical and wireless telecommunication clusters. Similarly in Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge 27 The successful and strongly government-supported efforts of firms from Taiwan, China, are described by Mathews and Cho (2000). The Korean experience is detailed by Linsu Kim (1997). 28 Fairchild Semiconductor was formed by eight engineers from Shockley Semiconductor in 1957. These eight engineers, called the "Traitorous Eight" by William Shockley, were Julius Blank, Victor Grinich, Jean Hoerni, Eugene Kleiner, Jay Last, Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce, and Sheldon Roberts. Fairchild Semiconductor itself was responsible for spawning 65 other firms, often referred to as "Fairchildren." Among them are Intel, Amelco, Advanced Micro Devices, LSI Logic, Altera, Xilinx, and other semiconductor firms. In addition to spinning off these firms, Fairchild was the progenitor of venture capital firms such as Kleiner Perkins Caulfield & Byers, which helped to finance Amazon, Google, and Sun Microsystems and catalyzed the development of semiconductor clusters in northern California. Another important venture capital firm in Silicon Valley, Sequoia Capital, is also one of the Fairchildren. When Fairchild was formed, no venture capital was available on the West Coast, and the eight engineers needed to approach Fairchild Camera and Instrument for a loan (with the option to purchase the firm). When Fairchild was established, the semiconductor industry was at a very early stage of development, and (continued on next page) Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 141 Consultants (CCL) is responsible, directly and indirectly, for a host of daughter firms. Some of these start-ups spun off from CCL, whereas others have close social ties to CCL.29 The role of anchor firms is important even in lesser known clusters. For instance, the majority of firms in the wireless telecommunications cluster in Denmark can be traced back to a single firm, S.P. Radio, which grew initially from its sales and manufacturing of consumer radios and later of maritime radio equipment (Dahl, Pedersen, and Dalum 2005). The emergence of Akron, Ohio, as the major cluster for automotive tire production is because of the establishment of BFGoodrich in 1896 (Buenstorf and Klepper 2009).30 Are there Malaysian firms with the managerial expertise, the scale, and the human and research resources to play such a role? Table 6.20 lists some of the top 500 firms listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. Many of these firms are banks, which can assist with the birth and growth of firms, especially when the venture capital industry is still in its infancy, although banks are frequently ill equipped to coach and mentor start-ups and help them find the right contacts in the way that experienced venture capitalists can. On the list are a number of firms with agricultural operations, reflecting the legacy of the plantation economy. Only a handful of firms are in the manufacturing industry. Notably, there are also a number of firms in engineering and R&D services. More than 60 percent of these firms are located in Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya (see table 6.21).31 Ten firms are headquartered in Selangor. Only two firms are headquartered in Penang (Oriental Holdings in the automotive sector and Uchi Technologies in electronic components), and none are in Johor and Malacca. In other words, the large and medium-size firms that could accelerate technological catch-up and serve as the kernel of new clusters are virtually all located in (continued from previous page) there were no equipment manufacturers or parts makers. Fairchild Semiconductor needed to manufacture almost everything in house. This situation paved the way for the development of other firms in the area to supply materials and equipment to Fairchild (Nuttall 2007). Netscape Communications also was an influential firm, which spawned Barksdale Group, Epinions, Backflip, Friendster, Tellme, Kontiki, Hopelink, OurPictures, Viralon, Meer.net, RxCentric, MedicaLogic, Cloudmark, Xoopit, Responsys, Mozilla Foundation, and Sherpalo Ventures (Takahashi 2007). 29 Firms related to CCL include Domino Printing Sciences, P.A. Technologies, and Scientific Generics, among others (Vyakarnam 2007). 30 BFGoodrich started as a tire manufacturer for bicycles and began manufacturing automobile tires when the automobile industry took off. The proximity of Akron to Detroit, Michigan, was also an advantage (Buenstorf and Klepper 2009). 31 In the United States, 33 percent of all headquarters are located in the top five largest metropolitan areas in 2000. Although the trend is such that the headquarters of manufacturing firms are dispersing away from the largest metropolitan areas, headquarters of services firms (especially high value-adding firms) are concentrating in the largest cities (Diacon and Klier 2003). 142 Figure 6.2 Hybritech and Its Daughter Firms in San Diego Hybritech Gensia, Gen-Probe, IDEC, Clonetics, Pac Rim 1986 1983 1985 1985 Bioscience, 1985 Cortex, Immune BioVest, 1986 Response, 1986 1986 Viagene, Lipotech, Ligand, Corvas, Amylin, Cytel, Pyxis, Vical, 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 Biosite, MEDmetric, 1988 1989 Kimmel Dura, Columbia/HCA, Birndorf Forward Genesys, Cancer Institute, 1990 1990 Biotechnology, Ventures, 1990 1990 1990 1990 Cypros, Novadex, Kingsbury Nanogen, Sequana, Somafix, Gyphen, Ciphergen, 1992 1992 Partners, 1991 1992 1992 1993 1993 1993 Urogen, Chromagen, Digirad, Novatrix, CombiChem, Corixa, Applied Triangle GenQuest, First Dental 1996 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 Genetics, Pharmaceuticals, 1995 Health, 1994 1995 1995 Source: Smilor and others 2005. Table 6.20 Malaysia's 40 Largest Firms with Spinoff Potential, 2007 Market capitalization Ticker Rank Firm Industry (US$ million) MAY 1 Malayan Banking Commercial banks, non-U.S. 12,576.7 BCHB 3 Bumiputra-Commerce Holdings Commercial banks, non-U.S. 9,735.6 PBKF 7 Public Bank­Foreign Commercial banks, non-U.S. 9,411.2 PBK 8 Public Bank Commercial banks, non-U.S. 9,159.5 IOI 9 IOI Corporation Agricultural operations 8,367.4 SDY 11 Sime Darby Diversified operations 6,531.7 SIDBY 14 Sime Darby­ADR Diversified operations 5,172.9 GIL 15 Genting International Real estate operations and development 4,443.0 MMC 24 MMC Corporation Diversified operations 3,048.3 HLBK 25 Hong Leong Bank Commercial banks, non-U.S. 2,508.3 PEP 28 PPB Group Food, miscellaneous and diversified 2,221.0 UMWH 29 UMW Holdings Auto and truck parts and equipment, original 2,067.3 ASTR 32 Astro All Asia Networks Multimedia 1,914.0 KGB 37 Kumpulan Guthrie Agricultural operations 1,657.6 NESZ 38 Nestlé Malaysia Food, miscellaneous and diversified 1,609.7 SPSB 41 S P Setia Real estate operations and development 1,317.8 IOIP 51 IOI Properties Real estate operations and development 1,200.6 BAK 55 Batu Kawan Chemicals, specialty 978.8 ORH 60 Oriental Holdings Automotive, cars and light trucks 887.2 KLCC 61 KLCC Property Holdings Real estate management and services 887.0 UPB 63 United Plantation Berhad Agricultural operations 848.0 PROH 64 Proton Holdings Automotive, cars and light trucks 793.3 TTNP 67 Titan Chemicals Chemicals, plastics 731.9 UPL 70 United Plantation Agricultural operations 714.4 TOPG 82 Top Glove Corp. Rubber and vinyl 562.8 WCT 101 WCT Engineering Engineering and R&D services 459.9 SGB 108 Scomi Group Oil field machinery and equipment 384.0 RANH 118 Ranhill Engineering and R&D services 362.2 PETR 124 Petra Perdana Engineering and R&D services 332.8 GRPB 128 Green Packet Internet Infrastructure software 331.7 MUHI 132 Muhibbah Engineering Engineering and R&D services 315.0 UCHI 137 Uchi Technologies Electronic components, miscellaneous 311.1 GOLD 174 Goldis Medical products 212.7 STEM 188 StemLife Medical labs and testing services 191.6 KRI 190 Kossan Rubber Industries Rubber and plastic products 198.4 KPJ 207 KPJ Healthcare Medical, hospitals 169.4 VADS 217 VADS Computers, integrated systems 150.8 MDJ 242 Mudajaya Group Engineering and R&D services 122.4 N2N 243 N2N Connect R&D 128.3 SAAG 288 SAAG Consolidated Oil field machinery and equipment 108.3 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: The capitalization cutoff used to constitute this list of "large firms" was US$100 million. 143 144 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.21 Locations of Headquarters City Ipoh Kuala Lumpur Penang Perak Putrajaya Selangor Number of firms 1 23 2 2 2 10 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: Figures are based on the locations of headquarters of firms in table 6.20. Kuala Lumpur. Most major Indonesian and Thai firms are also headquartered in the capital cities. From table 6.21, it is apparent that Kuala Lumpur is the business center of Malaysia and the hinge of the knowledge economy, just as Bangkok is the hinge of Thailand's fledging knowledge economy. Most of the leading firms prefer to locate in Kuala Lumpur because it is the only city in Malaysia that offers some measure of agglomeration economies, and because it is adjacent to the adminis- trative center of the country and also to the leading science park. Kuala Lumpur is served by an excellent new airport (Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang) and is well furnished with other amenities. Moreover, most of Malaysia's leading universities and research institutes are in the Kuala Lumpur­Klang Valley area, which further enhances the attraction of this urban region to firms and increases the chances of Kuala Lumpur entering a virtuous economic spiral. The listing also points to the absence thus far in Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries of firms that have been able to assemble the expertise in their field, to conduct research, and to innovate on a scale that would potentially enable them to nucleate industrial clusters as Fairchild and CCL were able to do. The absence of such firms is not a binding constraint, but it does mean that growth of competitive firms with innovative products and services requires alternative sources of stimuli and entrepreneurship. IT Infrastructure A meta-analysis by Straub (2007) of economic studies analyzing the link between infrastructure investment and urban development outcomes found that in 63 per- cent of the studies, infrastructure investment had a positive and significant effect on urban economic growth. For instance, one study found that an increase in telecommunications penetration is responsible for close to one-third of the growth in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) over the past 20 years. Korea, for example, has made good use of broadband penetration to promote multimedia-based activities and Web services, especially in Seoul. The IT infrastructure, in particular, is becoming an important factor influencing the ef- ficacy of research efforts. Better IT infrastructure permits researchers to connect globally, to exchange ideas, to search for ideas, to access papers, and so on. In this Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 145 Table 6.22 Broadband Subscribers, 2001­07 Number of subscribers per 1,000 population Economy 2001 2004 2007 China 0.3 19.1 50.0 Indonesia 0.1 0.4 1.0 Japan 30.1 153.0 224.7 Korea, Rep. of 164.9 247.9 306.2 Malaysia 0.2 9.9 51.5 Philippines 0.1 1.1 11.0 Singapore 36.6 130.3 198.7 Taiwan, China 50.6 165.3 209.3 Thailand -- 1.2 9.4 Source: International Telecommunication Union. Note: -- not available. regard, Malaysia is moving ahead, but there is still room for catching up. Although the number of people subscribing to broadband has increased rapidly in Asia since 2001, diffusion of broadband in Malaysia is still low (see table 6.22) relative to OECD countries, although 52 people per 1,000 were connected in 2007 (see table 6.23). Broadband is offered through four Internet Service Providers in Malaysia. The connection speeds they offer range from 128 kilobits per second to 2 megabits per second (see table 6.24). These speeds are much lower than the average speed available in a number of countries listed in table 6.23. Both Japan and Korea have invested heavily in laying fiber-optic cables to make high-speed Internet con- nections available to residents in major cities. Because of this outlay, their average speeds are 61.0 and 45.6 megabits per second, respectively, much faster than in any other OECD country. Faster speed permits the transfer of larger amounts of data in a shorter period of time, making it possible to collaborate more easily with others on technical projects involving the manipulation of masses of data.32 For the purposes of exchanging ideas with parties overseas, the international bandwidth can be used as a measure of connectivity. The United States is the most connected country with connections exceeding 970 gigabits per second (in 2005), followed by many of the OECD countries. Relative to these countries, the connec- tions available in Malaysia are few, and the capacity is a mere 3 gigabits per second (see table 6.25). Although the available capacity permits access to information from overseas or in Malaysia, the amount of information that can be accessed at any given time is limited, and the speed of access is slow because of congestion. 32 In addition, faster connection speeds available to regular consumers can lead to the development of new industries, such as Internet Protocol television and online gaming, and wider usage of existing forms of e-commerce (online banking, shopping, and so forth). 146 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 6.23 Information Technology and Innovation Foundation Broadband Rankings, 2006 Price per month for Subscribers per Average speed 1 megabit per second Rank Economy household (%) (megabits per second) of fastest technology (US$) 1 Korea, Rep. of 90.0 45.6 0.45 2 Japan 52.0 61.0 0.27 3 Finland 57.0 21.7 2.77 4 Sweden 49.0 18.2 0.63 5 United States 51.0 4.8 3.33 6 Switzerland 68.0 2.3 21.71 7 Australia 50.0 1.7 2.39 8 United Kingdom 50.0 2.6 11.02 9 Germany 38.0 6.0 5.20 10 Ireland 37.0 2.2 13.82 Average 46.0 9.0 16.52 Source: Atkinson 2007. Table 6.24 Average Speed of Internet Connections Offered in Malaysia, 2008 Broadband services providers Home Business TIMENet 448 kilobits per second 256 kilobits per second­ 2 megabits per second JARING Net 512 kilobits per second­ 1 megabit per second TMNet Streamyx 384 kilobits per second­ 1­2 megabits per second 1 megabit per second Maxis 384 kilobits per second­ 128 kilobits per second­ 2 megabits per second 512 kilobits per second Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. The available capacity in Thailand is 6.8 gigabits per second, twice as much but still low. The Philippines is even with Malaysia, whereas Indonesia brings up the rear with just 1.5 gigabits per second. Advances in IT and its widespread use in the OECD countries have led to the explosion of new businesses and of Internet-based activities such as e-commerce and social networking sites. IT has galvanized industries that rely on outsourcing from the advanced countries. In this latter respect, the Philippines has emerged as a leader, with a flourishing call center industry and businesses dealing in software, animation, and outsourcing of transcription by medical and legal offices in the United States. New types of firms as well as traditional industries rely on the Inter- net in their day-to-day operations (ordering, invoicing, tracking, and fulfillment) Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 147 Table 6.25 International Bandwidth, 1999­2005 Bandwidth (megabits per second) Economy 1999 2002 2005 Australia 730 10,498 -- China 351 9,380 136,106 Finland 670 16,587 22,617 Germany 11,834 260,668 566,056 India 267 1,870 20,000 Indonesia 120 573 1,507 Ireland 239 13,501 24,587 Japan 2,643 30,286 132,608a Korea, Rep. of 1,251 17,207 49,766 Malaysia 188 1,321 3,193 Netherlands 10,874 167,232 334,578 Philippines 125 891 3,215 Singapore 845 5,898 24,704a Sweden 4,388 94,896 157,636 Switzerland 5,257 65,827 71,464 Thailand 118 1,011 6,808 United Kingdom 18,338 319,663 781,554a United States 27,388 381,693 970,594a Source: International Telecommunication Union. Note: -- not available. a. Data are for the year 2004. for communications and coordination within production networks to improve their efficiency. Thus far, information and communication technology (ICT) cap- ital is contributing more to growth in the advanced countries, whereas in East Asia, investment in physical capital has the edge.33 Looking ahead, one is likely to see the gap narrow as services activities mature and become internationally com- petitive (see figure 6.3). The Economist Intelligence Unit compiles e-readiness scores to measure the e-business environment and opportunities. Singapore is the highest ranked, followed by Korea; Taiwan, China; and Japan (see table 6.26).34 Malaysia ranks after Japan with a considerable gap in the score, followed by 33 See Draca, Sadun, and Van Reenen (2007) for an extensive review of the effect of ICT investment on productivity. The research shows that investment in ICT hardware alone would not be sufficient. To take full advantage of ICT capital, firms also need to transform their organizational structure (Bloom, Sadun, and Van Reenen 2007). 34 However, see Wong (2008) regarding Singapore's mixed record in providing high-speed Internet access to households and developing Internet content providers. 148 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 6.3 Information and Communication Technology Investment and Labor Productivity Growth, 1989­2005 1.5 1.2 annual percentage change 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.0 Asia Latin America advanced economies, other developing and the Caribbean excluding Asia economies 3 annual percentage change 2 1 0 China India Japan ASEAN-4 newly other Asian industrialized economies economies growth impact of ICT growth impact of non-ICT capital accumulation capital accumulation Source: Jaumotte and Spatafora 2007. Note: ASEAN-4 refers to four members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Thailand, India, China, and Indonesia. All the economies listed in table 6.26 im- proved their scores steadily over the years. China and India improved much more than the others, although they started out from lower bases. Again, Malaysia is in the middling range (scores for individual cities in Malaysia were unavailable), Thailand is a little below, and Indonesia occupies a lower rung. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 149 Table 6.26 E-Readiness Scores, 2003­07 Score Economy 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Singapore 8.20 8.02 8.18 8.24 8.60 Korea, Rep. of 7.80 7.73 7.66 7.90 8.08 Taiwan, China 7.40 7.32 7.13 7.51 8.05 Japan 7.10 6.86 7.42 7.77 8.01 Malaysia 5.60 5.61 5.43 5.60 5.97 Thailand 4.20 4.69 4.56 4.63 4.91 India 3.90 4.45 4.17 4.25 4.66 China 3.80 3.96 3.85 4.02 4.43 Indonesia 3.30 3.39 3.07 3.39 3.39 Source: Economist Intelligence Unit (http://globaltechforum.eiu.com/index.asp?layout=rich_story&channelid=4&categoryid=29&doc_id=10599). Note: Economies are ordered by their score in 2007. The rankings evaluate a country's e-business environment and how amenable a market is to Internet-based opportunities. Scores may range from 0 to 10. The current IT infrastructure in Malaysia and in the other Southeast Asian countries cannot adequately support a more knowledge-intensive growth strategy. Not only do the capacity and speed of Internet connections need to be improved domestically, but also a larger capacity to connect to the rest of the world is required. Such an undertaking will entail more investment, especially in the main urban centers. An increase in international bandwidth is also required for diversifying connections. The earthquake in Taiwan, China, in 2006 high- lighted the vulnerability of the international system by disrupting the connectivity to the world for a brief period. Other episodes since then have further under- scored this vulnerability. To avoid breakdowns from other causes in the future, Southeast Asia needs to build up international bandwidth and redundancy. In 1995, the Malaysian government launched the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), covering the 15- by 75-kilometer area just outside of Kuala Lumpur, in an attempt to create an IT industry hub in Malaysia (Fleming and Søborg 2002).35 It offered a modern physical infrastructure (fiber-optic backbones) and a number of fiscal incentives, such as an income tax exemption for up to 10 years, a 100 percent investment tax allowance, free imports of multimedia equipment, and employment of foreign knowledge and IT workers (Fleming and Søborg 2002). With the MSC, the authorities sought to accelerate Malaysia's transition to a knowledge-based economy 35 The area covered by the MSC extending southward from Kuala Lumpur is larger than Singapore (Fleming and Søborg 2002). Within this stretch, the new cities of Putrajaya (the administrative center) and Cyberjaya (the high-tech industrial center) were constructed (Scott 1998). The MSC is anchored by two points: by Kuala Lumpur International Airport in the south and by the Kuala Lumpur City Center, which is housed in the Petronas Tower, in the north (Bunnell 2003; Indergaard 2004). 150 Tiger Economies Under Threat (Ramasamy, Chakrabarty, and Cheah 2004). By October 31, 2007, 1,941 companies had obtained MSC status and were operational. Application software was the princi- pal activity for 45 percent of these companies, and mobility-embedded software and hardware was a distant second (21 percent) followed by single sign-on and multi- media. Of the companies with approved MSC status, 1,442 were Malaysian owned (51 percent ownership and higher), and 449 were foreign owned. Initially MNCs were hesitant to invest in the MSC for a number of reasons. One was the scarcity of skilled workers. In addition, many firms had already invested in Singapore. Given uncertainty regarding demand in the region (Indonesia was the largest market in Southeast Asia but with uneven growth prospects) and having invested in Singapore, many IT companies have been slow to take advantage of incentives offered by the MSC (Fleming and Søborg 2002). Investment in infrastructure alone is not enough. Firms need to integrate ICT into their operations, develop appropriately tailored procedures, and train a staff (Brynjolfsson and Hitt 2003). Large firms are the ones that typically take the lead in using ICT. Following their lead, small and medium-size enterprises adopt ICT, especially when there is a common platform for them to engage in business- to-business commerce. This process is off to a slow start in Malaysia. To accelerate the assimilation of ICT, the government could, through its e-Government Initia- tive, demonstrate the merits of incorporating ICT in improving the efficiency of company operations (World Bank 2007a). The government can also facilitate the development of common platforms so that firms can exchange data. Access to Finance Once innovation-led local development acquires momentum as a result of the demonstrated potential of new technologies being commercialized by pioneering firms, new start-up and spin-off activities can be boosted by the energetic midwifery of angel investors, venture capitalists, and providers of key business services. Kenney (2008) and others argue persuasively that after a few lead firms had successfully opened a new technological salient and through demonstration effects had sharpened the appetite for entrepreneurship, the availability of risk capital helped sustain innovation in Silicon Valley. Patient risk capital, mostly from public entities, also enabled first firms in Japan and later in Korea and Taiwan, China, to enter new industries, to survive in the face of years of losses, to invest in capital-intensive production facilities, to avoid the risk of takeover, and to grow into world-class companies. A similar crop of firms are now maturing in China, financed by risk capital from a variety of sources, mainly public. Availability of Credit Are firms in Malaysia facing difficulties in securing financing for their expansion and in investing in innovation activities? According to the World Bank's Doing Business indicators, access to finance in Malaysia is better than in other economies Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 151 Figure 6.4 M2 as a Percentage of GDP, 1995­2007 300 250 amount (as a % of GDP) 200 150 100 50 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. in East Asia (annex table 2.A.6 in chapter 2; see also figure 6.4). It is Indonesia that is the laggard among the Southeast Asian countries. Although in Malaysia credit to the private sector as a share of GDP has decreased from a high of 210 percent in 1997 to 113 percent of GDP in 2006, Malaysia's ratio of credit to GDP is the second highest relative to other economies in East Asia, after Japan and China (see figure 6.5). Credit availability does not appear to be constraining business development in Malaysia, although few firms will ever pass up the opportunity to complain about the scarcity of credit and the shortage of subsidized financing. Venture Capital The supply of venture capital in Malaysia is still small relative to other countries in the region, although this circumstance is more a reflection of demand than sup- ply. Interviews with staff members of Multimedia Development Corporation and Malaysia Debt Ventures suggest that the current level of financing is more than enough to fund promising new start-ups. Between 2003 and 2006, the annual commitments by venture capitalists in Malaysia had climbed by 63 percent to reach US$899 million (3 percent of fixed investment in 2006) as against US$6.0 billion in China, US$6.3 billion in Korea, US$9.8 billion in Singapore, and US$6.3 billion in Taiwan, China, in 2001 (Kenney, Han, and Tanaka 2004). The venture capital industries in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand are still at a nascent stage, and recent data are scarce. The national venture capital pool in Indonesia stood at US$153 million in 2001; only Vietnam's pool was lower. For the Philippines and Thailand, these figures were larger at US$291 million and 152 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 6.5 Domestic Credit to Private Sector, 1995­2007 250 200 amount (as a % of GDP) 150 100 50 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year China India Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. US$580 million, respectively. The trend from 1991 to 2001 showed an initial in- crease followed by successive declines since 1997 for Indonesia, but continuing growth throughout the period for the Philippines and Thailand--more so for Thailand than the Philippines. The sources of funds in these countries are similar to those in other Asian economies. Corporations provided almost half of the ven- ture capital in both Indonesia and the Philippines in 2000. In Thailand, banks (29 percent) were in the lead, followed by the corporate sector, whereas for In- donesia and the Philippines, banks were the second-largest contributor. The gov- ernment was the third-largest source in Indonesia (Kenney, Han, and Tanaka 2004).36 The prospects for further development are hampered by the lack of a suitable institutional environment, human capital, and infrastructure and, since 2008, by the global recession. Interviews with venture capitalists in East Asia reveal that the weakness of legal and other institutions leads venture capitalists to fund entrepreneurs whom they know personally. Entrepreneurs connected to govern- ment officials are favored, although too much reliance on political relationships can be a handicap once a key political figure is out of office. Furthermore, venture capitalists in all three countries face difficulties in exerting control over the firm because founders (and their family members) are frequently reluctant to relinquish control (Ahlstrom and Bruton 2006). 36 Foreign venture capital investors are also a significant force in East Asia (Wright, Pruthi, and Lockett 2005). Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 153 Table 6.27 Volume of Venture Capital from Public and Private Sources in Malaysia, 2003­06 Amount (US$ million) Source 2003 2004 2005 2006 Government agencies 299.5 254.1 258.6 366.2 Corporations 113.8 190.0 219.3 338.0 Foreign investors 6.1 6.0 50.6 67.5 Banks 97.3 77.1 97.4 66.0 Insurance 0.6 7.1 7.0 10.3 Pension and provident funds 0.6 0.5 12.2 6.6 Individuals 34.8 62.5 38.2 44.6 Total 552.6 597.4 683.4 899.3 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: Exchange rates used are nominal exchange rates at the end of period averages. To encourage the development of venture capital firms in Malaysia, the govern- ment has pursued a number of policies to attract private venture capital. It has also established public venture capital funds such as the Malaysia Venture Capital Man- agement (MAVCAP), the Malaysian Technology Development Corporation, and the Malaysian Life Sciences Capital Fund. Alongside the financing from these public en- tities, private venture capital has been forthcoming from banks such as the Mayban Venture Capital Company. Currently, 49 venture capital firms operate in Malaysia. Of these, 8 are government owned, 8 are bank owned, 13 are private firms, and 6 are corporate affiliates (Lyons and Kenney 2007).37 Malaysian government agencies account for 41 percent of the available capital, and corporations for 38 percent (see table 6.27). What is notable is that venture capital funding from corporate sources tripled between 2003 and 2008. More funding was also available from foreign venture capitalists. In contrast, venture capital funding from banks declined. The shift from reliance on government agencies and banks to corporations and foreign venture cap- ital sources is a welcome development and indicates that the venture capital financing in Malaysia is becoming more market based.38 Whether the supply of venture capital will continue growing given the tightening of credit and greater risk aversion follow- ing the onset of recession in 2008 and 2009 is uncertain. In the United States, venture financing has become scarce, and returns to venture capital have fallen. 37 Although there are 49 VC firms identified, only 26 are registered as members of the Malaysian Venture Capital and Private Equity Association, which suggests that some of these 49 firms may be inactive (Lyons and Kenney 2007). 38 The Israeli experience indicates that the venture capital industry has grown side by side with high-tech start-ups. For venture capital firms to be viable, the locality needs to have a large pool of potential and actual start-ups so that the firms can spread the risks (Avnimelech and Teubal 2006). 154 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 6.6 Number of Deals in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, Including All Stages, 1990­2007 80 70 60 number of deals 50 40 30 20 10 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 year Malaysia Singapore Thailand Source: Lyons and Kenney 2007. Although the potential supply of venture capital has increased over the years, the number of deals has not. They peaked in 2000 with 20 venture capital deals and have since declined (see figure 6.6). Nonetheless, 126 firms were listed on the MESDAQ (Malaysian Exchange of Securities Dealing and Automated Trading) in late 2007 as against just 3 in 2001.39 For start-up and early-stage financing, the peak number of deals was five in 2000 and 2001. The scarcity of deals is also appar- ent from the actions of venture capitalists, who have strayed far from their announced focus to fund projects in a variety of fields. For instance, MAVCAP, established in 2001, was intended for investment in technology-intensive areas. However, its actual portfolio consists of firms in outsourcing services, wood prod- ucts, health food products, and other areas. Malaysian Venture, which was estab- lished in 1984 by a Singaporean venture capital firm, also intended to invest in electronics, plastics, and ceramics, but the actual investment flowed into more conventional resource-based products such as rubber and furniture (Lyons and Kenney 2007). Although the total number of deals and the distribution of such deals across various industrial sectors are hard to find, table 6.28 lists the cumulative 39 Other countries also have established secondary boards specifically aimed at start-up firms to be listed. China established the SME (Small and Medium-Size Enterprise) Board at Shenzhen Exchange in 2004. Currently 126 firms are listed there, although many are in traditional industries. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 155 Table 6.28 Cumulative Deals in Malaysia, by Sector, 1990­2007 Cumulative number of firms receiving investment by sector Sector 1990 1995 2000 2007 Medical 0 1 5 9 IT Internet 0 0 14 26 IT non-Internet 0 0 7 39 Nontechnology 1 5 26 44 Total 1 6 52 118 Source: Lyons and Kenney 2007. Table 6.29 Initial Public Offerings by Malaysian Firms Firm IPO date Status Listing Cyber Village August 24, 2001 Operating Singapore Exchange ETI Tech Corporation March 28, 2006 Operating MESDAQ GPRO Technologies June 2, 2004 Operating MESDAQ Media Shoppe December 8, 2004 Delisted MESDAQ MyEG Services April 13, 2005 Operating MESDAQ REDtone International January 9, 2004 Operating MESDAQ Viztel Solutions July 23, 2004 Operating MESDAQ iNix Technologies September 13, 2004 Operating MESDAQ UnrealMind Interactive June 30, 2004 Delisteda MESDAQ MEMS Technology August 11, 2004 Operating MESDAQ Source: Lyons and Kenney 2007. a. UnrealMind Interactive was taken over by Monstermob Group, a U.K. firm, in June 2005. number of deals in Malaysia from 1990 to 2007.40 This diffuse approach strongly suggests that deal flow is weak. For a thriving venture capital industry, avenues to exit need to be present so that venture capital firms can realize the large capital gains. Two main exit strategies are the initial public offering (IPO) and the merger or acquisition. Table 6.29 lists the firms from which venture capital firms successfully exited. Of the 10 firms that were identified, 1 was listed in Singapore and the other 9 were listed on the MESDAQ. Subsequently two firms were delisted. Lack of IPOs in other markets, especially the NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers and Automated Quotations), suggests that these firms, while successful, were not successful enough to be listed in 40 The figures in table 6.28 were compiled from VentureExpert, which is based on self- reporting and Web sites of major venture capital firms in Malaysia and may not reflect their actual investments. However, they are the best data available (Lyons and Kenney 2007). 156 Tiger Economies Under Threat more desirable markets.41 Hence, international investors are not likely to be looking for promising firms in Malaysia. In addition, a lack of mergers suggests that other firms did not also value Malaysian start-ups highly. This situation is in stark contrast to the experience of China, where many of the successful firms have been listed on the NASDAQ or even the New York Stock Exchange in the United States. International experience points to two deficiencies in the Malaysian venture capital industry: the government's involvement in the provision of venture cap- ital and the quality of universities. Direct provision of venture capital by the public entities tends to be less successful than venture capital by private providers, as is apparent from Malaysia's own experience and that of other countries.42 China promoted the development of a domestic venture capital in- dustry by providing public funding for investment.43 As a result, government- owned venture capital funds account for 45 percent of the total in China. How- ever, the public venture capital firms have not fared well. The most successful firms tend to be financed by foreign venture capital, even though these firms were started by Chinese entrepreneurs and are domestically oriented and much of the value creation occurs domestically (Zhang 2008). Korea also tried to stim- ulate growth by providing public seed capital, without much success. Public funding often comes with strings tied to a social agenda. Various affirmative ac- tion programs have also distorted public investment decisions. Experience in the United States suggests that when the provision of venture capital by the govern- ment has social goals rather than focusing purely on capital gains, its effect is marginal at best. Finally, significant involvement of a government-backed ven- ture capital industry may crowd out the private industry, and the investment 41 Fewness of IPOs was also notable in the United States during 2008 to 2009. 42 Some of the problems with public venture capital can be overcome, as discussed by Lerner (2002). But given the nature of the business, stimulating the development of private domestic venture capital is preferable. In the 1990s, the Malaysian government offered tax incentives to venture capital firms. However, many venture capital firms did not take advantage of such tax incentives because of bureaucratic hurdles. Similarly, foreign investors complained that the approval process took too long for them to invest in Malaysian firms. Given that venture capital firms tend to be more time constrained than financially constrained, these bureaucratic delays were perceived to be a significant bottleneck. Furthermore, there were also other policies that had a negative impact on the development of the venture capital industry in Malaysia. For instance, foreign capital controls that were introduced after the Asian financial crisis discouraged foreign venture capitalists from investing in Malaysia. 43 By 2007, assets under management have increased to US$28 billion from US$11.3 billion in 2003. A successful fund by the Chinese government is the National Electronic and Information Technology Development Fund (known as the IT Fund) with a rate of return of 86 percent over eight years. Can Southeast Asian Tiger Economies Become Innovative? 157 flows may be toward those who are able to secure government subsidies rather than to those with the most promising returns.44 The case of Israel is illuminating. Although the government did provide some seed funding for direct investment, it also invested in domestic venture capital firms through the Yozma Program, which required these firms to raise additional funding from foreign partners, typically foreign venture capitalists. By doing so, the domestic venture capital industry was able to nurture domestic capabilities through partnering with foreign venture capital firms while developing interna- tional connectivity. China is currently trying to emulate the Yozma Program by allocating RMB 100 million for the National Venture Capital Promotion Fund to promote formation of a domestic venture capital industry. Similarly, MAVCAP offers RM 200 million through the second Outsource Partners Programme (OSP2) as a matching grant to a new venture capital fund that is managed by experienced local venture capital managers. The quality of universities in Malaysia further dampens the deal flow. The other Southeast Asian countries confront similar problems. Without high-quality applied research at universities and major firms in areas that can be fruitful sources of innovations, the type of start-up firms seen in the United States and elsewhere will be limited in number. Finland; Ireland; Israel; Taiwan, China; and Boston and Silicon Valley in the United States--as well as, to a certain extent, India--all depend on top-ranking universities. Malaysia is still at the early stage of venture capital development. Hence, the focus of the policy should be on improving the quality of technical education in the general population as well as on improving the quality and research capacity of a few selected universities. Korean experience suggests that absent major involvement by foreign venture capital firms, a significant improvement in the quality of universities, and entrepreneurial spillovers from major domestic firms, local venture capital firms will struggle to effectively support start-up firms. 44 An example is the Minority Enterprise Small Business Investment Corporation or state and local venture capital programs aimed at funneling investment into certain geographic areas of the country (Lyons and Kenney 2007). 7 From Technology Development to Innovation Capability For Malaysia to exploit opportunities in electronics and related areas of biotech- nology and medical equipment, in resource-based industries, and in processing activities, it needs to strengthen its domestic innovation capability.1 This chapter addresses the questions that bear on the development of the knowledge economy and of a culture of innovation. Is Malaysia spending enough on research and development (R&D), and is this spending efficient? Is Malaysia focusing on the right areas? Is Malaysia reaping the benefit from R&D?2 Are there an emerging innovation culture and a demonstrated readiness to innovate in any sector? As a foreshadowing of the findings, R&D spending in Malaysia is close to the average after controlling for the stage of development. The level of spending on R&D seems to be determined by the surprisingly modest amount of research in the electronics and the transport subsectors, both of which tend to be highly research 1 Malaysia can be classified as a passive FDI-dependent learning country using the crystal framework. This means that though the industrial activities are in high-tech areas, the domestic learning capability remains weak, typically because of foreign direct investment (FDI), and the country cannot take full advantage of the FDI inflow. In contrast, Ireland and Singapore are classified as active FDI-dependent learning countries, complementing the inflow of FDI and high-tech activities with domestic research and development efforts (Soubbotina 2006). See also the receiver-active approach of Japanese firms described by Kodama and Suzuki (2007). 2 This question is only partially answered in this chapter. As Michelacci (2002) and many others have pointed out, unless the stock of ideas generated by R&D is used by entrepreneurs, the returns from R&D will be suboptimal and the productivity of R&D spending will be lower. Increasing the supply of entrepreneurs willing to bet on new business models and innovations--a vast topic--is not addressed in this study. 159 160 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.1 R&D Spending as a Share of GDP, 1996­2006 Share of GDP (%) Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 China 0.57 0.64 0.65 0.76 0.90 0.95 1.07 1.13 1.23 1.33 1.42 Indonesia 0.16 0.16 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.04 0.01 -- -- Japan 2.82 2.89 3.02 3.04 3.05 3.13 3.18 3.2 3.18 3.33 3.40 Korea, Rep. of 2.42 2.48 2.34 2.25 2.39 2.59 2.53 2.63 2.85 2.98 3.23 Malaysia 0.22 -- 0.39 -- 0.50 -- 0.69 -- 0.63 -- 0.95 Singapore 1.37 1.48 1.81 1.9 1.88 2.11 2.15 2.12 2.24 2.36 2.39 Thailand 0.12 0.1 -- 0.26 0.25 0.26 0.24 0.26 0.25 -- -- Sources: World Bank World Development Indicators database. The data for Indonesia are from Association of Southeast Nations Science Technology Indicator/Technology Competitiveness Indicator project (ASEAN STI/TCI) (http://aseank.kisti.re.kr/). Note: -- not available. intensive in more advanced economies. By the same token, the limited supply of researchers may itself reflect weak demand. Furthermore, R&D spending is spread relatively thinly across a number of technological disciplines. R&D Spending Knowledge intensity is measured by a number of indicators, among which R&D spending has some primacy as it affects the supply of research skills from universi- ties, the demand for scientists and engineers, and the potential output of patents. However, R&D spending is not a guarantee of commercially viable innovation, which can help raise growth in gross domestic product (GDP). R&D spending in Malaysia as a share of GDP has increased slowly over the years to reach 0.95 percent in 2006 (see table 7.1).3 Relative to other, more highly industrialized economies in East Asia, Malaysia's aggregate outlay on R&D is lower, although it is compara- ble to that of Brazil and Mexico, which have similar levels of per capita income. In fact, Malaysia was squarely on the trend line estimated for a sample of com- parators for 1996 to 2004 (see figure 7.1). Not surprisingly, R&D spending by China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Singapore is above the predicted line, especially that by Korea. The number of personnel engaged in R&D in Malaysia has risen at a slow pace since 1997. The number of people engaged in R&D in 2004 was 12,800 (see table 7.2), compared with, 51,500 in Indonesia (in 2001), 21,900 in Singapore, and 32,000 in Thailand. The number of researchers has tripled in Thailand in eight years while 3 The Second Science and Technology Policy (STEP2), launched in 2003, aims to increase R&D spending to 1.5 percent of GDP by 2010 (Shapira and others 2006). From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 161 Figure 7.1 R&D Expenditure as a Share of GDP, 1996­2004 4 R&D expenditure as a share of GDP (%) Japan 3 Korea, Rep. of 2 Singapore China 1 Malaysia Hong Kong, China Thailand 0 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 per capita GDP (constant 2000 US$) Sources: World Bank World Development Indicators database; ASEAN STI/TCI (http://aseank.kisti.re.kr/). Note: The trend line was calculated as the predicted values from regressing R&D expenditure as a share of GDP on per capita GDP. The sample of economies includes Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries plus Argentina; Brazil; Chile; China; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Mexico; the Philippines; Singapore; South Africa; Taiwan, China; and Thailand. those in Malaysia doubled during the same period. Most are young and relatively inexperienced. Both countries lack seasoned researchers and project managers, and unlike Singapore, neither benefits much from an infusion of foreign talent. There was no change in the number of personnel engaged in R&D in the Philippines during 1998 to 2004. Among the East Asian economies, China has the most researchers. Normalized with reference to population size, Japan has the largest number of R&D personnel, Table 7.2 Total R&D Personnel Nationwide, 1997­2004 R&D personnel (full-time work equivalent thousands) Country 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 China 1,427.8 1,667.7 830.0 755.0 821.7 893.0 956.5 1,035.2 Indonesia -- -- -- 56.4 51.5 -- -- -- Japan 945.8 948.1 891.8 894.0 925.6 919.1 896.8 892.1 Korea, Rep. of 156.1 152.2 135.7 136.6 128.6 137.9 138.1 89.9 Malaysia 6.7 6.7 4.4 6.7 6.7 10.1 10.1 12.8 Philippines -- 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 Singapore 9.5 11.1 12.1 14.9 15.1 19.4 19.5 21.9 Thailand 10.6 12.8 12.8 14.0 14.0 14.0 20.0 32.0 Source: ASEAN STI/TCI (http://aseank.kisti.re.kr/). Note: -- not available. 162 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 7.2 Total R&D Personnel, 1999­2004 8 full-time equivalent per 1,000 people 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 year China Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: ASEAN STI/TCI (http://aseank.kisti.re.kr/). followed by Singapore and Korea, respectively. Figure 7.2 shows the researchers per 1,000 people. The ratio of researchers to the total population has increased rapidly in Singapore in the past five years. The ratios for Malaysia and Thailand, while ris- ing, are still relatively low. And although the gap between Malaysia and other North- east Asian economies is narrowing, it is doing so at a rate that is slower than for R&D spending (see figure 7.3). China, Japan, Korea, and Singapore have more researchers than their per capita income would indicate. Rapidly increasing the number of tech- nical workers engaged in R&D is harder than raising spending on R&D because building up research skills takes time. However, in the absence of sufficient numbers of adequately trained researchers and experienced research project managers, the risk is that a part of the increase in R&D spending may be used inefficiently or may be devoted to downstream and relatively low-value product development. Much of the R&D in Malaysia is performed by industry. It accounts for 65 percent of overall R&D spending in 20044 and includes state-owned firms such as Petronas (see figure 7.4). In 2000, the share of private firms in R&D was 58 percent, and for- eign establishments accounted for 64 percent of private R&D spending (Tham 2004). This situation is fairly similar to that of other East Asian countries, except for Thailand, where the share of R&D by private industries was less than half. In other countries (excluding Indonesia, which has little R&D activity), private firms account for two-thirds to three-quarters of R&D spending. 4 Figure was provided by the Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 163 Figure 7.3 Number of Researchers per Million People, 1996­2004 8,000 researchers per million people 6,000 Japan Singapore 4,000 Korea, Rep. of 2,000 Hong Kong, China China Malaysia 0 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 per capita GDP (constant 2000 US$) Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Note: The trend line was calculated as the predicted values from regressing the number of researchers per million people on per capita GDP. The sample of economies includes Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries plus Argentina; Brazil; Chile; China; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Mexico; the Philippines; Singapore; South Africa; Taiwan, China; and Thailand. Within industry, firms in the automotive sector spend the most on R&D (RM 646.3 million), followed by firms in the office equipment and electronics subsectors (see table 7.3).5 These three subsectors--automotive, office equipment, and electronics--account for 72 percent of the total private R&D spending (RM 2 billion). The oil and gas sector is also active in R&D, owing to the scale of the domestic industry. R&D spending by the electrical machinery subsector is less than one-third of R&D spending in the electronics industry as a whole. R&D expenditure by the private sector in Malaysia is mainly on automotive technology, electronic components, and consumer electronics. It is relatively dif- fuse when compared with the distribution of R&D in other countries with similar size populations. Larger countries tend to have a more diversified portfolio of R&D spending, whereas smaller countries focus on few areas (see figure 7.5). For in- stance, manufacturers of pharmaceuticals conduct more than two-thirds of the R&D in Switzerland. Similarly, close to two-thirds of R&D spending in Korea is on electronics. Relative to those countries, R&D spending in Malaysia by private firms is spread more widely: 33 percent is devoted to the automotive sector, 20 percent to electronics, and 20 percent to consumer electronics. 5 For a complete breakdown of private R&D spending by sectors in Malaysia, see appendix table C.1. 164 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 7.4 Share of R&D Spending by Businesses, 2002­04 80 70 share of R&D spending (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 China Indonesia Japan Korea, Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Rep. of 2002 2003 2004 Source: ASEAN STI/TCI (http://aseank.kisti.re.kr/). Table 7.3 Top Five Sectors with Highest R&D Spending in Malaysia, 2006 Sector Amount (RM million) Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers, and semitrailers 646.3 Manufacture of office, accounting, and computing machinery 414.4 Manufacture of radio, television, and communication equipment and apparatus 396.3 Extraction of crude oil and natural gas; service activities incidental to crude oil 150.5 and natural gas extraction, excluding surveying Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus, not elsewhere classified 117.8 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. A global R&D spending survey reveals that the automotive sector is among the most R&D intensive (Department of Trade and Industry 2007).6 Proton Holdings Berhad is ranked 1,039th in the global top 1,250 compiled by the United Kingdom's Department of Trade and Industry, with R&D spending of £29.11 million (Depart- ment of Trade and Industry 2008).7 Although as a share of sales (3.9 percent), R&D 6 Among the global top 20 firms in R&D spending, 7 firms are in the automotive sector. Other R&D-intensive sectors are the high-tech electronics and pharmaceutical industries (Department of Trade and Industry 2008). 7 Proton Holdings is the only firm included in the global top 1,250. Proton was ranked 629th in 2006 with spending of £53.5 million and 768th in 2007 with £39.3 million (Department of Trade and Industry 2006, 2007). R&D spending by Telekom Malaysia and Tenaga Malaysia did not qualify because it was below the cutoff line of £19 million (Department of Trade and Industry 2006). From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 165 Figure 7.5 Distribution of R&D by Sectors, 2007 100 90 80 70 percentage of R&D 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Japan Korea, Rep. of Switzerland United States technology hardware and equipment others software and computer services chemicals pharmaceuticals and biotechnology automobiles and parts leisure goods aerospace and defense electronic and electrical equipment Source: Department of Trade and Industry 2007. spending by Proton is comparable to other major automotive firms, the absolute amount of R&D spending is small relative to the major automobile assemblers, including motorcycle manufacturers (see table 7.4). From a total of 43 government research institutes (GRIs), 40 agencies and insti- tutes were actively engaged in R&D in 2004. Of them, the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) was the largest spender on R&D in 2004, with an outlay of more than RM 61 million (see table 7.5). MPOB is followed by the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), and Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM). They are all key GRIs. Their share of the total R&D spending by GRIs was 20.9 percent, 11.4 percent, 9.0 percent, and 7.6 percent, respectively. MPOB mainly focuses on research on palm oil and its derivatives. MIMOS is ori- ented toward research on high-tech products.8 MARDI is broadly responsible for research in agriculture, and SIRIM focuses on research and technology diffusion related to industrial technologies through contract research agreements with firms. Of the almost 300 researchers at SIRIM, approximately 100 work on 8 The focus of MIMOS's research is on advanced informatics, microelectronics, grid computing, and cyberspace security. 166 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.4 R&D Spending by Major Automobile Firms, 2007­08 Company Amount (£ million) Share of sales (%) General Motors 4,069.13 4.4 Toyota Motor 4,005.63 3.9 Ford Motor 3,767.71 4.3 Volkswagen 3,615.87 4.5 Daimler 3,590.16 3.8 Bosch 2,614.76 7.7 Honda Motor 2,481.55 5.0 BMW 2,309.22 5.6 Nissan Motor 2,090.29 4.4 Renault 1,808.30 6.2 Peugeot 1,523.32 3.4 Tata Motors 152.43 3.4 Mahindra & Mahindra 36.92 1.6 Proton 29.11 3.9 Source: Department of Trade and Industry 2008. advanced materials, 100 on machinery, 50 on advanced manufacturing processes, and 50 on industrial biotech and environment-related technologies. SIRIM is also the industrial standard-setting body. It is engaged in coordinating standards developed in Malaysia with other countries and is attempting to take a lead in international Halal certification in food products, cosmetics, medicines, and medical implants. Reflecting the large R&D spending by agriculture-related GRIs (MPOB and MARDI), the top two fields of emphasis are research on crop production and research on pest and disease management. Of the top five areas of research, three are agricultural; the other two are information and communication technology (ICT) applications and civil engineering (table 7.6). Table 7.5 R&D Spending by Top Four GRIs, 2004 Total R&D Share of Government research institute spending (RM million) R&D spending (%) MPOB 61.9 20.9 MIMOS 34.0 11.4 MARDI 26.7 9.0 SIRIM 22.6 7.6 R&D spending by all GRIs 296.9 100.0 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 167 Table 7.6 Top 15 Fields of Emphasis by GRIs, 2004 Description R&D (RM million) Share of total (%) Crop production 23.7 8.0 Pest and disease management 23.2 7.8 ICT applications 18.2 6.1 Agricultural engineering 15.1 5.1 Civil engineering 12.4 4.2 Horticulture 10.9 3.7 Radiation chemistry 10.5 3.5 Environmental management and bioremediation 9.3 3.1 Resource-based technology 8.0 2.7 Communication 7.4 2.5 Electrical and electronic engineering 7.3 2.5 Plant biotechnology 7.1 2.4 Process technology and engineering 6.4 2.1 Soil and water sciences 5.5 1.9 Advanced materials 5.4 1.8 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Mirroring the R&D spending, MPOB and MARDI have the most researchers with 768 and 699, respectively, followed by SIRIM with 439 (see table 7.7). These research institutes are also staffed with more PhDs than other research institutes. The average number of PhDs as a share of the total staff is 25 percent for all GRIs, but more than 35 percent of researchers hold a PhD in MPOB, and close to 30 percent do in MARDI. R&D spending by universities is concentrated in five institutions: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), and University of Malaya (UM). These five universities combined account for almost 80 percent of the R&D spending of all universities (see table 7.8). Among them, the largest spender on R&D in Malaysia is Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), located in Johor (although it has a satellite campus in Kuala Lumpur). UM is located in Kuala Lumpur, and USM is in Penang. UKM and UPM are both in Selangor. The research conducted by universities is diverse, and most fields of research absorb less than 3 percent of their total spending. The two leading fields are (a) biochemistry and (b) manufacturing and production engineering. These fields accounted for 7.2 percent and 5.8 percent, respectively, of R&D spending by uni- versities in 2004 (see table 7.9). However, the research effort is greatly hampered by the weakness of postgraduate training and opportunities for postdoctoral research. The lack of training and research opportunities constitutes a big gap in the Malaysian R&D system that urgently needs to be closed. 168 Table 7.7 Distribution of R&D Researchers in GRIs with More Than 100 Researchers, 2004 Number of Malaysians Number of foreigners Institution PhD Master's Bachelor's Diploma Subtotal PhD Master's Bachelor's Diploma Subtotal Total MPOB 271 157 191 142 761 5 0 2 0 7 768 MARDI 206 280 102 110 698 1 0 0 0 1 699 SIRIM 105 119 182 33 439 0 0 0 0 0 439 FRIM 135 107 60 19 321 5 2 0 0 7 328 EPRD 46 123 41 11 221 0 0 0 0 0 221 MINT 67 46 83 6 202 3 0 1 0 4 206 MIMOS 8 34 146 2 190 2 0 6 0 8 198 DOS 2 23 128 28 181 0 0 0 0 0 181 IMR 65 46 41 17 169 2 1 1 0 4 173 Total in all institutions 1,085 1,220 1,441 535 4,281 44 8 13 1 66 4,347 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Note: DOS Department of Statistics; EPRD Educational Planning, and Research Division, Ministry of Education; FRIM Forest Research Institute Malaysia; IMR Institute for Medical Research; MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute; MIMOS Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems; MINT Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology Research; MPOB Malaysian Palm Oil Board; SIRIM Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 169 Table 7.8 R&D Spending by Top Research Universities, 2004 Institute of higher learning R&D spending (RM million) Share of total (%) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 107.2 20.9 Universiti Sains Malaysia 105.9 20.6 Universiti Putra Malaysia 79.3 15.5 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 76.7 14.9 University of Malaya 41.1 8.0 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Table 7.9 Top 15 Fields of Emphasis by Universities, 2004 R&D spending Share of R&D Description (RM million) spending (%) Biochemistry 37.1 7.2 Manufacturing and production engineering 29.7 5.8 Communication 18.4 3.6 Education 16.5 3.2 Energy technology 13.9 2.7 Mechanical engineering 13.7 2.7 Automotive engineering 12.2 2.4 Information systems 11.6 2.3 Process technology and engineering 11.5 2.2 Electronic materials 11.0 2.1 Mathematics 10.7 2.1 Resource-based technology 9.2 1.8 Condensed matter physics 9.0 1.8 Civil engineering 8.2 1.6 Clinical medicine 8.2 1.6 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Biochemistry research is dominated by USM, which is responsible for more than 90 percent of R&D spending (see table 7.10). But USM has a small research staff and is hard put to assemble a critical mass. Similarly, research on manufacturing and production engineering is concentrated at UKM. Other sector-specific research, such as research on ICT and the automotive sector, tends to be concentrated at UTM.9 See table 7.11 for a list of the top 10 GRIs and universities in R&D spending. 9 UTM still needs to ramp up its research effort and raise the content. As noted by Tan Sri Zulkifli, "Most research is done on the softer sciences like biology where you study plants and write a paper" ("Engineering Research at UTeM" 2007: 70). 170 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.10 Research Concentration by Fields, 2004 R&D spending Share of R&D Field (RM million) spending (%) Biochemistry Universiti Sains Malaysia 34.3 92.5 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 1.5 4.0 Universiti Putra Malaysia 0.8 2.1 Manufacturing and production engineering Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 27.4 92.1 Kolej Universiti Teknikal Kebangsaan Malaysia 0.8 2.8 Universiti Teknologi MARA 0.6 2.2 Communication Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 7.2 39.2 University of Malaya 7.0 37.8 Multimedia University 1.7 9.3 Education Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 3.8 23.3 Universiti Putra Malaysia 3.0 18.4 Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 2.9 17.3 Energy technology Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 7.4 53.1 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 3.8 27.0 Universiti Sains Malaysia 1.5 10.9 Mechanical engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 5.2 38.1 Universiti Teknologi Petronas 4.4 32.2 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 1.1 8.0 Automotive engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 7.8 63.7 Universiti Putra Malaysia 2.6 21.3 University of Malaya 1.3 10.6 Information systems Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 5.3 45.5 Multimedia University 1.7 14.7 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 1.3 11.6 Process technology and engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 8.0 69.9 Universiti Sains Malaysia 1.2 10.4 Universiti Putra Malaysia 0.6 5.1 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. As is to be expected, researchers in universities publish most of the papers that appear in professional journals. The five research universities rank at the top, followed by the GRIs (see figure 7.6). Typically, these papers report basic research or address issues of theory that are generally quite remote from practical application. Surprisingly, the three major contributors to R&D capital (private firms, universi- ties, and GRIs) all focus on different, apparently unrelated areas of research. R&D spending by private firms is concentrated in the automotive and electronics sectors. Research in universities is wide ranging, with an emphasis on biochemistry, biology, From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 171 Table 7.11 Top 10 R&D Spending by GRIs and Universities, 2004 R&D spending Share of R&D Institute (RM million) spending (%) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 107.2 13.2 Universiti Sains Malaysia 105.9 13.1 Universiti Putra Malaysia 79.3 9.8 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 76.7 9.5 MPOB 61.9 7.6 University of Malaya 41.1 5.1 MIMOS 34.0 4.2 MARDI 26.7 3.3 SIRIM 22.6 2.8 Universiti Teknologi MARA 20.4 2.5 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Figure 7.6 Number of Published Papers in Professional Journals 4,500 4,216 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,790 number of papers 2,489 2,500 2,000 1,692 1,500 1,000 511 492 500 347 304 286 228 0 UM USM UPM UKM UTM IMR MARDI PORIM GSD FRIM institutions Source: Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation 2004. Note: FRIM Foreign Research Institute Malaysia; GSD Geological Survey Department; IMR Institute for Medical Research; MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute; PORIM Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia; UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; UM University of Malaya; UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia; USM Universiti Sains Malaysia. and manufacturing and production engineering. GRIs devote the most attention to agricultural technologies.10 Whether this research, measured by inputs (that is, R&D spending), is leading to innovation with commercial outcomes is considered in the next section by analyzing the patents granted in Malaysia and to Malaysian residents. 10 To help develop links with industry, UTM has created the University Industry Center to foster ties and promote consulting. 172 Tiger Economies Under Threat Patenting Activity Since 2001, patents granted in Malaysia have increased, with the number more than doubling between 2005 and 2006. The majority of these patents are to for- eign residents (see table 7.12), although the shares of residents have almost dou- bled from 2006. But because the surge in patenting activities by domestic entities is recent, one cannot say whether it is the start of a trend; however, the number of patents granted to local entities continued growing through 2007. Between 1989 and 2006, the Malaysian Patent Office granted 281 patents to private firms. There is no single dominant patent holder among the private firms. Most have only one patent. Of those firms with multiple patents, many are multi- national corporations (MNCs), such as Sony EMCS and Motorola (see table 7.13). The list of the top 10 patent owners from 1995 to 2007 is dominated by GRIs, universities, and MNCs (see table 7.14). MPOB was granted the largest number of patents during this period (22), followed by Sony EMCS (12). UPM leads among the universities with 11 patents, followed by USM (10) and UTM (8). Among the MNCs, Sony EMCS, Matsushita, and Motorola are in the top 10. Patents issued to Malaysian residents are mainly for operational technology, chemistry and metal- lurgy, human necessities, physics, and electricity (see table 7.15). Patenting by entities in Malaysia with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) is low, relative to other East Asian economies (see table 7.16). A total of 158 patents were granted to Malaysia-based entities in 2007. Although this number is four times more than the patents granted to residents in Indonesia, the Philip- pines, and Thailand combined, it is just around 40 percent of patents granted to Table 7.12 Patents Granted in Malaysia, 1995­2007 Number of patents Share of foreign Year Foreign Local Total patents (%) 1995 1,719 30 1,749 98.3 1996 1,721 81 1,802 95.5 1997 732 55 787 93.0 1998 543 22 565 96.1 1999 682 38 720 94.7 2000 384 21 405 94.8 2001 1,451 19 1,470 98.7 2002 1,456 32 1,488 97.8 2003 1,549 31 1,580 98.0 2004 2,321 25 2,346 98.9 2005 2,473 39 2,512 98.4 2006 6,560 187 6,747 97.2 2007 6,645 338 6,983 95.2 Source: Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia (http://www.mipc.gov.my/images/stories/AR/2007/ar2007.pdf). From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 173 Table 7.13 Top Holders of Malaysian Patents: Private Firms, 1989­2006 Owner Number of patents Sony EMCS (Malaysia) 7 Motorola Semiconductor 5 Carsem (M) 3 EPS Systems & Engineering Sdn Bhd 3 Lysaght (Malaysia) 3 Sunflower Industries 3 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Table 7.14 Top 10 Patent Owners in Malaysia, 1995­2007 Number of patents Total, Owner 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 1995­2007 MPOB 1 0 2 5 8 22 Sony EMCS (Malaysia) 0 0 0 7 5 12 Universiti Putra Malaysia 0 0 0 4 6 11 Universiti Sains Malaysia 1 0 0 1 3 10 SIRIM Berhad 0 0 1 5 1 8 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 0 0 0 2 5 8 Forest Research Institute Malaysia 0 0 0 0 0 6 Patrick Cyril Augustin 0 2 0 0 0 6 Telekom Malaysia Berhad 0 0 1 3 2 6 Matsushita Home Appliance R&D Centre (M) 0 0 0 0 5 5 Motorola Semiconductor 0 0 0 3 0 5 Board of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia 2 0 0 1 0 5 Silterra Malaysia 0 0 0 0 5 5 Source: Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia. residents of Singapore. However, patents granted to Malaysian recipients are on the rise, almost tripling since 2000, albeit starting from a low base. Relative to other Asian economies and higher-income countries, U.S. patents per 1,000 people in Malaysia are lower but close to what the per capita income predicts (see figure 7.7). Patenting by Japan; Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, is higher than the average adjusted for their per capita incomes. Hong Kong, China, which spends little on R&D, still manages to receive U.S. patents compara- ble to its income level. A closer look at the patents granted to Malaysian organizations by the USPTO reveals that the bulk of the U.S. patents are granted to MNCs located in Malaysia 174 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.15 Distribution of Domestic Patents by Technology Class, 2000­07 Number of patents Class 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Human necessities 61 155 206 224 325 333 948 1,179 Performance of operations, 59 233 236 242 377 452 1,155 1,213 transport Chemistry, metallurgy 110 288 334 396 625 600 1,275 1,748 Textiles, paper 8 18 19 28 25 30 101 109 Fixed constructions 19 44 42 38 50 82 197 221 Mechanical engineering, 42 102 104 119 132 164 448 408 lighting, heating, weapons Physics 36 231 228 190 321 316 1,042 883 Electricity 70 399 323 341 492 531 1,583 1,222 Total 405 1,470 1,492 1,578 2,347 2,508 6,749 6,983 Source: Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia. Table 7.16 Patents Granted by U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to Foreign Residents Number of patents Economy 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Korea, Rep. of 3,314 3,538 3,786 3,944 4,428 4,352 5,908 6,295 Taiwan, China 4,667 5,371 5,431 5,298 5,938 5,118 6,361 6,128 China 119 195 289 297 404 402 661 772 Singapore 218 296 410 427 449 346 412 393 Hong Kong, China 179 237 233 276 311 283 308 338 Malaysia 42 39 55 50 80 88 113 158 Philippines 2 12 14 22 21 18 35 20 Thailand 15 24 44 25 18 16 31 11 Indonesia 6 4 7 9 4 10 3 5 Source: USPTO. Note: Economies are ordered by the number of patents granted in 2007. (see table 7.17). Apart from the individually owned patents, only four Malaysian organizations--Silterra, MPOB, Harn Marketing, and UPM--were granted five or more patents each between 2003 and 2007.11 Table 7.18 lists the top patent technology classes granted to Malaysian residents from 2003 to 2007. The largest patent classes are associated with the semiconductor 11 The USPTO lists an organization only if it has at least five patents granted during the period. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 175 Figure 7.7 Malaysia's U.S. Patents Relative to Those of Other Countries, 1977­2006 0.4 Taiwan, China U.S. patents per 1,000 patents 0.3 Japan issued by USPTO 0.2 Korea, Rep. of 0.1 Singapore Hong Kong, China 0.0 Malaysia 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 per capita GDP (constant 2000 US$) Source: USPTO. Note: The trend line was calculated as the predicted values from regressing the number of patents per 1,000 patents issued by the USPTO on per capita GDP. The sample of economies includes Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries plus Argentina; Brazil; Chile; China; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Mexico; the Philippines; Singapore; South Africa; Taiwan, China; and Thailand. industry, both for devices and manufacturing processes, reflecting the importance of the semiconductor industry in Malaysia. Other technology classes are also mainly in the electronics industry, although some are related to the medical device sector. This sector is potentially a growth area, but much will depend on the readiness of electronics firms to diversify into bioinformatics and bioassays and electronic implants. Many economies are engaged in semiconductor manufacturing activities. The number of patents granted by USPTO to these economies far exceeds those in Malaysia (see table 7.19). In the five years from 2003 to 2007, 52 patents were granted to residents in Malaysia in the active solid-state devices technology class. This number is small compared with others--for example, 7,923 for Japan; 1,843 for Taiwan, China; and 1,507 for Korea--and it reflects the technological gap between these countries and Malaysia even though Malaysia's manufacturing capability in the area of electronics is second to none. The pattern of patenting in the manufacturing process technology class is sim- ilar. Although it represents the second most active patenting technology area by Malaysian residents, the 45 patents in this area are dwarfed by the numbers of patents granted to residents in other economies (see table 7.20). So far, Malaysia is ahead of China, Israel, and the Philippines. However, patenting by residents in China has been increasing in recent years, and Chinese residents received more patents overall in 2007 than did residents of Malaysia (see table 7.16). Thus, the head start that Malaysia has enjoyed may be quickly narrowing. 176 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.17 U.S. Patents Granted to Malaysian Organizations, 2003­07 Number of patents First-named assignee 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total Avago Technologies Ecbu IP (Singapore) 0 0 0 12 50 62 Intel 5 4 11 11 27 58 Individually owned patent 6 13 6 25 6 56 Agilent Technologies 2 11 22 3 1 39 Altera 1 1 2 7 13 24 National Semiconductor 3 7 5 3 4 22 CeramOptec Industries 6 3 5 4 0 18 Freescale Semiconductor 0 0 4 1 8 13 Motorola 2 4 1 4 2 13 Avago Technologies General IP (Singapore) 0 0 0 4 8 12 Advanced Micro Devices 3 1 1 3 1 9 Grossman Product Services 1 5 0 1 0 7 Semiconductor Components Industries 1 0 2 3 1 7 Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing 3 2 1 0 0 6 Malaysian Palm Oil Board 1 0 0 3 2 6 Silterra Malaysia 0 3 1 1 1 6 Texas Instruments 0 0 2 2 2 6 Harn Marketing 0 0 1 2 2 5 Serac Group 0 3 2 0 0 5 Universiti Putra Malaysia 1 1 2 1 0 5 Source: USPTO. It appears that indigenous Malaysian firms do very little patenting. More than 90 percent of patents granted by the Malaysia Patent Office are to foreign residents. Only a few are granted to local residents, the majority of which are to MNCs. Except for patents granted to individuals, only a small number of recent U.S. patents were granted to MNCs located in Malaysia. Patents granted by the USPTO to Malaysian residents are mainly those used in the semiconductor and electronics industries. To a certain extent, this finding matches with the R&D spending by private firms in Malaysia, although it seems that the USPTO has granted no patents related to automotive technologies, engineering, biotechnology, or agro-processing technology to Malaysian residents.12 In sum, R&D spending in Malaysia is low relative to other economies in East Asia. Moreover, the patents granted to indigenous Malaysian organizations are 12 Pinheiro-Machado and Oliveira (2004) note that academic patenting in Brazil is constrained by the lack of specialized staff members to assist with the process and the cost associated with filing. Others have emphasized the cost factor as well. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 177 Table 7.18 U.S. Patent Classes Granted to Malaysian Residents, 2003­07 Number of patents Class 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total Active solid-state devices (for example, transistors, 3 9 12 11 17 52 solid-state diodes) Semiconductor device manufacturing, process 5 7 8 9 16 45 Radiant energy 1 1 1 14 18 35 Illumination 1 0 2 5 13 21 Electricity, measuring and testing 1 3 6 4 6 20 Plastic and nonmetallic article shaping or 0 5 0 4 1 10 treating, processes Electronic digital logic circuitry 0 0 0 3 7 10 Electric lamp and discharge devices 0 2 0 4 3 9 Electric lamp and discharge devices, systems 0 1 2 4 2 9 Computer graphics processing and selective 0 1 1 2 5 9 visual display systems Electricity, electrical systems and devices 0 1 4 2 2 9 Metal working 2 2 0 3 1 8 Data processing, design and analysis of circuit or 0 0 1 3 4 8 semiconductor mask Source: USPTO. Table 7.19 Number of U.S. Patents Granted in the Active Solid-State Devices Technology Class, by Geographic Origin, 2003­07 Number of patents Economy 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total United States 1,717 1,819 1,688 1,699 1,536 8,459 Japan 1,573 1,798 1,519 1,575 1,458 7,923 Taiwan, China 303 353 357 415 415 1,843 Korea, Rep. of 244 246 259 345 413 1,507 Singapore 34 53 37 50 56 230 Malaysia 3 9 12 11 17 52 Israel 12 7 10 4 9 42 China 5 7 10 3 8 33 Philippines 7 5 5 6 5 28 Thailand 1 0 0 1 0 2 Source: USPTO. Note: Economies are ordered by the number of patents granted in 2007. 178 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.20 Number of U.S. Patents Granted in Semiconductor Device Manufacturing, Process Technology Class, by Geographic Origin, 2003­07 Number of patents Economy 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total United States 2,321 2,299 2,014 2,068 2,011 10,713 Japan 1,228 1,240 1,090 1,147 1,009 5,714 Korea, Rep. of 456 504 466 595 614 2,635 Taiwan 607 610 447 490 421 2,575 Singapore 107 73 65 68 57 370 Malaysia 5 7 8 9 16 45 China 2 3 9 12 14 40 Israel 13 7 2 9 6 37 Philippines 1 6 5 4 3 19 Source: USPTO. Note: Economies are ordered by the number of patents granted in 2007. few, suggesting that innovation capability, as measured by patents received by indigenous Malaysian entities, is very limited. This limited level of innovation is comparable to that found in Indonesia and Thailand, for example, but it is far behind the level of Taiwan, China, and the Northeast Asian economies. Licensing and Technology Transfer Data on royalty and technology licensing fees can reveal the flow of technology trade among countries and can indicate whether a country is a net technology cre- ator or user. Measured by receipts, Korea is by far the largest recipient of royalties and licensing fees in East Asia (excluding Japan). The acceleration in receipts started in 1988. Royalty and licensing fee receipts in Singapore are also on an up- ward trend (see figure 7.8). This finding suggests that both Korea and Singapore have been developing technological capabilities and exporting technology in recent years, especially Korea.13 Technology absorption is reflected in the rising royalties and licensing fees paid by China and Singapore. The growth in China has been tremendous, a more than 10-fold increase since 1998. Payments by other countries, including Malaysia, also increased, albeit at a much slower pace (see figure 7.9). In East Asia, Japan is the only country that has a positive balance of payments in royalty and licensing fees. It became a net provider of technologies only after 2003. 13 U.S. patents granted to the Korean company Samsung also increased rapidly during this period. In 1997, Samsung ranked 17th in total number of patents granted (587 patents) in that year. By 2006, Samsung ranked second, with 2,451 patents. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 179 Figure 7.8 Royalty and License Fee Receipts, 1995­2006 2,000 1,500 receipts (US$ million) 1,000 500 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 year China Hong Kong, China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. Until then, the balance of payments was negative. Similarly, other countries are mainly users of technologies developed elsewhere. Relative to China and Singapore, net payments by Thailand are inching up gradually (see figure 7.10). This finding implies that both China and Singapore are actively licensing technologies developed Figure 7.9 Royalty and License Fee Payments, 1995­2006 12,000 10,000 payments (US$ million) 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 year China Hong Kong, China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. 180 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 7.10 Net Royalty and Licensing Payments, 1995­2006 10,000 9,000 8,000 net payments (US$ million) 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 year China Hong Kong, China Indonesia Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. elsewhere to be incorporated in their products. It could reflect an acceleration of their rate of catch-up (which is apparent in the case of China) and the faster incorporation of technology content in their exports. Korea's licensing payments and receipts are increasing in tandem, similar to the experience of Japan. In countries where royalty and licensing fees are increasing less, the product mix (or the technological content of products) may be changing more slowly, given the low levels of R&D expenditure and of patenting activities (both domes- tically and in the United States). Malaysia and the neighboring Southeast Asian countries are all in this category, although Singapore is on a steady upward trend and, since 2003, Malaysia's licensing payments have also started rising. Research Activities of Malaysian Firms The private business sector accounts for a large fraction of R&D spending in Malaysia, and much of the R&D activities tend to focus on incremental innovation and process improvements.14 This is especially true for the R&D centers of MNCs. Most of the key R&D is conducted at headquarters locations. Local subsidiaries, even if they have an R&D department, tend to concentrate on downstream product development and adaptation for local requirements or production process improvements. For instance, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) employs 30 workers who are primarily occupied with process innovation rather than contributing to 14 A survey of 1,800 firms in Malaysia by Shapira and others (2006) also shows that manufacturing firms in Malaysia are more adept at adopting and adapting technologies than at generating new technology. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 181 the design of AMD's chips, although 80 percent of AMD's chips are produced in Penang.15 And DENSO, with a small R&D facility in Malaysia, employs 18 workers, who are mainly engaged in adapting technology for local requirements. Motorola might be an exception because it has largely localized its two-way radio develop- ment and production in Penang, and it has close to 800 R&D employees who are engaged in this effort. Agilent Technologies is also concentrating more of its production of testing and measuring equipment in Penang. Domestic firms mainly undertake incremental product and process innova- tions. Tai Kwong Yokohama, a battery maker for the automotive sector, does not have a formal R&D center. Its R&D activities are based on individual projects done in house. Because automotive batteries are a standardized item with specific predetermined dimensions, much of the R&D relates to process innovation rather than product innovation. An innovative solution with both environmental and cost implications is a lead reclamation plant set up by the firm to recover lead from used batteries (Wong, Chang, and Cheng 2007). Petronas spends only 1.5 to 2.0 percent of its revenue on R&D, devoting much of it to improving process engineering and achieving operational efficiencies. Even so, some firms are starting to take on product innovation. For instance, Straits Orthopaedics is aiming to develop a "system" (a complete suite of orthope- dic items) rather than components by spending close to 15 percent of its revenues on R&D. Straits Orthopaedics was established in 2003 as a joint venture with a U.S. partner. The impetus for establishing this firm came from the slowdown in the au- tomation and semiconductor industries. The automation industry in Penang is closely linked with the semiconductor industry. When the growth of the semicon- ductor industry slowed as MNCs shifted their investments to China, the local opportunities for continuing in the machinery industry seemed less promising. The choice facing the founder of Straits was either to follow MNCs into China or to seek new business opportunities. Globally, only five or six large firms control 80 percent of orthopedic products. With the impending reform of the health care sector in Japan (a mandatory 20 percent reduction in medical devices, including orthopedics, to rein in the rising health costs), the founder saw an opportunity to enter this market by taking advantage of the advanced manufacturing capabilities that existed locally together with the relatively lower wages. The manufacturing skills acquired through the production of semiconductors are an important asset, because the material and production quality control requirements for orthopedics are much higher than for other manufactured goods. In addition, the manufactur- ing facilities need to be registered with and approved by the regulatory bodies on health of importing countries (in the case of the United States, the Food and Drug Administration). Currently, Straits Orthopaedics serves as the subcontractor for 15 The future of this production facility is uncertain in view of AMD's decision in October 2008 to spin off its chip production operations (Global Foundries) into a separate company, jointly owned with Advanced Technology Investment from Abu Dhabi, and to concentrate on chip design. 182 Tiger Economies Under Threat major orthopedic manufacturers. Blueprints for many products are given to the firm. Straits Orthopaedics makes its own machines. However, raw materials are all sourced from the United States and are shipped by air because time is critical. Some of the raw materials are becoming harder to secure because of rising demand from China. Of 330 workers, 150 are engineers (of which 60 are foreign engineers). The firm recruits from a global pool of fresh graduates, although the firm recently started to recruit more from local universities. Pentamaster is another leading Malaysian manufacturer. Pentamaster, a factory automation firm, initially catered to the semiconductor industry but now offers generalized solutions to industries such as food and automotive products. Close to 80 percent of its products are exported. At the beginning, it concentrated on cus- tomizing imported machinery, but now it offers both complete hardware and complete software solutions to factory automation, although some components are still imported. The use of radio-frequency identification has increased the speed of automation tasks. Pentamaster spends 10 percent of its revenue on R&D. It has 40 workers dedi- cated to R&D, although up to 200 workers of a total of 600 (350 are engineers and 200 have programming skills) may be engaged in R&D-related activities (Wong, Chang, and Cheng 2007). R&D activities are focused on two areas: (a) keeping pace with the rapidly changing technology within this sector and (b) expanding Pentamaster's operations to other industrial sectors and gaining the ability to offer turnkey solutions to other manufacturers. Traditionally, factory automation sys- tems depended on the customization done by manufacturers. The factory au- tomation firm provides customized machinery to fit the specifications provided by the manufacturers. Pentamaster offers a complete system (with customization done by Pentamaster) to the manufacturer by leveraging its knowledge of modu- lar design of machinery. This capability allows buyers to reuse the module for each component (Wong, Chang, and Cheng 2007). An example of the innovative prod- ucts offered by the firm is its visual inspection software to detect defects in products automatically. This innovation makes a valuable contribution to the productivity of semiconductor manufacturing. Hovid, a pharmaceutical firm, has a number of new products arising from its own R&D, such as natural vitamin E supplements extracted from palm oil. It has two R&D facilities. The facility located at USM does fundamental research associ- ated with drugs and health products. The other facility, located at the factory, mainly assists with process innovation. A total of 40 researchers work in R&D activities, of which 30 researchers are located at the factory. Annual R&D spending averages about 4 percent of revenues (Wong, Chang, and Cheng 2007). Although some Malaysian firms emphasize R&D and improve technological capabilities, they are still a small minority.16 Penang is an attractive location for 16 A study by Ariffin and Figueiredo (2004) finds that 51 out of 58 sampled electronics firms are at the stage of intermediate innovation capabilities, focusing on process and incremental innovation, with some engaging in full automation, designs, and prototyping activities. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 183 Pentamaster because of the concentration of key manufacturers (customers) and the availability of workers who understand modern manufacturing processes. At the same time, the agglomeration of these firms in Penang makes hiring workers more difficult, especially the presence of MNCs for which many workers prefer to work. In addition, the quality of education by local institutes seems to be declining, as is the motivation of the younger generations. Although Pentamaster recruits internationally, it faces difficulties because Malaysia is typically not a top destination for the best foreign workers and acquiring high-level skilled workers from other countries is difficult. Another problem is that there are only a few second-tier sup- pliers in Penang, forcing the firm to import a substantial number of parts. The bulk of products that Pentamaster produces are destined for foreign markets, mainly aimed at second-tier manufacturers that also need to have good-quality manufacturing capabilities. Innovation Comparative Advantage Few Malaysian firms view applied research as integral to their longer-term com- petition strategy. The upshot of this approach is most apparent in the persistent inability of firms in high-tech industries, such as electronics and auto parts, to move up the value chain. Innovation is focused on midlevel and low-tech activi- ties that involve little formal R&D. The orientation of the innovation activities is captured by the indexes measuring "innovation comparative advantage." The estimation technique is similar to that for the revealed comparative advantage index described in chapter 3.17 The results are presented in tables 7.21, 7.22, and 7.23 for 1995, 2000, and 2007, respectively, for the top 10 items with the greatest 17 The index of innovation revealed comparative advantage is a measure of the country's innovative capacity. It is a ratio of sector i's share in country j's total patents to sector i's share in the world: Patentsij Patentsij IRCA i , Patentsij Patentsij j i j where i denotes the sector, j is the country, i = 1, 2...I, and j = 1, 2,...J. Alternatively, it can also be expressed as a ratio of country j's share of patents in sector i, to country j's share of total patents (across I sectors) in the world (across I sectors and J countries): Patentsij Patentsij j IRCA . Patentsij Patentsij i i j For a given sector i, a value of this index greater than one indicates that the country j has a comparative advantage in innovation in that sector. 184 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 7.21 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, by Technology Class: Malaysia, 1995 Class Class title Index value 108 Horizontally supported planar surfaces 105.8 215 Bottles and jars 93.5 33 Geometrical instruments 45.4 198 Conveyors, power driven 44.4 362 Illumination 26.9 455 Telecommunications 24.9 428 Stock material or miscellaneous articles 7.4 Source: USPTO. innovation advantage. There is little evolution between 1995 and 2000: convey- ors, glass bottles, and geometrical instruments, for example, were the focuses of innovation in both 1995 and 2000. Table 7.23 suggests that innovation advantage is diversifying, with metallurgy, auto parts, and chemical compounds entering the list, possibly reflecting academic research and research by the auto sector and petrochemical firms. By comparison, Singapore's innovation revealed comparative advantage in the electronics area has strengthened. In 1995, none of the top 10 areas of innovation was related to electronics. By 2000, three mid-tech items had entered the list of the top 10. Seven years later in 2007, four high-tech electronics products had emerged as areas of comparative innovation advantage, suggesting that Singapore's efforts to raise R&D were beginning to pay off (see table 7.24). Table 7.22 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Malaysia, 2000 Class Class title Index value 406 Conveyors, fluid current 306.1 249 Static molds 107.1 65 Glass manufacturing 21.4 411 Expanded, threaded, driven, headed, tool-deformed, or locked-threaded fastener 18.8 241 Solid material comminution or disintegration 17.8 216 Etching a substrate, processes 17.4 126 Stoves and furnaces 16.8 585 Chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds 16.2 331 Oscillators 14.0 33 Geometrical instruments 11.9 Source: USPTO. From Technology Development to Innovation Capability 185 Table 7.23 Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Malaysia, 2007 Class Class title IRCA 126 Stoves and furnaces 39.4 419 Powder metallurgy processes 36.6 249 Static molds 27.0 312 Supports, cabinet structure 24.0 301 Land vehicles, wheels and axles 17.1 65 Glass manufacturing 11.1 315 Electric lamp and discharge devices, systems 10.7 585 Chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds 9.6 264 Plastic and nonmetallic article shaping or treating, processes 9.5 330 Amplifiers 9.4 Source: USPTO. All the indicators examined in this section convey a broadly similar message: as yet, R&D has acquired limited traction in Malaysia's business sector and in academia. Research by the GRIs is dispersed over a number of fields and has not created innovation capacity in electronics and electrical engineering, auto parts, biofuels, food processing, wood products, or petrochemicals, all of which are among the principal industrial subsectors for Malaysia. Where it exists, innova- tion advantage is typically in low- and medium-technology areas. This finding jibes with earlier findings in this study on revealed comparative advantage, on fast-growing exports, and on new starts. Table 7.24 Index of Innovation Comparative Advantage, Top 10 Technology Classes: Singapore, 2007 Class Class title IRCA 228 Metal fusion bonding 20.6 105 Railway rolling stock 9.3 232 Deposit and collection receptacles 7.7 271 Sheet feeding or delivering 7.4 451 Abrading 7.0 330 Amplifiers 5.5 294 Handling, hand and hoist-line implements 5.4 257 Active solid-state devices (for example, transistors, solid-state diodes) 5.2 708 Arithmetic processing and calculating (electrical computers) 5.1 438 Semiconductor device manufacturing, process 5.1 Source: USPTO. 186 Tiger Economies Under Threat Although Malaysian policy makers are gazing at the technological peaks, the reality is much more mundane. Malaysian technological capability is modest, and the trend over the past decade is not indicative of much improvement. R&D in low- and medium-tech resource-intensive industries could yield larger returns than R&D in the more glamorous high-tech activities. For example, Malaysian researchers and firms might tackle the lower slopes of the electronics sector and the petrochemical sector first. Once the capability to introduce incremental product and process innovation is firmly rooted, domestic firms would be ready for steeper areas. Other Southeast Asian countries are in similar predicaments: wanting to upgrade but lacking the innovation capability and needing to first cut their teeth on low-tech products and services before attempting to upgrade higher-tech items. 8 Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? Long-Run Growth The analysis and indicators presented earlier suggest why Malaysia's growth and that of other Southeast Asian countries have slowed. The worldwide recession that commenced in 2008 and resulted in declining exports from Southeast Asian coun- tries has further raised the odds against a return to rates of growth in excess of 6 percent per year. Nevertheless, rates in this range may be feasible for Malaysia over the medium term, assuming a robust revival of world trade. This chapter provides a perspective on the growth potential of the Malaysian economy and of some comparators by tracking the growth in per capita gross domestic product (GDP) over long time spans and by showing how countries have achieved trend accelerations by increasing the expenditure on research and development (R&D) and expanding the enrollment of tertiary-level students. The growth rate of major Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries has been notably stable (figures 8.1­8.3). The long-run growth rate of per capita GDP for the United States between 1860 and 2000 was remarkably steady at about 1.9 percent (Jones 2005).1 The stability of long-run growth over a comparable period is apparent for European countries, such as Germany and the United Kingdom, despite their involvement in major wars. Furthermore, the growth rate of Germany, at 1.8 percent, is similar to that of the United States. The United Kingdom has maintained a long-term trend rate of 1.4 percent. Since 1960, there has been an apparent acceleration in the growth rate of these three OECD countries to nearly 2.2 percent--a small increase that is plausibly related to the sharp increase in outlays on elements of national innova- tion systems (see table 8.1). Absent this infusion of resources into technology 1 Jones's (2005) critique maintains that long-term growth seems to be impervious to short- term policies for stimulating performance. 187 188 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.1 Per Capita GDP Growth of Germany, 1860­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Figure 8.2 Per Capita GDP Growth of the United Kingdom, 1860­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 U.S. dollars 10,000 5,000 2,500 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. development, it is possible that not only would countries have been unable to raise their per capita growth rates, but they might also have dropped below their earlier trend growth rates. This analysis argues for investment in the knowledge economy, but it does not tell us how much countries should spend, and it gives very little guidance on how much acceleration in growth rates is likely. The recent Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 189 Figure 8.3 Per Capita GDP Growth of the United States, 1860­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Table 8.1 Average Growth Rates of GDP Per Capita, 1870­2003 and 1960­2003 Average growth rate (%) Economy 1870­2003 1960­2003 OECD comparators Germany 1.8 2.2 United Kingdom 1.4 2.2 United States 1.9 2.2 East Asian economies Indonesia (1949­) 2.8 2.9 Japan 2.5 4.1 Korea, Rep. of 3.2 5.8 Malaysia 3.7 4.0 Philippines 2.4 1.2 Taiwan, China 3.5 5.6 Thailand 4.1 4.5 Source: Maddison 2006. Note: Data in the first column are for 1949­2003 for Indonesia; 1911­2003 for the Republic of Korea; 1947­2003 for Malaysia; 1946­2003 for the Philippines; 1912­2003 for Taiwan, China; and 1950­2003 for Thailand. experience of middle- and high-income countries shows that the return on R&D rises as countries approach the technological frontier (Aghion and Howitt 2005). However, the experience of Japan--and to a lesser extent the Republic of Korea-- also suggests that there can be declining returns from an outlay on knowledge- deepening activities once spending on R&D begins to approach 3 percent of GDP. 190 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.4 Per Capita GDP Growth of Indonesia, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Figure 8.5 Per Capita GDP Growth of Japan, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 U.S. dollars 10,000 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Long-term trend growth rates for selected East Asian economies are also fairly stable, except for Japan (see figures 8.4­8.10). And as in the case of the European countries and the United States, all these economies grew faster between 1960 and 2000 relative to the fitted trend growth rate (see table 8.1). The exceptions were Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 191 Figure 8.6 Per Capita GDP Growth of the Republic of Korea, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Figure 8.7 Per Capita GDP Growth of Malaysia, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Indonesia and the Philippines. All the countries dropped below the trend line after 2000, and the brief acceleration in 2007 quickly lost steam after mid-2008. As noted, R&D expenditure rose markedly from the 1960s onward as a share of GDP in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and it stabilized 192 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.8 Per Capita GDP Growth of the Philippines, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Figure 8.9 Per Capita GDP Growth of Taiwan, China, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. after 1985. Since the 1980s, R&D spending by Japan; Korea; and Taiwan, China, has also increased significantly (see table 8.2). The stocks of human capital (which complement R&D spending), measured by the average years of schooling, have risen steadily in these economies since 1960. In Korea, for example, average years of schooling increased dramatically, from 4.25 years in 1960 to 10.80 years in 2000 (see figure 8.11). Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 193 Figure 8.10 Per Capita GDP Growth of Thailand, 1960­2003 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 U.S. dollars 5,000 2,500 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP predicted per capita GDP Source: Maddison 2006. Table 8.2 R&D Expenditure, 1985­2006 R&D expenditure (as a % of GDP) Economy 1985 1990 1995 2000 2006 Germany 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.5 2.5 United States 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.6 OECD total 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 China -- -- 0.6 0.9 1.4 Japan 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.4 Korea, Rep. of -- -- 2.4 2.4 3.2 Taiwan, China -- -- 1.7 2.0 2.6 Source: OECD 2007. Main Science and Technology Indicators, vol. 2007 release 02 (Data available at http://oberon.sourceoecd.org/vl=286308/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/~3954/v207n1/s1/p1). Note: -- not available. An increase in enrollment in and completion of postsecondary education is responsible for the higher average years of schooling. In general, completion rates are about 50 percent in these economies. The exact timing of the rapid increase in tertiary education varies by economies, but most countries in the sample experi- enced a large increase in enrollment and completion of postsecondary education (see figures 8.12­8.16). By comparison, such an expansion in postsecondary education has yet to occur in Malaysia and the other Southeast Asian countries, except for the Philippines (see figures 8.17­8.20). The percentage of the popula- tion with some postsecondary education in the Philippines is well above that in (Text continues on page 199.) 194 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.11 Average Years of Schooling, 1960­2000 12 10 average years of schooling 8 6 4 2 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 year Indonesia Japan Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Source: Barro and Lee 2000. Figure 8.12 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Germany, 1860­2000 25,000 20,000 15 15,000 10,000 10 U.S. dollars percent 5,000 5 2,500 0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 195 Figure 8.13 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Japan, 1960­2000 25 25,000 20,000 20 15,000 U.S. dollars 10,000 15 percent 10 5,000 5 2,500 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Figure 8.14 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Republic of Korea, 1960­2000 25,000 20,000 25 15,000 10,000 20 U.S. dollars 15 percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. 196 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.15 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Taiwan, China: 1960­2000 25,000 25 20,000 15,000 20 10,000 U.S. dollars 15 percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Figure 8.16 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: United States, 1860­2000 50 25,000 20,000 15,000 40 U.S. dollars 10,000 percent 30 5,000 20 10 2,500 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 197 Figure 8.17 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Indonesia, 1960­2000 25,000 25 20,000 15,000 20 10,000 15 U.S. dollars percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Figure 8.18 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Malaysia, 1960­2000 25,000 25 20,000 15,000 20 10,000 U.S. dollars 15 percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. 198 Tiger Economies Under Threat Figure 8.19 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Philippines, 1960­2000 25,000 25 20,000 15,000 20 10,000 U.S. dollars 15 percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Figure 8.20 Per Capita GDP Growth and Labor Force with Tertiary Education: Thailand, 1960­2000 25,000 25 20,000 15,000 20 10,000 U.S. dollars 15 percent 5,000 10 2,500 5 0 1960 1980 2000 year real per capita GDP (left axis) predicted per capita GDP (left axis) population with some postsecondary education (right axis) population that finished postsecondary education (right axis) Sources: Barro and Lee 2000; Maddison 2006. Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 199 (continued from page 193) the other three Southeast Asian countries; however, its growth rate has stubbornly resisted the pull that human capital has exerted in other countries in conjunction, no doubt, with other factors absent in the Philippines. How Neighboring Economies Can Affect Malaysia This analysis does not account for the effects of external factors on the growth of Southeast Asian countries--for example, changes in the level of investment and the industrial productivity of their principal trading partners. Determining how developments in other countries affect growth performance requires more com- plex modeling, and for this purpose, the applied general equilibrium model developed by the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) is a handy tool.2 It covers 57 industries in 66 regions and captures the interrelations among entities through two sets of equations: one set of accounting relationships ensures a balance between the receipt and expenditures of all agents, and a second set specifies the optimizing behavior of the agents involved (Brockmeier 2001). Two recent papers (Ianchovichina, Ivanic, and Martin 2009; Tongzon 2007) simulate the effects on Malaysian export values and employment of changing sectoral productivities in other countries, changes in investment levels in other countries, and changes in the quality of exports from other countries. Productivity Change From various model simulations, it appears that improvements in the productivity of China's export sector exert the most influence on Malaysia's export perfor- mance. Analysis by Tongzon (2007) indicates that a 100 percent increase in pro- ductivity in China would result in declines in exports of textiles (95 percent); wear- ing apparel (44 percent); electronic equipment (35 percent); chemical, rubber, and plastics (26 percent); oilseeds (21 percent); wood products (20 percent); and metal products (15 percent). Some business services, such as financial services (2.0 per- cent) and insurance (3.7 percent), would increase; others, such as other business services (0.7 percent) and recreation (1.2 percent), would decline. Overall, the effect of rising production in China would be a reduction in Malaysian exports of US$6.6 billion (about 5 percent of current exports). Effects stemming from other countries are broadly similar, but not as large and wide ranging as those from China. Productivity gains in Indonesia would mainly affect exports of oilseeds. Similarly, Ianchovichina, Ivanic, and Martin (2009) find that light manufactures, 2 Although the findings are only suggestive, GTAP modeling can provide indicative orders of magnitude. In Malaysia's case, for example, a variant of the GTAP model estimated by Tongzon (2007) offers some clues as to how changes in Malaysia's trading partners can affect its sectoral performance. 200 Tiger Economies Under Threat machinery and equipment, apparel, and electronics would be affected most severely, with declines of 19 percent, 8 percent, 8 percent, and 7 percent, respec- tively, in Malaysian exports. The electronics and machinery subsectors would also see the largest price drops because of intensifying competition. Employment in the textile, apparel, and electronics subsectors would be affected by increasing productivity in China and would decline by 78 percent, 31 percent, and 22 percent, respectively. These declines would be counterbalanced by increased employment in business services. Similarly, a productivity increase in Korea would negatively affect employment in the goods sector but would benefit services. These results are based on changes in individual countries. Were all the partner countries to experience a 100 percent increase in productivity, the effect on Malaysia would inevitably be greatly amplified. Investment Were Malaysia's trading partners to increase investment by 100 percent, the effects on Malaysia would be much milder, compared with the case analyzed previously. Even if investment increased in China, the most affected subsector in Malaysia-- textiles--would experience only an 8.2 percent decline in exports. The machinery and metal subsectors would suffer from falling exports if investment in Singapore or Thailand increased by 100 percent. An increase in investment in Singapore or Thailand would lead to a decline of 4.6 percent or 2.4 percent, respectively, in the output of the machinery subsector and of 3.9 percent or 2.1 percent, respectively, in the metals subsector. If all countries were to raise their investments simultaneously, Malaysia's exports of oilseeds, textiles, and metal products would decline, whereas Malaysia would see an increase in the production of chemicals, electronic components, automotive parts, paper products, wearing apparel, and wood products. In gen- eral, the effect on employment would be muted because of the smaller magnitude of effects on exports. Quality Improvement When other countries raise the quality of their products (measured by a 100 percent increase in the unit price of a commodity), the outcome is favorable for Malaysia. As with changes in productivity, quality enhancement by China has the greatest effect on exports from Malaysia because Malaysian producers can then expand their share of the lower-quality product where they have an established advantage. In this sce- nario, Malaysia's textile exports would increase by 132 percent, followed by wearing apparel, with a 94 percent increase. The magnitudes of the positive effects from other countries would be smaller. However, if all the countries (except Malaysia) were to improve product quality because of a shift in industrial technological thresholds at the same time, the con- sequences for Malaysia would be substantially negative, especially in the electronic Can the Tigers Grow Fast and Furious Again? 201 equipment and machinery subsectors. If all countries (including Malaysia) were to see quality improvements, Malaysia's exports would decline substantially across the board (relative prices with respect to others do not change). This finding sug- gests that Malaysia cannot compete on the basis of low cost (because the quality improvements are measured by changes in unit prices). Overall, the GTAP simulations indicate that even if world trade revives fully, Malaysia would have difficulty resuming export-led growth momentum on the basis of price competitiveness alone.3 The other Southeast Asian countries con- front a very similar predicament, though perhaps less acutely than Malaysia because their per capita GDPs are lower.4 Furthermore, depending on the assumed changes, some Malaysian firms could shift their focus partially to the domestic market from export markets. Although doing so might increase employment, the gains would be short term until the small domestic market became saturated. The growth performance of China--and to a lesser extent India--will benefit Malaysia's exports of agricultural and resource-based goods. But unless Malaysia can make its high-tech industry more competitive through investments in human and physical capital, its exports of electronics and machinery will be negatively affected, in terms of both the quantity exported and the prices for these goods (Ianchovichina, Ivanic, and Martin 2009).5 The GTAP models are useful because they embrace interaction and feedback effects among countries and offer suggestive numerical estimates. The model simulation available for Malaysia reinforces the message of the study: to sustain its exports, Malaysia will need to enhance its competitiveness by investing in the latest vintages of equipment, by taking measures to raise its productivity, and by building its innovation capacity. 3 While the simulations presented here assume 100 percent changes, the qualitative results are not altered if 25 percent and 50 percent changes are used. The magnitude of the effect changes proportionally to the size of the shock. 4 Some countries in the Greater Mekong region might be able to promote their trade through investment in transport infrastructure and in trade facilitation policies, which reduce transaction costs (Stone and Strutt 2009). 5 In addition, improvements in logistics efficiency will benefit the primary and resource- based exports (Ianchovichina, Ivanic, and Martin 2009). 9 What Can the Tigers Do? Policy makers in Malaysia and elsewhere in Southeast Asia have been conscious of the need to accelerate technology development from at least the mid-1990s, when export growth of some standardized manufactures slowed and alarm bells began ringing throughout the region. From then onward, Malaysia and Thailand, in par- ticular, have begun introducing a wide spectrum of incentives (a) to encourage research and development (R&D) and technology acquisition by firms; (b) to pro- mote the acquisition and upgrading of labor skills; (c) to facilitate the entry of new firms that could be the conduits for innovation; (d) to encourage multina- tional corporations (MNCs) to transfer technology and increase domestic sourc- ing of inputs; (e) to expand research in public institutions; (f) to increase the sup- ply of science, technology, engineering, and math skills from universities; (g) to raise the quantum of research done in universities; and (h) to multiply links between universities and the business sector. Malaysia also began attempting to attract Malaysian knowledge workers who had gone overseas to return to their home country. Some of the policy measures, fiscal or otherwise, are listed in tables 9.1 and 9.2. Suffice it to say, they are broad ranging and comparable in scope to those of other leading economies in East Asia (see appendix E for policies adopted by the Chinese government and appendix F for Thailand). Undoubtedly, there is room to coordi- nate the fiscal incentives among agencies and to make it easier for firms to access incentives, to improve the business climate by diminishing transaction costs, and to raise the standards of teaching and research in tertiary institutions. The current incentives in each of these areas have been described in recent reports by the World Bank (2005b, 2006a, 2007c), and ways to strengthen them have been proposed in some detail. It almost goes without saying that the development of a knowledge economy with significant innovation capabilities is inseparable from an increase in 203 204 Table 9.1 Malaysia's Incentive Policies Policy Agency or program Objective Year Outcome Business climate and Malaysian Business Council, To facilitate information exchange, 1993 The policy led to various initiatives to improve technological Malaysian Technology business incubation, and investment the quantity and quality of R&D. development Development Corporation, and management Malaysia Industry Government High Technology Council Human Resource Human Resource Development To provide incentives for employers 1993 By 1997, the fund dispersed RM 99 million to Development Act Council, which was formed to to upgrade the capacities and train 533,227 people. (1992) control the grants for training capabilities of their employees At the end of 2002, the total number of under the Human Resource employers registered was 8,172, of which Development Fund 5,797 were in manufacturing and 2,375 in services. Between 1993 and 2002, electronics components, electrical machinery, and apparatus appliances and supplies producers were the largest group of industries. Between 1995 and 2002, hotel, freight, and computer were the top 3 industries in the services sector. In 2006, 608,962 employees were trained, involving financial assistance amounting to RM 2.89 billion. A total of 130,725 employees were trained in the areas of productivity and quality. Higher education: National Higher Education Fund To offer subsidized loans to help 1997 Between 1997 and 2005, about RM 15.1 billion student support Corporation students meet the high tuition fees was committed to almost 800,000 students. mechanisms charged by the newly established private higher education institutions Tertiary education: National Accreditation Board To help Malaysian firms seek strategic 1997 Public research institutes, such as the quality assurance and Quality Assurance technology from foreign sources and Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Stimulation of skills- Division, Technology to fund R&D in Malaysian R&D Systems (MIMOS) and the Standards and upgrading, Acquisition Fund and institutions Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia technology Intensification of Research in (SIRIM), promote basic and early-stage R&D acquisition, and R&D Priority Areas in budding technology sectors and supply development assistance to local firms. Technology transfer Vendor Development Program To offer incentives to more 1993 technologically advanced firms, usually foreign MNCs, to provide local companies with guaranteed contracts and a free interchange of engineers and product specifications Domestic investment Small and Medium Industry To coordinate all incentives and 1995 The policy provides a 50% training grant to Development Corporation assistance for the technological small and medium-size enterprises that send development of local firms their employees to courses. Twenty-two training providers were appointed to undertake the Skills Upgrading Program for small and medium-size enterprises. Upgrade technology: Multimedia Development To improve technological competitiveness 1996­97 A venture capital fund and the Multimedia Third Industrial Corporation and Multimedia by shifting focus toward higher-value- University were established. More than 1,100 Master Plan Super Corridor added activities, including efforts to firms were located in the Multimedia Super promote and support industrial clusters Corridor. Second Science and Industry R&D Grant Scheme, To encourage firms to adapt and create 2003 Thirteen initiatives in human resource Technology Policy Commercialization of R&D new technologies development were established. They aim to (STEP2) Fund Multimedia Super To promote the commercialization of increase national R&D spending to at least Corridor R&D Grant Scheme, R&D results 1.5% of gross domestic product by 2010. and Demonstrator Application To promote the development of R&D Grant Scheme clusters among Multimedia Super Corridor­status companies with at least 30% Malaysian equity To encourage diffusion of information and communication technology into the community Liberalization of Ministry of International Trade To achieve faster recovery from the 1998­2003 The program allowed 100% foreign equity manufacturing and Industry crisis ownership in the manufacturing sector for foreign direct new and expansion or diversification projects investment (Tham that applied by December 31, 2003 (except 2004) projects in metal stamping, metal fabrication, wire harnessing, printing, paper and plastic packing, plastic injection molded components, and steel service centers). It 205 also removed export conditions. Source: Data provided by the Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. 206 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 9.2 List of Major Investment Incentives Available for the Manufacturing Sector Tax incentive Description Pioneer status Income of high-tech companies and companies in an approved industrial linkages scheme is exempt for 5 years. Thereafter, a 30% corporate income tax rate applies. In Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan, and the designated Eastern Corridor of Peninsular Malaysia, the rate is 15%. Investment tax allowance An allowance is granted of 60% (80% for Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan, and the (ITA) designated Eastern Corridor of Peninsular Malaysia) of qualifying capital expenditure incurred during the first 5 years. The allowance can be used to offset 70% (85% for Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan, and the designated Eastern Corridor of Peninsular Malaysia and 100% for high-technology companies) of statutory income in the year of assessment. Any unused allowance can be carried forward to the following year until the amount has been used up. For companies specializing in R&D activities, an allowance is granted of 100% for R&D, contract R&D, and technical or vocational training companies (50% for in-house R&D companies) with respect to qualifying capital expenditures incurred during the first 10 years. The allowance can be used to offset 70% of statutory income in the year of assessment. Any unused allowance can be carried forward to the following year until the amount has been used up. Reinvestment allowance An allowance is granted of 60% of capital expenditure incurred by (RA) companies. The allowance can be used to offset 70% (100% for Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan, and the designated Eastern Corridor of Peninsular Malaysia and companies that can improve significantly in productivity) of statutory income in the year of assessment. The allowance is given for a period of 5 years beginning from the year in which the first reinvestment is made. After expiry of RA, companies producing promoted products or engaging in promoted activities are eligible for an accelerated capital allowance on capital expenditure by which 40% of the initial rate and 20% of the annual rate will enable capital write-off within 3 years. Incentives for industrial Incentives are given to the manufacturing sector for reorganization, adjustment reconstruction, or amalgamation within the same sector; enhancement of industrial self-sufficiency; improved industrial technology, increased productivity, and enhancement of efficient use of personnel and resources. Incentives to strengthen the Tax deductions are provided for expenditure incurred for employee training Industrial Linkages and product development. Scheme, incentives for Pioneer status or ITA status is granted for 5 years, with an exemption of large companies, and 100% exemption of statutory income. incentives for vendors Incentives for export Incentives grant a double deduction for promotion of exports, a double deduction on freight charges, and a double deduction on export credit insurance premiums. A tax exemption applies to the value of increased exports, and an industrial building allowance and export credit- refinancing scheme are available. Incentives for promoting A double deduction is granted for expenditure on local advertisements. Malaysian brand names Provisional fees are paid to companies promoting Malaysian brand names. What Can the Tigers Do? 207 Table 9.2 (continued) Tax incentive Description Training incentive on A single deduction is allowed for training expenses incurred before the preemployment training: commencement of business. double deductions for Double deductions are allowed on expenses incurred for employee training expenses incurred on at approved training institutions. approved training under the Human Resources Development Fund Infrastructure allowance Companies that are engaged in the manufacturing or commercial sector in East Malaysia and the Eastern Corridor that incur expenses on qualifying capital infrastructure are given an infrastructure allowance of 100%. The allowance can be used to offset 85% of statutory income in the year of assessment. Any unused allowance can be carried forward to the following year until the amount has been used up. Incentives for research Companies are eligible for pioneer status with a full income tax exemption at and development the statutory level for 5 years or for an ITA of 100% on qualifying capital contracts expenditure within 10 years. The ITA can be used to offset 70% of the statutory income in the year of assessment. Companies are eligible to apply for an ITA of 100% on qualifying capital expenditure incurred within 10 years. The ITA can be used to offset 70% of the statutory income in the year of assessment. Companies are eligible to apply for an ITA of 50% on qualifying capital expenditure within 10 years. Source: Adapted from Tham 2004. the quality and volume of technical skills.1 The World Bank's (2005b) report on the investment climate in 2002 and on firms' competitiveness in Malaysia identified a shortage of skilled labor2 and regulatory burdens, such as the difficulty in hiring for- eign workers, uncertainties arising from complex bureaucratic procedures related to obtaining licenses, and inefficiencies in business support services, as impediments to doing business. Preliminary findings from the second survey of the investment cli- mate in 2008 indicated that skill shortages were less acute and, more surprisingly, that production was becoming less skill intensive.3 Nevertheless, in the interests of 1 See "Capturing Talent" (2007) and Guarini, Molini, and Rabellotti (2006) on parallel efforts by the Republic of Korea to raise labor productivity. 2 The survey revealed that 50 percent and 80 percent of firms had vacancies for professional and skilled production workers, respectively, and it typically took them more than six weeks to fill such vacancies. In addition, a 25 percent wage premium is paid to college graduates relative to high school graduates, suggesting that the supply of skills is far short of the demand (Udomsaph and Zeufack 2006).The survey for 2008 pointed to a significant easing of labor market pressures. 3 This development, which can be ascribed to the increased capital intensity of production and the adaptation of production technologies to long-standing skill shortages, may constrain the productivity growth of Malaysian industry. Some see the evolution of tech- nology being influenced more by factors and skills in industrializing countries as more production shifts to these economies. Kim and Shafi'i (2009) found that deteriorating technical efficiency, which is highly dependent on the skills and quality of labor, is a con- tributing factor to slowing total factor productivity growth in Malaysia. 208 Tiger Economies Under Threat building a knowledge economy that enlarges the scope for innovation, there is no alternative to increasing the supply of graduates with tertiary education. This effort must go hand in hand with better instruction that raises students' proficiency in English and their communication, team-working, and information technology (IT) skills. Scaling up the skills development institutes of the caliber of the Penang Skills Development Centre and simplifying the process of applications and approval from human resource development funds would strengthen the national innovation system by promoting collaboration between firms and institutions. A favorable environment of incentives and a clearer definition and enforcement of intellectual property rights would be valuable complements. To raise the quality of higher education, Malaysia must increase the efficiency of the public resources invested in universities and the accountability for this spending (World Bank 2007c). Concurrent with funding research competitively and selectively, providing better career prospects and higher salaries for potential students would also attract greater private resources from the citizens (and firms). For instance, innovation within the university system could be promoted by establishing professionally managed technology commercialization offices housed in selected universities, by developing technology broker programs, and by involv- ing universities in regional development efforts. Eliminating tax holidays such as the pioneer status, reducing corporate income taxes, and maintaining investment- related allowances would strengthen fiscal incentives in favor of R&D and innova- tion (World Bank 2006a). However, the fiscal implications of such changes would need to be evaluated, and the effects of policies on FDI, for example, would have to be tracked to determine whether outcomes conform to expectations. From this analysis of development in Malaysia and its neighbors, as well as from the experience of small, innovative, and successful economies--Finland; Israel; Switzerland; and Taiwan, China--a number of policy options emerge.4 Small economies in the middle- and higher-income categories need to special- ize in a limited number of tradable products and services, which will deepen their comparative advantages in these areas, while always remaining on the lookout for opportunities to diversify into profitable new niches, most of which are likely to be offshoots of their current mix of products and services. Steadily augmenting comparative advantage in chosen areas and then leveraging the acquired capabili- ties to diversify, as the opportunities arise, into neighboring subfields would appear to be the optimal strategy (Hayes and Pisano 1994) and one favored by entrepreneurs, who typically start firms in industries with which they are familiar.5 4 See Routti (2003) for a summary of Finland's knowledge economy development strategy; Kim (2000) on technological borrowing and knowledge economy development in Korea; and Jan and Chen (2006) on how interaction between government research institutes and firms has promoted technology development in Taiwan, China. 5 In analyzing the lackluster growth of Peru since the 1980s, Hausmann and Klinger (2008) find that the inability of Peru to diversify into more promising exports was the primary cause of economic stagnation. What Can the Tigers Do? 209 Industrial development, which is keyed to the existing comparative advantage plus a strategy for evolving this comparative advantage, is more likely to deliver favorable long-term results. Malaysia's apparent comparative advantage resides in products and services associated with electronics, agricultural biotechnology, food processing, and--possibly down the road--specialized financial services. Advantages are currently less apparent in the metallurgical, chemical, automo- tive, textile, engineering, and pulp and paper industries. The intensification of basic and applied research and of technology absorption efforts by firms, univer- sities, and research institutes in a few areas is more likely to lead to technological upgrading and innovation. Malaysia's growth strategy should focus on enhancing the potential of mid- technology, resource-based industries--in particular, wood products, food pro- cessing, and palm oil and its byproducts. Indonesia and, to a lesser extent, Thailand could also take this route. The innovation revealed comparative advantage (IRCA) can be thought of as a potential leading indicator for future exports. That is, strong innovation capabilities in one area should, over time, translate into competitive exports. Comparing the list of products in the IRCA for Malaysia and the list of products in later revealed comparative advantage (RCA) tabulations reveals that, thus far, only the innovation comparative advantage in amplifiers has led to an RCA in exports (see tables 9.3 and 9.4). In other fields, Malaysia's IRCA is not echoed in the RCA at a later date. Such disjointedness is also seen in Thailand (see tables 9.5 and 9.6). This finding suggests that the innovation capabilities remain disassociated from commercialization and exports, reinforcing concerns about the lack of focus in R&D and in the effort to commercialize innovations. Given Malaysia's strong production base in electronics and electrical engineer- ing and continuing investment by MNCs in these two subsectors, the longer-term growth prospects of this industry in Malaysia remain promising if Malaysian firms can move up the value chain through localization, design and product inno- vation, and productivity enhancement by improving process technologies. Increased R&D in both the resource-based and electronics industries plus mea- sures to facilitate entry by local entrepreneurs will be the key to future growth in per capita gross domestic product. A transfer of human and financial resources to these subsectors could be supported by measures that scale back the incentives for industries where Malaysia's comparative advantage remains uncertain after more than two decades (for example, in auto assembly and auto parts). A shakeout and restructuring of this sector would seem to be desirable, and the huge overcapacity in the auto industry arising from the global recession that commenced in 2008 might make this unavoidable. Gains in productivity and technological innovation can also be promoted by a competition law backed by policies that increase the pressure on firms to consoli- date and lower the barriers to the entry of new firms. Larger firms, on balance, are a more prolific source of incremental innovation, and they find it easier to build productive capacity and to market globally, whereas new entrants in certain industries can be a source of more radical product innovation. 210 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 9.3 Malaysia: Highest IRCA in 1995 and RCA in 2000 Class title IRCA 1995 Product name RCA 2000 Horizontally supported 105.8 Logs, meranti (light or dark red), bakau 57.36 planar surfaces Bottles and jars 93.5 Lumber, meranti red, meranti bakau, white lauan, 44.31 and so forth Geometrical instruments 45.4 Thorium ores and concentrates 40.85 Conveyors, power-driven 44.4 Palm oil or fractions simply refined 40.53 Illumination 26.9 Turntables with automatic record-changing mechanisms 39.74 Telecommunications 24.9 Palm kernel and babassu oil, fractions, simply refined 39.04 Stock material or 7.4 Cinematographic cameras for film less than 38.55 miscellaneous articles 16 millimeters wide Cinematographic cameras for film greater than 34.71 16 millimeters wide Profile projectors, not elsewhere specified 32.89 Palm nut or kernel oil cake and other solid residues 32.83 Harpsichords, keyboard stringed instruments, not 31.14 elsewhere specified Rubber gloves, other than surgical 29.52 Calculating machines, nonelectric 27.22 Glycerol (glycerin), crude and glycerol waters and lye 26.03 Rubber surgical gloves 24.44 Unglazed ceramic mosaic tiles and so forth less 24.07 than 7 centimeters wide Vulcanized rubber thread and cord 23.06 Dodecan-1-ol, hexadecan-1-ol, and octadecan-1-ol 22.63 Plywood, 1 or 2 outer ply nonconifer, not elsewhere 22.05 specified (ply less than 6 millimeters) Veneer or ply sheet, tropical woods, less than 22.03 6 millimeters thick Sources: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO); United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade). There are opportunities in services industries, such as tourism and logistics. Hospitals in Penang have sought to promote medical tourism, mainly from Indonesia and the Middle East, with a degree of success. Many countries in Asia are vying for the medical tourist, and this factor must temper expectations. Med- ical services certainly have high value, but unless local links are developed, the employment multiplier and technological spillovers are small. Competition in logistics is also likely to be fierce (depending on future trend rates of growth in long-distance trade), and in the future, the returns could be smaller, could be sub- ject to greater uncertainty, and might take longer to accrue. What Can the Tigers Do? 211 Table 9.4 Malaysia: Highest IRCA in 2000 and RCA in 2005 IRCA RCA Class title 2000 Product name 2005 Conveyors, fluid current 306.1 Logs, meranti (light or dark red), bakau 63.5 Static molds 107.1 Turntables with automatic record-changing mechanisms 55.9 Glass manufacturing 21.4 Lumber, meranti red, meranti Bakau, white Lauan, 52.5 and so forth Expanded, threaded, driven, headed, 18.8 Cameras for recording microfilm and so forth 51.6 tool-deformed, or locked-threaded fastener Solid material comminution or 17.8 Cassette players, nonrecording 41.6 disintegration Etching a substrate, processes 17.4 Palm kernel and babassu oil, fractions, simply refined 40.9 Stoves and furnaces 16.8 Thorium ores and concentrates 40.7 Chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds 16.2 Palm oil or fractions, simply refined 36.5 Oscillators 14.0 Cigars, cheroots, cigarettes, with tobacco substitute 33.5 Geometrical instruments 11.9 Rubber gloves, other than surgical 32.1 Electrical transmission or 11.5 Radio-broadcast receivers, not elsewhere specified 30.0 interconnection systems Electricity, circuit makers and 11.0 Instant print film, rolls 28.3 breakers Beds 10.6 Dodecan-1-ol, hexadecan-1-ol, and octadecan-1-ol 26.1 Dentistry 10.4 Vulcanized rubber thread and cord 25.8 Amplifiers 8.9 Stearic acid 25.6 Conveyors, power-driven 8.9 Record players without built-in loudspeaker, not 25.6 elsewhere specified Aeronautics and astronautics 8.6 Ultramarine and preparations based thereon 25.1 Data processing, generic control 8.1 Electrical control and distribution boards, greater 24.2 systems or specific applications than 1 kilovolt Communications, directive radio 7.6 Assembled battery watch movement, not elsewhere 23.8 wave systems and devices (such specified as radar, radio navigation) Surgery, light, thermal, and 7.3 Industrial fatty alcohols 23.5 electrical application Sources: USPTO; UN Comtrade. Enhancing comparative advantage in selected areas calls for concentrating public resources allocated for research in universities and research labs on a nar- rower front. Malaysia's R&D activities are scattered, and the results have been below par. This is also the case in other Southeast Asian countries. Some institu- tional changes could help strengthen and focus the research effort and increase the likelihood of findings being commercialized by small and medium-size 212 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table 9.5 Thailand: Highest IRCA in 1995 and RCA in 2000 IRCA RCA Class title 1995 Product name 2000 Combustion 43.3 Natural rubber in smoked sheets 77.24 Bleaching and dyeing; fluid 30.4 Manioc (cassava) starch 76.85 treatment and chemical modification of textiles and fibers Beds 25.0 Watch movements, complete and assembled, 74.27 not elsewhere specified Pipe joints or couplings 20.4 Natural rubber in other forms 73.66 Registers (for example, cash 13.0 Flour or meal of sago, starchy roots, or tubers 62.03 registers, calculators, devices for counting movements of devices) Dispensing (apparatus and process) 12.9 Rice flour 52.5 Refrigeration 10.5 Diamonds, industrial, unworked or simply sawn, cleave 48.53 Surgery (includes class 600) 4.5 Natural rubber latex, including prevulcanized 48.45 Shrimp and prawns, prepared or preserved 47.7 Rice, broken 47.68 Cotton yarn, less than 85% single uncombed, 46.83 less than 125 decitex, not retail Washing machines, not elsewhere specified, 43.39 capacity less than 10 kilograms, built-in dryer Record players with loudspeakers, not elsewhere 40.33 specified Pineapples, otherwise prepared or preserved 34.75 Kapok 33.33 Tuna, skipjack, bonito, prepared or preserved, 32.32 not minced Rice, semimilled or wholly milled 31.06 Ceramic troughs (agriculture), ceramic pots, and so forth 30.22 Crispbread 30.05 Thorium ores and concentrates 28.35 Sources: USPTO; UN Comtrade. enterprises (SMEs).6 Malaysia might well consider a body such as Finland's national technology agency, Tekes, which reports to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is responsible for planning, coordinating, and financing natural technology programs. It also promotes technology transfer and runs technology clinics for SMEs (Sabel and Saxenian 2008). Norway's TEFT (Technology Transfer from Research Institutes to SMEs) pro- gram is a useful model for encouraging research by SMEs, providing them with the supporting infrastructure for their research, and assisting them step by step in accessing technology suitable for their needs and customizing it for commercial 6 However, the government must be alert against providing research grants to underachieving small firms that then use those resources to survive and continue producing (Lerner 2002). Such assistance affects the profitability of more efficient firms in the subsector, aside from wasting resources. What Can the Tigers Do? 213 Table 9.6 Thailand: Highest IRCA in 2000 and RCA in 2005 IRCA RCA Class title 2000 Product name 2005 Fire extinguishers 45.2 Natural rubber in other forms 74.9 Sewing 26.8 Manioc (cassava) starch 70.1 Coating implements with material 15.6 Natural rubber latex, including prevulcanized 64.75 supply Ships 12.2 Cotton yarn, less than 85% single uncombed, 64.33 less than 125 decitex, not retail Metal fusion bonding 9.5 Natural rubber in smoked sheets 59.31 Music 9.1 Rice flour 52.26 Cleaning compositions for solid 6.6 Washing machines, not elsewhere specified, 50.45 surfaces, auxiliary compositions capacity less than 10 kilograms, built-in dryer therefor, or processes of preparing the compositions Multicellular living organisms and 6.3 Rice, broken 44.91 unmodified parts thereof and related processes Image analysis 5.5 Pineapples, otherwise prepared or preserved 40.49 Supports (for holding articles, for 5.1 Tuna, skipjack, bonito, prepared or preserved, 36.54 example) not minced Communications, electrical 2.3 Diamonds, industrial, unworked or simply 33.69 sawn, cleave Active solid-state devices (such as 1.3 Cotton sewing thread, less than 85% cotton, 32.11 transistors, solid-state diodes) not retail Semiconductor device manufacturing, 0.8 Radio receivers, external power, not 31.07 process sound reproducers Drug, bio-affecting and body-treating 0.5 Coin or disk-operated record players 26.85 compositions (includes class 514) Vulcanized rubber thread and cord 25.52 Rice, semimilled or wholly milled 25.19 Woven cotton, not elsewhere specified, 24.64 less than 85% manmade fiber, less than 200 grams, unbleached Pineapple juice, not fermented or spirited 24.5 Refrigerators, household type, including nonelectric 24.11 Engines, spark-ignition reciprocating, less than 23.87 50 cubic centimeters Sources: USPTO; UN Comtrade. purposes. The Fraunhofer institutes in Germany can be models for an important element of such a supporting infrastructure. The 58 institutes that emerged from the Fraunhofer model of 1973 employ a large number of scientists and engineers and engage mainly in contract research for private firms or public bodies. The fund- ing mechanism and the relative autonomy enjoyed by the institutes have induced an entrepreneurial approach to applied research that has helped to ignite interest among SMEs, stimulate R&D effort by industry, and underpin the research endeav- ors of firms in Germany and elsewhere. Six Fraunhofer institutes operate in the 214 Tiger Economies Under Threat United States, and three operate in Asia. By establishing a couple of satellite research institutes overseas to serve as "technology sentinels" with strong links to domestic institutions, Malaysia could open windows for smaller firms and for budding entre- preneurs. Side by side, MNCs could be induced by more stringently enforced conditions to transfer technology in priority areas to Malaysian firms.7 Such localization was more practicable in the 1980s. Now the balance of power in the Malaysian context resides with the MNCs, which can more credibly threaten to relocate their opera- tions elsewhere. The likelihood of a global redistribution of manufacturing indus- tries has increased since 2008, and Southeast Asian countries may have a harder time attracting or even holding on to foreign direct investment. Large Malaysian firms and MNCs that produce in areas where Malaysia enjoys a comparative advantage and views the strengthening of this advantage as a longer-term objective will be the standard-bearers of a more innovative economy. Much of the technology transfer associated with catch-up will be done by firms. Most of the applied research, technology, development, and commercialization will also be done by firms (with smaller firms complementing innovation by large firms in areas such as software and biotechnology). In the absence of such leader- ship by technology-oriented and internationally successful firms, Malaysia's ambi- tions with regard to growth and innovation will not be realized. Large firms will necessarily have to work in close cooperation with local research, training, finan- cial, and other institutions. Absent their initiative and the strategic ambition of Malaysian firms to become major players in the global economy, the growth strat- egy will soon run out of steam. It is the large firms that must take the lead in three other areas that are crucial to the development of technology capabilities in Malaysia. First, these firms need to create systems for improving the skills of their employees and providing attrac- tive career paths for their ablest managerial and technical personnel, so as to min- imize turnover, which is high but not critical, as it is in India, for example. The successful Japanese, Korean, and Western firms have depended not merely on their capacity to recruit qualified workers but, much more important, on longer- term, in-house personnel development; rotational and retention strategies, which enhanced the firm's human and research capital; and the capacity to engage in incremental innovation through the joint efforts of the research, production, and marketing departments. How this was and is done by firms such as Canon, General Electric, Google, HSBC, Procter & Gamble, Samsung, and Toyota is no secret. These firms prioritize innovation, recruit talented individuals, continuously add to their skills, stimulate them with challenges, and then handsomely reward their 7 Almeida and Fernandes (2008) find that MNCs are less likely to transfer their latest tech- nologies to wholly owned subsidiaries. Although most foreign companies in Malaysia are wholly owned, it is difficult to say whether their parent companies are slow to transfer innovation. What Can the Tigers Do? 215 achievements (Ready and Conger 2007). Teaching and training institutions, of course, have their roles in raising the quality of the workforce, but in today's world, if firms are to find the mix and quality of skills they need to participate effectively in the global marketplace, the responsibility rests more with the firms themselves to orchestrate and, to a significant extent, finance the training inter- nally and through the services of other providers.8 In a highly competitive envi- ronment, firms cannot afford to wait for the government to provide the skills on tap; a cooperative effort is needed, with the business sector taking the lead in both defining and helping to implement tertiary-level curricula development and edu- cation strategies, which Universiti Sains Malaysia and Multimedia University are increasingly taking to heart. A supply-side approach to high-level human resource development largely directed by the government is wasteful and clearly not yield- ing the sought-after results and is resulting in labor market mismatches. As long as the business sector adopts a passive role and does not attach the requisite impor- tance to human talent, the shortage of specialized skills and the problem of qual- ity will not go away. It is only when employers actively engage with the authorities and with the providers of tertiary-level skills and shoulder more of the decision making, as well as the financial responsibilities, that the right mix and quality of human capital will be forthcoming.9 This problem is regionwide, with other Southeast Asian countries also being pinched by shortages of skilled and technical workers with well-grounded technical and problem-solving skills. More flexible procedures to accommodate the immigration of knowledge workers may be needed to help absorb this technology (Rasiah 2008; World Bank 2008c). Second, firms need to show more initiative in seeking out appropriate technology from all possible sources worldwide and buying or licensing it. In the past 10 years, numerous IT-based companies have emerged to play the role of intermediaries between the inventors of technology and potential users. These intermediaries search for solutions and serve as matchmakers between firms and suppliers of technology. They can complement a firm's own efforts and greatly expand the menu of options. Malaysian firms are doing too little of this scouting and acquiring of technologies, as 8 A double-deduction incentive for training (DDIT) was introduced in Malaysia in the late 1980s. However, it had limited success. Between 1987 and 1993, 591 in-house training pro- grams with 3,253 trainees were approved. The Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF) replaced the DDIT for firms with 50 employees or more. The HRDF is a levy scheme. It allows firms that have contributed 1 percent of total payroll for six months to claim a portion of training expenditures. In 2000, RM 833 million was collected and RM 488 million (59 percent) was disbursed (Fleming and Søborg 2002). 9 Even in the United States, the supply response to an increase in wage premium has been small. The wage premium of U.S. college graduates increased by more than 20 percent, but the supply response was only about 1 percent after the educational background of parents and other household characteristics were controlled for (Altonji, Bharadwaj, and Lange 2008). 216 Tiger Economies Under Threat is apparent from the limited outlay for licensing and royalties. Here, the government research institutes can be more proactive in creating their own search mechanisms, as Eli Lilly did with InnoCentive; can use the existing providers of search and transfer services; or can set up their own mechanisms for provoking technical suggestions from respondents across the world on improving production processes and creating better products (see Nambisan and Sawhney 2007). Upgrading a company's human resources and stepping up efforts to borrow ideas and technologies from others are inseparable from increasing in-house research. Assimilation and adaptation of technology acquired elsewhere, reverse engineering of products, late-stage modification of technology for commercial- ization, and customization of products to suit the requirements of specific niche markets all depend on in-house capabilities of a certain level. Identifying promis- ing technologies that others have devised is difficult unless the firm knows approximately what it is looking for and how it can be mated with its own research, product development, or process technologies. Moreover, as the firm moves closer to the technology frontier, borrowing becomes less passive. It begins to require greater capacity to adapt and innovate until, eventually, firms such as Samsung and Canon must devise most of the key innovations themselves or in partnership with other firms that are also at the technological frontier. Many of Malaysia's leading firms are nowhere close to the technological frontiers in their respective fields, and acquiring innovation capability is a long, drawn-out process, especially when it comes to building research skills; a cadre of experienced project managers; links with or investment in other firms with desirable intellectual prop- erty; and a firm-level system for stimulating, producing, and marketing innova- tions. Innovative firms are not built overnight. The examples of Hyundai, Sam- sung, Sony, Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, and now China International Marine Containers, Infosys, Lenovo, Wipro, and others show how lengthy and resource intensive the process can be. No Malaysian firm--or for that matter no firm in Indonesia, the Philippines, or Thailand--has as yet embarked on the path to achieving competitiveness that is based on innovation. Until a few firms make this commitment, governments are relatively powerless, and more incentives for developing human resources will largely be futile. Malaysia's IT infrastructure needs strengthening to maximize productivity gains for manufacturing and services activities and to stimulate innovation. Upgrading the infrastructure will help increase labor productivity. It can also enhance the agglomeration economies and technological spillovers in cities. Although the costs of such upgrading are considerable, the knowledge economy of urban areas is increasingly dependent on the quality of the information and communication technology infrastructure. Achieving parity with the frontrun- ners in the East Asia region is a necessary objective for cities such as Jakarta, Indonesia; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Bangkok, Thailand. The final suggestion is arguably the archstone that anchors the others. Malaysia's knowledge economy will likely never emerge from four or five midsize cities that What Can the Tigers Do? 217 are weakly connected to one another and to the leading global knowledge centers. Currently, even the largest Malaysian urban area, which is the Kuala Lumpur­Klang Valley urban region,10 lacks the scale, heterogeneity, and innova- tion culture needed to give rise to significant agglomeration economies, to create a dense and diverse market for skilled workers, and to generate technological spillovers. Policies that support a more decentralized urban development will com- pound the problems of smallness. By spreading resources more thinly, the potential for assembling the critical masses of human capital and other factors in enabling urban settings is reduced further.11 Just as there is a need for focus in R&D, there is an equal need for focused urban development that underpins the knowledge econ- omy. Small, isolated urban-industrial islands have proved to be ineffective founda- tions for an innovative knowledge economy in Malaysia and in other countries (for example, Australia). An alternative strategy might be warranted--one that seeks to grow networked industrial clusters in urban centers that have the scale to give rise to agglomeration economies. Whether Malaysia concentrates its industrial and knowledge economy resources in one or two strategically located urban areas remains to be determined. However, a nation of 27 million people with a small stock of skilled workers will find it difficult to achieve the growth through a deep- ening of technological capabilities if it attempts to cultivate multiple urban centers in the hope of developing four or five local innovation systems that, over time, can compete with those in the most dynamic Asian and European economies. The upgrading of technology and the building of an innovation system must be coordinated with macroeconomic policies and with policies favoring the Malay majority introduced in 1970 by Tun Abdul Razak, the father of Najib Razak.12 Thus, measures that encourage productive investment and sustain commensurate rates of domestic savings are an integral part of a growth strategy, as are measures that maintain the revenue effort that backstops incentives for R&D spending by public entities and universities. Over the longer term, the experience of Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China also shows that exchange rate policy has a key role. In each of these cases, a variety of intersecting policies have contributed collec- tively to the upgrading of technology and exports, and each of these economies struggles ceaselessly to sustain a mix of policies conducive to the dynamics of industry (see also Mahadevan 2007a). 10 See Bunnell, Barter, and Morshidi (2002) on the ongoing efforts to make Kuala Lumpur into a global city. 11 The Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER) is the second of four corridors to be launched in the Ninth Plan (2006­10). The plan for the NCER spans four national plans (up to 2025), yet it has been allocated only RM 5 billion of government funding so far, and reception by the private sector is cool. In contrast, the Iskandar Development Region (the southern corridor) has attracted a large amount of private investment ("Malaysia: Northern Project" 2007). 12 King (2007) offers a similar recipe for the Philippines. 218 Tiger Economies Under Threat The partial dismantling of the pro-Malay policies announced by Prime Minis- ter Najib Razak in mid-2009 signals an awareness of the threat suspended over the Malaysian Tiger. By more than halving the equity stake allotted to ethnic Malays in most companies and by permitting foreign investors to hold a larger ownership share in finance, education, and health care organizations, the Malaysian govern- ment has demonstrated a readiness to grasp the nettle and to begin easing what some have perceived as a serious constraint on entrepreneurship, industrial change, and innovation in Malaysia (Burton 2009b). Appendix A Revealed Comparative Advantage of East Asian Economies Other than Malaysia Table A.1 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in China, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 580123 Woven weft pile cotton fabric, not elsewhere specified, 9.77 8,974 LT1 width less than 30 centimeters 610323 Men's and boys' ensembles of synthetic fibers, knit 9.37 6,020 LT1 500200 Raw silk (not thrown) 9.36 2,861 PP 670420 Wigs, false beards, eyebrows, and so forth, of human hair 9.24 7,710 LT2 610322 Men's and boys' ensembles of cotton, knit 9.21 6,020 LT1 580134 Woven warp pile fabric, manmade fibers, epingle (uncut) 9.17 12,873 MT2 580133 Woven weft pile fabric, manmade fibers, not elsewhere 9.00 12,873 MT2 specified 610423 Women's and girls' ensembles of synthetic fibers, knit 8.98 6,020 LT1 360410 Fireworks 8.87 8,501 MT2 610422 Women's and girls' ensembles of cotton, knit 8.86 6,020 LT1 Source: United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade). Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products; RCA revealed comparative advantage. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). For each product, a weighted average of the gross domestic product per capita of countries exporting that product is calculated to assign a value (PRODY) that is a proxy for quality. 219 220 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table A.2 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Indonesia, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 480710 Paper, laminated with bitumen tar or asphalt, uncoated 109.51 11,754 RB1 140210 Kapok 109.51 5,977 PP 310320 Basic slag, in packs, greater than 10 kilograms 109.50 6,023 MT2 010120 Asses, mules, and hinnies, live 109.31 16,901 PP 480521 Paper, multi-ply, each layer bleached, uncoated, not 109.29 16,642 RB1 elsewhere specified 330121 Essential oils of geranium 109.18 3,705 RB2 480230 Paper, carbonizing base, uncoated 108.73 16,642 RB1 640330 Footwear, wood base, leather uppers, no inner sole 108.54 7,765 LT1 340410 Artificial and prepared waxes, of modified lignite 106.46 17,539 MT2 920910 Metronomes, tuning forks, and pitch pipes 106.20 13,528 LT2 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Table A.3 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Japan, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 392073 Sheet or film, not cellular or reinforced cellulose acetate 16.38 20,868 MT2 284610 Cerium compounds 14.29 8,320 HT2 700490 Drawn glass in sheets, clear 12.41 7,149 RB2 911011 Complete movements of watches, unassembled or partly 12.31 11,985 MT3 assembled 845921 Numerically controlled metal-working drill machines 12.18 14,455 MT3 290612 Cyclohexanol, methylcyclohexanol, dimethylcyclohexanol 11.81 10,815 MT2 840721 Outboard motors, spark ignition 11.29 15,147 MT3 540339 Yarn of artificial filament, single, not elsewhere specified, 11.28 9,493 LT1 not retail 871140 Motorcycles, spark ignition engine of 500­800 cubic 10.79 9,110 MT1 centimeters 370199 Photographic plates, film in the flat, not elsewhere specified 10.77 24,756 MT2 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Revealed Comparative Advantage of East Asian Economies 221 Table A.4 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in the Republic of Korea, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 283719 Cyanides and cyanide oxides of metals, except sodium 18.88 9,141 RB2 890120 Tankers 15.51 14,263 MT3 845020 Household or laundry-type washing machines, capacity 14.32 15,565 MT3 greater than 10 kilograms 290244 Mixed xylene isomers 13.64 15,052 RB2 480990 Paper, copying or transfer, width greater than 13.30 22,143 RB1 36 centimeters 890590 Floating docks, special function vessels, not elsewhere 12.88 10,562 MT3 specified 890520 Floating, submersible drilling or production platform 11.87 10,562 MT3 901380 Optical devices, appliances and instruments, not 11.26 20,604 HT2 elsewhere specified 845129 Drying machines, not elsewhere specified 11.16 15,565 MT3 401310 Inner tubes of rubber for motor vehicles 10.95 10,500 RB1 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Table A.5 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in the Philippines, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 900911 Electrostatic photocopiers, direct process 341.16 17,269 HT1 481430 Wallpaper, covered one side with plaiting material 282.05 11,754 RB1 930610 Cartridges for rivet and similar tools, humane killers, and 278.46 13,133 MT3 so forth 530521 Abaca fiber, raw 265.36 3,366 RB1 283090 Sulfides of metals, not elsewhere specified, polysulfides 236.44 10,364 RB2 of metals 230650 Coconut or copra oil-cake and other solid residues 183.86 5,718 PP 151311 Coconut (copra) oil crude 179.18 3,322 RB1 741022 Foil, copper alloy, backed, thickness less than 175.39 9,728 PP 0.15 millimeters 80110 Coconuts, fresh or dried 163.72 1,727 PP 902740 Exposure meters 150.73 18,162 HT2 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. 222 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table A.6 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Singapore, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 292250 Amino-alcohol-phenols and so forth, with oxygen function 30.53 18,337 RB2 911019 Rough movements of watches 23.16 11,985 MT3 293722 Halogenated derivatives of adrenal cortical hormones, 19.95 25,207 HT2 bulk 854190 Parts of semiconductor devices and similar devices 18.73 11,030 HT1 854219 Monolithic integrated circuits, except digital 18.69 16,474 HT1 910899 Watch movements, complete and assembled, not 18.24 17,433 MT3 elsewhere specified 854290 Parts of electronic integrated circuits and so forth 16.08 11,030 HT1 840710 Aircraft engines, spark ignition 14.43 6,179 MT3 852320 Unrecorded magnetic disks 13.80 22,263 LT2 840910 Parts for spark ignition aircraft engines 12.32 6,179 MT3 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Table A.7 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Taiwan, China, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 291523 Cobalt acetates 50.80 16,255 MT2 392072 Sheet or film, not cellular or reinforced vulcanized rubber 50.72 20,868 MT2 920920 Mechanisms for musical boxes 50.36 13,528 LT2 291534 Isobutyl acetate 47.94 16,255 MT2 920993 Parts of and accessories for musical instruments 46.26 13,528 LT2 800510 Tin foil (thickness less than 0.2 millimeter) 45.50 7,639 PP 482319 Gummed or adhesive paper, in strips or rolls 45.18 9,630 LT2 741600 Springs, copper 44.92 15,810 LT2 293610 Provitamins, unmixed 43.49 18,879 HT2 950360 Puzzles 42.88 14,329 LT2 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Revealed Comparative Advantage of East Asian Economies 223 Table A.8 Top 10 Commodities with Highest Revealed Comparative Advantage in Thailand, 2007 Technology Product Product name RCA PRODY classification 110814 Manioc (cassava) starch 72.49 8,693 RB2 071410 Manioc (cassava), fresh or dried 63.84 4,789 PP 511000 Yarn of coarse animal hair or of horsehair 61.82 10,260 LT1 520615 Cotton yarn, less than 85% single uncombed, less than 61.55 4,262 LT1 125 decitex, not retail 400121 Natural rubber in smoked sheets 58.94 1,169 PP 400110 Natural rubber latex, including prevulcanized 57.69 1,169 PP 400280 Mixtures of natural and synthetic rubbers 55.15 1,169 PP 400129 Natural rubber in other forms 52.71 1,169 PP 100640 Rice, broken 42.94 4,455 PP 200820 Pineapples, otherwise prepared or preserved 40.76 9,337 RB1 Source: UN Comtrade. Note: See table A.1. Appendix B Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies Table B.1 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in China, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.537294 MT3 4,765.33 Watches, watch movements, and cases 8851 0.536328 MT3 6,868.30 Television receivers, monochrome 7612 0.524965 HT1 5,388.19 Children's toys, indoor games, and so forth 8942 0.514865 LT2 3,764.92 Fabrics, woven, of continuous synthetic 6531 0.502063 MT2 5,276.61 textile materials Umbrellas, parasols, walking sticks 8994 0.498902 LT2 1,848.52 Tableware and other articles of other kinds 6665 0.488781 LT2 960.89 commonly used for domestic or toilet purposes Knitted or crocheted fabric, not elastic or 6551 0.487574 LT1 1,880.06 rubberized Optical instruments and apparatus 8710 0.483351 HT2 10,039.76 Knitted or crocheted fabrics of fibers 6552 0.482366 LT1 207.44 Fabrics, woven, containing 85% discontinuous 6532 0.479233 MT2 2,378.30 synthetic fibers Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.478158 HT1 5,142.37 adapting units Baby carriages and parts 8941 0.476559 LT2 7,898.67 Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.472699 MT3 9,061.52 Microphones, loudspeakers, amplifiers 7642 0.472566 HT1 1,301.51 Pins and needles, fittings, base metal 6993 0.469479 LT2 1,548.98 Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.468498 MT3 2,855.42 (continued) 225 226 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table B.1 (continued) Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Fish, prepared or preserved, not elsewhere 0371 0.468357 RB1 210.26 specified Batteries and accumulators and parts 7781 0.465225 HT1 2,324.80 Spectacles and spectacle frames 8842 0.464037 MT3 11,993.38 Source: Authors' calculations. Note: HT1 electronic and electrical products; HT2 other high-technology products; LT1 textiles, garments, and footwear; LT2 other low-technology products; MT1 automotive products; MT2 process industry; MT3 engineering products; PP primary products; RB1 agro-based products; RB2 other resource-based products. Technology classification is based on Lall (2000). For each product, a weighted average of the gross domestic product per capita of countries exporting that product is calculated to assign a value (PRODY) that is a proxy for quality. The final column shows the difference between PRODY and EXPY. A positive number means "upgrading" in a sense of exporting more sophisticated commodities relative to the overall export basket (see chapter 3). Table B.2 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Hong Kong, China, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Watches, watch movements, and cases 8851 0.400925 MT3 5,054.59 Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.393827 MT3 2,951.62 Television receivers, monochrome 7612 0.374227 HT1 3,574.48 Optical instruments and apparatus 8710 0.373830 HT2 8,226.05 Diodes, transistors and similar semiconductor 7763 0.362926 HT1 903.15 devices Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.348849 MT3 1,041.71 Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.348082 HT1 4,095.70 Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.340043 HT1 3,328.66 adapting units Knitted or crocheted fabric, not elastic 6551 0.339144 LT1 66.35 or rubberized Children's toys, indoor games, and so forth 8942 0.338593 LT2 1,951.21 Fabrics, woven, of continuous synthetic 6531 0.338147 MT2 3,462.90 textile materials Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.337380 HT1 3,083.83 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.336517 MT3 7,247.81 Spectacles and spectacle frames 8842 0.331844 MT3 10,179.67 Fabrics, woven, containing 85% discontinuous 6532 0.329378 MT2 564.59 synthetic fibers Umbrellas, parasols, walking sticks 8994 0.328767 LT2 34.81 Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies 227 Table B.2 (continued) Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Synthetic, reconstructed precious, and 6674 0.317434 RB2 1,707.32 semiprecious stones Gramophones and record players, electric 7631 0.313948 MT3 3,619.13 Baby carriages and parts 8941 0.308653 LT2 6,084.96 Other electric valves and tubes 7762 0.308425 HT1 5,289.06 Source: Authors' calculations. Table B.3 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in India, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Building and monumental stone, worked 6613 0.419143 RB2 1,698.40 Travel goods, handbags, briefcases 8310 0.410645 LT1 1,636.54 Cotton fabrics, woven, bleached, mercerized 6522 0.402457 LT1 836.17 Ships, boats, and other vessels for breaking up 7933 0.400409 MT3 9,051.07 Articles commonly used for domestic purposes 6974 0.396076 LT2 1,123.31 Fabrics, woven, of continuous synthetic 6531 0.393158 MT2 7,702.95 textile materials Fabrics, woven, of silk, noil, or other waste silk 6541 0.389829 LT1 684.84 Tulle, lace, embroidery, ribbons, and other 6560 0.382619 LT1 755.43 small wares Fish, dried, salted, or in brine; smoked fish 0350 0.380520 RB1 980.55 Television receivers, monochrome 7612 0.374214 HT1 7,814.53 Fabrics, woven, containing 85% discontinuous 6532 0.373227 MT2 4,804.64 synthetic fibers Iron ore agglomerates (sinters, pellets) 2816 0.370889 RB2 2,256.20 Other tires, tire cases, inner tubes 6259 0.370720 RB1 2,361.54 Carpets, rugs, and so forth of other 6596 0.370388 LT1 815.53 textile materials Yarn containing 85%, by weight, synthetic fibers 6514 0.370117 LT1 2,160.20 Yarn of regenerated fibers, not for retail 6517 0.367897 LT1 1,355.25 Carpets, carpeting, rugs, mats, and matting 6594 0.367059 LT1 1,403.99 Household appliances, decorative articles 6978 0.366912 LT2 587.08 Fish, prepared or preserved, not elsewhere 0371 0.365884 RB1 2,636.60 specified Tires, pneumatic, new, of a kind used on 6254 0.365374 RB1 1,151.28 motorcycles and bicycles Source: Authors' calculations. 228 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table B.4 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Indonesia, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Manufactured goods, not elsewhere specified 8999 0.411184 LT2 413.05 Clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted 8472 0.386699 LT1 804.88 Fish, dried, salted, or in brine; smoked fish 0350 0.382502 RB1 1,821.23 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories 8482 0.373568 LT1 875.37 Fish, prepared or preserved, not elsewhere 0371 0.373415 RB1 3,477.29 specified Macaroni, spaghetti, and similar products 483 0.371355 RB1 425.01 Jackets, blazers of textile fabrics 8424 0.370867 LT1 496.54 Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.359750 MT3 8,032.36 Suits, men's, of textile fabrics 8422 0.358835 LT1 613.93 Footwear 8510 0.356121 LT1 467.64 Mate 0742 0.349879 PP 532.95 Basketwork, wickerwork, and so forth, of plait 8997 0.348577 LT2 491.95 Registers, exercise books, notebooks 6423 0.344369 LT2 280.88 Radio broadcast receivers, portable 7622 0.344152 MT3 2,242.57 Cotton fabrics, woven, bleached, mercerized 6522 0.342755 LT1 1,676.85 Fruit otherwise prepared or preserved 0589 0.341507 RB1 2,039.54 Yarn of discontinuous synthetic fibers 6516 0.337361 LT1 13.40 Tableware and other articles of other kinds 6665 0.336282 LT2 4,227.92 commonly used for domestic or toilet purposes Travel goods, handbags, briefcases 8310 0.334792 LT1 2,477.22 Ornamental articles 8933 0.334392 LT2 2,001.72 Source: Authors' calculations. Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies 229 Table B.5 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in the Republic of Korea, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.405849 MT3 2,833.39 Optical instruments and apparatus 8710 0.390575 HT2 8,107.82 Other electric valves and tubes 7762 0.385882 HT1 5,170.83 Television receivers, monochrome 7612 0.384971 HT1 3,456.25 Diodes, transistors, and similar semiconductor 7763 0.382488 HT1 784.92 devices Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.368050 HT1 3,977.47 Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.364232 HT1 3,210.43 adapting units Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.345741 HT1 2,965.60 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.343804 MT3 923.48 Fabrics, woven, of continuous synthetic 6531 0.342729 MT2 3,344.67 textile materials Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.339193 MT3 7,129.58 Polystyrene and its copolymers 5833 0.339044 MT2 5,094.06 Polycarboxylic acids and their anhydrides 5138 0.335609 MT2 329.88 Spectacles and spectacle frames 8842 0.327402 MT3 10,061.44 Parts of and accessories for musical instruments 8989 0.325650 MT3 1,031.96 Complete digital data processing machines 7522 0.324885 HT1 1,419.11 Fabrics, woven, containing 85% discontinuous 6532 0.323884 MT2 446.36 synthetic fibers Pile and chenille fabrics, woven, of 6539 0.322503 MT2 376.28 manmade fibers Weaving, knitting machines, for preparing yarn 7245 0.320506 MT3 3,423.70 Gramophones and record players, electric 7631 0.318422 MT3 3,500.90 Source: Authors' calculations. 230 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table B.6 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Malaysia, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.271593 MT3 4,114.85 Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.269055 HT1 5,258.93 Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.268164 HT1 4,491.89 adapting units Diodes, transistors, and similar semiconductor 7763 0.265796 HT1 2,066.38 devices Gramophones and record players, electric 7631 0.263565 MT3 4,782.36 Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.261722 MT3 8,411.04 Complete digital data processing machines 7522 0.257725 HT1 2,700.57 Off-line data processing equipment 7528 0.253919 HT1 5,742.17 Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.252966 HT1 4,247.06 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.239698 MT3 2,204.94 Other electric valves and tubes 7762 0.236802 HT1 6,452.29 Radio broadcast receivers for motor vehicles 7621 0.230843 MT3 6,760.08 Polycarboxylic acids and their anhydrides 5138 0.227190 MT2 1,611.34 Polystyrene and its copolymers 5833 0.223921 MT2 6,375.52 Parts of apparatus of electrical machinery 7649 0.215535 HT1 4,492.79 Microphones, loudspeakers, amplifiers 7642 0.213478 HT1 651.03 Television picture tubes, cathode ray tubes 7761 0.210742 HT1 1,211.49 Invalid carriages, motorized or not motorized 7853 0.210714 MT1 2,489.54 Calculating machines, cash registers 7512 0.208308 HT1 4,724.50 Other electric machinery and equipment 7788 0.207180 HT1 3,416.94 Source: Authors' calculations. Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies 231 Table B.7 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in the Philippines, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Ornamental articles 8933 0.225681 LT2 866.70 Watches, watch movements, and cases 8851 0.197844 MT3 9,000.31 Fish, dried, salted, or in brine; smoked fish 0350 0.195180 RB1 686.22 Fish, prepared or preserved, not elsewhere 0371 0.192989 RB1 2,342.27 specified Piezoelectric crystals, mounted 7768 0.180778 HT1 2,597.22 Diodes, transistors, and similar semiconductor 7763 0.179294 HT1 4,848.87 devices Travel goods, handbags, briefcases 8310 0.176165 LT1 1,342.20 Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.175305 HT1 8,041.42 Fruit otherwise prepared or preserved 0589 0.172487 RB1 904.52 Statuettes and other ornaments 6666 0.172140 LT2 667.24 Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.171251 HT1 7,274.38 adapting units Radio broadcast receivers, portable 7622 0.166526 MT3 1,107.55 Candles, matches, pyrophoric alloys 8993 0.166280 LT2 4.96 Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.164980 HT1 7,029.55 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Insulated, electric wire, cable, bars, strip 7731 0.164480 MT3 126.47 Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.163965 MT3 6,897.34 Television receivers, monochrome 7612 0.163015 HT1 7,520.20 Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.162871 MT3 4,987.43 Small wares and toilet articles, feather dusters 8998 0.156259 LT2 1,130.93 Resistors, fixed or variable, and parts 7723 0.155931 MT3 226.79 Source: Authors' calculations. 232 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table B.8 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Singapore, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.297282 HT1 2,775.61 Off-line data processing equipment 7528 0.287881 HT1 3,258.85 Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.275051 HT1 1,763.74 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.270839 HT1 2,008.57 adapting units Complete digital data processing machines 7522 0.261141 HT1 217.25 Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.256255 MT3 5,927.72 Complete digital central processing units 7523 0.246098 HT1 5,720.41 Other electric valves and tubes 7762 0.244655 HT1 3,968.97 Epoxide resins 5826 0.240356 MT2 5,873.32 Chemical products and flashlight materials 8821 0.234901 MT2 12,079.51 Sulfonamides, sultones, and sultams 5157 0.233908 RB2 9,322.61 Mixtures of 2 or more odoriferous substances 5514 0.233411 RB2 159.37 Gramophones and record players, electric 7631 0.232442 MT3 2,299.04 Ethers, alcohol peroxides, ether peroxides 5161 0.232272 RB2 2,078.54 Calculating machines, cash registers 7512 0.229154 HT1 2,241.18 Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7591 0.228881 HT1 6,634.51 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Polystyrene and its copolymers 5833 0.228100 MT2 3,892.20 Orthopedic appliances, surgical belts 8996 0.227525 LT2 5,368.51 Gramophone records and similar sound recordings 8983 0.227294 LT2 8,565.07 Heterocyclic compounds; nucleic acid 5156 0.226730 RB2 11,877.89 Source: Authors' calculations. Product Space Analysis for Southeast Asian Economies 233 Table B.9 Top 20 Upscale Commodities with Highest Density in Thailand, 2000­04 Technology Product name Product Density classification PRODY ­ EXPY Piezoelectric crystals, mounted 7768 0.395952 HT1 856.58 Peripheral units, including control and 7525 0.385531 HT1 5,533.74 adapting units Other sound recorders and reproducers 7638 0.383195 MT3 5,156.70 Other radio broadcast receivers 7628 0.382146 MT3 9,452.89 Gramophones and record players, electric 7631 0.380857 MT3 5,824.21 Diodes, transistors, and similar semiconductor 7763 0.380165 HT1 3,108.23 devices Printed circuits and parts thereof 7722 0.378205 MT3 3,246.79 Watches, watch movements, and cases 8851 0.376449 MT3 7,259.67 Fish, prepared or preserved, not elsewhere 0371 0.373926 RB1 601.63 specified Electronic microcircuits 7764 0.371953 HT1 6,300.78 Fabrics, woven, of continuous synthetic textile 6531 0.367298 MT2 5,667.98 materials Radio broadcast receivers for motor vehicles 7621 0.366241 MT3 7,801.93 Tableware and other articles of other kinds 6665 0.364880 LT2 1,352.26 commonly used for domestic or toilet purposes Parts of and accessories suitable for office 7599 0.362466 HT1 5,288.91 machines and automatic data processing machines and units Invalid carriages, motorized or not motorized 7853 0.360321 MT1 3,531.39 Clocks, clock movements, and parts 8852 0.356258 MT3 1,811.48 Polystyrene and its copolymers 5833 0.354389 MT2 7,417.37 Fabrics, woven, containing 85% discontinuous 6532 0.354364 MT2 2,769.67 synthetic fibers Yarn containing 85%, by weight, synthetic fibers 6514 0.353579 LT1 125.23 Parts of apparatus of electrical machinery 7649 0.351069 HT1 5,534.64 Source: Authors' calculations. Appendix C Research and Development Spending by Private Firms in Malaysia Table C.1 Breakdown of Private Research and Development Spending Industry Amount (RM) Agriculture, hunting, and related service activities 51,118,422 Forestry, logging, and related service activities 892,870 Fishing, operation of fish hatcheries and fish farms, and service activities incidental 0 to fishing Mining of coal and lignite; extraction of peat 2,792,577 Extraction of crude oil and natural gas; service activities incidental to crude oil and natural 150,467,659 gas extraction excluding surveying Mining of uranium and thorium ores 0 Mining of metal ores 0 Other mining and quarrying 0 Manufacturing of food products and beverages 8,729,775 Manufacture of tobacco products 0 Manufacturing of textiles 591,178 Manufacturing of wearing apparel; dressing and dyeing of fur 1,142,935 Tanning and dressing of leather; manufacture of luggage, handbags, saddlery, harnesses, 178,562 and footwear Manufacture of wood and products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of 611,994 articles of straw and plaiting materials Manufacture of paper and paper products 1,302,117 Publishing, printing, and reproduction of recorded media 0 Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear fuel 5,963,724 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products 34,294,038 Manufacture of rubber and plastic products 46,733,380 Manufacture of other nonmetallic mineral products 2,673,822 Manufacture of basic metals 2,119,897 Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment 3,259,995 Manufacture of machinery and equipment, not elsewhere classified 13,963,658 Manufacture of office, accounting, and computing machinery 414,450,260 (continued) 235 Table C.1 (continued) Industry Amount (RM) Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus, not elsewhere classified 117,765,109 Manufacture of radio, television, and communication equipment and apparatus 396,344,262 Manufacture of medical and precision optical instruments, watches, and clocks 7,255,023 Manufacture of motor vehicle, trailers, and semitrailers 646,281,449 Manufacture of other transport equipment 9,884,873 Manufacture of furniture; manufacturing not elsewhere classified 168,000 Recycling 641,290 Electricity, gas, steam, and hot water supply 0 Collection, purification, and distribution of water 0 Construction 1,830,237 Sale, maintenance, and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles 0 Wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles 1,155,745 Retail trade, except motor vehicles and motorcycles; repair of personal and 0 household goods Hotels and restaurants 0 Land transport; transport via pipelines 0 Water transport 0 Air transport 729,081 Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; activities of travel agencies 0 Post and telecommunications 52,173,738 Finance, except insurance and pension funding 0 Insurance and pension funding, except compulsory social security 0 Activities auxiliary to finance 0 Real estate activities 0 Renting of machinery and equipment without operator and renting of personal and 173,857 household goods Computer and related activities 18,017,399 Research and development 22,516,239 Other business activities 1,420,564 Public administration and defense; compulsory social security 2,223,200 Education 5,936,747 Health and social work 6,896,747 Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation and similar activities 137,809 Activities of membership organizations, not elsewhere classified 0 Recreational, cultural, and sporting activities 0 Other service activities 713,099 Private households with employed persons 0 Extraterritorial organizations and bodies 0 Total 2,033,551,331 Source: Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia. Appendix D Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage Table D.1 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in China, 2007 Class Class title Index value 71 Chemistry: fertilizers 18.5 279 Chucks or sockets 18.0 104 Railways 9.9 450 Foundation garments 9.5 335 Electricity: magnetically operated switches, magnets, and electromagnets 8.0 377 Electrical pulse counters, pulse dividers, or shift registers: circuits and systems 7.5 38 Textiles: ironing or smoothing 7.5 720 Dynamic optical information storage or retrieval 7.0 361 Electricity: electrical systems and devices 6.8 439 Electrical connectors 6.7 Source: U.S. Patent and Trade Office (USPTO). Table D.2 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in India, 2007 Class Class title Index value 71 Chemistry: fertilizers 26.2 1 Classification undetermined 18.0 246 Railway switches and signals 11.1 504 Plant protecting and regulating compositions 10.7 377 Electrical pulse counters, pulse dividers, or shift registers: circuits and systems 10.7 293 Vehicle fenders 9.6 532 Organic compounds (includes classes 532 to 570) 7.1 326 Electronic digital logic circuitry 7.0 28 Textiles: manufacturing 6.9 708 Arithmetic processing and calculating (electrical computers) 6.2 Source: USPTO. 237 238 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table D.3 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Indonesia, 2007 Class Class title Index value 95 Gas separation: processes 192.99 84 Music 84.11 166 Wells (shafts or deep borings in the earth, for example, for oil and gas) 41.78 29 Metal working 25.23 128 Surgery (includes class 600) 19.83 Source: USPTO. Table D.4 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in the Philippines, 2007 Class Class title Index value 228 Metal fusion bonding 57.82 363 Electric power conversion systems 51.07 101 Printing 38.55 257 Active solid-state devices (for example, transistors, solid-state diodes) 9.16 324 Electricity: measuring and testing 8.67 606 Surgery (instruments) 7.95 235 Registers (for example, cash registers, calculators, devices for counting 7.68 movements of devices) 701 Data processing: vehicles, navigation, and relative location 6.95 438 Semiconductor device manufacturing: process 5.26 439 Electrical connectors 4.06 250 Radiant energy 3.93 424 Drug, bio-affecting, and body-treating compositions (includes class 514) 1.56 Source: USPTO. Index of Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage 239 Table D.5 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Singapore, 2007 Class Class title Index value 228 Metal fusion bonding 20.6 105 Railway rolling stock 9.3 232 Deposit and collection receptacles 7.7 271 Sheet feeding or delivering 7.4 451 Abrading 7.0 330 Amplifiers 5.5 294 Handling: hand and hoist-line implements 5.4 257 Active solid-state devices (for example, transistors, solid-state diodes) 5.2 708 Arithmetic processing and calculating (electrical computers) 5.1 438 Semiconductor device manufacturing: process 5.1 Source: USPTO Table D.6 Innovation Revealed Comparative Advantage: Top 10 Technology Classes in Thailand, 2007 Class Class title Index value 281 Books, strips, and leaves 1,787.3 363 Electric power conversion systems 46.4 379 Telephonic communications 15.9 399 Electrophotography 11.5 29 Metal working 11.5 361 Electricity: electrical systems and devices 7.6 250 Radiant energy 7.2 382 Image analysis 6.7 455 Telecommunications 4.1 438 Semiconductor device manufacturing: process 3.2 424 Drug, bio-affecting, and body-treating compositions (includes class 514) 2.8 Source: USPTO. Appendix E Financial Incentives for Research and Development, Technology Development, and Innovation in Chinese Firms Table E.1 Financial Incentives for Innovation Offered in China Type Description Fiscal incentives for The Chinese government provides import tariff exemption: research and · To facilitate technological renovation and product upgrading in existing development (R&D) state-owned enterprises. In addition, targeted industries, such as those in and related activities the electronics sector, were exempted from tariffs and import-related value added tax on equipment during the 9th and 10th five-year periods. · To promote technical transfer and commercialization. Foreign individuals, firms, and R&D centers engaged in consulting activities and technical services related to technology transfer and technological development are exempt from corporate income tax. Fiscal incentives in Establishing economic zones, new and high-tech industrial zones (HTIZs), and various technology economic and technological development zones is one of the key measures development zones that the government has adopted in facilitating acquisition of new and advanced technologies, promoting technological innovation, promoting the commercialization of science and technology results, and enhancing China's industrial competitiveness. China began establishing special economic zones from the early 1980s and HTIZs from the 1990s. In 1991, China approved 21 national HTIZs, and by 2005, the total number countrywide had risen to 150, of which 53 are at the national level. These HTIZs have nursed 39,000 high-tech firms employing 4.5 million people. The total turnover of firms reached RMB 2.7 trillion in 2004, an increase of 31% over the previous year. The per capita profit was RMB 33,000, the per capita tax yield was RMB 29,000, and the per capita foreign earnings were RMB 157,320 (US$19,000). In the national HTIZs, a series of investor-friendly policies and measures have been introduced. These measures include tax reduction and exemption policies. Fiscal incentives The Chinese government offers various tax holiday schemes to different types related to income tax of firms: · Income tax: -- Foreign-invested enterprises can enjoy income tax exemption in the first 2 years after making profits and an income tax reduction (by half) in the following 3 years. -- Foreign-invested high-tech enterprises can enjoy income tax exemption in the first 2 years after making profits and an income tax reduction (by half) in the following 6 years. -- Sino-foreign joint ventures can enjoy income tax exemption in the first 2 years after making profits. -- Other firms are eligible for income tax exemption in the first 2 years from starting productive operation. (continued) 241 242 Tiger Economies Under Threat Table E.1 (continued) Type Description -- Domestic firms in HTIZs are eligible for preferential treatment but with limits in terms of types of business activities (income earned from technology transfer or activities related to technology transfer, such as technical consulting services and training). A ceiling is imposed on how much they can benefit from income tax exemption (less than RMB 300,000). -- The corporate income tax rate is set at 15% in these zones, which is much lower than the rate for companies located outside the zones. Firms whose export share is above 70% of their annual production can enjoy a further income tax reduction (10%). · Turnover tax: -- Foreign enterprises and foreign-invested enterprises are exempt from the business tax on technology transfer. · Tariff and import duties: -- Tariff and import-stage value added tax exemptions have been granted to foreign-funded enterprises for their importation of equipment and technologies that are listed in the catalogue of encouragement. · Accelerated depreciation: -- Since 1991, new and high-tech firms are granted accelerated deprecia- tion for equipment and instruments (see China's State Council Document No. 12 of 1991). Scholarships for The Chinese government has created the Overseas Study Fund to sponsor students studying in Chinese students and scholars pursuing their studies or training overseas. science and In 2004, the fund sponsored 3,630 people for advanced studies or research engineering fields in programs overseas. In line with China's development priorities, the fund China and abroad identified 7 disciplines or academic fields as its sponsorship priorities for 2004: · Telecommunications and information technology · High and new technology in agricultural science · Life science and population health · Material science and new materials · Energy and environment · Engineering science · Applied social science and subjects related to World Trade Organization issues Incentives to attract The Chunhui program has sponsored 8,000 Chinese scholars with PhDs overseas Chinese obtained overseas to return to the country to carry out short-term work. The to return to China Yangtze River Fellowship program awarded 537 overseas Chinese scholars professional appointments in Chinese universities to build curricula, teach, and conduct joint academic research. Fiscal incentives to The fiscal incentives offered under this program include the following: attract the · Since 1997, exemption from import duties and import-related value added establishment of R&D tax for imports of equipment, devices, and spare parts for R&D purposes. centers by · Since November 2004, exemption from tariffs and import-related value multinational added tax for acquiring imported new and advanced technologies. corporations Foreign-funded R&D centers receive the same fiscal benefits as foreign- funded high-tech firms and enjoy the same fiscal preferential treatments. · Since 1999, exemption from corporate income tax on revenue earned through the delivery of consulting or other technical services related to technology transfer and revenue earned from technical development activities. · A corporate income tax reduction for those R&D centers whose expendi- tures on R&D increased more than 10% annually. Source: Yusuf, Wang, and Nabeshima 2009. Appendix F Financial Incentives for Research and Development, Technology Development, and Innovation in Thai Firms 243 244 Table F.1 Support for Investments in the Development of Skills, Technology, and Innovation in Thailand Scheme Organization Objective Description Supporting measures Outcome National Science NSTDA To promote NSTDA coinvests in projects NSTDA will fund less than and Technology research and that support the national 50% of the total investment. Development development S&T policy, such as those NSTDA will be part of the Agency (NSTDA) (R&D) spending that require advanced management team in Investment Center by the private technology to create accordance with its share sector in science innovative products to of investment in the project. and technology reduce R&D risks of private NSTDA will withdraw fund- (S&T), with a firms. Projects must have ing from the project if the focus on human the potential to be project is determined to be resource devel- commercialized and have ineffective or if its funding opment, capital reasonable returns on is no longer necessary. funding, and S&T investment. Projects must management enhance value-added products that will reduce imports. Projects also must support the transfer of technology and preserve the environment. Investment Board of To stimulate and The policy supports direct Firms are exempt from R&D Development Investment provide S&T investment in the machinery import duties. Policy for incentives for following areas: Firms receive a corporate Enhancing firms to improve · Manufacture of income tax holiday for Technology and their technology pharmaceutical and 1­8 years. Innovation capabilities medical equipment · Manufacture of S&T equipment · Manufacture of aviation spare parts · Electronic designs · R&D · S&T testing services · Calibration · Human resource development Good National Innovation To provide The scheme provides soft The soft loans are issued by In 2005, 22 projects were Innovation­ Agency investment loans for start-up firms to the National Innovation supported totaling Zero-Interest opportunities for create prototype products Agency and participating B 23,650,000. The cumula- Scheme the private sector or pilot projects. financial institutions. The tive amount of support as of to innovate by maturity is less than 2005 was B 1,172,500,000. coabsorbing 3 years. The firms are risks responsible for providing collateral. Technology National Innovation To support the The scheme provides grant The private sector must In 2005, 13 projects were Capitalization Agency private sector support for distinguished provide at least 25% of the supported totaling Scheme in applying innovation projects with a total investment. Grants B 16,580,000. The cumula- knowledge to high degree of novelty. are for up to 75% of the tive amount of support as create new total investment, not to of 2005 was B 54,380,000. products or exceed B 5,000,000 per patents project. The maturity is less than 3 years. Innovation Cluster National Innovation To promote private The scheme provides grants The grant amount is for less In 2005, 6 projects were Grant Scheme Agency sector R&D for projects that promote than B 5,000,000 per proj- supported totaling clusters clusters, such as manufac- ect. The maturity is less B 9,040,000. The cumulative turing and regional clus- than 3 years. amount of support as of ters. Eligible projects range 2005 was B 80,890,000. from pilot projects to com- mercialization programs. Venture Capital National Innovation To promote The National Innovation The National Innovation Between 2004 and 2006, Scheme Agency investments in Agency and joint venture Agency must hold a 6 projects were supported industries with institutes will invest in the smaller share than the joint totaling B 39,500,000. The high potential project an amount not to venture institutes, and the cumulative amount of exceed 49% of the project's total amount of the support as of 2006 was registered capital. agency's investment may B 325,000,000. not exceed B 25,000,000. Source: World Bank 2008d. 245 246 Table F.2 Expanded Support Programs for Enhancing Technology in Industry in Thailand Scheme Organization Objective Description Supporting measures Outcome Industrial National Science To set up a The program provides Payments for experts to During 1992­2001, the Technology and Technology mechanism to technical experts who diagnose general technical program supported Assistance Development form links assist in undertaking problems are covered at 630 projects from 562 firms. Program Agency between research and development full cost. technology (R&D), provide consulting, Payments for hiring experts providers and and help solve problems at for technology development users the factory location. are covered at 50% of costs Assistance includes incurred, not to exceed · Matching local demand B 500,000. Such support is in technology with limited to 2 projects per firm external suppliers per year. · Providing in-country and overseas technology consultants to enhance levels of production and R&D · Organizing seminars in areas of technology that aim to enhance the capability of personnel in organizations · Searching for appropriate technology · Conducting quality assessments Program Directing National Science To provide funds to The program provides soft The maximum loan is Companies for and Technology the private loans for the following B 30,000,000, not to exceed Technology Development sector for R&D activities: 75% of the project's total Development Agency conducted to · Conducting R&D and cost. The interest rate is improve products commercializing the one-half of the general and production findings deposit rate in 1 year plus processes that · Improving technology or 2.25 percentage points. The are based on production processes payment period is 7 years, appropriate and products with no payments of princi- technology · Setting up or upgrading pal in the first 2 years. research labs Program Directing Department of To develop industry Forty small and medium-size Providing financial support In 2005, B 40,000,000 was Companies for Industrial throughout the enterprises were selected for 60% of consulting costs, allocated to the program. Technology Promotion value chain to join with consultants in not to exceed B 900,000. The program resulted in an Development to (production the following activities: increase in sales of Improve processes, qual- · Developing and improv- participating firms of Competitiveness ity assurance, ing production processes B 2,605,200,000. R&D in products, · Improving standards and and financial products so that they management and meet International marketing) and to Organization for promote Standardization 9000 technology standards transfers from · Enhancing capacity for universities and planning, technology research management, strategic institutes to the planning, and marketing private sector to so that firms can enhance produc- compete in international tivity at the firm markets level Consultancy Fund Department of To provide consult- Program activities are as Funds are provided for 50% of In 2006, B 16,800,000 was Industrial ing services to follows: consulting costs, not to allocated. Promotion enhance produc- · Hiring consultants to exceed B 200,000 if the tivity at the firm provide general procurement procedure is level supervision to the firms through bids and not to · Hiring consultants to exceed B 100,000 if the provide technical procurement procedure is diagnosis to the firms direct selection. · Monitoring the firms Knowledge Office of the Higher To help support The program provides funds The fund is currently being Creation Fund Education R&D investment to projects related to set up. Commission by the private knowledge creation and sector and knowledge application. government agencies 247 Source: World Bank 2008d. Table F.3 Support under the Revised Policy on Intellectual Property in Thailand 248 Scheme Organization Objective Description Supporting measures Outcome Intellectual National Science To encourage private sector The program Services involve During 1999­2005, the Property and Technology R&D and to protect Thai provides · Providing advice and program worked with the Services Development property rights services related consultations on the private sector on 46 Program Agency to property rights process of property property rights cases, to the private rights application and 55 licensing cases, and sector. property rights 31 cases dealing with commercialization trademarks and other · Helping to coordinate issues. searches for property rights information · Giving specialist advice and consultations on legal matters · Providing training and seminars on property rights issues Cooperation on National Science To coordinate cooperation A memorandum of A framework has been set up implementation and Technology among the 5 government understanding to promote cooperation in in the areas Development agencies with respect to has been signed 6 areas: of innovation Agency, National innovation creation and by the 5 govern- · Innovation creation and and intellectual Innovation intellectual property pro- ment agencies to intellectual property property Agency, tection and commercializa- demonstrate · Property rights Department of tion; to provide services in their commitment protection Business the areas of innovation, to working · Property rights commer- Development, intellectual property, and together. cialization Export Promotion Thai business promotion; to · Property rights enforce- Department, and cooperate on setting up ment Intellectual measures, procedures, and · Human resources devel- Property mechanisms for innovation opment in innovation and Department creation and intellectual intellectual property property protection and · Thai business promotion commercialization; and to sign a memorandum of understanding that allows the flow of information and the creation of openness among the agencies. Source: World Bank 2008d. References Acharya, Ram C., and Wolfgang Keller. 2007. "Technology Transfer through Imports." NBER Working Paper 13086, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Aghion, Philippe, and Peter Howitt. 2005. "Appropriate Growth Policy: A Unifying Frame- work." Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Ahlstrom, David, and Garry D. Bruton. 2006. "Venture Capital in Emerging Economies: Networks and Institutional Change." Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 30 (2): 299­320. Ahmadjian, Christina L. 2006. "Japanese Business Groups: Continuity in the Face of Change." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 29­51. New York: Oxford University Press. Almeida, Rita, and Ana Margarida Fernandes. 2008. "Openness and Technological Innova- tions in Developing Countries: Evidence from Firm-Level Surveys." Journal of Develop- ment Studies 44 (5): 701­27. Altonji, Joseph G., Prashant Bharadwaj, and Fabian Lange. 2008. "Changes in Characteristics of American Youth: Implications for Adult Outcomes." NBER Working Paper 13883, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Alvarez, Roberto. 2007. "Explaining Export Success: Firm Characteristics and Spillover Effects." World Development 35 (3): 377­93. Amiti, Mary, and Caroline Freund. 2007. "An Anatomy of China's Export Growth." Paper presented at the International Monetary Fund Conference on Global Implications of China's Trade, Investment, and Growth, Washington, DC, April 6. Amsden, Alice H. 1989. Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. New York and Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Anderson, Chris. 2006. The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More. New York: Hyperion Books. Archibugi, Daniele, and Alberto Coco. 2005. "Measuring Technological Capabilities at the Country Level: A Survey and a Menu for Choice." Research Policy 34 (2): 175­94. 249 250 References Ariffin, Norlela, and Paulo N. Figueiredo. 2004. "Internationalization of Innovation Capa- bilities: Counter-evidence from the Electronics Industry in Malaysia and Brazil." Oxford Development Studies 2 (4): 559­83. Aswicahyono, Haryo, M. Chatib Basri, and Hal Hill. 2000. "How Not to Industrialise? Indonesia's Automotive Industry." Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies 36 (1): 209­41. Atkinson, Robert D. 2007. "The Case for a National Broadband Policy." Information Tech- nology and Innovation Foundation, Washington, DC. Au, Chung-Chung, and J. Vernon Henderson. 2006a. "Are Chinese Cities Too Small?" Review of Economic Studies 73 (2): 549­76. ------. 2006b. "How Immigration Restrictions Limit Agglomeration and Productivity in China." Journal of Development Economics 80 (2): 350­88. Avnimelech, Gil, and Morris Teubal. 2006. "Creating Venture Capital Industries That Co-evolve with High Tech: Insights from an Extended Industry Life Cycle Perspective of the Israeli Experience." Research Policy 35 (10): 1477­98. Aw, Bee Yan, Mark J. Roberts, and Tor Winston. 2005. "The Complementary Role of Exports and R&D Investments as Sources of Productivity Growth." NBER Working Paper 11774, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Balisacan, Arsenio M., and Hal Hill. 2003. The Philippine Economy: Development, Policies, and Challenges. New York: Oxford University Press. Barro, Robert J., and Jong-Wee Lee. 2000. "International Data on Educational Attainment: Updates and Implications." CID Working Paper 042, Center for International Develop- ment, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Basiron, Yusof. 2005. "Biofuel: An Alternative Fuel in the Malaysian Scenario." Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Kuala Lumpur. Basiron, Yusof, N. Balu, and D. Chandramohan. 2004. "Palm Oil: The Driving Force of World Oils and Fats Economy." Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal 4 (1): 1­10. Becker, Charles M., Jeffrey G. Williamson, and Edwin S. Mills. 1992. Indian Urbanization and Economic Growth since 1960. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics and Beijing General Team of Investigation under the National Bureau of Statistics. 2005. Beijing Statistical Yearbook 2005. Beijing: China Statistics Press. Belleflamme, Paul, Pierre Picard, and Jacques-François Thisse. 2000. "An Economic Theory of Regional Clusters." Journal of Urban Economics 48 (1): 158­84. Berger, Suzanne, and Richard Lester. 1997. Made by Hong Kong. New York: Oxford University Press. Bernard, Andrew B., and J. Bradford Jensen. 1999. "Exporting and Productivity." NBER Working Paper 7135, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. ------. 2001. "Who Dies? International Trade, Market Structure, and Industrial Restruc- turing." CES Working Paper 01­04, Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Suitland, MD. Bernard, Andrew B., J. Bradford Jensen, Stephen J. Redding, and Peter K. Schott. 2007. "Firms in International Trade." Journal of Economic Perspectives 21 (3): 105­30. References 251 Bernard, Andrew B., J. Bradford Jensen, and Peter K. Schott. 2003. "Falling Trade Costs, Heterogeneous Firms, and Industry Dynamics." NBER Working Paper 9639, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Bernardo, Romeo L., and Marie-Christine G. Tang. 2008. "The Political Economy of Reform during the Ramos Administration (1992­1998)." Commission on Growth and Development Working Paper 39, World Bank, Washington, DC. Bertaud, Alain, Douglas Webster, Cai Jianming, Yang Zhenshan, and Andrew Gulbrandson. 2007. "Urban Land Use Efficiency in China: Issues and Policy Recommendations." World Bank, Washington, DC. Bettencourt, Luís M. A., José Lobo, Dirk Helbing, Christian Kühnert, and Geoffrey B. West. 2007. "Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities." Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104 (17): 7301­06. Bettencourt, Luís M. A., José Lobo, and Deborah Strumsky. 2007. "Invention in the City: Increasing Returns to Patenting as a Scaling Function of Metropolitan Size." Research Policy 36 (1): 107­20. bin Abdul Hamid, Azhar. 2009. "Palm Oil Industry in Malaysia." Presented at the Third South-South Study Visit to Singapore: Skills and Knowledge for Sustained Development in Africa, Singapore, June 24. Blalock, Garrick, and Paul Gertler. 2003. "Technology Acquisition in Indonesian Manufac- turing: The Effect of Foreign Direct Investment." Background paper prepared for the Innovative East Asia Study, World Bank, Washington, DC. Blalock, Garrick, and Francisco M. Veloso. 2007. "Imports, Productivity Growth, and Supply Chain Learning." World Development 35 (7): 1134­51. Blonigen, Bruce, and Alyson Ma. 2007. "Please Pass the Catch-Up: The Relative Perfor- mance of Chinese and Foreign Firms in Chinese Exports." NBER Working Paper 13376, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Bloom, Nicholas, Raffaella Sadun, and John Van Reenen. 2007. "Americans Do I.T. Better: U.S. Multinationals and the Productivity Miracle." CEPR Discussion Paper 6291, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. Bosworth, Barry P. 2005. "Economic Growth in Thailand: 1994­2002." World Bank, Washington, DC. Bosworth, Barry P., and Susan M. Collins. 2007. "Accounting for Growth: Comparing China and India." NBER Working Paper 12943, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Bozeman, Barry. 2000. "Technology Transfer and Public Policy: A Review of Research and Theory." Research Policy 29 (4­5): 627­55. Brenton, Paul, and Richard Newfarmer. 2007. "Watching More than the Discovery Channel: Export Cycles and Diversification in Development." Policy Research Working Paper 4302, World Bank, Washington, DC. Brenton, Paul, Richard Newfarmer, and Peter Walkenhorst. 2008. "Avenues for Export Diversification: Issues for Low-Income Countries." Commission on Growth and Development Working Paper 47, World Bank, Washington, DC. Brock, William, Ray Marshall, and Marc Tucker. 2009. "10 Steps to World-Class Schools." Washington Post, May 30. 252 References Brockmeier, Martina. 2001. "A Graphical Exposition of the GTAP Model." GTAP Technical Paper 8, Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. Brunner, Hans-Peter, and Massimiliano Cali. 2006. "The Dynamics of Manufacturing Competitiveness in South Asia: An Analysis through Export Data." Journal of Asian Economics 17 (4): 557­82. Brynjolfsson, Erik, and Lorin M. Hitt. 2003. "Computing Productivity: Firm-Level Evidence." Review of Economics and Statistics 85 (4): 793­808. Buenstorf, Guido, and Steven Klepper. 2009. "Heritage and Agglomeration: The Akron Tyre Cluster Revisited." Economic Journal 119 (537): 705­33. "Bugs in the Tank." 2008. Economist, May 2. Bunnell, Tim. 2003. Malaysia, Modernity, and the Multimedia Corridor: A Critical Geogra- phy of Intelligent Landscapes. New York: RoutledgeCurzon. Bunnell, Tim, Paul A. Barter, and Sirat Morshidi. 2002. "Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area: A Globalizing City-Region." Cities 19 (5): 357­70. Burton, John. 2009a. "Malaysia Expects Little Recovery until 2011. Financial Times, March 11. ------. 2009b. "Najib Looks to Be Radically Different." Financial Times, July 1. ------. 2009c. "Surprise $16bn Stimulus to Boost Growth." Financial Times, March 11. Butler, Rhett A. 2006. "Why Is Oil Palm Replacing Tropical Rainforests?" Mongabay.com. http://news.mongabay.com/2006/0425-oil_palm.html. ------. 2007. "The Impact of Palm Oil on the Environment." Mongabay.com. http://www.mongabay.com/borneo/borneo_oil_palm.html. Bwalya, Samuel Mulenga. 2006. "Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Spillovers: Evidence from Panel Data Analysis of Manufacturing Firms in Zambia." Journal of Development Economics 81 (2): 514­26. "Capturing Talent: Asia's Skills Shortage." 2007. Economist, August 18. Carey, John. 2009. "The Biofuel Bubble." BusinessWeek, April 27. Carlino, Gerald A., Satyajit Chatterjee, and Robert M. Hunt. 2007. "Urban Density and the Rate of Invention." Journal of Urban Economics 61 (3): 389­419. Chandra, Vandana, Jessica Boccardo, and Israel Osorio. 2007. "Export Diversification and Competitiveness in Developing Countries." World Bank, Washington, DC. Chang, Sea-Jin. 2006a. "Introduction: Business Groups in East Asia." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 1­26. New York: Oxford University Press. ------. 2006b. "Korean Business Groups: The Financial Crisis and the Restructuring of Chaebols." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 52­69. New York: Oxford University Press. Choo, Yuen May, Ma Ah Ngan, Cheah Kien Yoo, Rusnani Abdul Majid, and Andrew Yap Kian Chung. 2005. "Palm Diesel: Green and Renewable Fuel from Palm Oil." Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Kuala Lumpur. Chung, Young-Lob. 2007. South Korea in the Fast Lane. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Clerides, Sofronis K., Saul Lach, and James R. Tybout. 1998. "Is Learning by Exporting Important? Micro-dynamic Evidence from Colombia, Mexico, and Morocco." Quarterly Journal of Economics 113 (3): 903­47. References 253 Corden, W. Max. 2007. "The Asian Crisis: A Perspective after Ten Years." Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 21 (2): 1­12. "Corporate: EngTek Back on Growth Path." 2007. Edge Malaysia, December 3. Coulibaly, Souleymane, Uwe Deichmann, and Somik Lall. 2007. "Urbanization and Pro- ductivity: Evidence from Turkish Provinces over the Period 1980­2000." Policy Research Working Paper 4327, World Bank, Washington, DC. Coxhead, Ian, and Muqun Li. 2008. "Prospects for Skills-Based Export Growth in a Labour- Abundant, Resource-Rich Developing Economy." Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Stud- ies 44 (2): 209­38. Crafts, Nicholas. 2005. "Interpreting Ireland's Economic Growth." Background paper for Industrial Development Report 2005, United Nations Industrial Development Organiza- tion, Vienna. Cui, Li, and Murtaza Syed. 2007. "The Shifting Structure of China's Trade and Production." IMF Working Paper 07/214, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. Dahl, Michael S., Christian Ø. R. Pedersen, and Bent Dalum. 2005. "Entrepreneurial Founder Effects in the Growth of Regional Clusters: How Early Success Is a Key Determi- nant." DRUID Working Paper 05-18, Danish Research Unit for Industrial Dynamics, Copenhagen. Degroof, Jean-Jacques, and Edward B. Roberts. 2004. "Overcoming Weak Entrepreneurial Infrastructures for Academic Spin-Off Ventures." MIT-IPC Working paper 04-005, Industrial Performance Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. Deichmann, Uwe, Kai Kaiser, Somik Lall, and Zmarak Shalizi. 2005. "Agglomeration, Transport, and Regional Development in Indonesia." Policy Research Working Paper 3477, World Bank, Washington, DC. De Loecker, Jan. 2007. "Do Exports Generate Higher Productivity? Evidence from Slovenia." Journal of International Economics 73 (1): 69­98. DeLong, J. Bradford, and Lawrence H. Summers. 1991. "Equipment Investment and Economic Growth." Quarterly Journal of Economics 106 (2): 445­502. ------. 1993. "How Strongly Do Developing Economies Benefit from Equipment Invest- ment?" Journal of Monetary Economics 33 (2): 395­415. Department of Statistics. 2003. Labour Force Survey Report 2002. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Department of Statistics. ------. 2007. Labour Force Survey Report 2006. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Department of Statistics. Department of Trade and Industry, U.K. 2006. The 2006 R&D Scoreboard. London: Depart- ment of Trade and Industry. ------. 2007. The 2007 R&D Scoreboard. London: Department of Trade and Industry. ------. 2008. The 2008 R&D Scoreboard. London: Department of Trade and Industry. Desmet, Klaus, and Esteban Rossi-Hansberg. 2007. "Spatial Growth of Employment in `Young' Services Sector Mirroring That of Early 20th Century Manufacturing." VoxEU.org, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. http://www.voxeu.org/index. php?q=node/492. Diacon, Tyler, and Thomas H. Klier. 2003. "Where the Headquarters Are: Evidence from Large Public Companies 1990­2000." Working Paper 2003­35, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Chicago. 254 References Dick, Howard W., Vincent J. H. Houben, Thomas Lindblad, and Kian Wie Thee. 2002. The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800­2000. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Dimaranan, Betina, Elena Ianchovichina, and Will Martin. 2007. "Competing with Giants: Who Wins, Who Loses?" In Dancing with Giants: China, India, and the Global Economy, ed. L. Alan Winters and Shahid Yusuf, 67­100. Washington, DC: World Bank. Draca, Mirko, Raffaella Sadun, and John Van Reenen. 2007. "Productivity and ICTs: A Review of the Evidence." In The Oxford Handbook of Information and Communication Technologies, ed. Robin Mansell, Chrisanthi Avgerou, Danny Quah, and Roger Silver- stone, 100­47. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Duranton, Gilles. 2008. "From Cities to Productivity and Growth in Developing Coun- tries." CEPR Discussion Paper 6634, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. Dwyer, Michael. 2007. "As China Makes More Components, Asian Neighbors Lose Out." International Herald Tribune, October 23. Economist Intelligence Unit. 1996. "Country Report: Malaysia and Brunei." Economist Intelligence Unit, London. Edwards, Sebastian. 1998. "Openness, Productivity, and Growth: What Do We Really Know?" Economic Journal 108 (447): 383­98. EIA (Energy Information Administration). 2007. International Energy Outlook 2007. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy. Emmerson, Donald K. 1999. Indonesia beyond Suharto: Polity, Economy, Society, Transition. Armonk, NY: East Gate Book. "Engineering Research at UTeM." 2007. Prospect Malaysia, 70. Enright, Michael J., Edith E. Scott, and David Dodwell. 1997. The Hong Kong Advantage. Hong Kong, China: Oxford University Press. EPU (Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia). 2006. Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006­2010. Putra- jaya, Malaysia: EPU. Ernst, Dieter. 2003. "How Sustainable Are Benefits from Global Production Networks? Malaysia's Upgrading Prospects in the Electronics Industry." Economics Study Area Working Paper 57, East-West Center, Honolulu, HI. Etzkowitz, Henry. 2002. Bridging Knowledge to Commercialization: The American Way. Pur- chase, NY: Science Policy Institute, State University of New York. Fan, Peilei, and Chihiro Watanabe. 2006. "Promoting Industrial Development through Technology Policy: Lessons from Japan and China." Technology in Society 28 (3): 303­20. Feenstra, Robert C., and Gary C. Hamilton. 2006. Emergent Economies, Divergent Paths: Economic Organization and International Trade in South Korea and Taiwan. New York: Cambridge University Press. Feldman, Maryann P. 2001. "The Entrepreneurial Event Revisited: Firm Formation in a Regional Context." Industrial and Corporate Change 10 (4): 861­91. Feldman, Maryann P., and Johanna Francis. 2003. "Fortune Favours the Prepared Region: The Case of Entrepreneurship and the Capitol Region Biotech Cluster." European Planning Studies 11 (7): 765­88. Fleming, Daniel, and Henrik Søborg. 2002. "Dilemmas of a Proactive Human Resource Development Policy in Malaysia." European Journal of Development Research 14 (1): 145­70. References 255 Florida, Richard. 2002. The Rise of the Creative Class and How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, and Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books. ------. 2005a. Cities and the Creative Class. London: Routledge. ------. 2005b. The Flight of the Creative Class: The New Global Competition for Talent. New York: HarperCollins. Florida, Richard, Gary Gates, Brian Knudsen, and Kevin Stolarick. 2006. "The University and the Creative Economy." Creative Class Group, Portland, OR. Frost & Sullivan. 2005. "Shared Services and Outsourcing (SSO) and Hub Potential." Frost & Sullivan, Kuala Lumpur. Furman, Jeffrey, and Scott Stern. 2006. "Climbing Atop the Shoulders of Giants: The Impact of Institutions on Cumulative Research." NBER Working Paper 12523, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Gallagher, Kevin P., Juan Carlos Moreno-Brid, and Roberto Porzecanski. 2008. "The Dynamism of Mexican Exports: Lost in (Chinese) Translation?" World Development 36 (8): 1365­80. Gans, Joshua S., and Scott Stern. 2003. "The Product Market and the Market for `Ideas': Commercialization Strategies for Technology Entrepreneurs." Research Policy 32 (2): 333­50. Gaulier, Guillaume, Françoise Lemoine, and Deniz Ünal-Kesenci. 2007. "China's Emer- gence and the Reorganisation of Trade Flows in Asia." China Economic Review 18 (3): 209­43. Gereffi, Gary, and Miguel Korzeniewicz. 1993. Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. West Port, CT: Praeger. Glaeser, Edward L. 2007. "Entrepreneurship and the City." NBER Working Paper 13551, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. ------. 2009. "Growth: The Death and Life of Cities." In Making Cities Work: Prospects and Policies for Urban America, ed. Robert P. Inman, 22­62. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- sity Press. Gomez, Edmund Terence. 2006. "Malaysian Business Groups: The State and Capital Devel- opment in the Post-currency Crisis Period." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 119­46. New York: Oxford University Press. Gonzales, Patrick, Juan Carlos Guzmán, Lisette Partelow, Erin Pahlke, Leslie Jocelyn, David Kastberg, and Trevor Williams. 2004. Highlights from the Trends in International Mathe- matics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Gonzales, Patrick, Trevor Williams, Leslie Jocelyn, Stephen Roey, David Kastberg, and Sum- mer Brenwald. 2008. Highlights from TIMSS 2007: Mathematics and Science Achievement of U.S. Fourth- and Eighth-Grade Students in an International Context. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Gott, John. 2009. "International Trade in Services Course: Global Services Location Index." Presented at the Trade in Services Brown Bag Lunch, World Bank, Washington, DC, March 27. Graham, Edward M. 2003. Reforming Korea's Industrial Conglomerates. Washington, DC: Peterson Institute. 256 References Greenaway, David, Aruneema Mahabir, and Chris Milner. 2008. "Has China Displaced Other Asian Countries' Exports?" China Economic Review 19 (2): 152­69. Guarini, Giulio, Vasco Molini, and Roberta Rabellotti. 2006. "Is Korea Catching Up? An Analysis of the Labour Productivity Growth in South Korea." Oxford Development Stud- ies 34 (3): 323­39. Guimaraes, Roberto, and Olaf Unteroberdoerster. 2006. "What's Driving Private Invest- ment in Malaysia? Aggregate Trends and Firm-Level Evidence." IMF Working Paper 06/190, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. Haddad, Mona, and Ann Harrison. 1993. "Are There Positive Spillovers from Direct Foreign Investment? Evidence from Panel Data for Morocco." Journal of Development Economics 42 (1): 51­74. Hallward-Driemeier, Mary, Giuseppe Iarossi, and Kenneth L. Sokoloff. 2002. "Exports and Manufacturing Productivity in East Asia: A Comparative Analysis with Firm-Level Data." NBER Working Paper 8894, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Haltmaier, Jane T., Shaghil Ahmed, Brahima Coulibaly, Ross Knippenberg, Sylvain Leduc, Mario Marazzi, and Beth Anne Wilson. 2007. "The Role of China in Asia: Engine, Con- duit, or Steamroller?" International Finance Discussion Paper 904, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Washington, DC. Hanani, Alberto D. 2006. "Indonesia Business Groups: The Crisis in Progress." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 179­204. New York: Oxford University Press. Hanson, Gordon H., and Raymond Robertson. 2007. "China and the Manufacturing Exports of Other Developing Countries." University of California, San Diego; San Diego, CA. Harrigan, James, and Anthony J. Venables. 2006. "Timeliness and Agglomeration." Journal of Urban Economics 59 (2): 300­16. Haskel, Jonathan E., Sonia C. Pereira, and Matthew J. Slaughter. 2007. "Does Inward For- eign Direct Investment Boost the Productivity of Domestic Firms?" Review of Economics and Statistics 89 (3): 482­96. Hausmann, Ricardo, Jason Hwang, and Dani Rodrik. 2007. "What You Export Matters." Journal of Economic Growth 12 (1): 1­25. Hausmann, Ricardo, and Bailey Klinger. 2006. "Structural Transformation and Patterns of Comparative Advantage in the Product Space." CID Working Paper 128, Center for International Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. ------. 2008. "Growth Diagnostics in Peru." CID Working Paper 181, Center for Interna- tional Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Hayes, Robert H., and Gary P. Pisano. 1994. "Beyond World-Class: The New Manufacturing Strategy." Harvard Business Review (January­February): 77­86. Heckman, James J., and Paul A. LaFontaine. 2008. "The Declining American High School Graduation Rate: Evidence, Sources, and Consequences." NBER Reporter 1: 3­5. Henderson, J. Vernon. 2004. "Issues Concerning Urbanization in China." Prepared for the 11th Five-Year Plan of China, World Bank, Washington, DC. ------. 2005. "Urbanization and Growth." In Handbook of Economic Growth, vol. 1B, ed. Philippe Aghion and Steven N. Durlauf, 1543­91. Amsterdam: Elsevier. References 257 Henderson, Jeffrey, and Richard Phillips. 2007. "Unintended Consequences: Social Policy, State Institutions, and the `Stalling' of the Malaysian Industrialization Project." Economy and Society 36 (1): 78­102. Hill, Hal. 1996. Indonesian Economy since 1966: Southeast Asia's Emerging Giant. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Hillberry, Russell, and David Hummels. 2005. "Trade Responses to Geographic Frictions: A Decomposition Using Micro-data." NBER Working Paper 11339, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Hiratsuka, Daisuke. 2006. "Outward FDI from and Intraregional FDI in ASEAN: Trends and Drivers." Discussion Paper 77, Institute of Developing Economies, Chiba, Japan. Hobday, Mike. 1994. "Export-Led Technology Development in the Four Dragons: The Case of Electronics." Development and Change 25 (2): 333­61. Hoekman, Bernard, and Beata Smarzynska Javorcik. 2006. Global Integration and Technol- ogy Transfer. Washington, DC: World Bank. Hulten, Charles R., and Anders Isaksson. 2007. "Why Development Levels Differ: The Sources of Differential Economic Growth in a Panel of High and Low Income Countries." NBER Working Paper 13469, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Hummels, David, and Peter J. Klenow. 2005. "The Variety and Quality of a Nation's Exports." American Economic Review 95 (3): 704­23. Ianchovichina, Elena, Maros Ivanic, and Will Martin. 2009. "The Growth of China and India: Implications and Policy Reform Options for Malaysia." World Bank, Washington, DC. IEA (International Energy Agency). 2004. Biofuels for Transport: An International Perspec- tive. Paris: IEA Books. ------. 2006. "IEA Global Renewable Fact Sheet 2006." IEA, Paris. Imai, Masami. 2006. "Mixing Family Business with Politics in Thailand." Asian Economic Journal 20 (3): 241­56. Imbs, Jean, and Romain Wacziarg. 2003. "Stages of Diversification." American Economic Review 93 (1): 63­86. IMD (International Institute for Management and Development). 2003. World Competi- tiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. ------. 2004. World Competitiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. ------. 2005. World Competitiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. ------. 2006. World Competitiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. ------. 2007. World Competitiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. ------. 2008. World Competitiveness Yearbook. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD. Indergaard, Michael. 2004. Silicon Alley: The Rise and Fall of a New Media District. New York: Routledge. "Indonesia/Malaysia: Palm Oil Raises Concerns." 2008. Oxford Analytica, April 14. "International: Land Conversion Undermines Biofuels." 2008. Oxford Analytica, February 28. Jaafar, Mohd. Zamzam, Wong Hwee Kheng, and Norhayati Kamaruddin. 2003. "Greener Energy Solutions for a Sustainable Future: Issues and Challenges for Malaysia." Energy Policy 31 (11): 1061­72. 258 References Jan, Tain-Sue, and Yijen Chen. 2006. "The R&D System for Industrial Development in Taiwan." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 73 (5): 559­74. Jaumotte, Florence, and Nikola Spatafora. 2007. "Asia Rising: A Sectoral Perspective." IMF Working Paper 07/130, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. Johnson, Chalmers A. 1982. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925­1975. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Jones, Charles I. 2005. "Growth and Ideas." In Handbook of Economic Growth, vol. 1B, ed. Philippe Aghion and Steven N. Durlauf, 1064­111. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Jordaan, Jacob A. 2005. "Determinants of FDI-Induced Externalities: New Empirical Evidence for Mexican Manufacturing Industries." World Development 33 (12): 2103­18. Jorgenson, Dale W., S. Ho Mun, Jon D. Samuels, and Kevin J. Stiroh. 2007. "Industry Origins of the American Productivity Resurgence." Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Kahn, Matthew E. Forthcoming. "New Evidence on Trends in the Cost of Urban Agglomer- ation." In The Economics of Agglomeration, ed. Edward L. Glaeser. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Kang, Chul-Kyu. 2005. "Development of Competition Law in Korea and Current Issues." Presented at the Second East Asia Conference on Competition Law and Policy, Bogor, Indonesia, April 3. Kaplinsky, Raphael, and Amelia Santos Paulino. 2005. "Innovation and Competitiveness: Trends in Unit Prices in Global Trade." Oxford Development Studies 33 (3­4): 333­55. Kenney, Martin. 2008. "Lessons from the Development of Silicon Valley and Its Entrepre- neurial Support Network for Japan and Kyushu." In Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia: Serendipity and Science, ed. Shahid Yusuf, Kaoru Nabeshima, and Shoichi Yamashita, 39­66. Washington, DC: World Bank. Kenney, Martin, Kyonghee Han, and Shoko Tanaka. 2004. "Venture Capital Industries." In Global Change and East Asian Policy Initiatives, ed. Shahid Yusuf, M. Anjum Altaf, and Kaoru Nabeshima, 391­427. New York: Oxford University Press. Khalafalla, Khalid Yousif, and Alan J. Webb. 2001. "Export-Led Growth and Structural Change: Evidence from Malaysia." Applied Economics 33 (13): 1703­15. Kim, Linsu. 1997. Imitation to Innovation: The Dynamics of Korea's Technological Learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. ------. 2000. "The Dynamics of Public Policy, Corporate Strategy, and Technological Learning: Lessons from the Korean Experience." College of Business Administration, Korea University, Seoul. Kim, Sangho, and Mazlina Shafi'i. 2009. "Factor Determinants of Total Factor Productivity Growth in Malaysian Manufacturing Industries: A Decomposition Analysis." Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 23 (1): 48­65. King, Elisa B. 2007. "Making Sense of the Failure of Rapid Industrialisation in the Philippines." Technology in Society 29 (3): 295­306. Kinkyo, Takuji. 2007. "Explaining Korea's Lower Investment Levels after the Crisis." World Development 35 (7): 1120­33. Klinger, Bailey, and Daniel Lederman. 2006. "Diversification, Innovation, and Imitation off the Global Technological Frontier." Policy Research Working Paper 3872, World Bank, Washington, DC. References 259 Kodama, Fumio, and Jun Suzuki. 2007. "How Japanese Companies Have Used Scientific Advances to Restructure Their Business: The Receiver-Active National System of Inno- vation." World Development 35 (6): 976­90. Kohpaiboon, Archanun. 2006. "Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Spillover: A Cross-Industry Analysis of Thai Manufacturing." World Development 34 (3): 541­56. Krazit, Tom. 2007. "Intel R&D on Slow Boat to China." CNET News, April 16. http:// www.news.com/Intel-RD-on-slow-boat-to-China/2100-1006_3-6176204.html. Kugler, Maurice. 2006. "Spillovers from Foreign Direct Investment: Within or between Industries?" Journal of Development Economics 80 (2): 444­77. Lall, Sanjaya. 2000. "The Technological Structure and Performance of Developing Country Manufactured Exports, 1985­98." Oxford Development Studies 28 (3): 337­69. Lall, Sanjaya, John Weiss, and Jinkang Zhang. 2006. "The "Sophistication" of Exports: A New Trade Measure." World Development 34 (2): 222­37. Lall, Somik V., Zmarak Shalizi, and Uwe Deichmann. 2004. "Agglomeration Economies and Productivity in Indian Industry." American Economic Review 73 (3): 643­73. Lam, Man Kee, Kok Tat Tan, Keat Teong Lee, and Abdul Rahman Mohamed. 2009. "Malaysian Palm Oil: Surviving the Food versus Fuel Dispute for a Sustainable Future." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (6­7): 1456­64. Lawrence, Robert Z., and David E. Weinstein. 1999. "Trade and Growth: Import-Led or Export-Led? Evidence from Japan and Korea." NBER Working Paper 7264, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Lee, Cassey. 2007. "Competition Policy in Malaysia." In Competitive Advantage and Compe- tition Policy in Developing Countries, ed. Paul Cook, Raul Fabella, and Cassey Lee, 183­204. Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar. Lee, Yung Joon, and Hyoungsoo Zang. 1998. "Urbanization and Regional Productivity in Korean Manufacturing." Urban Studies 35 (11): 2085­99. Lerner, Josh. 2002. "When Bureaucrats Meet Entrepreneurs: The Design of Effective `Public Venture Capital' Programmes." Economic Journal 112 (477): F73­84. Levinsohn, James, and Amil Petrin. 1999. "When Industries Become More Productive, Do Firms?" NBER Working Paper 6893, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Lie, John. 2000. Han Unbound: The Political Economy of South Korea. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Lim, David. 1973. Economic Growth and Development in West Malaysia 1947­1970. New York: Oxford University Press. Lim, Hock-Eam, Judith Rich, and Mark N. Harris. 2008. "Employment Outcomes of Grad- uates: The Case of Universiti Utara, Malaysia." Asian Economic Journal 22 (3): 321­41. Lopez-Claros, Augusto, Michael E. Porter, Klaus Schwab, and Xavier Sala-i-Martin. 2006. The Global Competitiveness Report 2006­2007. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Lyons, Kaley, and Martin Kenney. 2007. "Report to the World Bank on the Malaysian Venture Capital Industry." World Bank, Washington, DC. Maddison, Angus. 2006. "World Population, GDP, and Per Capita GDP, 1­2003 AD." University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands. 260 References Magtibay-Ramos, Nedelyn, Gemma Estrada, and Jesus Felipe. 2008. "An Input-Out Analy- sis of the Philippine BPO Industry." Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 22 (1): 41­56. Mahadevan, Renuka. 2007a. "New Evidence on the Export-Led Growth Nexus: A Case Study of Malaysia." World Economy 30 (7): 1069­83. ------. 2007b. "Perspiration versus Inspiration: Lessons from a Rapidly Developing Econ- omy." Journal of Asian Economics 18 (2): 331­47. "Malaysia: Domestic Demand Is Key to Growth Forecasts." 2007. Oxford Analytica, September 12. "Malaysia: Najib Eases Investment Barriers." 2009. Oxford Analytica, April 28. "Malaysia: Northern Project Poses Funding Issues." 2007. Oxford Analytica, August 14. "Malaysian Carmaker Proton Keen on Foreign Tie-Ups." 2008. International Herald Tribune, August 28. Malaysian Palm Oil Council. 2008. "Malaysian Palm Oil: Industry Performance 2007." Global Oil and Fats 5 (1): 1­8. Mankower, Joel, Ron Pernick, and Clint Wilder. 2007. "Clean Energy Trends 2007." Clean Edge, San Francisco, CA. Marwah, Kanta, and Akbar Tavakoli. 2004. "The Effect of Foreign Capital and Imports on Economic Growth: Further Evidence from Four Asian Countries (1970­1998)." Journal of Asian Economics 15 (2): 399­413. Mathews, John A. 2007. "A Biofuels Manifesto: Why Biofuels Industry Creation Should Be Priority Number One for the World Bank and for Developing Countries." Presented at the Third International Conference on Environmental, Cultural, Economic, and Social Sustainability, Chennai, India, January 4­7. Mathews, John A., and Dong Sung Cho. 2000. Tiger Technology: The Creation of a Semicon- ductor Industry in East Asia. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Mazumdar, Joy. 2001. "Imported Machinery and Growth in LDCs." Journal of Development Economics 65 (1): 209­24. Meijers, Evert. 2005. "Polycentric Urban Regions and the Quest for Synergy: Is a Network of Cities More than the Sum of the Parts?" Urban Studies 42 (4): 765­81. Mellander, Charlotta, and Richard Florida. 2006. "The Creative Class or Human Capital?" CESIS Working Paper 79, Centre of Excellence for Science and Innovation Studies, Stockholm. Merkerk, Rutger O., and Douglas K. R. Robinson. 2006. "Characterizing the Emergence of a Technological Field: Expectations, Agendas, and Networks in Lab-on-a-Chip Technolo- gies." Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 18 (3­4): 411­28. Michelacci, Claudio. 2002. "Low Returns in R&D Due to the Lack of Entrepreneurial Skills." CEMFI Working Paper 0201, Centre for Monetary and Financial Studies, Madrid. MIDA (Malaysian Industrial Development Authority). 2006. "Malaysian Industrial Devel- opment Authority." MIDA, Kuala Lumpur. Midelfart-Knarvik, Karen H., Henry G. Overman, Stephen J. Redding, and Anthony J. Venables. 2000. "The Location of European Industry." European Economy: Economic Paper 142, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. References 261 Mills, Edwin S., and Charles M. Becker. 1986. Studies in Indian Urban Development. New York: Oxford University Press. Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation. 2004. Science and Technology Knowledge Productivity in Malaysia Bibliometric Study 2003. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation. Mody, Ashoka, and Kamil Yilmaz. 2002. "Imported Machinery for Export Competitive- ness." World Bank Economic Review 16 (1): 23­48. Montobbio, Fabio, and Francesco Rampa. 2005. "The Impact of Technology and Structural Change on Export Performance in Nine Developing Countries." World Development 33 (4): 527­47. Moore, Gordon, and Kevin Davis. 2004. "Learning the Silicon Valley Way." In Building High-Tech Clusters: Silicon Valley and Beyond, ed. Timothy Bresnahan and Alfonso Gambardella, 7­39. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Moretti, Enrico. 2002. "Human Capital Spillovers in Manufacturing: Evidence from Plant- Level Production Functions." NBER Working Paper 9316, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. 1994. The Technological Transformation of Japan: From the Seven- teenth to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. MPOB (Malaysian Palm Oil Board). 2007. Malaysian Oil Palm Statistics 2006. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities. Mullis, Ina V. S., Michael O. Martin, Eugenio J. Gonzalez, Kelvin D. Gregory, Robert A. Garden, Kathleen M. O'Connor, Steven J. Chrostowski, and Teresa A. Smith. 2000. TIMSS 1999 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA's Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eighth Grade. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Nabeshima, Kaoru. 2004. "Technology Transfer in East Asia: A Survey." In Global Produc- tion Networking and Technological Change in East Asia, ed. Shahid Yusuf, M. Anjum Altaf, and Kaoru Nabeshima, 395­434. New York: Oxford University Press. Nambisan, Satish, and Mohanbir Sawhney. 2007. "A Buyer's Guide to the Innovation Bazaar." Harvard Business Review (June): 109­18. Navaretti, Giorgio Barba, and Isidro Soloaga. 2001. "Weightless Machines and Costless Knowledge: An Empirical Analysis of Trade and Technology Diffusion." Policy Research Working Paper 2598, World Bank, Washington, DC. Netto, Anil. 2009. "Malaysia Wakes Up to Crisis." Asia Times, March 17. Nexus Associates. 2005. "Improving the Delivery System and Change Management of Skills Training Institutes." Nexus Associates, Belmont, MA. Ng, Thiam Hee. 2006. "Foreign Direct Investment and Productivity: Evidence from the East Asian Economies." Staff Working Paper 03/2006, United Nations Industrial Develop- ment Organization, Vienna. Nijkamp, Peter. 2003. "Entrepreneurship in a Modern Network Economy." Regional Studies 37 (4): 395­405. Noor, Halim Mohd., Roger Clarke, and Nigel Driffield. 2002. "Multinational Enterprises and Technological Effort by Local Firms: A Case Study of the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Industry." Journal of Development Studies 38 (6): 129­41. 262 References Nuttall, Chris. 2007. "Silicon Valley's Founding Fathers." Financial Times, October 31. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2006. Competitive Cities in the Global Economy. Paris: OECD. ------. 2007. Main Science and Technology Indicators 2007. Release 02. Paris: OECD. O'Mara, Margaret Pugh. 2005. Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Orlando, Michael J. 2004. "Measuring Spillovers from Industrial R&D: On the Importance of Geographic and Technological Proximity." RAND Journal of Economics 35 (4): 777­86. Overman, Henry G., Patricia Rice, and Anthony J. Venables. 2007. "Economic Linkages across Space." CEP Discussion Paper 805, Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics, London. Overman, Henry G., and Anthony J. Venables. 2005. "Cities in the Developing World." CEP Discussion Paper 0695, Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Econom- ics, London. Palmade, Vincent. 2005. "Industry Level Analysis: The Way to Identify the Binding Con- straints to Economic Growth." Policy Research Working Paper 3551, World Bank, Washington, DC. Petersburg, Ofer. 2006. "Intel's Largest Research Center Planned in Haifa." Ynetnews.com, February 26. http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3221360,00.html. Phongpaichit, Pasuk, and Chris Baker. 2002. Thailand: Economy and Politics. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. ------. 2008. Thai Capital after the 1997 Crisis. Bangkok: Silkworm Books. Pilling, David. 2009. "Fatal Flaws That Wrecked Thailand's Promise." Financial Times, April 30. Pinheiro-Machado, Rita, and P. L. Oliveira. 2004. "A Comparative Study of Patenting Activ- ity in U.S. and Brazilian Scientific Institutions." Scientometrics 61 (3): 323­38. Polsiri, Piruna, and Yupana Wiwattanakantang. 2006. "Thai Business Groups: Crisis and Restructuring." In Business Groups in East Asia, ed. Sea-Jin Chang, 147­78. New York: Oxford University Press. Porter, Michael, Klaus Schwab, and Xavier Sala-i-Martin. 2007. The Global Competitiveness Report 2007­2008. New York: Palgrave McMillan. Prahalad, C. K., and M. S. Krishnan. 2008. The New Age of Innovation: Driving Co-created Value through Global Networks. New York: McGraw-Hill. "Proton Bomb." 2004. Economist, May 6. PSDC (Penang Skills Development Centre). 2007. "Technology Roadmap for the Electrical and Electronics Industry of Penang." Penang, Malaysia: PSDC. Ramasamy, Bala, Anita Chakrabarty, and Madeleine Cheah. 2004. "Malaysia's Leap into the Future: An Evaluation of the Multimedia Super Corridor." Technovation 24 (11): 871­83. Ramasamy, Bala, and Matthew Yeung. 2007. "Malaysia: Trade Policy Review 2006." World Economy 30 (8): 1193­208. Ran, Jimmy, Jan P. Voon, and Guangzhong Li. 2007. "How Does FDI Affect China? Evidence from Industries and Provinces." Journal of Comparative Economics 35 (4): 774­99. Rasiah, Rajah. 2003. "Foreign Ownership, Technology, and Electronics Exports from Malaysia and Thailand." Journal of Asian Economics 14 (5): 785­811. References 263 ------. 2004. "Exports and Technological Capabilities: A Study of Foreign and Local Firms in the Electronics Industry in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand." European Journal of Development Research 16 (3): 587­623. ------. 2007. "The Systemic Quad: Technological Capabilities and Economic Performance of Computer and Component Firms in Penang and Johor." International Journal of Techno- logical Learing, Innovation, and Development 1 (2): 179­203. ------. 2008. "Malaysian Electric-Electronics Industry: Composition, Problems, and Recommendations." World Bank, Washington, DC. Ravenhill, John, and Richard F. Doner. 2007. "Malaysia's Automobile Industry: Confronting the Liberalization Challenge." World Bank, Washington, DC. Rawski, Evelyn. 1979. Education and Popular Literacy in Ch'ing China. Ann Arbor: Univer- sity of Michigan Press. Ready, Douglas A., and Jay A. Conger. 2007. "Make Your Company a Talent Factory." Harvard Business Review (June): 69­77. Reinhardt, Nola. 2000. "Back to Basics in Malaysia and Thailand: The Role of Resource- Based Exports in Their Export-Led Growth." World Development 28 (1): 57­77. Rice, Patricia, Anthony J. Venables, and Eleonora Patacchini. 2006. "Spatial Determinants of Productivity: Analysis for the Regions of Great Britain." Regional Science and Urban Economics 36 (6): 727­52. Roberts, Mark J., and James R. Tybout. 1997. "Producer Turnover and Productivity Growth in Developing Countries." World Bank Research Observer 12 (1): 1­18. Rosenthal, Stuart S., and William C. Strange. 2004. "Evidence on the Nature and Sources of Agglomeration Economics." In Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, vol. 4, ed. J. Vernon Henderson and Jean-François Thisse, 2119­71. Amsterdam: North-Holland. ------. Forthcoming. "Small Establishments/Big Effects: Agglomeration, Industrial Organization and Entrepreneurship," In The Economics of Agglomeration, ed. Edward L. Glaeser. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Rothkopf, Garten. 2007. "A Blueprint for Green Energy in the Americas." Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, DC. Routti, Jorma. 2003. "Research and Innovation in Finland: Transformation into a Knowl- edge Economy." Presented at the Knowledge Economy Forum II, Helsinki, March 26. Sabel, Charles F., and Annalee Saxenian. 2008. "Report on Finland." Government of Finland, Helsinki. Scharlemann, Jörn P. W., and William F. Laurance. 2008. "How Green Are Biofuels?" Science 319 (5859): 43­44. Schmitz, Hubert. 2005. Value Chain Analysis for Policy Makers and Practitioners. Geneva: International Labour Organization. Schot, Johan, and Frank W. Geels. 2007. "Niches in Evolutionary Theories of Technical Changes: A Critical Survey of the Literature." Journal of Evolutionary Economics 17 (5): 605­22. Schott, Peter K. 2001. "Do Rich and Poor Countries Specialize in a Different Mix of Goods? Evidence from Product-Level U.S. Trade Data." NBER Working Paper 8492, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. ------. 2006. "The Relative Sophistication of Chinese Exports." NBER Working Paper 12173, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. 264 References Scott, Allen J. 1998. Regions and the World Economy: The Coming Shape of Global Produc- tion, Competition, and Political Order. New York: Oxford University Press. Shapira, Philip, Jan Youtie, K. Yogeesvaran, and Zakiah Jaafar. 2006. "Knowledge Economy Measurement: Methods, Results, and Insights from the Malaysian Knowledge Content Study." Research Policy 35 (10): 1522­37. Sharma, Y. C., and B. Singh. 2009. "Development of Biodiesel: Current Scenario." Renew- able and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (6­7): 1646­51. Sjöholm, Fredrik. 1999. "Do Foreign Contacts Enable Firms to Become Exporters?" Work- ing Paper in Economics and Finance 326, Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm. Smilor, Raymond, Niall O'Donnell, Gregory Stein, and Robert Welborn. 2005. "The Research University and the Development of High Technology Centers in the U.S." Presented at the Conference on University-Industry Linkages in Metropolitan Areas in Asia, World Bank, Washington, DC, November 17. Smith, Richard D., Rupa Chanda, and Viroj Tangcharoensathien. 2009. "Trade in Health- Related Services." Lancet 373 (9663): 593­601. Soubbotina, Tatyana P. 2006. "Generic Models of Technological Learning by Developing Countries." World Bank, Washington, DC. "South Korea: FDI Key to Unlocking Services Potential." 2004. Oxford Analytica, September 7. Spence, Michael, Patricia Clarke Annez, and Robert M. Buckley, eds. 2009. Urbanization and Growth. Washington, DC: World Bank. State Government of Penang. 2001. "The Second Penang Strategic Development Plan, 2001­2010." State Government of Penang, Penang, Malaysia. Stiglitz, Joseph E. 2007. "Fifty Years of Independence: Reflections on Malaysia's Past and Future." Presented at the Khazanah Global Lectures, Kuala Lumpur, August 29. Stone, Susan, and Anna Strutt. 2009. "Transport Infrastructure and Trade Facilitation in the Greater Mekong Subregion." ADBI Working Paper 130, Asian Development Bank Institute, Tokyo. Straub, Stephane. 2007. "Infrastructure: Recent Advances and Research Challenges." World Bank, Washington, DC. Studwell, Joe. 2007. Asian Godfathers: Money and Power in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. Berkeley, CA: Atlantic Monthly Press. Sumathi, S., S. P. Chai, and A. R. Mohamed. 2008. "Utilization of Oil Palm as a Source of Renewable Energy in Malaysia." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (9): 2404­21. Takahashi, Dean. 2007. "Fairchild's Failures Led to Gigantic Successes: Pioneering Tech Firms Spawned Many Spinoffs." San Jose Mercury News, October 4. Tan, David. 2007. "Eng Teknologi Counts on China Operations." Star, October 8. ------. 2009. "High-End R&D Work Migrating to Penang." Star, March 2. Tan, Deyi, and Chetan Ahya. 2009. "Malaysia Economics: GDP Downgrade: Facing a Triple Whammy." Morgan Stanley, New York. Tan, Hong W., and Indermit S. Gill. 2000. "Malaysia," In Vocational Education & Training Reform: Matching Skills to Markets and Budgets, ed. Indermit S. Gill, Fred Fluitman, and Amit Dar, 218­60. Washington, DC: World Bank. References 265 Tham, Siew-Yean. 2004. "Investment Regime: Malaysia." Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Thursby, Jerry, and Marie Thursby. 2007. "Here or There? A Survey of Factors in Multina- tional R&D Location." Report to the Government-University-Industry Research Round- table, National Academies Press, Washington, DC. Tongzon, Jose Lelis. 2007. "Malaysia and Its Future Industrial Directions." Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea. Udomsaph, Charles C., and Albert Zeufack. 2006. "Skill Shortages and Mismatch in Malaysia and Thailand: Evidence from Linked Employer-Employee Data." World Bank, Washington, DC. UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). 2009. World Invest- ment Prospects Survey 2009­2011. Vienna: UNCTAD. Unger, Danny. 1998. Building Social Capital in Thailand: Fibers, Finance, and Infrastructure. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Venables, Anthony J., and Patricia Rice. 2005. "Spatial Determinants of Productivity: Analysis for the Regions of Great Britain." CEPR Discussion Paper 0642, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London. Vyakarnam, Shailendra. 2007. "Understanding the Cambridge Phenomenon: Importance for Enterprise Development." Presented at the World Bank, Washington, DC, July 25. Wade, Robert. 2003. Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wang, Zhi, and Shang-Jin Wei. 2007. "The Rising Sophistication of China's Exports: Assess- ing the Roles of Processing Trade, Foreign Invested Firms, Human Capital, and Govern- ment Policies." Columbia University, New York. Warr, Peter. 2007. "Long-Term Economic Performance in Thailand." ASEAN Economic Bulletin 24 (1): 138­63. Weber, Max. 2002. The Protestant Ethic and "the Spirit of Capitalism." New York: Penguin Books. Whalley, John, and Xian Xin. 2006. "China's FDI and Non-FDI Economies and the Sustain- ability of Future High Chinese Growth." NBER Working Paper 12249, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Wong, Poh-Kam. 2008. "Coping with Globalization of Production Networks and Digital Convergence: The Challenge of ICT Cluster Development in Singapore." In Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia: Serendipity and Science, ed. Shahid Yusuf, Kaoru Nabeshima, and Shoichi Yamashita, 91­146. Washington, DC: World Bank. Wong, Poh-Kam, Yii Tan Chang, and Ming Yu Cheng. 2007. "Indigenous Innovative Com- panies in Malaysia." World Bank, Washington, DC. Woo, Wing Thye, Bruce Glassburner, and Anwar Nasution. 1994. Macroeconomic Policies, Crises, and Long-Term Growth in Indonesia, 1965­1990. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank. 2005a. Doing Business in 2006. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2005b. "Malaysia: Firm Competitiveness, Investment Climate, and Growth." World Bank, Washington, DC. ------. 2006a. "Assessing the Effectiveness and Impact of Fiscal Incentives in Malaysia." World Bank, Washington, DC. 266 References ------. 2006b. Doing Business in 2007. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2007a. China's Information Revolution: Managing the Economic and Social Trans- formation. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2007b. Doing Business in 2008. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2007c. "Malaysia and the Knowledge Economy: Building a World-Class Higher Education System." World Bank, Washington, DC. ------. 2008a. "Competitive Cities in Latin America: Discussing the Role of Investment Climate, Institutions and Infrastructure." World Bank, Washington, DC. ------. 2008b. Doing Business in 2009. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2008c. Global Economic Prospects. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2008d. Towards a Knowledge Economy in Thailand. Bangkok: World Bank. ------. 2008e. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2009. World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Trade Organization. 2007. International Trade Statistics 2007. Geneva: World Trade Organization. Wright, Mike, Sarika Pruthi, and Andy Lockett. 2005. "International Venture Capital Research: From Cross-Country Comparisons to Crossing Borders." 7 (3): 135­65. Xu, Bin. 2007. "Measuring China's Export Sophistication." China Europe International Business School, Shanghai, China. Yao, Shujie, and Kailei Wei. 2007. "Economic Growth in the Presence of FDI: The Perspective of Newly Industrialising Economies." Journal of Comparative Economics 35 (1): 211­34. Yusof, Zainal Aznam, and Deepak Bhattasali. 2008. "Economic Growth and Development in Malaysia: Policy Making and Leadership." Commission on Growth and Development Working Paper 27, World Bank, Washington, DC. Yusuf, Shahid. 2007. "About Urban Mega Regions: Knowns and Unknowns." Policy Research Working Paper 4252, World Bank, Washington, DC. ------. 2008. "Can Clusters Be Made to Order?" In Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia: Serendipity and Science, ed. Shahid Yusuf, Kaoru Nabeshima, and Shoichi Yamashita, 1­38. Washington, DC: World Bank. Yusuf, Shahid, M. Anjum Altaf, Barry Eichengreen, Sudarshan Gooptu, Kaoru Nabeshima, Charles Kenny, Dwight H. Perkins, and Marc Shotten. 2003. Innovative East Asia: The Future of Growth. New York: Oxford University Press. Yusuf, Shahid, M. Anjum Altaf, and Kaoru Nabeshima, eds. 2004. Global Production Net- working and Technological Change in East Asia. New York: Oxford University Press. Yusuf, Shahid, and Kaoru Nabeshima, eds. 2007. How Universities Promote Economic Growth. Washington DC: World Bank. Yusuf, Shahid, Kaoru Nabeshima, and Dwight H. Perkins. 2005. Under New Ownership: Privatizing China's State-Owned Enterprises. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Yusuf, Shahid, Kaoru Nabeshima, and Shoichi Yamashita, eds. 2008. Growing Industrial Clusters in Asia: Serendipity and Science. Washington, DC: World Bank. References 267 Yusuf, Shahid, Shuilin Wang, and Kaoru Nabeshima. 2009. "Fiscal Policies for Innovation." In Innovation for Development and the Role of Government: A Perspective from the East Asia and Pacific Region, ed. Qimiao Fan, Kouqing Li, Douglas Zhihua Zeng, Yang Dong, and Runzhong Peng, 149­80. Washington, DC: World Bank. Zakariah, Abdul Rashid, and Elyas Elameer Ahmad. 1999. "Sources of Industrial Growth Using the Factor Decomposition Approach: Malaysia, 1978­87." Developing Economies 37 (2): 162­96. Zeng, Ming, and Peter Williamson. 2006. Dragons at Your Door: How Chinese Cost Innova- tion Is Disrupting Global Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Zhang, Chunlin. 2008. "China: Promoting Enterprise-Led Innovation." World Bank, Beijing. Zheng, Xiao-Ping. 2007. "Economies of Network, Urban Agglomeration, and Regional Development: A Theoretical Model and Empirical Evidence." Regional Studies 41 (5): 559­69. Ziderman, Adrian. 2003. Financing Vocational Training in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. Index Figures, notes, and tables are indicated by f, n, and t, respectively. A Brazil, 2, 116, 160, 161f, 163f, 175f, 176n12 advanced electronic display, 107 Bumiputra firms, 13 Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), 180­81 business efficiency, 31t, 32 agglomeration economies, 119­26, 123­30t, business environment, 30, 34­35t 216­17. See also specific Malaysian cities business groups, 12­13 Agilent Technologies, 181 agriculture C in Malaysia, 22, 23f, 117 Cambridge Consultants (CCL), 140­41, 144 MARDI, 165­67, 166t, 168t Canada, 95 palm oil sector, 6n11, 58, 106t, 113­17. chaebols, 13n24 See also Malaysian Palm Oil Board China R&D spending on, 166, 167t automotive industry in, 110 in Southeast Asian tiger economies, 4, 5t backward links from MNCs in, 10 AKN Technology, 107 business environment, 30, 34t animation industry in Philippines, 7n16 competition with Southeast Asian export ArCo, 28t economies, 8 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t Nations), 49, 51, 110, 148f electronics industry in, 107­8 Asia. See also East Asian tiger economies; export of Malaysian cars to, 112n11 Southeast Asian tiger economies; exports from specific countries competitive overlap with Malaysia, 47­60, financial crisis of 1997­98, 3, 8, 13n24 50t, 52­59t IT infrastructure in, 148f diversification of, 64­65t Association of Southeast Asian Nations electronics, 43f, 60­62, 61­63f, 67, 69t (ASEAN), 49, 51, 110, 148f as growth market, 39t Australia, 112n11, 122, 146­47t, 217 leading export sectors, 45t authoritarian political regimes, 6, 7 mapping product spaces, 82, 85f, 225­26t automotive parts industry in Malaysia, 59t, 60, MNCs as source of, 102 106t, 109­13, 163­65, 164­65t plants and equipment imported to Malaysia, 96­97 B quality of tradable products, 73, 75, 76t, 77 back-office process outsourcing in Philippines, FDI to, 98 7n16 imports of parts and components into, 61­62, BF Goodrich, 141 61­63f biofuels from palm oil, 6n11, 58, 106t, 113­17 innovation in biomedical sector, 106n1, 181­82 access to finance, 150, 151­52f, 154n39, Boston, cluster development in, 124, 157 156, 157 269 270 Index China (Continued) diversification educational attainment, 135f, 137t capacity for, 8­14 financial incentives for, 241­42t of exports, 60, 62­69, 64­69t IRCA, 237t doing business (business environment), 30, IT infrastructure, 145t, 147t, 148f, 149t 34­35t large firms, 140 Doing Business Indicators, 150 licensing and technology transfers, 178­80, domestic consumption as growth driver, 18­19, 18t 179­80f dynamic revealed competitiveness (DRC), patenting activities, 174t, 175f, 177t, 178t 51­60, 52­54t, 58­59t R&D spending, 160­61t, 161­62, 161­63f, 193t E urban agglomeration economies, 120n5, East Asian financial crisis of 1997­98, 3, 8, 13n24 123­24t, 123n15 East Asian tiger economies. See also Hong Kong, literacy culture of, 4 China; Korea, Republic of; Singapore; logistics services, 91, 92 Taiwan, China macroeconomic indicators, 29t development of, 1­2 Malaysia, Chinese-owned firms in, 13 growth rates for Malaysian economy, effects on, 199­201 education, 192­93, 194­96f Malaysian exports to, 39, 41f GDP, 189­91, 189t, 190­93f production capacity, expansion of, 20 R&D spending, 192, 193t RCA, 219t as model for Southeast Asian countries, 5 share of world electronics and machinery education and knowledge economy, 131­39 production, 23 access to venture capital and, 157 technological capabilities in, 26, 28t comparative long-term growth statistics, TFP growth in, 20, 21t 192­99, 194­98f value-added ratios in machinery, 27f in competitiveness indexes, 32, 33t, 34 WTO, accession to, 49 distribution of labor force by, 131t cluster development, 103, 106, 120, 124, 140­41, electronics industry in Malaysia and, 108­9 142f English language proficiency, 131­32, 132t, competition 134­35, 138 in agglomeration economies and clusters, growth rates in Malaysia, 194f, 197f 120n3 HRDF and training opportunities, 133­34 export overlap. See under exports innovation capacities, as means of indexes of competitiveness, 31­33t, improving, 11 31­34 knowledge-intensive skills and industries, no Malaysian law on, 95 Malaysian efforts to foster, 25­28, 28t openness and competitiveness in Southeast patenting activities of universities, 172, 173t Asian tiger economies, 14 policy incentives for, 203­8, 204t conductive polymers, 108 R&D institutes, tertiary, 137, 138­39t, 167­70, Confucian cultures, economic advantages 169t, 171t­f of, 2n4 secondary level, 134­35, 135­36t, 135f credit, availability of, 150­51, 151­52f shortages related to, 131­33t cross-shareholding, 12­13 STEM skills, importance of emphasizing, 11 crystal framework, 159n1 tertiary level, 131, 132, 136­38, 137t, 194­98f cultural factors associated with tiger urban economies, universities in, 121­22, economies, 2 125­26 electronics industry, 105­9 D China, Malaysian export of parts and compo- Denmark, 141 nents to, 61­62, 61­63f DENSO, 181 Chinese specialization in electronic exports, directorships, interlocking, 12­13 43f, 60­62, 61­63f, 67, 69t Index 271 diversification of exports, 66­67, 67t with other Southeast Asian economies, education and training requirements, 44­49, 47t, 48f 108­9 products most affected by, 58­60 export market share, 42, 43f US, exports to, 51­54, 52t, 55t, 58t FDI affecting, 22 destinations of, 77, 78t. See also under increasing importance of, 23, 24t Europe/European Union; Japan; investment trends, 62, 64t United States origins in Malaysia, 17n1 development of economies oriented towards, patenting activities, 175, 177­78t 5, 7 policy recommendations for, 209 diversification, 60, 62­69, 64­69t potential versus reality in, 106­8 electronics market share, 42, 43f R&D in, 108, 165f, 167t GDP, as share of, 37, 38t, 49n10, 51 unit values, 69­74, 70­73f growth rates, 29t, 30, 39­40t value-added ratios in, 24­25, 27f­t growth strategy based on, 17­18, employment. See education and knowledge 18t, 38 economy; labor and employment issues industrial change detected from, 38­43, 39t, Eng Teknologi, 107­8, 140 40­43f, 44­45t, 46f English language proficiency, 131­32, 132t, mapping product spaces, 81­86, 83­85f, 105, 134­35, 138 112, 225­33t entrepreneurship, fostering, 11­12 PRODY value, 74­77, 76­77t Europe/European Union quality of tradable products, 69­77, 70­73f, automotive industry in, 110 76­78t biofuel requirements, 116n26 RCA, 77­81, 79­81t food processing industry in, 117 services, scope for expanding, 87­92, imports into, 37, 51, 53, 54t, 57t, 58­60, 88­89f, 90t 59t, 77 specialization, 60­62, 61­62f, 208­9 MNCs from, 7 unit values, 69­74, 70­73f technology transfers to Malaysia from, 96 urban economies in, 124 F evolution of Malaysian economy, 17­35 factor inputs, 20t business environment, 30, 34­35t Fairchild Semiconductor, 140, 144 in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 31­34 farming. See agriculture GDP. See under gross domestic product FDI. See foreign direct investment macroeconomic indicators, 28­30, 29t Federal Land Development Agency (Malaysia), manufacturing sector. See industrialization 6n11, 113 and manufacturing fiber optics components, 107 productivity. See productivity issues financial crises sources of growth, 17­22, 18­21t East Asian financial crisis of 1997­98, 3, 8, strategy for, 17 13n24 exchange rate policy, 217 worldwide recession of 2008­2009, 187 exports from Malaysia. See also under other financial investment specific countries access to finance in tiger economies, 150­57, capacity for expansion, 86­87 151­52f, 153t, 154f, 155t changes in industrial/export mix, 8, 9t electronics industry, trends in, 62, 64t competitive overlap between Malaysia and in equipment, 18n3 comparator economies, 44­60 FDI. See foreign direct investment with China, 47­60, 50t, 52­59t GDP, gross domestic investment as percentage DRC, concept of, 51­60, 52­54t, 58­59t of, 96 EU, exports to, 51, 53, 54t, 57t, 58­60, 59t innovation, financial incentives for Japan, exports to, 51, 53t, 54, 56t, 58­60, in China, 241­42t 59t in Thailand, 245­48t 272 Index financial investment (Continued) government-controlled corporations (GCCs), 12 Investment Incentives Act of 1968 government efficiency, 31­32, 31t (Malaysia), 17 government research institutes (GRIs) neighboring economies' effects on patenting activities, 172, 173t Malaysia, 200 R&D spending by, 165­67, 167­68t, policy incentives for, 206­7t 171t­f, 185 private investment, role of, 18­21 gross domestic product (GDP) public investment as growth driver, 18t, 19 analytical use of, 15 in R&D. See research and development comparative long-term growth statistics, venture capital, 151­57, 153t, 154f, 155t 187­91, 188­93f, 189t, 194­98f financial services, 90­91 contribution of electronics, automotive parts, Finisar, 107 and palm oil industries to, 105, 106t Finland, 146­47t, 157, 208, 210 credit-to-GDP ratio, 151f Florida, Richard, 121­22 exports as percentage of, 37, 38t, 49n10, 51 flying geese model, 1n1 gross domestic investment as percentage foreign direct investment (FDI), 98­104 of, 96 analytical use of, 15 growth rates in Malaysia, 3n6, 18t, 21n8, 30, concerns of Southeast Asian tiger economies 189t, 191f regarding, 22 macroeconomic indicators as percentage of, East Asian tiger economies fueled by, 1 28­30, 29t efforts of Malaysia to attract, 7, 25 natural resources/manufacturing balance, 4, on global competitiveness indexes, 32 5t, 17­18 industrial export mix in Malaysia changed by, R&D spending as percentage of, 160t, 161f, 8, 22, 86n24, 87 187­88, 188­89f, 189t net inflows to Southeast Asia, 98f savings as share of, 28­30, 29t passive versus active FDI-dependent learning sectoral contributions to growth, 19t countries, 159n1 slowing growth in, 3 Plaza Accord (1985) affecting flow of, 8n19, tertiary education and, 194­98f 67n17 urban share of, 123t, 125t source economies for Malaysian FDI, 101f growth prospects, 187­201 technology spillovers from, 102­4 comparative long-term growth statistics top 12 sectors in Malaysia, 99­100f education, 192­99, 194­98f urban share of, 125, 126t GDP, 187­91, 188­93f, 189t, 194­98f France, 95 R&D spending, 191­92, 193t Fraunhofer institutes (Germany), 213­14 effect of neighboring economies on Malaysia, Free Trade Zone Act of 1972 (Malaysia), 17 199­201 grupos económicos in Latin America, 13n24 G GTAP (Global Trade Analysis Project), 199, 201 GDP. See gross domestic product Germany H Fraunhofer institutes, 213­14 Halal certification, 91 growth rates for high-density storage, 107 education, 194f Hong Kong, China GDP, 187, 188f, 194f educational attainment in, 134, 135­37t, 135f R&D spending, 191, 193t exports from, 86, 226­27t IT infrastructure in, 146t, 147t innovation in R&D investment in, 95 licensing and technology transfers, 179­80f global competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 31­34 patenting activities, 173, 174t, 175f global recession of 2008, 30 R&D spending, 161f, 163f Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), logistics services, 91 199, 201 product space analysis, 226­27t Index 273 service economies in, 10 innovation in tiger economy of, 1­2 access to finance, 151­52f Hovid, 182 educational attainment, 134, 135­36t, HRDF (Human Resource Development Fund), 135f, 147t Malaysia, 133­34 IRCA, 238t human capital. See education and knowledge IT infrastructure, 145t, 146, 147t, 148f, economy; labor and employment issues 149t, 150 Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF), large firms, 144 Malaysia, 133­34 licensing and technology transfers, 179­80f Hybritech, 140, 142f patenting activities, 172, 174t, 175f, 178 R&D spending, 160­61t, 161­64f, 162 I macroeconomic indicators, 29t, 30 ICT (information and communications technol- natural resources in, 2, 4, 5t, 8 ogy) infrastructure, 144­50, 145­47t, policy recommendations for, 209, 210, 216 148f, 149t, 216 power shortages in, 30 IMD (International Institute for Management productivity effects on Malaysia, 199­200 Development), 26, 31­32, 31t RCA, 220t IMF (International Monetary Fund), service economies, 87, 91 49n10 technological capabilities in, 26, 28t imports, 93­97, 94f, 96f technology transfers, 97 India tiger economy of, 2­3 business environment, 30 value-added ratios in machinery, 27f business houses in, 13n24 Industrial Coordination Act (Malaysia), 13 exports from, 65, 75, 77, 227t Industrial Technology Research Institute innovation in, 139, 147t, 148f, 149t, 151­52f, (Taiwan, China), 107 157, 237t industrialization and manufacturing, 22­30 IRCA, 237t analytical techniques used to study, 14­15 Malaysian economy, effects on, 201 automotive parts industry, 59t, 60, 106t, product space analysis, 227t 109­13, 163­65, 164­65t service economies in, 10, 89, 90n26, 210 changes in industrial/export mix, 8, 9t, 22­23, Tata Motors, 110 23f, 86n24, 87 technological capabilities in, 28t development of, 2­3, 4­5, 5t, 6­7 technology diffusion in, 103 electronics. See electronics industry TFP growth in, 21t equipment, investment in, 18n3 Indonesia exports, industrial change detected from, automotive industry in, 110, 111, 112n11 38­43, 39t, 40­43f, 44­45t, 46f business environment, 34t GDP, manufacturing as share of, 29t, 30 business groups in, 13n24 growth of, 17­18 in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 34 Industrial Master Plans, 106, 111, 113 development path of, 6, 8 knowledge-intensive skills and technological exports from capabilities, 25­28, 28t competitive overlap, 43f, 45t palm oil sector, 6n11, 58, 106t, 113­17. See diversification of, 61f, 64­65t, 65 also Malaysian Palm Oil Board export structure, 9t policy incentives for, 203­8, 204­7t mapping product spaces, 82, 83f, 86, 228t policy recommendations regarding, 208­14, quality of products, 71, 72, 75, 76t, 77 210­13t FDI to, 98 productivity issues, 23­30, 25­28t, 27f GCCs in, 12 sectoral contribution to growth, 19t growth rates for world production share, 23, 24t education, 194f, 197f information technology (IT) infrastructure, GDP, 189t, 190f, 191, 197f 144­50, 145­47t, 148f, 149t, 216 274 Index infrastructure, 30, 31­34, 31t, 33t in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t initial public offerings (IPOs), 155­56, 155t cross-shareholding in, 13n25 innovation comparative advantage, index of, economic and policy assistance for developing 183­86, 184­85t economies, 5­6 innovation in Malaysia, 119­86. See also under exports from other specific countries competitive overlap, 47, 49 access to finance, 150­57, 151­52f, 153t, diversification, 64­65t, 65 154f, 155t electronics market share, 43f capacity for innovation and diversification, industrial change detected from, 45t 8­14, 22, 159­60 plants and equipment imported to credit, availability of, 150­51, 151­52f Malaysia, 96 educational attainment. See education quality of tradable products, 71­73, 75, 77 IT infrastructure, 144­50, 145­47t, 148f, 149t specialization, 61f, 62 large firms, role of, 139­44, 142f, 143­44t, FDI from, 101f 214­16 as first tiger economy, 1 licensing and royalties, 178­80, 179­80f growth rates for localization economies, 119n2, 120, 124 education, 194­95f patenting activity,172­74t, 172­78,175f, 176­78t GDP, 189­91, 189t, 190f, 195f policy recommendations for. See policy R&D spending, 192, 193t recommendations imports into, 51, 53t, 54, 56t, 58­60, 59t, 77, 93 R&D opportunities. See research and innovation in development access to finance, 150, 151­52f technology transfers, 95­97, 96f, 178­80 educational attainment, 134f, 135­37t urban industrial locations, 119­26, 123­30t index of innovation comparative venture capital, 151­57, 153t, 154f, 155t advantage, 181 innovation revealed comparative advantage IT infrastructure, 145­49t, 147 (IRCA), 209, 210­13t, 237­39t large firms, 139 input growth, 20t licensing and technology transfers, interlocking directorships, 12­13 178, 180 Internal Security Act (Malaysia), 7n17 patenting activities, 173, 175f, 177­78t International Institute for Management R&D spending, 160­61t, 160­62, 161­65f Development (IMD), 26, 31­32, 31t receiver-active approach of firms, 159n1 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 49n10 urban agglomeration economies, 123­24t investment. See financial investment keiretsu in, 13n24 Investment Incentives Act of 1968 (Malaysia), 17 literacy culture of, 4 IPOs (initial public offerings), 155­56, 155t logistics services, 91 IRCA (innovation revealed comparative macroeconomic indicators, 29t advantage), 209, 210­13t, 237­39t MNCs from, 6, 7 Ireland, 122n12, 146­47t, 157, 159n1 Plaza Accord (1985), 8n19, 67n17 Iskandar Development Region, Malaysia, 217n11 RCA, 220t Islamic services R&D investment in, 95 finance, 90­91 technological capabilities in, 26 Halal certification, 91 value-added ratios in machinery, 27f Israel, 103, 153n38, 157, 175, 177­78t, 208 Johor, Malaysia IT (information technology) infrastructure, education and knowledge economy in, 144­50, 145­47t, 148f, 149t, 216 138­39t electronics industry in, 108, 109, 125n17 J FDI flows in, 100, 104, 125, 126t Japan GDP of, 125t automotive industry in, 109, 112 as innovative urban location, 124­26, business environment, 34t 125­26t, 128t Index 275 population of, 125t FDI flows in, 100, 104, 126t size of firms in, 141 GDP of, 125t Johor Skills Development Centre, 109 industrialization and changing export mix in, 8 K as innovative urban location, 124­26, keiretsu, 13n24 125­26t, 127t, 216­17 Kenya, 2 logistics services in, 91­92 Korea, Republic of MSC, 149­50 backward links from MNCs in, 10 population of, 125t business environment, 34t size of firms in, 140, 141­44, 144t chaebols in, 13n24 in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 34 L exports from labor and employment issues competitive overlap between Malaysia education and skills. See education and and, 49 knowledge economy diversification, 64­65t, 65, 67 expansion of workforce, 28 electronics market share, 43f productivity. See productivity issues growth rates, 39t wages in Malaysia, 24, 26t as growth strategy, 5 large firms and innovation, 139­44, 142f, industrial change detected from, 45t 143­44t, 214­16 mapping product spaces, 86, 229t Latin America and Caribbean. See also plants and equipment imported to specific countries Malaysia, 96­97 grupos económicos in, 13n24 quality of products, 71, 72, 75, 76t, 77 IT infrastructure in, 148f specialization, 61f, 62 urban areas in, 122n13 growth rates for LED technology, 107 education, 192, 194­95f licensing and royalties, 178­80, 179­80f GDP, 189t, 191f, 195f Linkabit, 140 R&D spending, 192, 193t localization economies, 119n2, 120, 124 innovation in logistics services, 91­92, 210 access to finance, 150, 151­52f, 156, 157 Lotus, 109n7, 112 educational attainment, 134, 135­37t, 135f IT infrastructure, 144, 145t, 146­47t, 149t M large firms, 139, 140n27 macroeconomic indicators, 28­30, 29t licensing and technology transfers, 19­180f, macroeconomic policy requirements, 217­18 178, 180 Malacca, Malaysia patenting activities, 173, 174t, 175f, 177­78t education and knowledge economy in, R&D spending, 160­61t, 160­63, 161­65f 138­39t urban economies, 120n6, 123­24t FDI flows in, 100, 126t macroeconomic indicators, 29t GDP of, 125t Malaysia compared, 10, 11 as innovative urban location, 124­26, policy recommendations drawn from, 125­26t, 130t 208n4, 217 population of, 125t private investment in, 19n4 size of firms in, 141 RCA, 80, 221t Malaysia technological capabilities in, 26, 28t analytical techniques used to assess economy tiger economy of, 1­2 of, 14­15 value-added ratios in machinery, 27f automotive parts industry in, 59t, 60, 106t, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 109­13, 163­65, 164­65t education and knowledge economy in, 108, business groups in, 12­13, 13n24 125­26, 138­39t competitiveness and openness in, 14 276 Index Malaysia (Continued) MARDI (Malaysian Agricultural Research and electronics industry in, 105­9. See also Development Institute), 165­67, electronics industry 166t, 168t evolution of economy in. See evolution of Mauritius, 89 Malaysian economy MAVCAP (Malaysia Venture Capital exports from, 37­92. See also exports from Management), 153, 154, 157 Malaysia medicine FDI in, 98­104. See also foreign direct biomedical sector, 106n1, 181­82 investment medical tourism, 89­90, 105n1, 210 GDP growth rates in, 3n6, 18t, 21n8, 30, 189t, megacities (agglomeration economies), 119­26, 191f, 197f. See also gross domestic product 123­30t, 216­17. See also specific growth prospects for, 187­201. See also Malaysian cities growth prospects mergers and acquisitions, 155­56 imports into, 93­97, 94f, 96f Mexico, 97n8, 160, 161f, 163f, 175f innovation in, 119­86. See also innovation microelectromechanical systems, 107 in Malaysia MIDA (Malaysian Industrial Development IRCA and RCA in, 210­11t Authority), 17 macroeconomic indicators in, 28­30, 29t middle-income trap, 3, 26­28 manufacturing sector, 22­30. See also MIMOS (Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic industrialization and manufacturing Systems), 107, 138, 165, 166t, 168t MNCs, attracting, 7 MNCs. See multinational corporations natural resources in, 2, 4, 5t, 8 Motorola in Malaysia, 172, 173t, 176t, 181 palm oil sector, 6n11, 58, 106t, 113­17. MPOB. See Malaysian Palm Oil Board See also Malaysian Palm Oil Board Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), Malaysia, physical infrastructure of, 30 149­50 policy recommendations for, 203­18. See also multinational corporations (MNCs) policy recommendations development of Southeast Asian tiger political stability of, 6, 7 economies, role in, 6 population of, 6, 16 in electronics industry, 107, 181 poverty levels in, 16 export diversification, role in, 62, 66­67 reasons for focusing on, 15­16 FDI from, 101­4 technology transfers, 95­97, 96f innovation and diversification capacities and, as tiger economy, 2­3 10­11 wages in, 24, 26t Malaysian encouragement of, 7, 203, 205t, Malaysia Venture Capital Management 209, 214 (MAVCAP), 153, 154, 157 MSC, investment in, 150 Malaysian Agricultural Research and parts and components sourcing by, 61, 77 Development Institute (MARDI), patenting activities, 172, 176 165­67, 166t, 168t shift from Singapore to China, 43 Malaysian Industrial Development Authority technology transfers, 95, 97n7 (MIDA), 17 Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems N (MIMOS), 107, 138, 165, 166t, 168t National Venture Capital Promotion Fund, Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), 116n27 China, 157 patenting activities, 172, 174, 176t natural resources as basis for development, 2, R&D spending, 165­67, 166t, 168t, 176t 4, 5t Malaysian Venture, 154 NCER (Northern Corridor Economic Region), manufacturing. See industrialization and Malaysia, 217n11 manufacturing neighboring economies, effects of, 199­201 mapping product spaces, 81­86, 83­85f, 105, NEP (New Economic Policy), Malaysia, 11, 112, 225­33t 12­13, 17 Index 277 Netherlands, 123n15, 147t Petronas, 140, 162, 181 New Economic Policy (NEP), Malaysia, 11, Philippines 12­13, 17 automotive industry in, 110 Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER), business environment, 34t Malaysia, 217n11 in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t Norway, 212 development path of, 6, 7 electronics industry in, 107 O exports from OECD. See Organisation for Economic competitive overlap, 47, 49 Co-operation and Development diversification, 64­65t, 67, 68t oil palm cultivation and products in Malaysia, electronics market share, 43f 6n11, 58, 106t, 113­17. See also export structure, 9t Malaysian Palm Oil Board growth rates, 39t oligopoly, problem of, 12­14 industrial change detected from, 45t openness and competitiveness, 14. See also mapping product spaces, 82, 84f, competition 86, 231t Optometrix, 107 quality of products, 76­77t, 81n21 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and specialization, 61­62f Development (OECD) FDI to, 98 as business environment, 34 GCCs in, 12 education in, 194f, 196f growth rates for GDP growth in, 187­88, 188­89f, 189t education, 193­99, 194f, 198f IT infrastructure in, 144­46 GDP, 30, 189t, 191, 192f, 198f R&D spending in, 191­92, 193t innovation in access to finance, 151f, 152f P educational attainment, 134, 135­37t, 135f Pakistan, 2 IRCA, 238t palm oil sector in Malaysia, 6n11, 58, 106t, IT infrastructure, 145t, 146, 147t, 148f 113­17. See also Malaysian Palm licensing and technology transfers, 179­80f Oil Board patenting activities, 172, 174t, 175f, patenting activity, 172­74t, 172­78, 175f, 177­79t 176­78t R&D spending, 161­64f, 161t Penang, Malaysia macroeconomic indicators, 29t, 30 education and knowledge economy in, natural resources in, 2, 4, 5t, 8 138­39t policy recommendations for, 216, 217n12 electronics industry in, 17n1, 106­9, RCA, 221t 125n17, 181 service economies, 87, 91, 92 FDI flows in, 103, 104, 126t technological capabilities, 26, 28t as free trade zone, 7 tiger economy of, 2­3 GDP of, 125t photonics, 107 industrialization and changing export mix Plaza Accord (1985), 8n19, 67n17 in, 8 policy recommendations, 203­18 as innovative urban location, 124­26, education and knowledge economy, fostering, 125­26t, 129t 203­8, 204t population of, 125t industrialization and manufacturing, 208­14, service economy of, 87, 89­91, 210 210­13t size of firms in, 140, 141 IRCA and RCA, 209, 210­13t Penang Skills Development Centre IT infrastructure, 216 (PSDC), Malaysia, 102n14, macroeconomic policy, 217­18 108­9, 134 for private firms, 211­16 Pentamaster, 140, 182­83 productivity issues, 209, 216 278 Index policy recommendations (Continued) RCA (revealed comparative advantage), 77­81, technology incentives, 203­8, 204­7t, 209­16 79­81t, 209, 210­13t, 219­23t urban agglomeration economy, need for, receiver-active approach, 159n1 216­17 research and development (R&D) political authoritarianism, 6, 7 as analytical tool, 15 polycentric urban systems, 123 in automotive industry, 111 poverty levels in Malaysia, 16 capacity for innovation and, 10, 22 private firms in electronics industry, 108, 165f, 167t large firms and innovation, 139­44, 142f, FDI in, 104 143­44t, 214­16 on global competitiveness indexes, 32 policy recommendations for, 211­16 in palm oil industry, 117 R&D activities policy incentives to encourage, 203­8, 204­7t, by industry sector, 163­65, 164­65f, 166t 209­16 large firms, 139­41, 143t private firms engaging in in Malaysia, 180­83, 235­36t by industry sector, 163­65, 164­65f, 166t SMEs, 109, 111, 112, 211­14 large firms, 139­41, 143t private investment, role of, 18­21 in Malaysia, 180­83, 235­36t product space analysis, 81­86, 83­85f, 105, 112, in rubber industry, 113 225­33t spending on, 159­71 productivity issues comparative long-term growth statistics, in agglomeration economies and clusters, 191­92, 193t 120n3­5 concentration by field, 170­71, 170t automotive industry, 111 GDP, as share of, 160t, 161f, 191­92, 193t exports, PRODY value of, 74­77, 76­77t by GRIs, 165­67, 167­68t, 171t­f, 185 IT infrastructure, 147, 148f personnel engaged in R&D, 160­62, manufacturing sector, 23­30, 25­28t 161­63f, 161t neighboring economies' effects on Malaysia, by private industry sector, 163­65, 164­65f, 199­200 166t, 180­83 policy recommendations for, 209, 216 by universities, 167­70, 169t, 171t­f TFP growth, 19­22, 20­21t, 28­30, 106 technology transfers, 95­97, 96f value added per worker, 23­25, 25t, 27f­t at tertiary institutes, 137, 138­39t, 167­70, Promotion of Incentives Act of 1986 169t, 171t­f (Malaysia), 17 in urban agglomeration economies, 120 Proton Holdings Berhad, 109­10, 112, 164­65 revealed comparative advantage (RCA), 77­81, PSDC (Penang Skills Development Centre), 79­81t, 209, 210­13t, 219­23t Malaysia, 102n14, 108­9, 134 royalties and licensing, 178­80, 179­80f public investment as growth driver, 18t, 19 rubber industry in Malaysia, 8n18, 15, 17, 22, 24, Putrajaya, Malaysia, 138t, 141, 144t, 149n35 42n6, 53, 113 Russian Federation, 124 Q quality S effects of neighboring economies on, San Diego, cluster development in, 103, 140, 142f 200­201 savings as share of GDP, 28­30, 29t of tradable products, 69­77, 70­73f, 76­78t Second Science and Technology Policy (STEP2), Malaysia, 160n3, 205t R Selangor, Malaysia, 109, 113, 141, 144t, 167 Ramos, Fidel V., 7 service sector RAND, 28t in Malaysia R&D. See research and development exported services, scope for expanding, Razak, Najib, 217­18 87­92, 88­89f, 90t Razak, Tun Abdul, 217 sectoral contribution to growth, 19t Index 279 policy recommendations for, 208­10 SIRIM (Standards and Industrial Research in Southeast Asia compared to other Institute of Malaysia), 138, 165­67, 166t, countries, 10 168t, 173t Silicon Valley, 103, 124, 140, 150, 157 skilled workforce. See education and Sime Darby, 113, 116 knowledge economy Singapore Small and Medium Industry Development as active FDI-dependent learning country, Corporation, 109 159n1 small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), 109, business environment, 34t 111, 112, 211­14 business groups in, 13n24 SMEs (small and medium-size enterprises), 109, in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 34 111, 112, 211­14 education growth rates in, 194f South Africa, export of Malaysian cars to, 112n11 electronics industry in, 107 Southeast Asian tiger economies, 2­3. See also exports from Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; competitive overlap, 47 Thailand diversification, 64­65t analytical techniques, 14­15 electronics market share, 43f development history of, 4­7, 5t mapping product spaces, 86, 232t East Asian model followed by, 5 MNCs as source of, 102 exports from, 37­92. See also exports from as percentage of GDP, 37, 38t Malaysia, and under other specific plants and equipment imported to countries Malaysia, 96 FDI, 98­104. See also foreign direct investment quality of products, 75, 77t growth prospects, 187­201. See also growth RCA, 80 prospects FDI from, 101f imports, 93­97, 94f, 96f FDI to, 98 industrial/export structure, 8, 9t import tariffs, 93 industrialization and manufacturing in. See innovation in industrialization and manufacturing access to finance, 151­52f, 154f, 155t innovation in, 119­86. See also innovation in educational attainment, 134, 135­37t, Malaysia, and under other specific countries 135f macroeconomic indicators, 29t index of innovation comparative openness and competitiveness in, 14 advantage, 184, 185t policy recommendations for, 203­18. See also IRCA, 239t policy recommendations IT infrastructure, 145t, 147t, 149t, 150 vulnerabilities felt by, 3, 14, 22 licensing and technology transfer, S.P. Radio (Denmark), 141 179­80f specialization, role of, 60­62, 61­62f, 208­9 patenting activities, 173, 174t, 175f, Standards and Industrial Research Institute of 176­78t, 178 Malaysia (SIRIM), 138, 165­67, 166t, R&D spending, 160t, 161­64f, 161t 168t, 173t urban agglomeration economy, STEM(science,technology,engineering,andmath) 123­24t skills,importanceof emphasizing,11 investment effects on Malaysia, 200 STEP2 (Second Science and Technology Policy), macroeconomic indicators, 29t Malaysia, 160n3, 205t Malaysia compared, 7 Straits Orthopaedics, 181­82 policy recommendations drawn from, 217 sub-Saharan Africa, 30. See also specific RCA, 222t countries service economies in, 10, 89, 90n26, 91­92 Suharto, 6 technological capabilities in, 26, 28t Supermax, 113 tiger economy of, 1­2 Sweden, 122n12, 146­47t value-added ratios in machinery, 27f Switzerland, 146­47t, 163, 165f, 208 280 Index T export of Malaysian cars to, 112n11 Tai Kwong Yokohama, 181 exports from Taiwan, China competitive overlap between Malaysia automotive industry in, 110 and, 47 backward links from MNCs in, 10 diversification, 64­65t, 66­67, 68t business environment, 34t electronics market share, 43f in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t exports from, 75 electronics industry in, 107 growth rates, 39t export-led growth in, 5 industrial change detected from, 45t exports from, 39t, 43f, 45t, 47, 49, 64­65t, 65, mapping product spaces, 82, 84f, 86, 233t 75, 77 MNCs as source of, 102 FDI from, 101f plants and equipment imported to growth rates for Malaysia, 96 education, 194f, 196f quality of, 71, 73, 77t, 81n21 GDP, 189t, 192f, 196f specialization, 61, 62f R&D spending, 192, 193t structure of, 9t innovation in FDI to, 98 access to finance, 150, 151, 157 GCCs in, 12 educational attainment, 134, 135­36t growth rates for IT infrastructure, 145t, 147, 149t education, 194f, 198f large firms, 139, 140n27 GDP, 189t, 193f, 198f patenting activities, 173, 174t, 175f, innovation in 177­78t, 178 financial incentives for, 245­48t R&D spending, 161f, 163f IRCA, 212­13t, 239t macroeconomic indicators, 29t licensing and technology transfers, 179­80f Malaysia compared, 10, 11 patenting activities, 172, 174t, 175f, 177t, 178 natural resources in, 4 R&D spending, 160­61t, 161­64f, 163 policy recommendations drawn from, 208, 217 investment effects on Malaysia, 200 RCA, 222t IRCA, 212­13t, 239t technological capabilities in, 26 macroeconomic indicators, 29t, 30 tiger economy of, 1­2 medical tourism, 89 tariffs on imports to Malaysia, 93, 94f natural resources in, 2, 4, 5t, 8 technological capabilities, 25­28, 28t, 32­34, 33t Plaza Accord (1985) affecting economy technology clusters, 103, 106, 120, 124, 140­41, 142f of, 67n17 technology incentives, 203­8, 204­7t, 209­16 policy recommendations for, 203, 209, technology spillovers from FDI, 102­4 212­13t, 216 Technology Transfer from Research Institutes to RCA, 80, 212­13t, 223t SMEs (TEFT), Norway, 212­13 service economies, 87, 89, 90n27, 92 technology transfers, 95­97, 96f, 178­80 technological capabilities in, 26, 28t TEFT (Technology Transfer from Research TFP growth in, 20, 21t Institutes to SMEs), Norway, 212­13 tiger economy of, 2­3 Tekes (Finland), 212 urban agglomeration economies in, 123­24t TFP (total factor productivity) growth, 19­22, tiger economies, 1­16 20­21t, 28­30, 106 cultural factors associated with, 2 Thailand in East Asia. See East Asian tiger economies; automotive industry in, 110, 111, 112 Hong Kong, China; Korea, Republic of; business environment, 34t Singapore; Taiwan, China business groups in, 13n24 first tiger economy in Japan, 1 in competitiveness indexes, 31­33t, 32, 34 in Southeast Asia. See Indonesia; Malaysia; development path of, 6 Philippines; Southeast Asian tiger electronics industry in, 107 economies; Thailand Index 281 Top Glove, 113 innovation in total factor productivity (TFP) growth, 19­22, access to finance, 150, 157 20­21t, 28­30, 106 educational attainment, 135­36t tourism, 87 IT infrastructure, 145, 146­47t trade large firms, 140­41, 142f exports. See exports from Malaysia patenting activities, 177­78t imports, 93­97, 94f, 96f R&D spending by sector, 165f services. See service sector urban economies, 123n16, 124, 126n18 specialization in tradable products and MNCs from, 6, 7 services, 208­9 productivity in, 19, 21n7 trade policies assisting tiger economies, R&D investment in, 95 5­6 technology transfers to Malaysia from, 96 universities. See education and knowledge U economy UN Comtrade (United Nations Commodity urban agglomeration economies, 119­26, Trade Statistics Database), 69, 73 123­30t, 216­17. See also specific UNDP (United Nations Development Malaysian cities Programme), 28t unit values, 69­74, 70­73f V United Kingdom value added per worker, as measure of export of Malaysian cars to, 112n11 productivity, 23­25, 25t, 27f­t growth rates for venture capital, 151­57, 153t, 154f, 155t education, 196f Vietnam, 108 GDP, 187, 188f, 196f R&D spending, 191, 193t W IT infrastructure in, 146­47t wages in Malaysia, 24, 26t large firms and cluster development in, 103, Washington Consensus, 7 140­41, 144 Weber, Max, 2n4 United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics WEF (World Economic Forum), 26, 28t, 32t Database (UN Comtrade), 69, 73 workforce. See education and knowledge United Nations Development Programme economy; labor and employment issues (UNDP), 28t World Bank, 15, 26, 34, 49n10, 150, 203, 207 United States World Economic Forum (WEF), 26, 28t, 32t economic and policy assistance for developing World Trade Organization (WTO), 49, 110 economies, 5­6 worldwide recession of 2008­2009, 187 FDI from, 1, 101f WTO (World Trade Organization), 49, 110 GDP growth rates for, 187, 189f imports into, 37, 39, 40f, 51­54, 52t, 55t, Y 58t, 77 Yozma Program, Israel, 157 ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank is committed to preserving Saved: endangered forests and natural resources. The · 5 trees Office of the Publisher has chosen to print · 129 lb. of solid Tiger Economies Under Threat on recycled waste paper with 30 percent post-consumer waste, · 2,132 gal. of waste in accordance with the recommended stan- water dards for paper usage set by the Green Press · 443 lb. of net green- Initiative, a nonprofit program supporting house gases publishers in using fiber that is not sourced · 1 million Btu of from endangered forests. For more information, total energy visit www.greenpressinitiative.org. recent years, growth rates in the so-called "Tiger economies" of Southeast Asia have been above the average not only for developing countries but for the world as a whole. Yet they fall short of the eco- nomic growth experienced during 1975 ­95. The underlying worry for policy makers is that the decrease presages the beginning of a down- ward trend, a worry that has been sharpened by the global recession. But are the Tiger economies under threat? And if so, what are the causes and how can they be addressed? This book employs a comparative analysis of the Southeast Asian Tiger economies, centered on Malaysia, to tackle these questions. The findings presented will be of particular interest to policy makers, academics, business people, and researchers. This is an incisive, empirically rich analysis of the economic challenges now facing Malaysia, as well as the other "Little Tigers" of Southeast Asia. Following decades of impressive GDP growth, poverty reduction, and export diversification, Malaysia now confronts less reliable export markets, stronger competitors, and shrinking investment. As Yusuf and Nabeshima show, sustaining growth and moving beyond middle-income status now re- quires a difficult shift: from growth based on investment, labor, and export diversification to greater reliance on technology and innovation. Yet knowledge-based capacities are precisely the areas in which Malaysia, as well as other Southeast Asian countries, remains weak. By tracing the sources of these weaknesses and the dangers they pose, by articulat- ing the challenges of technological catch-up, by linking macro- to microeconomic factors, by positioning Malaysia within its regional context, by offering constructive reform sug- gestions, and by doing all this in clear, accessible prose, Yusuf and Nabeshima render an invaluable service to students and practitioners of development. -- RICK DONER, Professor of Political Science, Emory University The Asian Tigers have long been the models for imitation for other developing countries. Their successful catch-up produced the so-called "developmental state" that was contrasted with the "stagnating and failed states." This is a wonderful book that adds to this debate by critically examining Malaysia's industrialization experience in comparison with that of other Tiger economies. In the process, it explores the capacity of the second-tier Tigers to sustain rapid growth and structural change. It is a must-read for policy officials, scholars, and stu- dents of economic development. -- RAJAH RASIAH, Professor of Technology and Innovation Policy University of Malaya and UNU-MERIT ISBN 978-0-8213-7880-9 SKU 17880